The present research examined whether temporal fluctuations in context ethnic diversity account f... more The present research examined whether temporal fluctuations in context ethnic diversity account for current levels of implicit ethnic-American associations. Temporal fluctuations in ethnic diversity at the metropolitan level were assessed using data from four decennial U.S. censuses (1980–2010) and distinguishing three dimensions of context ethnic diversity (minority representation, variety, and integration). Project Implicit data (2011–2017) indexed the extent to which American identity was implicitly associated with European Americans over Asian Americans (i.e., American = White associations). Data were analyzed using multilevel modeling ( N = 152,011, nested within 226 metropolitan areas). Steeper increases in the proportion of Asian Americans were related to weaker implicit (but stronger explicit) American = White associations. Increases in ethnic integration accounted for stronger implicit American = White associations when integration fluctuations reflected accelerating rather...
The issue of ethnic diversity and national identity in an immigrant nation such as the USA is a r... more The issue of ethnic diversity and national identity in an immigrant nation such as the USA is a recurrent topic of debate. We review and integrate research examining the extent to which the American identity is implicitly granted or denied to members of different ethnic groups. Consistently, European Americans are implicitly conceived of as being more American than African, Asian, Latino, and even Native Americans. This implicit American = White effect emerges when explicit knowledge or perceptions point in the opposite direction. The propensity to deny the American identity to members of ethnic minorities is particularly pronounced when targets (individuals or groups) are construed through the lenses of ethnic identities. Implicit ethnic–national associations fluctuate as a function of perceivers' ethnic identity and political orientation, but also contextual or situational factors. The tendency to equate being American with being White accounts for the strength of national identification (among European Americans) and behavioral responses including hiring recommendations and voting intentions. The robust propensity to deny the American identity to ethnic minority groups reflects an exclusionary national identity.
Social psychology instructors from five distinct state universities in California examined the ef... more Social psychology instructors from five distinct state universities in California examined the effect of incorporating the Implicit Association Test (IAT) in a teaching module on students’ perceived knowledge of implicit biases and motivation to control prejudice. Students (N = 258) completed a knowledge survey on prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination and a motivation to control prejudice scale before (Time 1) and after (Time 2) a teaching module on implicit and explicit prejudice that included taking the IAT. Results showed that students’ perceived knowledge of implicit biases increased after completing the teaching module. In addition, the more students displayed an implicit bias against African Americans (relative to European Americans), the more they reported mastering course material about implicit biases and the more they indicated being internally motivated to control prejudice (at Time 2). These findings suggest that using the IAT as a teaching tool might be a beneficial learning experience, in particular for individuals who display relatively pronounced implicit biases.
In this chapter, we explore the relevance of the implicit social cognition framework to research ... more In this chapter, we explore the relevance of the implicit social cognition framework to research on multicultural identities. We posit that self-related mental processes underlying multicultural identities often operate at a largely automatic or nonconscious level. We propose a conceptualization of implicit multicultural identities as associative knowledge structures. We describe techniques that can be adapted to assess implicit multicultural identities. The chapter includes sections devoted to the relations between implicit and explicit self-concepts, the interconnections among various components of the self-system, the context-sensitivity of implicit self-definitions, and the cultural foundations of implicit knowledge. In sum, the chapter lays the foundations for a more systematic program of research on implicit multicultural identities.
In academic settings, Asian students are often described as less talkative than White students. W... more In academic settings, Asian students are often described as less talkative than White students. We provide an account of this phenomenon based on research on cultural influences on the self, self-categorization, and implicit social cognition. We hypothesized that the classroom context activates a process of implicit self-stereotyping. Asian and White participants were asked to imagine themselves in a classroom or leisure context. Next, they completed Implicit Association Tests assessing their self-concept, ethnic stereotypes, and ethnic identification. In the classroom context only, ethnic stereotypes accounted for a more reserved self-concept among Asian participants and a more talkative self-concept among White participants.
A sample of 128 undergraduate women reported stronger identification with college education than ... more A sample of 128 undergraduate women reported stronger identification with college education than with motherhood. In contrast, an Implicit Association Test revealed a slightly stronger identification with motherhood than with college education. Implicit attitudes toward college education and motherhood correlated with implicit (but not explicit) identification, whereas explicit attitudes correlated with explicit identification and, to a lesser extent, implicit identification. Internal (but not external) motivation to define the self as academically oriented predicted both explicit and implicit identifications. Results regarding the role of childhood and current experiences with gender roles were inconclusive. As a whole, these findings contribute to a better understanding of the potential for conflicts in the self-concept of college women.
We sought to document that the extent to which different ethnic groups are perceived as embodying... more We sought to document that the extent to which different ethnic groups are perceived as embodying the American identity is more strongly linked to anti-minority policy attitudes and acculturation ideologies among majority group members (European Americans) than among minority group members (Asian Americans or Latino/as). Participants rated 13 attributes of the American identity as they pertain to different ethnic groups, and reported their endorsement of policy attitudes and acculturation ideologies. We found a relative consensus across ethnic groups regarding defining components of the American identity. However, European Americans were perceived as more prototypical of this American identity than ethnic minorities, especially by European American raters. Moreover, for European Americans but not for ethnic minorities, relative ingroup prototypicality was related to anti-minority policy attitudes and acculturation ideologies. These findings suggest that for European Americans, perceptions of ethnic group prototypicality fulfill an instrumental function linked to preserving their group interests and limiting the rights afforded to ethnic minorities.
A robust relationship between perceived racial discrimination and psychological distress has been... more A robust relationship between perceived racial discrimination and psychological distress has been established. Yet, mixed evidence exists regarding the extent to which ethnic identification moderates this relationship, and scarce attention has been paid to the moderating role of national identification. We propose that the role of group identifications in the perceived discrimination–psychological distress relationship is best understood by simultaneously and interactively considering ethnic and national identifications. A sample of 259 Asian American students completed measures of perceived discrimi- nation, group identifications (specific ethnic identification stated by respondents and national or “main- stream American” identification), and psychological distress (anxiety and depression symptoms). Re- gression analyses revealed a significant three-way interaction of perceived discrimination, ethnic identification, and national identification on psychological distress. Simple-slope analyses indicated that dual identification (strong ethnic and national identifications) was linked to a weaker relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological distress compared with other group identification configurations. These findings underscore the need to consider the interconnections between ethnic and national identifications to better understand the circumstances under which group identifications are likely to buffer individuals against the adverse effects of racial discrimination.
The present research sought to distinguish the role of sociocultural negativity and social identi... more The present research sought to distinguish the role of sociocultural negativity and social identification underlying gay men’s implicit attitudes towards sexual orientation. Fifty gay men completed two Implicit Association Tests. In both cases, the task required cat- egorising, as quickly as possible, pictures of gay vs. straight couples, but these stimuli were either classified using normative categorical labels (homosexual vs. heterosexual couples) or in terms of their self-relevance (similar vs. dissimilar to me). Participants also completed the Reactions to Homosexuality Scale and the Outness Inventory. As expected, the pro-gay attitude was more pronounced when implicit attitudes were assessed in terms of self-relevance than based on normative categorical labels. In addi- tion, these two facets of implicit attitudes overlapped more strongly among gay men who were less inclined to publicly affirm their sexual identity than among individuals who strongly identified publicly with being gay. The present findings extend our under- standing of the sources and functions of implicit attitudes among members of a sexual minority group.
Against the backdrop of the 2008 presidential election, we examined the extent to which the Ameri... more Against the backdrop of the 2008 presidential election, we examined the extent to which the American identity was implicitly and explicitly associated with Barack Obama compared to Tony Blair (Study 1), Hillary Clinton (Study 2), and John McCain (Studies 3 and 4). When conscious control was relatively limited and targets were categorized based on race, the American identity was less strongly associated with Obama than with the other candidates. This effect was stronger than when the candidates were categorized based on their personal identity (Studies 1–4), gender (Study 2), political affiliation (Study 3), or age (Study 4). In addition, the extent to which candidates were differentiated in terms of implicit and explicit associations with the American identity predicted the relative willingness to actively support them.
In two studies conducted during the 2012 U.S. presidential election, we sought to determine wheth... more In two studies conducted during the 2012 U.S. presidential election, we sought to determine whether the relative ascription of the American identity to Barack Obama and Mitt Romney was distinct from attitudinal responses and from associations about racial categories. We also tested the degree to which these associations accounted for voter support. In both studies, participants completed a series of Implicit Association Tests and reported their intention to vote for and their willingness to support these candidates. In contrast to implicit associations about racial categories (Black vs. White), Obama was implicitly seen as more American and elicited a more favorable implicit evaluation than Romney (Study 1). At the same time, these effects were reduced when candidates were categorized based on their racial (rather than personal) identity (Study 2). Implicit associations about the candidates (but not racial categories) accounted for intention to vote for them and relative willingness to support them over and above the effect of political orientation (Studies 1 & 2). These findings suggest that the implicit ascription of a national identity is an important facet of presidential elections.
Although a greater degree of personal obesity is associated with weaker negativity toward overwei... more Although a greater degree of personal obesity is associated with weaker negativity toward overweight people on both explicit (i.e., self-report) and implicit (i.e., indirect behavioral) measures, overweight people still prefer thin people on average. We investigated whether the national and cultural context – particularly the national prevalence of obesity – predicts attitudes toward overweight people independent of personal identity and weight status. Data were collected from a total sample of 338,121 citizens from 71 nations in 22 different languages on the Project Implicit website (https://implicit.harvard.edu/) between May 2006 and October 2010. We investigated the relationship of the explicit and implicit weight bias with the obesity both at the individual (i.e., across individuals) and national (i.e., across nations) level. Explicit weight bias was assessed with self-reported preference between overweight and thin people; implicit weight bias was measured with the Implicit Association Test (IAT). The national estimates of explicit and implicit weight bias were obtained by averaging the individual scores for each nation. Obesity at the individual level was defined as Body Mass Index (BMI) scores, whereas obesity at the national level was defined as three national weight indicators (national BMI, national percentage of overweight and underweight people) obtained from publicly available databases. Across individuals, greater degree of obesity was associated with weaker implicit negativity toward overweight people compared to thin people. Across nations, in contrast, a greater degree of national obesity was associated with stronger implicit negativity toward overweight people compared to thin people. This result indicates a different relationship between obesity and implicit weight bias at the individual and national levels.
The present research examined whether temporal fluctuations in context ethnic diversity account f... more The present research examined whether temporal fluctuations in context ethnic diversity account for current levels of implicit ethnic-American associations. Temporal fluctuations in ethnic diversity at the metropolitan level were assessed using data from four decennial U.S. censuses (1980–2010) and distinguishing three dimensions of context ethnic diversity (minority representation, variety, and integration). Project Implicit data (2011–2017) indexed the extent to which American identity was implicitly associated with European Americans over Asian Americans (i.e., American = White associations). Data were analyzed using multilevel modeling ( N = 152,011, nested within 226 metropolitan areas). Steeper increases in the proportion of Asian Americans were related to weaker implicit (but stronger explicit) American = White associations. Increases in ethnic integration accounted for stronger implicit American = White associations when integration fluctuations reflected accelerating rather...
The issue of ethnic diversity and national identity in an immigrant nation such as the USA is a r... more The issue of ethnic diversity and national identity in an immigrant nation such as the USA is a recurrent topic of debate. We review and integrate research examining the extent to which the American identity is implicitly granted or denied to members of different ethnic groups. Consistently, European Americans are implicitly conceived of as being more American than African, Asian, Latino, and even Native Americans. This implicit American = White effect emerges when explicit knowledge or perceptions point in the opposite direction. The propensity to deny the American identity to members of ethnic minorities is particularly pronounced when targets (individuals or groups) are construed through the lenses of ethnic identities. Implicit ethnic–national associations fluctuate as a function of perceivers' ethnic identity and political orientation, but also contextual or situational factors. The tendency to equate being American with being White accounts for the strength of national identification (among European Americans) and behavioral responses including hiring recommendations and voting intentions. The robust propensity to deny the American identity to ethnic minority groups reflects an exclusionary national identity.
Social psychology instructors from five distinct state universities in California examined the ef... more Social psychology instructors from five distinct state universities in California examined the effect of incorporating the Implicit Association Test (IAT) in a teaching module on students’ perceived knowledge of implicit biases and motivation to control prejudice. Students (N = 258) completed a knowledge survey on prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination and a motivation to control prejudice scale before (Time 1) and after (Time 2) a teaching module on implicit and explicit prejudice that included taking the IAT. Results showed that students’ perceived knowledge of implicit biases increased after completing the teaching module. In addition, the more students displayed an implicit bias against African Americans (relative to European Americans), the more they reported mastering course material about implicit biases and the more they indicated being internally motivated to control prejudice (at Time 2). These findings suggest that using the IAT as a teaching tool might be a beneficial learning experience, in particular for individuals who display relatively pronounced implicit biases.
In this chapter, we explore the relevance of the implicit social cognition framework to research ... more In this chapter, we explore the relevance of the implicit social cognition framework to research on multicultural identities. We posit that self-related mental processes underlying multicultural identities often operate at a largely automatic or nonconscious level. We propose a conceptualization of implicit multicultural identities as associative knowledge structures. We describe techniques that can be adapted to assess implicit multicultural identities. The chapter includes sections devoted to the relations between implicit and explicit self-concepts, the interconnections among various components of the self-system, the context-sensitivity of implicit self-definitions, and the cultural foundations of implicit knowledge. In sum, the chapter lays the foundations for a more systematic program of research on implicit multicultural identities.
In academic settings, Asian students are often described as less talkative than White students. W... more In academic settings, Asian students are often described as less talkative than White students. We provide an account of this phenomenon based on research on cultural influences on the self, self-categorization, and implicit social cognition. We hypothesized that the classroom context activates a process of implicit self-stereotyping. Asian and White participants were asked to imagine themselves in a classroom or leisure context. Next, they completed Implicit Association Tests assessing their self-concept, ethnic stereotypes, and ethnic identification. In the classroom context only, ethnic stereotypes accounted for a more reserved self-concept among Asian participants and a more talkative self-concept among White participants.
A sample of 128 undergraduate women reported stronger identification with college education than ... more A sample of 128 undergraduate women reported stronger identification with college education than with motherhood. In contrast, an Implicit Association Test revealed a slightly stronger identification with motherhood than with college education. Implicit attitudes toward college education and motherhood correlated with implicit (but not explicit) identification, whereas explicit attitudes correlated with explicit identification and, to a lesser extent, implicit identification. Internal (but not external) motivation to define the self as academically oriented predicted both explicit and implicit identifications. Results regarding the role of childhood and current experiences with gender roles were inconclusive. As a whole, these findings contribute to a better understanding of the potential for conflicts in the self-concept of college women.
We sought to document that the extent to which different ethnic groups are perceived as embodying... more We sought to document that the extent to which different ethnic groups are perceived as embodying the American identity is more strongly linked to anti-minority policy attitudes and acculturation ideologies among majority group members (European Americans) than among minority group members (Asian Americans or Latino/as). Participants rated 13 attributes of the American identity as they pertain to different ethnic groups, and reported their endorsement of policy attitudes and acculturation ideologies. We found a relative consensus across ethnic groups regarding defining components of the American identity. However, European Americans were perceived as more prototypical of this American identity than ethnic minorities, especially by European American raters. Moreover, for European Americans but not for ethnic minorities, relative ingroup prototypicality was related to anti-minority policy attitudes and acculturation ideologies. These findings suggest that for European Americans, perceptions of ethnic group prototypicality fulfill an instrumental function linked to preserving their group interests and limiting the rights afforded to ethnic minorities.
A robust relationship between perceived racial discrimination and psychological distress has been... more A robust relationship between perceived racial discrimination and psychological distress has been established. Yet, mixed evidence exists regarding the extent to which ethnic identification moderates this relationship, and scarce attention has been paid to the moderating role of national identification. We propose that the role of group identifications in the perceived discrimination–psychological distress relationship is best understood by simultaneously and interactively considering ethnic and national identifications. A sample of 259 Asian American students completed measures of perceived discrimi- nation, group identifications (specific ethnic identification stated by respondents and national or “main- stream American” identification), and psychological distress (anxiety and depression symptoms). Re- gression analyses revealed a significant three-way interaction of perceived discrimination, ethnic identification, and national identification on psychological distress. Simple-slope analyses indicated that dual identification (strong ethnic and national identifications) was linked to a weaker relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological distress compared with other group identification configurations. These findings underscore the need to consider the interconnections between ethnic and national identifications to better understand the circumstances under which group identifications are likely to buffer individuals against the adverse effects of racial discrimination.
The present research sought to distinguish the role of sociocultural negativity and social identi... more The present research sought to distinguish the role of sociocultural negativity and social identification underlying gay men’s implicit attitudes towards sexual orientation. Fifty gay men completed two Implicit Association Tests. In both cases, the task required cat- egorising, as quickly as possible, pictures of gay vs. straight couples, but these stimuli were either classified using normative categorical labels (homosexual vs. heterosexual couples) or in terms of their self-relevance (similar vs. dissimilar to me). Participants also completed the Reactions to Homosexuality Scale and the Outness Inventory. As expected, the pro-gay attitude was more pronounced when implicit attitudes were assessed in terms of self-relevance than based on normative categorical labels. In addi- tion, these two facets of implicit attitudes overlapped more strongly among gay men who were less inclined to publicly affirm their sexual identity than among individuals who strongly identified publicly with being gay. The present findings extend our under- standing of the sources and functions of implicit attitudes among members of a sexual minority group.
Against the backdrop of the 2008 presidential election, we examined the extent to which the Ameri... more Against the backdrop of the 2008 presidential election, we examined the extent to which the American identity was implicitly and explicitly associated with Barack Obama compared to Tony Blair (Study 1), Hillary Clinton (Study 2), and John McCain (Studies 3 and 4). When conscious control was relatively limited and targets were categorized based on race, the American identity was less strongly associated with Obama than with the other candidates. This effect was stronger than when the candidates were categorized based on their personal identity (Studies 1–4), gender (Study 2), political affiliation (Study 3), or age (Study 4). In addition, the extent to which candidates were differentiated in terms of implicit and explicit associations with the American identity predicted the relative willingness to actively support them.
In two studies conducted during the 2012 U.S. presidential election, we sought to determine wheth... more In two studies conducted during the 2012 U.S. presidential election, we sought to determine whether the relative ascription of the American identity to Barack Obama and Mitt Romney was distinct from attitudinal responses and from associations about racial categories. We also tested the degree to which these associations accounted for voter support. In both studies, participants completed a series of Implicit Association Tests and reported their intention to vote for and their willingness to support these candidates. In contrast to implicit associations about racial categories (Black vs. White), Obama was implicitly seen as more American and elicited a more favorable implicit evaluation than Romney (Study 1). At the same time, these effects were reduced when candidates were categorized based on their racial (rather than personal) identity (Study 2). Implicit associations about the candidates (but not racial categories) accounted for intention to vote for them and relative willingness to support them over and above the effect of political orientation (Studies 1 & 2). These findings suggest that the implicit ascription of a national identity is an important facet of presidential elections.
Although a greater degree of personal obesity is associated with weaker negativity toward overwei... more Although a greater degree of personal obesity is associated with weaker negativity toward overweight people on both explicit (i.e., self-report) and implicit (i.e., indirect behavioral) measures, overweight people still prefer thin people on average. We investigated whether the national and cultural context – particularly the national prevalence of obesity – predicts attitudes toward overweight people independent of personal identity and weight status. Data were collected from a total sample of 338,121 citizens from 71 nations in 22 different languages on the Project Implicit website (https://implicit.harvard.edu/) between May 2006 and October 2010. We investigated the relationship of the explicit and implicit weight bias with the obesity both at the individual (i.e., across individuals) and national (i.e., across nations) level. Explicit weight bias was assessed with self-reported preference between overweight and thin people; implicit weight bias was measured with the Implicit Association Test (IAT). The national estimates of explicit and implicit weight bias were obtained by averaging the individual scores for each nation. Obesity at the individual level was defined as Body Mass Index (BMI) scores, whereas obesity at the national level was defined as three national weight indicators (national BMI, national percentage of overweight and underweight people) obtained from publicly available databases. Across individuals, greater degree of obesity was associated with weaker implicit negativity toward overweight people compared to thin people. Across nations, in contrast, a greater degree of national obesity was associated with stronger implicit negativity toward overweight people compared to thin people. This result indicates a different relationship between obesity and implicit weight bias at the individual and national levels.
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