Electric bicycles (e-bikes) represent one of the fastest growing segments of the transport market... more Electric bicycles (e-bikes) represent one of the fastest growing segments of the transport market. Over 31 million e-bikes were sold in 2012. Research has followed this growth and this paper provides a synthesis of the most pertinent themes emerging over the past on the burgeoning topic of e-bikes. The focus is transport rather than recreational e-bike research, as well as the most critical research gaps requiring attention. China leads the world in e-bike sales, followed by the Netherlands and Germany. E-bikes can maintain speed with less effort. E-bikes are found to increase bicycle usage. E-bikes have the potential to displace conventional motorised (internal combustion) modes, but there are open questions about their role in displacing traditional bicycles. E-bikes have been shown to provide health benefits and an order of magnitude less carbon dioxide than a car travelling the same distance. Safety issues have emerged as a policy issue in several jurisdictions and e-bike numbers are now approaching levels in which adequate safety data are able to be collected. Research on e-bikes is still in its infancy. As e-bike usage continues to grow, so too will the need for further research, in order to provide the necessary data to inform policy-makers and industry.
Many governments attempt to improve cycling safety to reduce the number of bicycle crashes and
en... more Many governments attempt to improve cycling safety to reduce the number of bicycle crashes and encourage cycling. The Netherlands is a world leader in bicycle use and safety. This paper explores how the Netherlands achieved an 80% reduction in the number of cyclists killed (predominantly bicycle– motor vehicle crashes) per billion bicycle kilometres over a thirty year period. Factors found to contribute to this improvement include the establishment of a road hierarchy with large traffic-calmed areas where through traffic is kept out. A heavily used freeway network shifts motor vehicles from streets with high cycling levels. This reduces exposure to high-speed motor vehicles. Separated bicycle paths and intersection treatments decrease the likelihood of bicycle–motor vehicle crashes. The high amount of bicycle use increases safety as a higher bicycle modal share corresponds with a lower share of driving and greater awareness of cyclists among drivers. Low cycling speed was also found to contribute to the high level of cycling safety in the Netherlands.
This paper begins by providing an overview of bike share programs, followed by a critical examina... more This paper begins by providing an overview of bike share programs, followed by a critical examination of the growing body of literature on these programs. This synthesis of previous works, both peer-reviewed and gray, includes an identification of the current gaps in knowledge related to the impacts of bike sharing programs. This synthesis represents a critically needed evaluation of the current state of global bike share research, in order to better understand, and maximize the effectiveness of current and future programs. Several consistent themes have emerged within the growing body of research on bike share programs. Firstly, the importance bike share members place on convenience and value for money appears paramount in their motivation to sign up and use these programs. Secondly, and somewhat counter intuitively, scheme members are more likely to own and use private bicycles than nonmembers. Thirdly, users demonstrate a greater reluctance to wear helmets than private bicycle riders and helmets have acted as a deterrent in jurisdictions in which helmets are mandatory. Finally, and perhaps most importantly from a sustainable transport perspective, the majority of scheme users are substituting from sustainable modes of transport rather than the car.
The Netherlands are well-known for their high bicycle usage. The approach of the Health Economic ... more The Netherlands are well-known for their high bicycle usage. The approach of the Health Economic Assessment Tool and life table calculations were used to quantify the population-level health benefits due to Dutch cycling levels. The results show that, due to cycling, about 6,500 deaths are prevented each year, Dutch people have half-a-year longer life expectancy, and that these health benefits translate in economic benefits corresponding to some 3% of Dutch GDP. Our study confirms that investments in bicycle-promoting policies (e.g. improved bicycle infrastructure and facilities) are likely to yield a high benefit-cost ratio in the long term.
Over 800 cities globally now offer bikeshare programs. One of their purported benefits is increas... more Over 800 cities globally now offer bikeshare programs. One of their purported benefits is increased physical activity. Implicit in this claim is that bikeshare replaces sedentary modes of transport, particularly car use. This paper estimates the median changes in physical activity levels as a result of bikeshare in the cities of Melbourne, Brisbane, Washington, D.C., London, and Minneapolis/St. Paul.
This study is the first known multi-city evaluation of the active travel impacts of bikeshare programs. To perform the analysis, data on mode substitution (i.e. the modes that bikeshare replaces) were used to determine the extent of shift from sedentary to active transport modes (e.g. when a car trip is replaced by bikeshare). Potentially offsetting these gains, reductions in physical activity when walking trips are replaced by bikeshare was also estimated. Finally a Markov Chain Monte Carlo analysis was conducted to estimate confidence bounds on estimated impacts on active travel given uncertainties in data sources.
The results indicate that on average 60% of bikeshare trips replace sedentary modes of transport (from 42% in Minneapolis/St. Paul to 67% in Brisbane). When bikeshare replaces a walking trip, there is a reduction in active travel time because walking a given distance takes longer than cycling. Considering the active travel balance sheet for the cities included in this analysis, bikeshare activity in 2012 has an overall positive impact on active travel time. This impact ranges from an additional 1.4 million minutes of active travel for the Minneapolis/St. Paul bikeshare program, to just over 74 million minutes of active travel for the London program. The analytical approach adopted to estimate bikeshare’s impact on active travel may act as the basis for future bikeshare evaluations or feasibility studies.
Rates of bicycle commuting currently hover around 1 - 2% in most Australian capital cities, altho... more Rates of bicycle commuting currently hover around 1 - 2% in most Australian capital cities, although 17.8% of Australians report riding at least once per week. The most commonly stated reason for choosing not to ride a bicycle is fear of motorised vehicles. This paper sets out to examine the literature and offer a commentary regarding the role fear plays as a barrier to bicycle riding. The paper also provides an estimate of the relative risk of driving and riding, on a per trip basis. An analysis of the existing literature finds fear of motorised traffic to be disproportionate to actual levels of risk to bicycle riders. Moreover, the health benefits of bicycling outweigh the risks of collision. Rather than actual collisions forming the basis of people’s fear, it appears plausible that near collisions (which occur far more frequently) may be a significant cause for the exaggerated levels of fear associated with bicycle riding. In order to achieve the Australian Government’s goal of doubling bike riding participation, this review suggests it will be necessary to counter fear through the creation of a low risk traffic environment (both perceived and real), involving marketing/promotional campaigns and the development of a comprehensive bicycle infrastructure network and lower speed limits.
This paper sets out to compare the health benefits of the Bicing scheme (Barcelona's
public bicy... more This paper sets out to compare the health benefits of the Bicing scheme (Barcelona's public bicycle share scheme) with possible risks associated with increased bicycle riding. The key variables used by the researchers include physical activity, exposure to air pollution and road traffic injury. The authors rightly identify that although traffic congestion is often a major motivator behind the establishment of public bicycle share schemes (PBSS), the health benefits may well be the largest single benefit of such schemes. Certainly PBSS appear to be one of the most effective methods of increasing the number of bicycle trips across a population, providing additional transport options and improving awareness of the possibilities bicycles offer urban transport systems.
The purpose of this study was to explore barriers and facilitators to using CityCycle, a public b... more The purpose of this study was to explore barriers and facilitators to using CityCycle, a public bicycle share scheme in Brisbane, Australia. Focus groups were conducted with participants belonging to one of three categories. Group one consisted of infrequent and noncyclists (no bicycle riding over the past month), group two were regular bicycle riders (ridden a bicycle at least once in the past month) and group three was composed of CityCycle members. A thematic analytic method was used to analyse the data. Three main themes were found: Accessibility/spontaneity, safety and weather/topography. The lengthy sign-up process was thought to stifle the spontaneity typically thought to attract people to public bike share. Mandatory helmet legislation was thought to reduce spontaneous use. Safety was a major concern for all groups and this included a perceived lack of suitable bicycle infrastructure, as well as regular riders describing a negative attitude of some car drivers. Interestingly, CityCycle riders unanimously perceived car driver attitudes to improve when on CityCycle bicycles relative to riding on personal bicycles. Conclusions: In order to increase the popularity of the CityCycle scheme, the results of this study suggest that a more accessible, spontaneous sign-up process is required, 24/7 opening hours, and greater incentives to sign up new members and casual users, as seeing people using CityCycle appears critical to further take up.
This online article provides a concise description of Australia's experience with bike share, inc... more This online article provides a concise description of Australia's experience with bike share, including some of the reasons why usage has been so much lower than in other countries.
• Use of electrically assisted bicycles is rapidly increasing.
• Use of electric bicycles is asso... more • Use of electrically assisted bicycles is rapidly increasing. • Use of electric bicycles is associated with an increased risk to be treated at an emergency department due to a crash. • Crashes with electric bicycles are about equally severe as crashes with classic bicycles.
Highlights
• Examines the degree to which bike share replaces car trips.
• Bike share operator ve... more Highlights • Examines the degree to which bike share replaces car trips. • Bike share operator vehicle use (for bike redistribution) is calculated. • An estimate of bike share’s overall contribution to changes in vehicle kilometres traveled is made. • Bike share is shown to reduce car use in all cities included in the analysis, with the exception of London. • Bike share’s effectiveness is dependent on whether it replaces car use.
Quick summary
* Barriers to bikeshare were assessed from a sample of members and non-members.
* ... more Quick summary
* Barriers to bikeshare were assessed from a sample of members and non-members. * Bikeshare use in Australia is considerably lower than in other countries. * Car convenience is the main barrier to bikeshare, followed by safety concerns. * Non-members home and work are dispersed relative to members. * Bikeshare operators may increase ridership by addressing key barriers such as bicycle infrastructure and the attractiveness of cycling compared to car use.
• Bike share programs have grown rapidly in recent years.
• Australian bike share programs have l... more • Bike share programs have grown rapidly in recent years. • Australian bike share programs have lower usage levels than other countries. • Online survey used to develop a logistic regression model to predict membership. • Riding frequency, age, proximity to docking station predict membership. • Riding convenience levels and higher income increase odds of membership.
Introduction
Modern, urban lifestyles have engineered physical activity out of everyday life and ... more Introduction Modern, urban lifestyles have engineered physical activity out of everyday life and this presents a major threat to human health. The Netherlands is a world leader in active travel, particularly cycling, but little research has sought to quantify the cumulative amount of physical activity through everyday walking and cycling.
Methods Using data collected as part of the Dutch National Travel Survey (2010 – 2012), this paper determines the degree to which Dutch walking and cycling contributes to meeting minimum level of physical activity of 150 minutes of moderate intensity aerobic activity throughout the week. The sample includes 74,465 individuals who recorded at least some travel on the day surveyed. As physical activity benefits are cumulative, all walking and cycling trips are analysed, including those to and from public transport. These trips are then converted into an established measure of physical activity intensity, known as metabolic equivalents of tasks. Multivariate Tobit regression models were performed on a range of socio-demographic, transport resources, urban form and meteorological characteristics.
Results The results reveal that Dutch men and women participate in 24 and 28 minutes of daily physical activity through walking and cycling, which is 41% and 55% more than the minimum recommended level. It should be noted however that some 57% of the entire sample failed to record any walking or cycling, and an investigation of this particular group serves as an important topic of future research. Active transport was positively related with age, income, bicycle ownership, urban density and air temperature. Car ownership had a strong negative relationship with physically active travel.
Conclusion The results of this analysis demonstrate the significance of active transport to counter the emerging issue of sedentary lifestyle disease. The Dutch experience provides other countries with a highly relevant case study in the creation of environments and cultures that support healthy, active living.
The number of cities offering bikeshare has increased rapidly, from just a handful in the late 19... more The number of cities offering bikeshare has increased rapidly, from just a handful in the late 1990s to over 800 currently. This paper provides a review of recent bikeshare literature. Several
themes have begun to emerge from studies examining bikeshare. Convenience is the major motivator for bikeshare use. Financial savings has been found to motivate those on a low income and the distance one lives from a docking station is an important predictor for bikeshare membership. In a range of countries, it has been found that just under 50% of bikeshare members use the system less than once a month. Men use bikeshare more than women, but the imbalance is not as dramatic as private bike riding (at least in low cycling countries). Commuting is the most common trip purpose for annual members. Users are less likely than private cyclists to wear helmets, but in countries with mandatory helmet legislation, usage levels have suffered. Bikeshare users appear less likely to be injured than private bike riders. Future directions include integration with ebikes, GPS (global positioning system), dockless systems and improved public transport integration. Greater research is required to quantify the impacts of bikeshare, in terms of mode choice, emissions, congestion and health.
Electric bicycles (e-bikes) represent one of the fastest growing segments of the transport market... more Electric bicycles (e-bikes) represent one of the fastest growing segments of the transport market. Over 31 million e-bikes were sold in 2012. Research has followed this growth and this paper provides a synthesis of the most pertinent themes emerging over the past on the burgeoning topic of e-bikes. The focus is transport rather than recreational e-bike research, as well as the most critical research gaps requiring attention. China leads the world in e-bike sales, followed by the Netherlands and Germany. E-bikes can maintain speed with less effort. E-bikes are found to increase bicycle usage. E-bikes have the potential to displace conventional motorised (internal combustion) modes, but there are open questions about their role in displacing traditional bicycles. E-bikes have been shown to provide health benefits and an order of magnitude less carbon dioxide than a car travelling the same distance. Safety issues have emerged as a policy issue in several jurisdictions and e-bike numbers are now approaching levels in which adequate safety data are able to be collected. Research on e-bikes is still in its infancy. As e-bike usage continues to grow, so too will the need for further research, in order to provide the necessary data to inform policy-makers and industry.
Many governments attempt to improve cycling safety to reduce the number of bicycle crashes and
en... more Many governments attempt to improve cycling safety to reduce the number of bicycle crashes and encourage cycling. The Netherlands is a world leader in bicycle use and safety. This paper explores how the Netherlands achieved an 80% reduction in the number of cyclists killed (predominantly bicycle– motor vehicle crashes) per billion bicycle kilometres over a thirty year period. Factors found to contribute to this improvement include the establishment of a road hierarchy with large traffic-calmed areas where through traffic is kept out. A heavily used freeway network shifts motor vehicles from streets with high cycling levels. This reduces exposure to high-speed motor vehicles. Separated bicycle paths and intersection treatments decrease the likelihood of bicycle–motor vehicle crashes. The high amount of bicycle use increases safety as a higher bicycle modal share corresponds with a lower share of driving and greater awareness of cyclists among drivers. Low cycling speed was also found to contribute to the high level of cycling safety in the Netherlands.
This paper begins by providing an overview of bike share programs, followed by a critical examina... more This paper begins by providing an overview of bike share programs, followed by a critical examination of the growing body of literature on these programs. This synthesis of previous works, both peer-reviewed and gray, includes an identification of the current gaps in knowledge related to the impacts of bike sharing programs. This synthesis represents a critically needed evaluation of the current state of global bike share research, in order to better understand, and maximize the effectiveness of current and future programs. Several consistent themes have emerged within the growing body of research on bike share programs. Firstly, the importance bike share members place on convenience and value for money appears paramount in their motivation to sign up and use these programs. Secondly, and somewhat counter intuitively, scheme members are more likely to own and use private bicycles than nonmembers. Thirdly, users demonstrate a greater reluctance to wear helmets than private bicycle riders and helmets have acted as a deterrent in jurisdictions in which helmets are mandatory. Finally, and perhaps most importantly from a sustainable transport perspective, the majority of scheme users are substituting from sustainable modes of transport rather than the car.
The Netherlands are well-known for their high bicycle usage. The approach of the Health Economic ... more The Netherlands are well-known for their high bicycle usage. The approach of the Health Economic Assessment Tool and life table calculations were used to quantify the population-level health benefits due to Dutch cycling levels. The results show that, due to cycling, about 6,500 deaths are prevented each year, Dutch people have half-a-year longer life expectancy, and that these health benefits translate in economic benefits corresponding to some 3% of Dutch GDP. Our study confirms that investments in bicycle-promoting policies (e.g. improved bicycle infrastructure and facilities) are likely to yield a high benefit-cost ratio in the long term.
Over 800 cities globally now offer bikeshare programs. One of their purported benefits is increas... more Over 800 cities globally now offer bikeshare programs. One of their purported benefits is increased physical activity. Implicit in this claim is that bikeshare replaces sedentary modes of transport, particularly car use. This paper estimates the median changes in physical activity levels as a result of bikeshare in the cities of Melbourne, Brisbane, Washington, D.C., London, and Minneapolis/St. Paul.
This study is the first known multi-city evaluation of the active travel impacts of bikeshare programs. To perform the analysis, data on mode substitution (i.e. the modes that bikeshare replaces) were used to determine the extent of shift from sedentary to active transport modes (e.g. when a car trip is replaced by bikeshare). Potentially offsetting these gains, reductions in physical activity when walking trips are replaced by bikeshare was also estimated. Finally a Markov Chain Monte Carlo analysis was conducted to estimate confidence bounds on estimated impacts on active travel given uncertainties in data sources.
The results indicate that on average 60% of bikeshare trips replace sedentary modes of transport (from 42% in Minneapolis/St. Paul to 67% in Brisbane). When bikeshare replaces a walking trip, there is a reduction in active travel time because walking a given distance takes longer than cycling. Considering the active travel balance sheet for the cities included in this analysis, bikeshare activity in 2012 has an overall positive impact on active travel time. This impact ranges from an additional 1.4 million minutes of active travel for the Minneapolis/St. Paul bikeshare program, to just over 74 million minutes of active travel for the London program. The analytical approach adopted to estimate bikeshare’s impact on active travel may act as the basis for future bikeshare evaluations or feasibility studies.
Rates of bicycle commuting currently hover around 1 - 2% in most Australian capital cities, altho... more Rates of bicycle commuting currently hover around 1 - 2% in most Australian capital cities, although 17.8% of Australians report riding at least once per week. The most commonly stated reason for choosing not to ride a bicycle is fear of motorised vehicles. This paper sets out to examine the literature and offer a commentary regarding the role fear plays as a barrier to bicycle riding. The paper also provides an estimate of the relative risk of driving and riding, on a per trip basis. An analysis of the existing literature finds fear of motorised traffic to be disproportionate to actual levels of risk to bicycle riders. Moreover, the health benefits of bicycling outweigh the risks of collision. Rather than actual collisions forming the basis of people’s fear, it appears plausible that near collisions (which occur far more frequently) may be a significant cause for the exaggerated levels of fear associated with bicycle riding. In order to achieve the Australian Government’s goal of doubling bike riding participation, this review suggests it will be necessary to counter fear through the creation of a low risk traffic environment (both perceived and real), involving marketing/promotional campaigns and the development of a comprehensive bicycle infrastructure network and lower speed limits.
This paper sets out to compare the health benefits of the Bicing scheme (Barcelona's
public bicy... more This paper sets out to compare the health benefits of the Bicing scheme (Barcelona's public bicycle share scheme) with possible risks associated with increased bicycle riding. The key variables used by the researchers include physical activity, exposure to air pollution and road traffic injury. The authors rightly identify that although traffic congestion is often a major motivator behind the establishment of public bicycle share schemes (PBSS), the health benefits may well be the largest single benefit of such schemes. Certainly PBSS appear to be one of the most effective methods of increasing the number of bicycle trips across a population, providing additional transport options and improving awareness of the possibilities bicycles offer urban transport systems.
The purpose of this study was to explore barriers and facilitators to using CityCycle, a public b... more The purpose of this study was to explore barriers and facilitators to using CityCycle, a public bicycle share scheme in Brisbane, Australia. Focus groups were conducted with participants belonging to one of three categories. Group one consisted of infrequent and noncyclists (no bicycle riding over the past month), group two were regular bicycle riders (ridden a bicycle at least once in the past month) and group three was composed of CityCycle members. A thematic analytic method was used to analyse the data. Three main themes were found: Accessibility/spontaneity, safety and weather/topography. The lengthy sign-up process was thought to stifle the spontaneity typically thought to attract people to public bike share. Mandatory helmet legislation was thought to reduce spontaneous use. Safety was a major concern for all groups and this included a perceived lack of suitable bicycle infrastructure, as well as regular riders describing a negative attitude of some car drivers. Interestingly, CityCycle riders unanimously perceived car driver attitudes to improve when on CityCycle bicycles relative to riding on personal bicycles. Conclusions: In order to increase the popularity of the CityCycle scheme, the results of this study suggest that a more accessible, spontaneous sign-up process is required, 24/7 opening hours, and greater incentives to sign up new members and casual users, as seeing people using CityCycle appears critical to further take up.
This online article provides a concise description of Australia's experience with bike share, inc... more This online article provides a concise description of Australia's experience with bike share, including some of the reasons why usage has been so much lower than in other countries.
• Use of electrically assisted bicycles is rapidly increasing.
• Use of electric bicycles is asso... more • Use of electrically assisted bicycles is rapidly increasing. • Use of electric bicycles is associated with an increased risk to be treated at an emergency department due to a crash. • Crashes with electric bicycles are about equally severe as crashes with classic bicycles.
Highlights
• Examines the degree to which bike share replaces car trips.
• Bike share operator ve... more Highlights • Examines the degree to which bike share replaces car trips. • Bike share operator vehicle use (for bike redistribution) is calculated. • An estimate of bike share’s overall contribution to changes in vehicle kilometres traveled is made. • Bike share is shown to reduce car use in all cities included in the analysis, with the exception of London. • Bike share’s effectiveness is dependent on whether it replaces car use.
Quick summary
* Barriers to bikeshare were assessed from a sample of members and non-members.
* ... more Quick summary
* Barriers to bikeshare were assessed from a sample of members and non-members. * Bikeshare use in Australia is considerably lower than in other countries. * Car convenience is the main barrier to bikeshare, followed by safety concerns. * Non-members home and work are dispersed relative to members. * Bikeshare operators may increase ridership by addressing key barriers such as bicycle infrastructure and the attractiveness of cycling compared to car use.
• Bike share programs have grown rapidly in recent years.
• Australian bike share programs have l... more • Bike share programs have grown rapidly in recent years. • Australian bike share programs have lower usage levels than other countries. • Online survey used to develop a logistic regression model to predict membership. • Riding frequency, age, proximity to docking station predict membership. • Riding convenience levels and higher income increase odds of membership.
Introduction
Modern, urban lifestyles have engineered physical activity out of everyday life and ... more Introduction Modern, urban lifestyles have engineered physical activity out of everyday life and this presents a major threat to human health. The Netherlands is a world leader in active travel, particularly cycling, but little research has sought to quantify the cumulative amount of physical activity through everyday walking and cycling.
Methods Using data collected as part of the Dutch National Travel Survey (2010 – 2012), this paper determines the degree to which Dutch walking and cycling contributes to meeting minimum level of physical activity of 150 minutes of moderate intensity aerobic activity throughout the week. The sample includes 74,465 individuals who recorded at least some travel on the day surveyed. As physical activity benefits are cumulative, all walking and cycling trips are analysed, including those to and from public transport. These trips are then converted into an established measure of physical activity intensity, known as metabolic equivalents of tasks. Multivariate Tobit regression models were performed on a range of socio-demographic, transport resources, urban form and meteorological characteristics.
Results The results reveal that Dutch men and women participate in 24 and 28 minutes of daily physical activity through walking and cycling, which is 41% and 55% more than the minimum recommended level. It should be noted however that some 57% of the entire sample failed to record any walking or cycling, and an investigation of this particular group serves as an important topic of future research. Active transport was positively related with age, income, bicycle ownership, urban density and air temperature. Car ownership had a strong negative relationship with physically active travel.
Conclusion The results of this analysis demonstrate the significance of active transport to counter the emerging issue of sedentary lifestyle disease. The Dutch experience provides other countries with a highly relevant case study in the creation of environments and cultures that support healthy, active living.
The number of cities offering bikeshare has increased rapidly, from just a handful in the late 19... more The number of cities offering bikeshare has increased rapidly, from just a handful in the late 1990s to over 800 currently. This paper provides a review of recent bikeshare literature. Several
themes have begun to emerge from studies examining bikeshare. Convenience is the major motivator for bikeshare use. Financial savings has been found to motivate those on a low income and the distance one lives from a docking station is an important predictor for bikeshare membership. In a range of countries, it has been found that just under 50% of bikeshare members use the system less than once a month. Men use bikeshare more than women, but the imbalance is not as dramatic as private bike riding (at least in low cycling countries). Commuting is the most common trip purpose for annual members. Users are less likely than private cyclists to wear helmets, but in countries with mandatory helmet legislation, usage levels have suffered. Bikeshare users appear less likely to be injured than private bike riders. Future directions include integration with ebikes, GPS (global positioning system), dockless systems and improved public transport integration. Greater research is required to quantify the impacts of bikeshare, in terms of mode choice, emissions, congestion and health.
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Papers by Elliot Fishman
encourage cycling. The Netherlands is a world leader in bicycle use and safety. This paper explores
how the Netherlands achieved an 80% reduction in the number of cyclists killed (predominantly bicycle–
motor vehicle crashes) per billion bicycle kilometres over a thirty year period. Factors found to contribute
to this improvement include the establishment of a road hierarchy with large traffic-calmed areas
where through traffic is kept out. A heavily used freeway network shifts motor vehicles from streets with
high cycling levels. This reduces exposure to high-speed motor vehicles. Separated bicycle paths and
intersection treatments decrease the likelihood of bicycle–motor vehicle crashes. The high amount of
bicycle use increases safety as a higher bicycle modal share corresponds with a lower share of driving
and greater awareness of cyclists among drivers. Low cycling speed was also found to contribute to
the high level of cycling safety in the Netherlands.
This study is the first known multi-city evaluation of the active travel impacts of bikeshare programs. To perform the analysis, data on mode substitution (i.e. the modes that bikeshare replaces) were used to determine the extent of shift from sedentary to active transport modes (e.g. when a car trip is replaced by bikeshare). Potentially offsetting these gains, reductions in physical activity when walking trips are replaced by bikeshare was also estimated. Finally a Markov Chain Monte Carlo analysis was conducted to estimate confidence bounds on estimated impacts on active travel given uncertainties in data sources.
The results indicate that on average 60% of bikeshare trips replace sedentary modes of transport (from 42% in Minneapolis/St. Paul to 67% in Brisbane). When bikeshare replaces a walking trip, there is a reduction in active travel time because walking a given distance takes longer than cycling. Considering the active travel balance sheet for the cities included in this analysis, bikeshare activity in 2012 has an overall positive impact on active travel time. This impact ranges from an additional 1.4 million minutes of active travel for the Minneapolis/St. Paul bikeshare program, to just over 74 million minutes of active travel for the London program. The analytical approach adopted to estimate bikeshare’s impact on active travel may act as the basis for future bikeshare evaluations or feasibility studies.
public bicycle share scheme) with possible risks associated with increased bicycle
riding. The key variables used by the researchers include physical activity, exposure
to air pollution and road traffic injury. The authors rightly identify that although
traffic congestion is often a major motivator behind the establishment of public
bicycle share schemes (PBSS), the health benefits may well be the largest single
benefit of such schemes. Certainly PBSS appear to be one of the most effective
methods of increasing the number of bicycle trips across a population, providing
additional transport options and improving awareness of the possibilities bicycles
offer urban transport systems.
Mandatory helmet legislation was thought to reduce spontaneous use. Safety was a major concern for all groups and this included a perceived lack of suitable bicycle infrastructure, as well as regular riders describing a negative attitude of some car drivers. Interestingly, CityCycle riders unanimously perceived car driver attitudes to improve when on CityCycle bicycles relative to riding on personal bicycles. Conclusions: In order to increase the popularity of the CityCycle scheme, the results of this study suggest that a more accessible, spontaneous sign-up process is required, 24/7 opening hours, and greater incentives to sign up new members and casual users, as seeing people using CityCycle appears critical to further take up.
• Use of electric bicycles is associated with an increased risk to be treated at an emergency department due to a crash.
• Crashes with electric bicycles are about equally severe as crashes with classic bicycles.
• Examines the degree to which bike share replaces car trips.
• Bike share operator vehicle use (for bike redistribution) is calculated.
• An estimate of bike share’s overall contribution to changes in vehicle kilometres traveled is made.
• Bike share is shown to reduce car use in all cities included in the analysis, with the exception of London.
• Bike share’s effectiveness is dependent on whether it replaces car use.
* Barriers to bikeshare were assessed from a sample of members and non-members.
* Bikeshare use in Australia is considerably lower than in other countries.
* Car convenience is the main barrier to bikeshare, followed by safety concerns.
* Non-members home and work are dispersed relative to members.
* Bikeshare operators may increase ridership by addressing key barriers such as bicycle infrastructure and the attractiveness of cycling compared to car use.
• Australian bike share programs have lower usage levels than other countries.
• Online survey used to develop a logistic regression model to predict membership.
• Riding frequency, age, proximity to docking station predict membership.
• Riding convenience levels and higher income increase odds of membership.
Modern, urban lifestyles have engineered physical activity out of everyday life and this presents a major threat to human health. The Netherlands is a world leader in active travel, particularly
cycling, but little research has sought to quantify the cumulative amount of physical activity through everyday walking and cycling.
Methods
Using data collected as part of the Dutch National Travel Survey (2010 – 2012), this paper determines the degree to which Dutch walking and cycling contributes to meeting minimum level of physical activity of 150 minutes of moderate intensity aerobic activity throughout the week. The sample includes 74,465 individuals who recorded at least some travel on the day
surveyed. As physical activity benefits are cumulative, all walking and cycling trips are analysed, including those to and from public transport. These trips are then converted into an
established measure of physical activity intensity, known as metabolic equivalents of tasks. Multivariate Tobit regression models were performed on a range of socio-demographic,
transport resources, urban form and meteorological characteristics.
Results
The results reveal that Dutch men and women participate in 24 and 28 minutes of daily physical activity through walking and cycling, which is 41% and 55% more than the minimum
recommended level. It should be noted however that some 57% of the entire sample failed to record any walking or cycling, and an investigation of this particular group serves as an important topic of future research. Active transport was positively related with age, income, bicycle ownership, urban density and air temperature. Car ownership had a strong negative relationship with physically active travel.
Conclusion
The results of this analysis demonstrate the significance of active transport to counter the emerging issue of sedentary lifestyle disease. The Dutch experience provides other countries
with a highly relevant case study in the creation of environments and cultures that support healthy, active living.
themes have begun to emerge from studies examining bikeshare. Convenience is the major motivator for bikeshare use. Financial savings has been found to motivate those on a low income and the distance one lives from a docking station is an important predictor for bikeshare membership. In a range of countries, it has been found that just under 50% of bikeshare members use the system less than once a month. Men use bikeshare more than women, but the imbalance is not as dramatic as private bike riding (at least in low cycling countries). Commuting is the most common trip purpose for annual members. Users are less likely than private cyclists to wear helmets, but in countries with mandatory helmet legislation, usage levels have suffered. Bikeshare users appear less likely to be injured than private bike riders. Future directions include integration with ebikes, GPS (global positioning system), dockless systems and improved public transport integration. Greater research is required to quantify the impacts of bikeshare, in terms of mode choice, emissions, congestion and health.
encourage cycling. The Netherlands is a world leader in bicycle use and safety. This paper explores
how the Netherlands achieved an 80% reduction in the number of cyclists killed (predominantly bicycle–
motor vehicle crashes) per billion bicycle kilometres over a thirty year period. Factors found to contribute
to this improvement include the establishment of a road hierarchy with large traffic-calmed areas
where through traffic is kept out. A heavily used freeway network shifts motor vehicles from streets with
high cycling levels. This reduces exposure to high-speed motor vehicles. Separated bicycle paths and
intersection treatments decrease the likelihood of bicycle–motor vehicle crashes. The high amount of
bicycle use increases safety as a higher bicycle modal share corresponds with a lower share of driving
and greater awareness of cyclists among drivers. Low cycling speed was also found to contribute to
the high level of cycling safety in the Netherlands.
This study is the first known multi-city evaluation of the active travel impacts of bikeshare programs. To perform the analysis, data on mode substitution (i.e. the modes that bikeshare replaces) were used to determine the extent of shift from sedentary to active transport modes (e.g. when a car trip is replaced by bikeshare). Potentially offsetting these gains, reductions in physical activity when walking trips are replaced by bikeshare was also estimated. Finally a Markov Chain Monte Carlo analysis was conducted to estimate confidence bounds on estimated impacts on active travel given uncertainties in data sources.
The results indicate that on average 60% of bikeshare trips replace sedentary modes of transport (from 42% in Minneapolis/St. Paul to 67% in Brisbane). When bikeshare replaces a walking trip, there is a reduction in active travel time because walking a given distance takes longer than cycling. Considering the active travel balance sheet for the cities included in this analysis, bikeshare activity in 2012 has an overall positive impact on active travel time. This impact ranges from an additional 1.4 million minutes of active travel for the Minneapolis/St. Paul bikeshare program, to just over 74 million minutes of active travel for the London program. The analytical approach adopted to estimate bikeshare’s impact on active travel may act as the basis for future bikeshare evaluations or feasibility studies.
public bicycle share scheme) with possible risks associated with increased bicycle
riding. The key variables used by the researchers include physical activity, exposure
to air pollution and road traffic injury. The authors rightly identify that although
traffic congestion is often a major motivator behind the establishment of public
bicycle share schemes (PBSS), the health benefits may well be the largest single
benefit of such schemes. Certainly PBSS appear to be one of the most effective
methods of increasing the number of bicycle trips across a population, providing
additional transport options and improving awareness of the possibilities bicycles
offer urban transport systems.
Mandatory helmet legislation was thought to reduce spontaneous use. Safety was a major concern for all groups and this included a perceived lack of suitable bicycle infrastructure, as well as regular riders describing a negative attitude of some car drivers. Interestingly, CityCycle riders unanimously perceived car driver attitudes to improve when on CityCycle bicycles relative to riding on personal bicycles. Conclusions: In order to increase the popularity of the CityCycle scheme, the results of this study suggest that a more accessible, spontaneous sign-up process is required, 24/7 opening hours, and greater incentives to sign up new members and casual users, as seeing people using CityCycle appears critical to further take up.
• Use of electric bicycles is associated with an increased risk to be treated at an emergency department due to a crash.
• Crashes with electric bicycles are about equally severe as crashes with classic bicycles.
• Examines the degree to which bike share replaces car trips.
• Bike share operator vehicle use (for bike redistribution) is calculated.
• An estimate of bike share’s overall contribution to changes in vehicle kilometres traveled is made.
• Bike share is shown to reduce car use in all cities included in the analysis, with the exception of London.
• Bike share’s effectiveness is dependent on whether it replaces car use.
* Barriers to bikeshare were assessed from a sample of members and non-members.
* Bikeshare use in Australia is considerably lower than in other countries.
* Car convenience is the main barrier to bikeshare, followed by safety concerns.
* Non-members home and work are dispersed relative to members.
* Bikeshare operators may increase ridership by addressing key barriers such as bicycle infrastructure and the attractiveness of cycling compared to car use.
• Australian bike share programs have lower usage levels than other countries.
• Online survey used to develop a logistic regression model to predict membership.
• Riding frequency, age, proximity to docking station predict membership.
• Riding convenience levels and higher income increase odds of membership.
Modern, urban lifestyles have engineered physical activity out of everyday life and this presents a major threat to human health. The Netherlands is a world leader in active travel, particularly
cycling, but little research has sought to quantify the cumulative amount of physical activity through everyday walking and cycling.
Methods
Using data collected as part of the Dutch National Travel Survey (2010 – 2012), this paper determines the degree to which Dutch walking and cycling contributes to meeting minimum level of physical activity of 150 minutes of moderate intensity aerobic activity throughout the week. The sample includes 74,465 individuals who recorded at least some travel on the day
surveyed. As physical activity benefits are cumulative, all walking and cycling trips are analysed, including those to and from public transport. These trips are then converted into an
established measure of physical activity intensity, known as metabolic equivalents of tasks. Multivariate Tobit regression models were performed on a range of socio-demographic,
transport resources, urban form and meteorological characteristics.
Results
The results reveal that Dutch men and women participate in 24 and 28 minutes of daily physical activity through walking and cycling, which is 41% and 55% more than the minimum
recommended level. It should be noted however that some 57% of the entire sample failed to record any walking or cycling, and an investigation of this particular group serves as an important topic of future research. Active transport was positively related with age, income, bicycle ownership, urban density and air temperature. Car ownership had a strong negative relationship with physically active travel.
Conclusion
The results of this analysis demonstrate the significance of active transport to counter the emerging issue of sedentary lifestyle disease. The Dutch experience provides other countries
with a highly relevant case study in the creation of environments and cultures that support healthy, active living.
themes have begun to emerge from studies examining bikeshare. Convenience is the major motivator for bikeshare use. Financial savings has been found to motivate those on a low income and the distance one lives from a docking station is an important predictor for bikeshare membership. In a range of countries, it has been found that just under 50% of bikeshare members use the system less than once a month. Men use bikeshare more than women, but the imbalance is not as dramatic as private bike riding (at least in low cycling countries). Commuting is the most common trip purpose for annual members. Users are less likely than private cyclists to wear helmets, but in countries with mandatory helmet legislation, usage levels have suffered. Bikeshare users appear less likely to be injured than private bike riders. Future directions include integration with ebikes, GPS (global positioning system), dockless systems and improved public transport integration. Greater research is required to quantify the impacts of bikeshare, in terms of mode choice, emissions, congestion and health.