Kai Gu

The artificial mountain in Chinese traditional gardens is a kind of topographical landscape with distinctive features, but it has not been deeply and effectively explored in the perspective of contemporary landscape theory. This paper analyzes the typical artificial mountain making in Chinese traditional landscape from the perspective of topography, and discusses the topographical landscaping theory of artificial mountain from the three aspects of form, space and time according to the understanding of the landscape characteristics in architecture and landscape culture which is proposed by David Leatherbarrow. For the landscape form of artificial mountain, the dynamism of both mountain and water is the key consideration; For the spacial experience of artificial mountain, we can pay attention to the arrangement of mountain realm from both static and dynamic aspects; Time management in the artificial mountain is also an important aspect, and both the scene itself and the visitors' experience should pay attention to the vitality of the landscape in the temporal dimension. So we can understand the topographical landscaping art of artificial mountain better, and make a positive contribution to the theory and practice of landscape architecture in contemporary China.

清初叶燮的《假山说》是一篇罕见的以假山为专题的论辩性文章，批评如“画”而推崇求“真”的园林假山营造观念，对此文的深入理解，需要在更宽泛的中国园林历史语境中，对其中“画”与“真”这两个关键词所体现的不同造园叠山观念及方法加以细致认识。如“画”叠山，是17世纪以张南垣为代表、盛行于江南一带的造园风潮，受到文化精英推动、在多个层面上有深刻发展内涵，而叶燮仅从形式层面理解，并不准确。求“真”叠山，反映了晚明画意叠山出现之前的模仿真山与峰石欣赏的园林叠山历史传统，是对峰石呈现的生命动势加以欣赏的“动势叠山”，与“画意叠山”形成鲜明对比，是中国园林史上的一种重要叠山取向、并在后世有延续与发展。《假山说》反映出了17世纪江南造园叠山的审美观念与营造方式的多样性，并帮助我们更为全面地去理解中国园林史的发展。

以匠师主导为特征的传统山水造园是当代园林文化传承的重要方面，但尚未得到深入认识。匠师方惠主持的昆山璞园营造可作为此类典型案例加以研究。该园在总体境界上追求“园在山中”，以确定主山、安排山势、布置水境等方式应对场地条件而进行布局。在具体山水景致营造上，重点以近景山洞、中景山峰、远景山峦及综贯水景等方式形成艺术效果与体验构成。在过程营造技艺上，对选石与用石、拼叠与造型、层次与呼应等方面呈现了高超的水准，并且因应当代技术条件而加以发展。该园山水营造体现出对传统造园的真正传承而又有开拓，为当代设计施工分离问题的应对提供了有益借鉴。

The deep understanding of rockery-making craftsmanship for traditional Chinese gardens entails research from the perspectives of integrity and process. The rockery-making craftsmanship with "less exceeding more" as the core that is invented by Zhang Nanyuan (a gardening master in late Ming and early Qing dynasties in Jiangnan Region, China) and further summarized by Fang Hui (a contemporary rockery-making craftsman

北海静心斋（清代称“镜清斋”）的园林山水营造一直备受赞誉，其中假山风格与江南园林的关联已得到认识，然而具体营造思路尚未得到深入剖析。本文进入更广泛的历史语境，探讨清乾隆时期该假山的营造思路，追溯至晚明江南的两种假山营造来源。在整体构思上，承续了17世纪前期张南垣所创的追求画意真山的“天然”假山；而在局部营造中，则采纳了16世纪后期盛行的追求胜景无穷的“人巧”假山。二者在晚明实践中有鲜明差异，但在清中期得到妥善融合，产生新的出色效果，除镜清斋之外，在稍晚的苏州环秀山庄假山中也有显著表达，是清代假山发展高峰的体现。清末和上世纪70年代对该假山的两次改造，未能很好理解原初的思路取向，一定程度上损害了当初追求的山意。

中国园林假山的历史多样性是学术研究以及当代实践面临的重要课题，本文通过历史文献为主的深入考察，揭示出晚明江南园林先后产生了两种具有鲜明差异性的假山营造与审美。16世纪后期出现了以王世贞弇山园为代表的大型复杂石构假山的“人巧”营造，以丰富的峰石与山景的观赏以及追求感官趣味为特色的游观体验，这与当时关注感性直观的社会审美文化氛围相一致。17世纪前期又出现了以张南垣为代表的追求“天然”的造园叠山新法，反对此前的营造与欣赏方式，向往真山境界，这是以董其昌倡导的“古淡天然”画意为宗旨的。二者都对后世假山产生重要影响。

中国园林遗产保护研究尚在探索阶段，其中假山的保护还少有探讨，但随着相关实践的需求与进展，这方面的理论认知亟待深化。假山的保护维修与一般园林遗产保护有共同性，但也有其独特之处。其共同性在于景境价值作为核心目标、真实性及整体性作为基本原则、以及使用体验作为必要内容，这需要深入的历史理论认知、科学细致的技术性分析等以获得真实性和完整性，并重点关注安全性与功能性的保障问题。其独特性在于假山在技术与艺术上的一体性和实践性，其保护维修无法通过一般设计与施工的分离来达到理想效果，而强烈依赖主持匠师的能力；而且匠师的意义不仅在于技艺本身，还在于对园林从整体到细部的综合性掌握和从构思到实践的全过程把控，这对主持匠师提出极高要求。本文结合部分历史园林假山修复案例和所参与的北海琼华岛北坡假山保护研究来加以深入讨论。

There exists the difference between the theory of garden rockery making in academic circles and conditions in the history, heritages and contemporary practices. This requires us to rethink the models of rockery and garden making. Based on Cao Xun's study, this paper discusses the problems confronting Zhang Nanyuan, a rockery and garden making master, and his solutions. It points out that Zhang, aiming at the real mountain realms, applied the method of "doing more with less" to reach the artistic inspiration of "conception beyond image" and the experience of "garden in mountain". In this way, he ideally fulfilled the dream of the literati to dwell on the mountain and water. Zhang's rockery making was of great significance in Chinese garden history, as it achieved marvelous artistic merits in the art of gardening, led to revolution in landscape architecture styles, reached a height in pursuit of garden making, and the excellent matching of the innovative approach to this goal. Zhang's rockery making was of the highest artistic aesthetic value and practical operationality that was attainable at that time in the history of Chinese gardens. It set an outstanding example for the later generations. Later, many garden making masters inherited and developed Zhang's idea and method, providing guidance for contemporary garden rockery making with high quality.

The study of traditional rockery making craft is an urgent need of contemporary Chinese landscape architecture practice with traditional style, and a necessary requirement of craftsman culture and intangible cultural heritage studies in the academic circles. This paper probes into the crafts and theory of Mr. Fang Hui, a contemporary craftsman of traditional garden rockery making. Based on investigations and interviews, we reveal the key points of his crafts and theory in the three aspects of his career progress, design theories and construction principles, aa well as his inheritance and development of the tradition.

CHEN Congzhou's Chinese garden research is studied in the historiographical context, especially in correlation and comparison with LIU Dunzhen and TONG Jun. While the academic infl uence from LIU and TONG is discussed, CHEN's own distinctive feature is investigated. In this way, CHEN's contribution, as well as the historiography of Chinese garden research in the 20th century, can be better understood.

TONG Jun was an architect and also a researcher on Chinese gardens. His Glimpses of Gardens in Eastern China was written in English and a new version of Chinese translation was newly published. A symposium on this book was held and many scholars and architects expressed their understandings on Tong Jun and his Chinese garden study, showing its significance in both fields of scholarship and architectural practice today.

中国传统园林的生命力正在当代设计实践中得到活跃呈现，而以往对中国园林的基本理论认识中的不足也在显现，这要求对园林理论的基本概念进行反思。本研究以“景境”作为传统园林欣赏与营造的核心关注，在中国园林史的情境中，进行景、境、意三个方面的讨论：对于“景”，在观念上要超越表面化的视觉形式，在营造上建立起自由灵活的态度；对于“境”，在观念上要超越现代主义空间的不当预设和视觉画意的局限，在营造上从静态和动态两方面建立起以人的综合体验；对于“景”与“境”共有的“意”，可从外在的文学品题和内在的文化审美两个方面关注，后者尤以呈现生命精神的“势”可作为营造的重要途径。

In the period of the late Ming and the early Qing, Lejiao Yuan of Taicang was regarded as the most famed garden in the Jiangnan area. However, the contemporary studies on this garden are not matched with its historical role because of both limited historical material and research method. In this paper, several kinds of material are closely compared and judged so that the layout recovery of the garden is carried out and schematic plans are made. Furthermore, the basic features of the garden, such as layout configuration, various views and construction process are discussed tentatively. In this way, this garden with great historical value can be further understood with a new solid foundation. Keywords: landscape architecture; Chinese garden history; Lejiao Yuan (garden of countryside pleasure); schematic layout recovery; late Ming and early Qing

Principles and models are important topics in the study of traditional Chinese gardens and rockery making. They are in different layers and closely related. Principles of rockery making can be studied with the perspectives of historical styles, focusing on the difference between animated and painterly-idea ways, and types of construction, focusing on the material, form and procedure, with " typology " as the useful methodology. With the reasonableness in the history being fully understood, models of rockery making can be studied in the relationship with principles and their flexible appliance, with " pattern language " as the useful methodology.

In the garden making in the Jiangnan area of the Late Ming period, great changes happened not only on the formal scenery effect, but also on the traveling experience of shanshui, showing the innovation of spatial arrangement. Such a transition is strongly related with the painterly-idea purpose, paying great attention not only to static formal appreciation, but also to dynamic moving with time. This understanding would help mastering the features of complicated and comprehensive garden space in Late-Ming Jiangnan.

In the discourses on Chinese garden history and remains, there is a sharp disagreement on the evaluation of the rockery making with animal descriptions, with “nine-lion rockery” as the most conspicuous example. Understood within the context of history and culture, “nine-lion rockery” making is closely related with the long tradition of appreciating stones as animals, and it is of a tradition of animated rockery making, with the feeling of vitality as the gist. The different idea comes from the rockery making with painterly-idea, with “Zhang’s rockery” by Zhang Nanyuan as the representative, which pays great attention on the holistic natural effect as well as internal vitality. “Zhang’s rockery” became the mainstream in the late Ming and a tradition in later periods till today. But there was variety in the Qing period when animated rockery such as “nine-lion rockery” was still popular. The understanding of the tradition of animated rockery making, together with the difference and relationship of the two rockery-making traditions, can be helpful for the reasonable understanding and appraisal of the variety of historical rockery remains, as well as the guidance of practice in heritage conservation and contemporary construction.

In the essay titled " Two Types of Picturesque Aesthetic Ideas and Gardens " , the discussion on " picturesque " in Chinese gardens is too simple and vague, and the conclusion of comparing the two types of " picturesque " gardens is not eff ective. In this paper, the historical development of Chinese " picturesque " is discussed in two aspects of garden appreciation and garden making, respectively, with a focus on the problem of formal attention of Chinese " picturesque " garden making to enrich the understanding of " picturesque " in Chinese garden culture that forms a solid foundation for the comparison of Chinese and English " picturesque " gardens.

In traditional Chinese gardens, pavilions on the top of artificial rockeries can often be seen in both historical articles and remaining heritages. However, in most of contemporary academic study of traditional Chinese garden rockery, the issue of rockery-top pavilion is often questioned or neglected. Starting from the contrast, a series of historical understandings are to be acquired. A rockey-top pavilion is regarded as more of a viewing place than a scenic site, according to various naming and historical texts. For the cultural relationship of "nature" and "artifact", natural landscape and man-made objects are related continuously, co-existing harmoniously and acting for each other, with no conflicting as in the Western culture. For the historical source of today's opinions, "painterly idea" has influenced greatly since it was established as the main purpose of both garden and rockery making in the late Ming period, with the formal issue and scale problem becoming prominent.

With questions from existing square ponds in classical Chinese gardens and with study of primary sources of Ming Jiangnan gardens, this paper points out that the square pond is an important feature in Chinese garden history. The ways of appreciating for square ponds in gardens are shown according to historical resources, and the reason of their decline is discussed with analysis of the change of gardening methods in Late Ming. Together with conclusion, the common misunderstanding in the study of classical Chinese garden history is exhibited.

A Tentative Study on Round Thatched Hut in Chinese Architectural History / There is a special kind of round thatched hut in Chinese architectural history, with the feature of thatch material, round plan, dome-shape top and arched opening. It appears in various kinds of indirect materials such as paintings, writings, grotto murals and sculptures and is sharply contrasted with normal timber architecture, while having not been recognized clearly in existing scholarship. Through various images and texts, it can be understood that this special form of architecture was imported together with Buddhism, with function of meditation and symbolization. This kind of round thatched hut also experienced localization after imported in China and some similar constructions may also have connection with it. This study can add new understandings on the significance and possibility of primitive construction in architectural history, and also provide new perspectives on the problems of diversity in Chinese architectural history and communication of architectural culture between China and abroad.

ESTABLISHMENT OF PICTURESQUE PRINCIPLE FOR GARDENS AND TRANSITION OF GARDEN-MAKING IN THE LATE MING / According to the study of historical literatures, the picturesque principle for garden-making was not established until the late Ming, which overturns the common notion that the painting¡¯s influence on gardens happened long ago in the history. The establishment of the picturesque pursuing contributes greatly on the transition of garden-making during the late Ming. There are great changes for processing of various garden elements and the whole garden style. The painting skill becomes a kind of indispensable ability for garden designers. And the picturesque standard for garden appreciation leads to the appearance of the first systematic garden-making theory in Chinese garden history.

There is a great difference between early Jiangnan gardens and those of existing today, and the Late Ming is the key period when important changes happened in various aspects for garden-making. For rockeries, stone peaks were separated from artificial mountains. For ponds, the square shape lost its popularity. For plants, the new way of picturesque appreciation established the dominant position. And for buildings, the quantity and density increased greatly with more emphasis paid on the formal aspect, and at the same time, covered corridors were unprecedentedly used, which importantly changed spatial effects. As a result, the overall appearance of gardens was transformed greatly. The new understanding of difference of early Jiangnan gardens objects to the fixed notion for Ôthe Jiangnan garden¡¯ which is pervasive today, and would contribute to new findings in Chinese garden study.