in a training session, whereas internal load refers to the physiological response of the individu... more in a training session, whereas internal load refers to the physiological response of the individual to the imposed external load [8]. Due to the combative nature of submission grappling, there are inherent difficulties in directly measuring internal and external loads of participation [9]. Proxy measures of external load such as time motion analysis (TMA) suggest that submission grappling is an intermittent activity with effort:pause ratios between 6:1 and 13:1, comprised of effort periods of 85-290 s and pauses of 5-44 s [10, 11]. More recently, however, internal load measured directly by heart rate (HR) during simulated competition revealed physiological responses to submission grappling may be relatively stable [6, 12]. Therefore, whilst specific physical actions in submission grappling may be interrmittant and acyclic, the physiological responses to these actions may not be. As such, methodological limitations inherent within TMA may limit its ability to fully elucidate the contribution of discrete movements or Original Paper
Purpose. body-worn accelerometry has been shown to be reliable and used to measure the external l... more Purpose. body-worn accelerometry has been shown to be reliable and used to measure the external load of mixed martial arts (MMA) via the Playerload metric. these measurements were only reported on a round-by-round basis, offering little indication of minute-by-minute load changes. Understanding these changes may provide a proxy measure of fatigue, readiness, and the onset of non-functional overreaching. It is also unclear as to what Playerload is measuring in MMA. this study was a secondary investigation of previously reported data to describe minute-by-minute changes in external load in MMA. Methods. Six male MMA competitors participated in a 3 × 5 minute sparring bout wearing a Catapult Minimax × 3, which recorded accumulated Playerload. the bouts were video-recorded. time-motion analysis was used to determine: total active time; total inactive time; high-intensity time; low-intensity time; standing time; grounded time; striking time; non-striking time. Results. bayesian repeated measures ANOVA found statistically relevant differences in accumulated Playerload for each minute of sparring (bF 10 = 410) with no statistically relevant differences between winners and losers. bayesian correlations revealed a direct, nearly perfect relationship between accumulated Playerload and total active time (r = 0.992, bF 10 = 9,666). No other relationships between Playerload and time-motion analysis results were observed, despite bayesian t-tests finding differences between standing time and grounded time (bF 10 = 83.7), striking time and non-striking time (bF 10 = 1,419). Conclusions. Playerload reflects overall active movement in MMA and measures active movement minute-by-minute changes but cannot distinguish between different modes or intensities of movement. this should be investigated further as a potential measure of fatigue and non-functional overreaching during MMA training.
The aim of this study was to quantify typical training load and periodisation practices of MMA at... more The aim of this study was to quantify typical training load and periodisation practices of MMA athletes. MMA competitors (n = 14; age = 22.4 ± 4.4 years; body mass = 71.3 ± 7.7 kg; stature = 171 ±9.9 cm) were observed during training for 8 consecutive weeks without intervention. Seven athletes were training for competitive bouts whilst the remaining 7 were not. Daily training duration, intensity (RPE), load (sRPE and segRPE), fatigue (short questionnaire of fatigue) and body region soreness (CR10 scale) were recorded. Using Bayesian analyses (BF10≥3), data demonstrate that training duration (weekly mean range = 3.9–5.3 hours), sRPE (weekly mean range = 1,287–1,791 AU), strain (weekly mean range = 1,143–1,819 AU), monotony (weekly mean range = 0.63–0.83 AU), fatigue (weekly mean range = 16–20 AU) and soreness did not change within or between weeks. Between weeks monotony (2.3 ± 0.7 AU) supported little variance in weekly training load. There were no differences in any variable betwee...
International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 2020
Body mass (BM) manipulation via rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) is a common p... more Body mass (BM) manipulation via rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) is a common practice among mixed martial art (MMA) athletes to ensure qualification for the division in which the athlete wishes to compete. Professional MMA competitors in California are required to weigh in twice: 24 hr prior to competition and immediately prior to the bout after they have typically engaged in RWG. In analyzing data from five MMA events sanctioned by the Californian State Athletic Commission, the authors used Bayesian analyses to compare bout winners (n = 31) and losers (n = 31) in terms of in-competition BM (in kilograms) and the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (in kilograms). These data do not support the hypothesis that differences in in-competition BM (Bayes factor [BF10] = 0.667, d = 0.23) or the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (BF10 = 0.821, d = 0.23) determine winning or losing. In addition, there was no statistical difference between bouts en...
Facta Universitatis, Series: Physical Education and Sport, 2018
Physiological changes brought about by a person’s aging process are known to negatively affect el... more Physiological changes brought about by a person’s aging process are known to negatively affect elite sports performance, but this may be delayed by skill mastery brought about by continued training. The intersection of these two separate processes causes a potential ‘peak performance window’ in many sports. Within MMA it has been shown that older competitors are more likely to lose individual bouts, especially due to strikes, and when they win it is most likely to be due to a decision. It has not been determined whether age has a long-term effect on success in MMA. This study divided the top 100 competitors in each MMA weight division into 5 ranking groups (RG) and used Bayesian ANOVA (BF10), 95% credible interval plots and Bayesian Kendall’s Tau (BF10) to determine if competitor rankings are affected by their age, and if each division displays a different age profile. The results found that whilst there is a general pattern of older participants being ranked higher, middleweig...
Purpose. Previous research has found grappling and strikes to the head to be the determining fact... more Purpose. Previous research has found grappling and strikes to the head to be the determining factors for success in MMA, whilst anthropometry in the form of stature and wingspan has been found to have a negligible effect. the current study was designed to determine if a relationship between technique use and anthropometry exists in MMA. Methods. the in-competition technique data of 461 elite, professional MMA bouts were compared using bayes factor t-tests (bF 10) to determine which techniques display the highest likelihood of distinguishing between winners and losers. the differences in technique numbers between winners and losers was also compared to the anthropometric differences between winners and losers using either bayesian Pearson's r or bayesian Kendall's tau. simple linear regression (p < 0.05) was used to calculate predictive ability of anthropometrics on chosen fighting techniques. Results. Heavyweight competitors were distinguished by striking only (bF 10 = 399-10). Light heavyweight, middleweight, featherweight, bantamweight, women's bantamweight and women's straw weight competitors were distinguished predominately by striking (bF 10 = 791661-7) and moderately by grappling (bF 10 = 75-7). Welterweight, lightweight and flyweight competitors were distinguished by striking techniques (bF 10 = 3.533e+6-221) to achieve dominant grappling positions (bF 10 = 17100-50). In turn, it was found that stature and/or wingspan are correlated to and can predict key technique variables at heavyweight, welterweight, lightweight and featherweight. Conclusions. the results provide evidence of which techniques are influenced by the anthropometric differences between competitors, allowing coaches and competitors to make more informed tactical decisions in competition preparation.
Anthropometry and chronological age has been demonstrated to have an effect on individual perform... more Anthropometry and chronological age has been demonstrated to have an effect on individual performance in competitive sport, with the relationship between stature and wingspan being found to be selective criteria in many sports, although evidence for this in MMA is negligible. In this study, n = 278 professional MMA bouts were analysed with the winners and losers being compared in terms of chronological age, stature, wingspan, stature-to-wingspan ratio (S:W) and method of win/loss using paired samples t tests, Wilcoxon signed-rank tests, one way ANOVAs, Kruskal-Wallis tests (all ≤ .05) and Bayes Factor (BF 10). The results showed that for the most part anthropometric differences have no effect on who wins the bout, but taller bout losers are most likely to lose via strikes. The exception to this is at welterweight where taller participants were most likely to win, but with an anecdotal BF 10. Also at welterweight, participants with greater wingspans were most likely to lose via submi...
Anthropometry and chronological age has been demonstrated to have an effect on individual perform... more Anthropometry and chronological age has been demonstrated to have an effect on individual performance in competitive sport, with the relationship between stature and wingspan being found to be selective criteria in many sports, although evidence for this in MMA is negligible. In this study, n = 278 professional MMA bouts were analysed with the winners and losers being compared in terms of chronological age, stature, wingspan, stature-to-wingspan ratio (S:W) and method of win/loss using paired samples t tests, Wilcoxon signed-rank tests, one way ANOVAs, Kruskal-Wallis tests (all ≤ .05) and Bayes Factor (BF 10 ). The results showed that for the most part anthropometric differences have no effect on who wins the bout, but taller bout losers are most likely to lose via strikes. Across the full cohort and several competitive divisions, it was found that older participants are significantly more likely to lose, and are also significantly more likely to lose via strikes. Participants who w...
In this study the stature, wingspan and stature-to-wingspan ratio (S:W) was recorded for N = 474 ... more In this study the stature, wingspan and stature-to-wingspan ratio (S:W) was recorded for N = 474 elite and international mixed martial arts (MMA) competitors who appeared in televised bouts over the course of one calendar year. Each weight division was split into three or four ranking groups (RG) depending on division size, as well as into groups depending on if the competitors had won or competed for a world title (El) or had done neither (In). One-way ANOVA (≤0.05) found that shorter competitors are ranked higher in flyweight and in the middle in women’s strawweight. Independent t-tests (≤0.05) found that shorter competitors also have more chance of winning or competing for a world title in featherweight and flyweight. Independent t-tests (≤0.05) also found a significant difference between males and female for S:W. There was a weak, negative correlation and a moderate, negative correlation between stature and rank in lightweight and light heavyweight respectively and a moderate, n...
Purpose: The current study was structured in two separate stages: study one aimed to determine th... more Purpose: The current study was structured in two separate stages: study one aimed to determine the reliability of the Catapult Minimax x3 accelerometer in the assessment of isolated mixed martial arts (MMA) specific techniques; study two aimed to measure the workload demands of simulated MMA bouts. Study One: Eight male MMA trained participants (age = 25.5 ± 4.5 yrs) performed a series of 10 standing striking techniques (5 occurrences of each), 6 ground striking techniques (5 occurrences of each) and 2 takedown techniques (5 occurrences of each) whilst wearing a Minimax x3 accelerometer. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) (reliability threshold ≥ .700) found that all techniques showed intra-unit reliability for player load (PL) (ICC = .700-.970) and accumulated player load (PL ACC) (ICC = .794-.984) with the exception of PL for left knee (ICC = .476) and right knee (ICC = .667). Offensive double leg takedowns caused the greatest PL ACC (1.36 ± 0.40 au) whilst the greatest PL was caused by defending single leg takedowns (2.90 ± 1.46 au). Amongst the standing strikes, the cross punching technique caused the greatest PL (3.40 ± 0.53 au) and left body kick resulted in the greatest PL ACC (0.69 ± 0.12 au) whilst right elbow caused the greatest PL ACC (0.65 ± 0.15 au) and PL (3.89 ± 0.82 au) within the ground strikes. In terms of cardinal plane accelerations, all techniques with the exception of defending double leg and single leg takedowns displayed least acceleration in the Y axis (0.40 ± 0.29-2.45 ± 1.96 au) and the greatest acceleration in the X axis (0.99 ± 0.31-6.56 ± 0.73 au). Paired samples t-tests (p≤ .05) found the only techniques that demonstrated differences in PL between the left and right sides of the body was ground punches (t (14) =-4.201; p= .001). No other significant differences were found. Study Two: Six male MMA trained participants (age = 26.17 ± 5.04 yrs) took part in a single MMA sparring bout each (3 rounds of 5 minutes, 1 minute rest between rounds) whilst wearing a Minimax x3. The bouts were recorded in their entirety and time motion analysis (TMA) was completed through Longomatch 0.18. Capillary lactate samples were taken prior to warm up, post warm up, upon completion of each round and 5 minutes after the completion of the bout. Mean PL was recorded for each technique used in the bouts whilst mean PL ACC and mean accumulated player load per minute (PL ACC .min-1) was calculated for each round and for the bouts in total. It was found that MMA participants had a PL ACC of 224.32 ± 26.59 au and a PL ACC .min-1 of 14.91 ± 1.78 au. Three techniques used during the sparring bouts were found to have significantly different PL (p< .05) than the same techniques in isolation according to paired samples t tests, however seven techniques displayed moderate to large effect sizes (Cohen"s d). The participants had a mean post bout lactate of 9.25 ± 2.96 Mmol.L and a delta lactate (ΔLac) of 3.87 ± 0.85 Mmol.L and MMA sparring causes a significant change in blood lactate concentration according to one-way ANOVA (F (5, 30) = 5.774, p= .001). PL ACC (r=-.952, p= .198) and PL ACC .min-1 (r=-.939, p= .223) displayed direct negative correlations to lactate prodcution by round according to Pearson"s correlation (p≤ 0.05). The group was found to have a work to rest ratio (W:R) of 1.01:1 whilst a significant difference was found between bout winners and bout losers in terms of the amount of succesful takedowns according to paired samples t tests (t (2) = 5.196, p= .035). Conclusion: Study one confirmed the Minimax x3 is a reliable tool for measuring PL and PL ACC in some MMA techniques whilst also revealing the sensitivity of the unit in highlighting the loss or changes of correct technique. Study two showed that the Minimax x3 is sensitive enough to monitor fatigue of the athletes during bouts whilst also giving a clear picture of how a competitor changes their technique or movement v CONTENTS Page STUDENT DECLARATION ii ABSTRACT iii LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ix TERMS AND DEFINITIONS x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xii CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of Mixed Martial Arts 1 1 CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Physiological and Anthropometric Characteristics of Mixed Martial Arts Competitors 5 5 2.2 Quantifying the Physical and Physiological Demands of Performance 7 o 2.2.1 Introduction to Maximal Oxygen Consumption Testing 7 xi measured in millimoles per litre (Mmol.L). Leg Kick The technique of a fighter kicking an opponent to the thigh. Maximal Oxygen Uptake (V o 2 max) The maximum amount of oxygen that can be consumed and used every minute. It is expressed as either litres per minute (L.min-1) (absolute) or millilitres per kilogram per minute (ml.kg.min-1) (relative). Mount A position within BJJ whereby one competitor assumes a dominant position by sitting on the torso of the opponent with their legs either side of the opponent"s body. Muay Thai A striking sport of SouthEast Asian origin in which the competitors strike each other with their fists, elbows, feet and knees in standing positions only. xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to give my heartfelt thanks to the following people who have supported and assisted me throughout my research: My supervisory team, in particular Dr Howard Hurst, who has provided endless support, guidance and teaching over the course of my studies. My family and girlfriend, whose belief has spurred me on during the most difficult stages of this process. All the MMA coaches and fighters who gave up their free time and facilities to take part in the study. To my employer for the provision of funding and time that has enabled me to take this path. And finally, to everyone who has had a hand in creating, nurturing and developing this amazing sport through to its current potential and beyond.
The physical and physiological demands of mixed martial arts (MMA) training and competition is no... more The physical and physiological demands of mixed martial arts (MMA) training and competition is not yet well quantified. The Applied Research Model for the Sport Sciences (ARMSS) provides a framework through which to conduct sport science, determining pertinent questions to apply and test research findings in real world settings. The aim of this review was to evaluate MMA research within the context of ARMSS to critically analyse our understanding of the physical and physiological requirements of MMA training and competition. Research databases were searched, with 70 peer-reviewed articles being discussed in relation to the specific stage of the ARMSS in which their results best fit. MMA research was found to be mostly foundational and descriptive in nature and has generally not developed along systematic lines. The internal and external physiological loads and responses to training and competition have not been adequately identified. Therefore, it is not currently possible to state which variables are key predictors of success, or how coaches can optimally manipulate these variables. We propose that MMA research could be refocused to be conducted within ARMSS. Specifically, stage 2 studies describing the physical, physiological and technical demands of MMA training and competition, and stage 3 studies determining the physiological predictors of competition performance should be initially prioritised.
in a training session, whereas internal load refers to the physiological response of the individu... more in a training session, whereas internal load refers to the physiological response of the individual to the imposed external load [8]. Due to the combative nature of submission grappling, there are inherent difficulties in directly measuring internal and external loads of participation [9]. Proxy measures of external load such as time motion analysis (TMA) suggest that submission grappling is an intermittent activity with effort:pause ratios between 6:1 and 13:1, comprised of effort periods of 85-290 s and pauses of 5-44 s [10, 11]. More recently, however, internal load measured directly by heart rate (HR) during simulated competition revealed physiological responses to submission grappling may be relatively stable [6, 12]. Therefore, whilst specific physical actions in submission grappling may be interrmittant and acyclic, the physiological responses to these actions may not be. As such, methodological limitations inherent within TMA may limit its ability to fully elucidate the contribution of discrete movements or Original Paper
Body mass (BM) manipulation via rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) is a common p... more Body mass (BM) manipulation via rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) is a common practice among mixed martial art (MMA) athletes to ensure qualification for the division in which the athlete wishes to compete. Professional MMA competitors in California are required to weigh in twice: 24 hr prior to competition and immediately prior to the bout after they have typically engaged in RWG. In analyzing data from five MMA events sanctioned by the Californian State Athletic Commission, the authors used Bayesian analyses to compare bout winners (n = 62) and losers (n = 62) in terms of in-competition BM (in kilograms) and the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (in kilograms). These data do not support the hypothesis that differences in in-competition BM (Bayes factor [BF 10 ] = 0.667, d = 0.23) or the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (BF 10 = 0.821, d = 0.23) determine winning or losing. In addition, there was no statistical difference between bouts ending via strikes, submission, or decision for either in-competition BM (BF 10 = 0.686, ω 2 < 0.01) or the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (BF 10 = 0.732, ω 2 = 0.054). In conclusion, the authors report for the first time that the magnitude of RWG does not predict winning or losing in a professional cohort of MMA athletes. In addition, they also report that MMA athletes typically compete at a BM that is at least 1-2 divisions higher than the division in which they officially weighed-in. These analyses may provide impetus for governing bodies and coaches to enact changes at both professional and amateur levels to reduce negative health consequences associated with extreme RWL and RWG.
The aim of this study was to quantify typical training load and periodisation practices of MMA at... more The aim of this study was to quantify typical training load and periodisation practices of MMA athletes. MMA competitors (n = 14; age = 22.4 ± 4.4 years; body mass = 71.3 ± 7.7 kg; stature = 171 ±9.9 cm) were observed during training for 8 consecutive weeks without intervention. Seven athletes were training for competitive bouts whilst the remaining 7 were not. Daily training duration, intensity (RPE), load (sRPE and segRPE), fatigue (short questionnaire of fatigue) and body region soreness (CR10 scale) were recorded. Using Bayesian analyses (BF 10 �3), data demonstrate that training duration (weekly mean range = 3.9-5.3 hours), sRPE (weekly mean range = 1,287-1,791 AU), strain (weekly mean range = 1,143-1,819 AU), monotony (weekly mean range = 0.63-0.83 AU), fatigue (weekly mean range = 16-20 AU) and soreness did not change within or between weeks. Between weeks monotony (2.3 ± 0.7 AU) supported little variance in weekly training load. There were no differences in any variable between participants who competed and those who did not with the except of the final week before the bout, where an abrupt step taper occurred leading to no between group differences in fatigue. Training intensity distribution corresponding to high, moderate and low was 20, 33 and 47%, respectively. Striking drills accounted for the largest portion of weekly training time (20-32%), with MMA sparring the least (2-7%). Only striking sparring and wrestling sparring displayed statistical weekly differences in duration or load. Athletes reported MMA sparring and wrestling sparring as high intensity (RPE�7), BJJ sparring, striking sparring and wrestling drills as moderate intensity (RPE 5-6), and striking drills and BJJ drills as low intensity (RPE�4). We conclude that periodisation of training load was largely absent in this cohort of MMA athletes, as is the case within and between weekly microcycles.
Vasconcelos, BB, Protzen, GV, Galliano, LM, Kirk, C, and Del Vecchio, FB. Effects of high-intensi... more Vasconcelos, BB, Protzen, GV, Galliano, LM, Kirk, C, and Del Vecchio, FB. Effects of high-intensity interval training in combat sports: A systematic review with meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2019-Combat sports (CS) are intermittent by nature and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) has been used as a tool to maintain and improve physical fitness among CS athletes. The aim of this study was to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis about chronic effects of HIIT in CS athletes. An electronic search was performed in PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar using the following Boolean criteria: ("CS" OR "martial arts" OR "judo" OR "taekwondo" OR "jiu jitsu" OR "boxing" OR "karate" OR "wrestling" OR "wushu" OR "kung fu") AND ("HIIT" OR "intermittent exercise" OR "sprint interval training" OR "repeated sprint training [RST]"). To be included, the studies needed to be original, involve CS athletes, present HIIT intervention protocol (HIIT, sprint interval training [SIT] or RST), and analyze chronic physiological outcomes. From 2,211 identified studies, after screening and eligibility evaluation, 12 studies were included in this review with meta-analysis. Aerobic (aerobic capacity, heart rate, and maximum oxygen uptake), anaerobic (peak and mean power in single and successive Wingate tests, and blood lactate concentration), and anthropometric outcomes (body mass and body fat percentage) were evaluated. Data of 255 subjects from 12 studies were assessed. Regarding methodological quality, 7 studies obtained 9-10/12 on the TESTEX scale. For the interventions, 5 studies used HIIT, 4 studies used RST protocols, one used SIT protocols, and one used an intermittent protocol that could not be classified. Relating to aerobic power, was found an increase in VȮ2max, with a mean difference (MD) of 2.83 ml•kg 21 •min 21 (CI 95% 5 0.40-5.25; p , 0.001) for striking and 2.36 ml•kg 21 •min 21 (CI 95% 5 1.05-3.66; p , 0.001) for grappling athletes. No differences on anaerobic peak power for striking (MD 5 0.67 W; CI 95% 5 20.43 to 1.77; p 5 0.23) were found, and a statistical improvement for grappling athletes, (MD 5 0.51 W; CI 95% 5 0.03-0.98; p 5 0.04) was found. Seven studies analyzed anthropometric variables, with differences for body mass in striking (MD 5 20.93 kg; CI 95% 5 21.68 to 20.19; p 5 0.01) and no differences for grappling (MD 5 20.09 kg; CI 95% 5 22.80 to 2.62; p 5 0.95). Differences in body fat percentage in striking (MD 5 0.50%; CI 95% 5 0.30-0.70; p , 0.001) and no differences in grappling (MD 5 20.87%; CI 95% 5 21.77 to 0.03; p 5 0.06) were found. It was concluded that HIIT positively influences maximum oxygen uptake and anaerobic power in combat sport athletes, with a minor impact on body composition.
Background: Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) is a grappling-based combat sport in which competitors enga... more Background: Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) is a grappling-based combat sport in which competitors engage in pre-competition acute 'weight' loss (AWL) and rapid 'weight' loss (RWL) to achieve the body mass (BM) required for their desired division. AWL/RWL practices of UK BJJ competitors have not previously been reported. Aim: Our aim in this study was to determine the prevalence, magnitude and stakeholder influences of AWL and RWL amongst BJJ participants in the United Kingdom (UK). A secondary aim was to explore whether there is any influence of time spent in the sport or competition frequency on AWL/RWL practices. Methods: In this study we used the rapid weight loss questionnaire (RWLQ) adapted for BJJ to determine the prevalence and magnitude of AWL/RWL in UK BJJ, the prevalence of methods used and the key stakeholder influences on these practices. As a secondary investigation we aimed to determine whether there was any effect of age starting BJJ on AWL/RWL. Results: Of 115 completed responses, 59% stated they performed AWL/RWL before competition. Mean BM loss for this competition was 1.9 + 3.8 kg (2.3 + 4.6%), with 34% of participants starting BM loss 3-7 days prior and 16% starting 0-2 days prior. Methods used tend to be achieving calorie deficit via exercise and diet rather than hypohydration, with little advice from formally qualified personnel. Participants who perform AWL/RWL started training (BF 10 ¼ 199, d ¼ .72) and competing (BF 10 ¼ 107, d ¼ .68) in BJJ younger than those who do not perform AWL/RWL. Conclusions: AWL/RWL is prevalent in UK BJJ, but not at the magnitude of other combat sports or countries. Though negative effects of extreme hypohydration are unlikely, there may be a higher chance of eating disorders in BJJ, particularly due to the young age of AWL/RWL commencement.
Purpose. body-worn accelerometry has been shown to be reliable and used to measure the external l... more Purpose. body-worn accelerometry has been shown to be reliable and used to measure the external load of mixed martial arts (MMA) via the Playerload metric. these measurements were only reported on a round-by-round basis, offering little indication of minute-by-minute load changes. Understanding these changes may provide a proxy measure of fatigue, readiness, and the onset of non-functional overreaching. It is also unclear as to what Playerload is measuring in MMA. this study was a secondary investigation of previously reported data to describe minute-by-minute changes in external load in MMA. Methods. Six male MMA competitors participated in a 3 × 5 minute sparring bout wearing a Catapult Minimax × 3, which recorded accumulated Playerload. the bouts were video-recorded. time-motion analysis was used to determine: total active time; total inactive time; high-intensity time; low-intensity time; standing time; grounded time; striking time; non-striking time. Results. bayesian repeated measures ANOVA found statistically relevant differences in accumulated Playerload for each minute of sparring (bF 10 = 410) with no statistically relevant differences between winners and losers. bayesian correlations revealed a direct, nearly perfect relationship between accumulated Playerload and total active time (r = 0.992, bF 10 = 9,666). No other relationships between Playerload and time-motion analysis results were observed, despite bayesian t-tests finding differences between standing time and grounded time (bF 10 = 83.7), striking time and non-striking time (bF 10 = 1,419). Conclusions. Playerload reflects overall active movement in MMA and measures active movement minute-by-minute changes but cannot distinguish between different modes or intensities of movement. this should be investigated further as a potential measure of fatigue and non-functional overreaching during MMA training.
Physiological changes brought about by a person's aging process are known to negatively affect el... more Physiological changes brought about by a person's aging process are known to negatively affect elite sports performance, but this may be delayed by skill mastery brought about by continued training. The intersection of these two separate processes causes a potential 'peak performance window' in many sports. Within MMA it has been shown that older competitors are more likely to lose individual bouts, especially due to strikes, and when they win it is most likely to be via a judge's decision. It has not been determined whether age has a long-term effect on success in MMA. This study divided the top 100 competitors in each MMA weight division into 5 ranking groups (RG) and used Bayesian ANOVA (BF 10), 95% credible interval plots and Bayesian Kendall's Tau (BF 10) to determine if competitor rankings are affected by their age, and if each division displays a different age profile. The results found that whilst there is a general pattern of older participants being ranked higher, middleweight was the only division where this was statistically relevant. It was found, however, that the heavier the mass limit of the division, the older the participants are across each RG. These results suggest that skill mastery may be of more short-term importance to successful performance in MMA than physiological ability, particularly in the heavier divisions, but physiological decrements effect lighter competitors earlier in their chronological age. This is potentially due to differing performance requirements between the different divisions.
The physical demands of mixed martial arts (MMA) training and competition is not yet well quantif... more The physical demands of mixed martial arts (MMA) training and competition is not yet well quantified. The Applied Research Model for the Sport Sciences (ARMSS) provides a framework through which to conduct sport science, determining pertinent questions to test research findings in real-world settings. The aim of this review was to evaluate MMA research within the context of ARMSS to critically analyse our understanding of the physical requirements of MMA training and competition. Research databases were searched, with 70 peer-reviewed articles being discussed in relation to the specific stage of the ARMSS in which their results best fit. MMA research was found to be mostly foundational and descriptive in nature and has generally not developed along systematic lines. The internal and external loads and responses to training and competition have not been adequately identified. Therefore, it is not currently possible to state which variables are key predictors of success, or how coaches can optimally manipulate these variables. We propose that MMA research be refocused to be conducted within ARMSS. Specifically, stage 2 studies describing the physical, physiological and technical demands of MMA training and competition, and stage 3 studies determining the physiological predictors of performance should be initially prioritised.
Purpose. Previous research has found grappling and strikes to the head to be the determining fact... more Purpose. Previous research has found grappling and strikes to the head to be the determining factors for success in MMA, whilst anthropometry in the form of stature and wingspan has been found to have a negligible effect. the current study was designed to determine if a relationship between technique use and anthropometry exists in MMA. Methods. the in-competition technique data of 461 elite, professional MMA bouts were compared using bayes factor t-tests (bF 10) to determine which techniques display the highest likelihood of distinguishing between winners and losers. the differences in technique numbers between winners and losers was also compared to the anthropometric differences between winners and losers using either bayesian Pearson's r or bayesian Kendall's tau. simple linear regression (p < 0.05) was used to calculate predictive ability of anthropometrics on chosen fighting techniques. Results. Heavyweight competitors were distinguished by striking only (bF 10 = 399-10). Light heavyweight, middleweight, featherweight, bantamweight, women's bantamweight and women's straw weight competitors were distinguished predominately by striking (bF 10 = 791661-7) and moderately by grappling (bF 10 = 75-7). Welterweight, lightweight and flyweight competitors were distinguished by striking techniques (bF 10 = 3.533e+6-221) to achieve dominant grappling positions (bF 10 = 17100-50). In turn, it was found that stature and/or wingspan are correlated to and can predict key technique variables at heavyweight, welterweight, lightweight and featherweight. Conclusions. the results provide evidence of which techniques are influenced by the anthropometric differences between competitors, allowing coaches and competitors to make more informed tactical decisions in competition preparation.
in a training session, whereas internal load refers to the physiological response of the individu... more in a training session, whereas internal load refers to the physiological response of the individual to the imposed external load [8]. Due to the combative nature of submission grappling, there are inherent difficulties in directly measuring internal and external loads of participation [9]. Proxy measures of external load such as time motion analysis (TMA) suggest that submission grappling is an intermittent activity with effort:pause ratios between 6:1 and 13:1, comprised of effort periods of 85-290 s and pauses of 5-44 s [10, 11]. More recently, however, internal load measured directly by heart rate (HR) during simulated competition revealed physiological responses to submission grappling may be relatively stable [6, 12]. Therefore, whilst specific physical actions in submission grappling may be interrmittant and acyclic, the physiological responses to these actions may not be. As such, methodological limitations inherent within TMA may limit its ability to fully elucidate the contribution of discrete movements or Original Paper
Purpose. body-worn accelerometry has been shown to be reliable and used to measure the external l... more Purpose. body-worn accelerometry has been shown to be reliable and used to measure the external load of mixed martial arts (MMA) via the Playerload metric. these measurements were only reported on a round-by-round basis, offering little indication of minute-by-minute load changes. Understanding these changes may provide a proxy measure of fatigue, readiness, and the onset of non-functional overreaching. It is also unclear as to what Playerload is measuring in MMA. this study was a secondary investigation of previously reported data to describe minute-by-minute changes in external load in MMA. Methods. Six male MMA competitors participated in a 3 × 5 minute sparring bout wearing a Catapult Minimax × 3, which recorded accumulated Playerload. the bouts were video-recorded. time-motion analysis was used to determine: total active time; total inactive time; high-intensity time; low-intensity time; standing time; grounded time; striking time; non-striking time. Results. bayesian repeated measures ANOVA found statistically relevant differences in accumulated Playerload for each minute of sparring (bF 10 = 410) with no statistically relevant differences between winners and losers. bayesian correlations revealed a direct, nearly perfect relationship between accumulated Playerload and total active time (r = 0.992, bF 10 = 9,666). No other relationships between Playerload and time-motion analysis results were observed, despite bayesian t-tests finding differences between standing time and grounded time (bF 10 = 83.7), striking time and non-striking time (bF 10 = 1,419). Conclusions. Playerload reflects overall active movement in MMA and measures active movement minute-by-minute changes but cannot distinguish between different modes or intensities of movement. this should be investigated further as a potential measure of fatigue and non-functional overreaching during MMA training.
The aim of this study was to quantify typical training load and periodisation practices of MMA at... more The aim of this study was to quantify typical training load and periodisation practices of MMA athletes. MMA competitors (n = 14; age = 22.4 ± 4.4 years; body mass = 71.3 ± 7.7 kg; stature = 171 ±9.9 cm) were observed during training for 8 consecutive weeks without intervention. Seven athletes were training for competitive bouts whilst the remaining 7 were not. Daily training duration, intensity (RPE), load (sRPE and segRPE), fatigue (short questionnaire of fatigue) and body region soreness (CR10 scale) were recorded. Using Bayesian analyses (BF10≥3), data demonstrate that training duration (weekly mean range = 3.9–5.3 hours), sRPE (weekly mean range = 1,287–1,791 AU), strain (weekly mean range = 1,143–1,819 AU), monotony (weekly mean range = 0.63–0.83 AU), fatigue (weekly mean range = 16–20 AU) and soreness did not change within or between weeks. Between weeks monotony (2.3 ± 0.7 AU) supported little variance in weekly training load. There were no differences in any variable betwee...
International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 2020
Body mass (BM) manipulation via rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) is a common p... more Body mass (BM) manipulation via rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) is a common practice among mixed martial art (MMA) athletes to ensure qualification for the division in which the athlete wishes to compete. Professional MMA competitors in California are required to weigh in twice: 24 hr prior to competition and immediately prior to the bout after they have typically engaged in RWG. In analyzing data from five MMA events sanctioned by the Californian State Athletic Commission, the authors used Bayesian analyses to compare bout winners (n = 31) and losers (n = 31) in terms of in-competition BM (in kilograms) and the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (in kilograms). These data do not support the hypothesis that differences in in-competition BM (Bayes factor [BF10] = 0.667, d = 0.23) or the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (BF10 = 0.821, d = 0.23) determine winning or losing. In addition, there was no statistical difference between bouts en...
Facta Universitatis, Series: Physical Education and Sport, 2018
Physiological changes brought about by a person’s aging process are known to negatively affect el... more Physiological changes brought about by a person’s aging process are known to negatively affect elite sports performance, but this may be delayed by skill mastery brought about by continued training. The intersection of these two separate processes causes a potential ‘peak performance window’ in many sports. Within MMA it has been shown that older competitors are more likely to lose individual bouts, especially due to strikes, and when they win it is most likely to be due to a decision. It has not been determined whether age has a long-term effect on success in MMA. This study divided the top 100 competitors in each MMA weight division into 5 ranking groups (RG) and used Bayesian ANOVA (BF10), 95% credible interval plots and Bayesian Kendall’s Tau (BF10) to determine if competitor rankings are affected by their age, and if each division displays a different age profile. The results found that whilst there is a general pattern of older participants being ranked higher, middleweig...
Purpose. Previous research has found grappling and strikes to the head to be the determining fact... more Purpose. Previous research has found grappling and strikes to the head to be the determining factors for success in MMA, whilst anthropometry in the form of stature and wingspan has been found to have a negligible effect. the current study was designed to determine if a relationship between technique use and anthropometry exists in MMA. Methods. the in-competition technique data of 461 elite, professional MMA bouts were compared using bayes factor t-tests (bF 10) to determine which techniques display the highest likelihood of distinguishing between winners and losers. the differences in technique numbers between winners and losers was also compared to the anthropometric differences between winners and losers using either bayesian Pearson's r or bayesian Kendall's tau. simple linear regression (p < 0.05) was used to calculate predictive ability of anthropometrics on chosen fighting techniques. Results. Heavyweight competitors were distinguished by striking only (bF 10 = 399-10). Light heavyweight, middleweight, featherweight, bantamweight, women's bantamweight and women's straw weight competitors were distinguished predominately by striking (bF 10 = 791661-7) and moderately by grappling (bF 10 = 75-7). Welterweight, lightweight and flyweight competitors were distinguished by striking techniques (bF 10 = 3.533e+6-221) to achieve dominant grappling positions (bF 10 = 17100-50). In turn, it was found that stature and/or wingspan are correlated to and can predict key technique variables at heavyweight, welterweight, lightweight and featherweight. Conclusions. the results provide evidence of which techniques are influenced by the anthropometric differences between competitors, allowing coaches and competitors to make more informed tactical decisions in competition preparation.
Anthropometry and chronological age has been demonstrated to have an effect on individual perform... more Anthropometry and chronological age has been demonstrated to have an effect on individual performance in competitive sport, with the relationship between stature and wingspan being found to be selective criteria in many sports, although evidence for this in MMA is negligible. In this study, n = 278 professional MMA bouts were analysed with the winners and losers being compared in terms of chronological age, stature, wingspan, stature-to-wingspan ratio (S:W) and method of win/loss using paired samples t tests, Wilcoxon signed-rank tests, one way ANOVAs, Kruskal-Wallis tests (all ≤ .05) and Bayes Factor (BF 10). The results showed that for the most part anthropometric differences have no effect on who wins the bout, but taller bout losers are most likely to lose via strikes. The exception to this is at welterweight where taller participants were most likely to win, but with an anecdotal BF 10. Also at welterweight, participants with greater wingspans were most likely to lose via submi...
Anthropometry and chronological age has been demonstrated to have an effect on individual perform... more Anthropometry and chronological age has been demonstrated to have an effect on individual performance in competitive sport, with the relationship between stature and wingspan being found to be selective criteria in many sports, although evidence for this in MMA is negligible. In this study, n = 278 professional MMA bouts were analysed with the winners and losers being compared in terms of chronological age, stature, wingspan, stature-to-wingspan ratio (S:W) and method of win/loss using paired samples t tests, Wilcoxon signed-rank tests, one way ANOVAs, Kruskal-Wallis tests (all ≤ .05) and Bayes Factor (BF 10 ). The results showed that for the most part anthropometric differences have no effect on who wins the bout, but taller bout losers are most likely to lose via strikes. Across the full cohort and several competitive divisions, it was found that older participants are significantly more likely to lose, and are also significantly more likely to lose via strikes. Participants who w...
In this study the stature, wingspan and stature-to-wingspan ratio (S:W) was recorded for N = 474 ... more In this study the stature, wingspan and stature-to-wingspan ratio (S:W) was recorded for N = 474 elite and international mixed martial arts (MMA) competitors who appeared in televised bouts over the course of one calendar year. Each weight division was split into three or four ranking groups (RG) depending on division size, as well as into groups depending on if the competitors had won or competed for a world title (El) or had done neither (In). One-way ANOVA (≤0.05) found that shorter competitors are ranked higher in flyweight and in the middle in women’s strawweight. Independent t-tests (≤0.05) found that shorter competitors also have more chance of winning or competing for a world title in featherweight and flyweight. Independent t-tests (≤0.05) also found a significant difference between males and female for S:W. There was a weak, negative correlation and a moderate, negative correlation between stature and rank in lightweight and light heavyweight respectively and a moderate, n...
Purpose: The current study was structured in two separate stages: study one aimed to determine th... more Purpose: The current study was structured in two separate stages: study one aimed to determine the reliability of the Catapult Minimax x3 accelerometer in the assessment of isolated mixed martial arts (MMA) specific techniques; study two aimed to measure the workload demands of simulated MMA bouts. Study One: Eight male MMA trained participants (age = 25.5 ± 4.5 yrs) performed a series of 10 standing striking techniques (5 occurrences of each), 6 ground striking techniques (5 occurrences of each) and 2 takedown techniques (5 occurrences of each) whilst wearing a Minimax x3 accelerometer. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) (reliability threshold ≥ .700) found that all techniques showed intra-unit reliability for player load (PL) (ICC = .700-.970) and accumulated player load (PL ACC) (ICC = .794-.984) with the exception of PL for left knee (ICC = .476) and right knee (ICC = .667). Offensive double leg takedowns caused the greatest PL ACC (1.36 ± 0.40 au) whilst the greatest PL was caused by defending single leg takedowns (2.90 ± 1.46 au). Amongst the standing strikes, the cross punching technique caused the greatest PL (3.40 ± 0.53 au) and left body kick resulted in the greatest PL ACC (0.69 ± 0.12 au) whilst right elbow caused the greatest PL ACC (0.65 ± 0.15 au) and PL (3.89 ± 0.82 au) within the ground strikes. In terms of cardinal plane accelerations, all techniques with the exception of defending double leg and single leg takedowns displayed least acceleration in the Y axis (0.40 ± 0.29-2.45 ± 1.96 au) and the greatest acceleration in the X axis (0.99 ± 0.31-6.56 ± 0.73 au). Paired samples t-tests (p≤ .05) found the only techniques that demonstrated differences in PL between the left and right sides of the body was ground punches (t (14) =-4.201; p= .001). No other significant differences were found. Study Two: Six male MMA trained participants (age = 26.17 ± 5.04 yrs) took part in a single MMA sparring bout each (3 rounds of 5 minutes, 1 minute rest between rounds) whilst wearing a Minimax x3. The bouts were recorded in their entirety and time motion analysis (TMA) was completed through Longomatch 0.18. Capillary lactate samples were taken prior to warm up, post warm up, upon completion of each round and 5 minutes after the completion of the bout. Mean PL was recorded for each technique used in the bouts whilst mean PL ACC and mean accumulated player load per minute (PL ACC .min-1) was calculated for each round and for the bouts in total. It was found that MMA participants had a PL ACC of 224.32 ± 26.59 au and a PL ACC .min-1 of 14.91 ± 1.78 au. Three techniques used during the sparring bouts were found to have significantly different PL (p< .05) than the same techniques in isolation according to paired samples t tests, however seven techniques displayed moderate to large effect sizes (Cohen"s d). The participants had a mean post bout lactate of 9.25 ± 2.96 Mmol.L and a delta lactate (ΔLac) of 3.87 ± 0.85 Mmol.L and MMA sparring causes a significant change in blood lactate concentration according to one-way ANOVA (F (5, 30) = 5.774, p= .001). PL ACC (r=-.952, p= .198) and PL ACC .min-1 (r=-.939, p= .223) displayed direct negative correlations to lactate prodcution by round according to Pearson"s correlation (p≤ 0.05). The group was found to have a work to rest ratio (W:R) of 1.01:1 whilst a significant difference was found between bout winners and bout losers in terms of the amount of succesful takedowns according to paired samples t tests (t (2) = 5.196, p= .035). Conclusion: Study one confirmed the Minimax x3 is a reliable tool for measuring PL and PL ACC in some MMA techniques whilst also revealing the sensitivity of the unit in highlighting the loss or changes of correct technique. Study two showed that the Minimax x3 is sensitive enough to monitor fatigue of the athletes during bouts whilst also giving a clear picture of how a competitor changes their technique or movement v CONTENTS Page STUDENT DECLARATION ii ABSTRACT iii LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ix TERMS AND DEFINITIONS x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xii CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of Mixed Martial Arts 1 1 CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Physiological and Anthropometric Characteristics of Mixed Martial Arts Competitors 5 5 2.2 Quantifying the Physical and Physiological Demands of Performance 7 o 2.2.1 Introduction to Maximal Oxygen Consumption Testing 7 xi measured in millimoles per litre (Mmol.L). Leg Kick The technique of a fighter kicking an opponent to the thigh. Maximal Oxygen Uptake (V o 2 max) The maximum amount of oxygen that can be consumed and used every minute. It is expressed as either litres per minute (L.min-1) (absolute) or millilitres per kilogram per minute (ml.kg.min-1) (relative). Mount A position within BJJ whereby one competitor assumes a dominant position by sitting on the torso of the opponent with their legs either side of the opponent"s body. Muay Thai A striking sport of SouthEast Asian origin in which the competitors strike each other with their fists, elbows, feet and knees in standing positions only. xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to give my heartfelt thanks to the following people who have supported and assisted me throughout my research: My supervisory team, in particular Dr Howard Hurst, who has provided endless support, guidance and teaching over the course of my studies. My family and girlfriend, whose belief has spurred me on during the most difficult stages of this process. All the MMA coaches and fighters who gave up their free time and facilities to take part in the study. To my employer for the provision of funding and time that has enabled me to take this path. And finally, to everyone who has had a hand in creating, nurturing and developing this amazing sport through to its current potential and beyond.
The physical and physiological demands of mixed martial arts (MMA) training and competition is no... more The physical and physiological demands of mixed martial arts (MMA) training and competition is not yet well quantified. The Applied Research Model for the Sport Sciences (ARMSS) provides a framework through which to conduct sport science, determining pertinent questions to apply and test research findings in real world settings. The aim of this review was to evaluate MMA research within the context of ARMSS to critically analyse our understanding of the physical and physiological requirements of MMA training and competition. Research databases were searched, with 70 peer-reviewed articles being discussed in relation to the specific stage of the ARMSS in which their results best fit. MMA research was found to be mostly foundational and descriptive in nature and has generally not developed along systematic lines. The internal and external physiological loads and responses to training and competition have not been adequately identified. Therefore, it is not currently possible to state which variables are key predictors of success, or how coaches can optimally manipulate these variables. We propose that MMA research could be refocused to be conducted within ARMSS. Specifically, stage 2 studies describing the physical, physiological and technical demands of MMA training and competition, and stage 3 studies determining the physiological predictors of competition performance should be initially prioritised.
in a training session, whereas internal load refers to the physiological response of the individu... more in a training session, whereas internal load refers to the physiological response of the individual to the imposed external load [8]. Due to the combative nature of submission grappling, there are inherent difficulties in directly measuring internal and external loads of participation [9]. Proxy measures of external load such as time motion analysis (TMA) suggest that submission grappling is an intermittent activity with effort:pause ratios between 6:1 and 13:1, comprised of effort periods of 85-290 s and pauses of 5-44 s [10, 11]. More recently, however, internal load measured directly by heart rate (HR) during simulated competition revealed physiological responses to submission grappling may be relatively stable [6, 12]. Therefore, whilst specific physical actions in submission grappling may be interrmittant and acyclic, the physiological responses to these actions may not be. As such, methodological limitations inherent within TMA may limit its ability to fully elucidate the contribution of discrete movements or Original Paper
Body mass (BM) manipulation via rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) is a common p... more Body mass (BM) manipulation via rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) is a common practice among mixed martial art (MMA) athletes to ensure qualification for the division in which the athlete wishes to compete. Professional MMA competitors in California are required to weigh in twice: 24 hr prior to competition and immediately prior to the bout after they have typically engaged in RWG. In analyzing data from five MMA events sanctioned by the Californian State Athletic Commission, the authors used Bayesian analyses to compare bout winners (n = 62) and losers (n = 62) in terms of in-competition BM (in kilograms) and the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (in kilograms). These data do not support the hypothesis that differences in in-competition BM (Bayes factor [BF 10 ] = 0.667, d = 0.23) or the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (BF 10 = 0.821, d = 0.23) determine winning or losing. In addition, there was no statistical difference between bouts ending via strikes, submission, or decision for either in-competition BM (BF 10 = 0.686, ω 2 < 0.01) or the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (BF 10 = 0.732, ω 2 = 0.054). In conclusion, the authors report for the first time that the magnitude of RWG does not predict winning or losing in a professional cohort of MMA athletes. In addition, they also report that MMA athletes typically compete at a BM that is at least 1-2 divisions higher than the division in which they officially weighed-in. These analyses may provide impetus for governing bodies and coaches to enact changes at both professional and amateur levels to reduce negative health consequences associated with extreme RWL and RWG.
The aim of this study was to quantify typical training load and periodisation practices of MMA at... more The aim of this study was to quantify typical training load and periodisation practices of MMA athletes. MMA competitors (n = 14; age = 22.4 ± 4.4 years; body mass = 71.3 ± 7.7 kg; stature = 171 ±9.9 cm) were observed during training for 8 consecutive weeks without intervention. Seven athletes were training for competitive bouts whilst the remaining 7 were not. Daily training duration, intensity (RPE), load (sRPE and segRPE), fatigue (short questionnaire of fatigue) and body region soreness (CR10 scale) were recorded. Using Bayesian analyses (BF 10 �3), data demonstrate that training duration (weekly mean range = 3.9-5.3 hours), sRPE (weekly mean range = 1,287-1,791 AU), strain (weekly mean range = 1,143-1,819 AU), monotony (weekly mean range = 0.63-0.83 AU), fatigue (weekly mean range = 16-20 AU) and soreness did not change within or between weeks. Between weeks monotony (2.3 ± 0.7 AU) supported little variance in weekly training load. There were no differences in any variable between participants who competed and those who did not with the except of the final week before the bout, where an abrupt step taper occurred leading to no between group differences in fatigue. Training intensity distribution corresponding to high, moderate and low was 20, 33 and 47%, respectively. Striking drills accounted for the largest portion of weekly training time (20-32%), with MMA sparring the least (2-7%). Only striking sparring and wrestling sparring displayed statistical weekly differences in duration or load. Athletes reported MMA sparring and wrestling sparring as high intensity (RPE�7), BJJ sparring, striking sparring and wrestling drills as moderate intensity (RPE 5-6), and striking drills and BJJ drills as low intensity (RPE�4). We conclude that periodisation of training load was largely absent in this cohort of MMA athletes, as is the case within and between weekly microcycles.
Vasconcelos, BB, Protzen, GV, Galliano, LM, Kirk, C, and Del Vecchio, FB. Effects of high-intensi... more Vasconcelos, BB, Protzen, GV, Galliano, LM, Kirk, C, and Del Vecchio, FB. Effects of high-intensity interval training in combat sports: A systematic review with meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2019-Combat sports (CS) are intermittent by nature and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) has been used as a tool to maintain and improve physical fitness among CS athletes. The aim of this study was to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis about chronic effects of HIIT in CS athletes. An electronic search was performed in PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar using the following Boolean criteria: ("CS" OR "martial arts" OR "judo" OR "taekwondo" OR "jiu jitsu" OR "boxing" OR "karate" OR "wrestling" OR "wushu" OR "kung fu") AND ("HIIT" OR "intermittent exercise" OR "sprint interval training" OR "repeated sprint training [RST]"). To be included, the studies needed to be original, involve CS athletes, present HIIT intervention protocol (HIIT, sprint interval training [SIT] or RST), and analyze chronic physiological outcomes. From 2,211 identified studies, after screening and eligibility evaluation, 12 studies were included in this review with meta-analysis. Aerobic (aerobic capacity, heart rate, and maximum oxygen uptake), anaerobic (peak and mean power in single and successive Wingate tests, and blood lactate concentration), and anthropometric outcomes (body mass and body fat percentage) were evaluated. Data of 255 subjects from 12 studies were assessed. Regarding methodological quality, 7 studies obtained 9-10/12 on the TESTEX scale. For the interventions, 5 studies used HIIT, 4 studies used RST protocols, one used SIT protocols, and one used an intermittent protocol that could not be classified. Relating to aerobic power, was found an increase in VȮ2max, with a mean difference (MD) of 2.83 ml•kg 21 •min 21 (CI 95% 5 0.40-5.25; p , 0.001) for striking and 2.36 ml•kg 21 •min 21 (CI 95% 5 1.05-3.66; p , 0.001) for grappling athletes. No differences on anaerobic peak power for striking (MD 5 0.67 W; CI 95% 5 20.43 to 1.77; p 5 0.23) were found, and a statistical improvement for grappling athletes, (MD 5 0.51 W; CI 95% 5 0.03-0.98; p 5 0.04) was found. Seven studies analyzed anthropometric variables, with differences for body mass in striking (MD 5 20.93 kg; CI 95% 5 21.68 to 20.19; p 5 0.01) and no differences for grappling (MD 5 20.09 kg; CI 95% 5 22.80 to 2.62; p 5 0.95). Differences in body fat percentage in striking (MD 5 0.50%; CI 95% 5 0.30-0.70; p , 0.001) and no differences in grappling (MD 5 20.87%; CI 95% 5 21.77 to 0.03; p 5 0.06) were found. It was concluded that HIIT positively influences maximum oxygen uptake and anaerobic power in combat sport athletes, with a minor impact on body composition.
Background: Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) is a grappling-based combat sport in which competitors enga... more Background: Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) is a grappling-based combat sport in which competitors engage in pre-competition acute 'weight' loss (AWL) and rapid 'weight' loss (RWL) to achieve the body mass (BM) required for their desired division. AWL/RWL practices of UK BJJ competitors have not previously been reported. Aim: Our aim in this study was to determine the prevalence, magnitude and stakeholder influences of AWL and RWL amongst BJJ participants in the United Kingdom (UK). A secondary aim was to explore whether there is any influence of time spent in the sport or competition frequency on AWL/RWL practices. Methods: In this study we used the rapid weight loss questionnaire (RWLQ) adapted for BJJ to determine the prevalence and magnitude of AWL/RWL in UK BJJ, the prevalence of methods used and the key stakeholder influences on these practices. As a secondary investigation we aimed to determine whether there was any effect of age starting BJJ on AWL/RWL. Results: Of 115 completed responses, 59% stated they performed AWL/RWL before competition. Mean BM loss for this competition was 1.9 + 3.8 kg (2.3 + 4.6%), with 34% of participants starting BM loss 3-7 days prior and 16% starting 0-2 days prior. Methods used tend to be achieving calorie deficit via exercise and diet rather than hypohydration, with little advice from formally qualified personnel. Participants who perform AWL/RWL started training (BF 10 ¼ 199, d ¼ .72) and competing (BF 10 ¼ 107, d ¼ .68) in BJJ younger than those who do not perform AWL/RWL. Conclusions: AWL/RWL is prevalent in UK BJJ, but not at the magnitude of other combat sports or countries. Though negative effects of extreme hypohydration are unlikely, there may be a higher chance of eating disorders in BJJ, particularly due to the young age of AWL/RWL commencement.
Purpose. body-worn accelerometry has been shown to be reliable and used to measure the external l... more Purpose. body-worn accelerometry has been shown to be reliable and used to measure the external load of mixed martial arts (MMA) via the Playerload metric. these measurements were only reported on a round-by-round basis, offering little indication of minute-by-minute load changes. Understanding these changes may provide a proxy measure of fatigue, readiness, and the onset of non-functional overreaching. It is also unclear as to what Playerload is measuring in MMA. this study was a secondary investigation of previously reported data to describe minute-by-minute changes in external load in MMA. Methods. Six male MMA competitors participated in a 3 × 5 minute sparring bout wearing a Catapult Minimax × 3, which recorded accumulated Playerload. the bouts were video-recorded. time-motion analysis was used to determine: total active time; total inactive time; high-intensity time; low-intensity time; standing time; grounded time; striking time; non-striking time. Results. bayesian repeated measures ANOVA found statistically relevant differences in accumulated Playerload for each minute of sparring (bF 10 = 410) with no statistically relevant differences between winners and losers. bayesian correlations revealed a direct, nearly perfect relationship between accumulated Playerload and total active time (r = 0.992, bF 10 = 9,666). No other relationships between Playerload and time-motion analysis results were observed, despite bayesian t-tests finding differences between standing time and grounded time (bF 10 = 83.7), striking time and non-striking time (bF 10 = 1,419). Conclusions. Playerload reflects overall active movement in MMA and measures active movement minute-by-minute changes but cannot distinguish between different modes or intensities of movement. this should be investigated further as a potential measure of fatigue and non-functional overreaching during MMA training.
Physiological changes brought about by a person's aging process are known to negatively affect el... more Physiological changes brought about by a person's aging process are known to negatively affect elite sports performance, but this may be delayed by skill mastery brought about by continued training. The intersection of these two separate processes causes a potential 'peak performance window' in many sports. Within MMA it has been shown that older competitors are more likely to lose individual bouts, especially due to strikes, and when they win it is most likely to be via a judge's decision. It has not been determined whether age has a long-term effect on success in MMA. This study divided the top 100 competitors in each MMA weight division into 5 ranking groups (RG) and used Bayesian ANOVA (BF 10), 95% credible interval plots and Bayesian Kendall's Tau (BF 10) to determine if competitor rankings are affected by their age, and if each division displays a different age profile. The results found that whilst there is a general pattern of older participants being ranked higher, middleweight was the only division where this was statistically relevant. It was found, however, that the heavier the mass limit of the division, the older the participants are across each RG. These results suggest that skill mastery may be of more short-term importance to successful performance in MMA than physiological ability, particularly in the heavier divisions, but physiological decrements effect lighter competitors earlier in their chronological age. This is potentially due to differing performance requirements between the different divisions.
The physical demands of mixed martial arts (MMA) training and competition is not yet well quantif... more The physical demands of mixed martial arts (MMA) training and competition is not yet well quantified. The Applied Research Model for the Sport Sciences (ARMSS) provides a framework through which to conduct sport science, determining pertinent questions to test research findings in real-world settings. The aim of this review was to evaluate MMA research within the context of ARMSS to critically analyse our understanding of the physical requirements of MMA training and competition. Research databases were searched, with 70 peer-reviewed articles being discussed in relation to the specific stage of the ARMSS in which their results best fit. MMA research was found to be mostly foundational and descriptive in nature and has generally not developed along systematic lines. The internal and external loads and responses to training and competition have not been adequately identified. Therefore, it is not currently possible to state which variables are key predictors of success, or how coaches can optimally manipulate these variables. We propose that MMA research be refocused to be conducted within ARMSS. Specifically, stage 2 studies describing the physical, physiological and technical demands of MMA training and competition, and stage 3 studies determining the physiological predictors of performance should be initially prioritised.
Purpose. Previous research has found grappling and strikes to the head to be the determining fact... more Purpose. Previous research has found grappling and strikes to the head to be the determining factors for success in MMA, whilst anthropometry in the form of stature and wingspan has been found to have a negligible effect. the current study was designed to determine if a relationship between technique use and anthropometry exists in MMA. Methods. the in-competition technique data of 461 elite, professional MMA bouts were compared using bayes factor t-tests (bF 10) to determine which techniques display the highest likelihood of distinguishing between winners and losers. the differences in technique numbers between winners and losers was also compared to the anthropometric differences between winners and losers using either bayesian Pearson's r or bayesian Kendall's tau. simple linear regression (p < 0.05) was used to calculate predictive ability of anthropometrics on chosen fighting techniques. Results. Heavyweight competitors were distinguished by striking only (bF 10 = 399-10). Light heavyweight, middleweight, featherweight, bantamweight, women's bantamweight and women's straw weight competitors were distinguished predominately by striking (bF 10 = 791661-7) and moderately by grappling (bF 10 = 75-7). Welterweight, lightweight and flyweight competitors were distinguished by striking techniques (bF 10 = 3.533e+6-221) to achieve dominant grappling positions (bF 10 = 17100-50). In turn, it was found that stature and/or wingspan are correlated to and can predict key technique variables at heavyweight, welterweight, lightweight and featherweight. Conclusions. the results provide evidence of which techniques are influenced by the anthropometric differences between competitors, allowing coaches and competitors to make more informed tactical decisions in competition preparation.
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