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Wikipedia

Maya

Maya ni jina la ustaarabu uliostawi kusini mwa Meksiko ya leo (rasi ya Yucatan) pamoja na Gwatemala, Belize na sehemu za Honduras na El Salvador kuanzia mwaka 2000 hivi KK hadi waliposhindwa na Wahispania kutoka Ulaya (karne ya 16 na ya 17 BK).

Hekalu - piramidi ya Kimaya.
Ukurasa kutoka kitabu cha Kimaya kwa mwandiko ya hiroglifi.

Historia

hariri

Watu wa kwanza waliofika huko kutoka kaskazini walikuwa Waindio, wajukuu wa wahamiaji walioingia Amerika kutoka Asia ya Kaskazini. Hakuna uhakika kufika huko kulitokea lini: labda miaka 10,000 iliyopita[1].

Hao Waindio walikuwa wakulima hodari sana na mazao mbalimbali ambayo leo ni msingi wa chakula kote duniani yalianzishwa na kupandishwa nao, yakiwa pamoja na mahindi, mboga na nyanya. Kilimo cha mahindi hukadiriwa kilianzishwa takriban mnamo mwaka 9000 KK[2][3].

Kilimo kiliweka msingi kwa vijiji na jamii zilizoshirikiana katika maeneo makubwa. Miji ya kwanza inajulikana kuanzia takriban mwaka 1500 KK.

Wamaya waliishi katika vijiji na miji iliyojitegemea na kugombana kati yao mara kwa mara.

Wamaya walibuni mwandiko wa hiroglifi wenye alama nyingi kupita maandishi mengine katika Amerika ya Kale na kutunga vitabu. Waliendeleza pia hisabati, wakijua namba "sifuri" na kuboresha mfumo wa kalenda.

Walikuwa hodari sana katika astronomia yaani elimu ya nyota. Walipamba miji yao kwa majengo makubwa na mazuri na kuwa wafanyabiashara hodari. Sanaa yao ilijua uchongaji wa mawe na pia uchoraji.

Jamii ya Wamaya ilifikia kiwango cha juu kuanzia mwaka 500 KK wakati miji mikubwa ya kwanza ilipotokea. Mnamo mwaka 800 BK jamii za Wamaya katika Yucatan ziliporomoka; wataalamu wengi huamini ya kwamba mabadiliko ya ekolojia na halihewa pamoja na kuchoka kwa rutuba ya ardhi yalisababisha kutoka kwa watu katika makazi ya awali.

Lakini ustaarabu huu uliona tena kipindi cha kustawi katika maeneo mengine hadi kuja kwa Wahispania. Miji mbalimbali ya Wamaya iliendelea kujitetea dhidi ya wavamizi na Nojpeten, mji wa mwisho wa kujitegemea ulitekwa mwaka 1696 tu.

Tanbihi

hariri
  1. ↑ Michael S. Werner (January 2001). Concise Encyclopedia of Mexico. Taylor & Francis. pp. 386–. ISBN 978-1-57958-337-8
  2. ↑ A single domestication for maize shown by multilocus microsatellite genotyping, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 Apr 30; 99(9): 6080–6084. doi: 10.1073/pnas.052125199
  3. ↑ ""The Evolution of Corn". University of Utah HEALTH SCIENCES. Retrieved 2 January 2016". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2016-04-01. Iliwekwa mnamo 2016-04-01.

Marejeo

hariri
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del Águila Flores, Patricia (2007). "Zaculeu: Ciudad Postclásica en las Tierras Altas Mayas de Guatemala" (PDF) (kwa Kihispania). Guatemala City, Guatemala: Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. OCLC 277021068. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2011-07-21. Iliwekwa mnamo 2011-08-06. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Demarest, Arthur (2004). Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Forest Civilization. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53390-4. OCLC 51438896.
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Martin, Simon; Nikolai Grube (2000). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05103-8. OCLC 47358325.
Masson, Marilyn A.; Carlos Peraza Lope (2004). "Commoners in Postclassic Maya society: Social versus economic class constructs". Ancient Maya Commoners. Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press. ku. 197–223. ISBN 0-292-70571-9. OCLC 803179517. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
Masson, Marilyn A. (2012-11-06). "Maya collapse cycles". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (45). Washington, DC, US: National Academy of Sciences: 18237–18238. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10918237M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1213638109. ISSN 1091-6490. JSTOR 41829886. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
Matthew, Laura E. (2012). Memories of Conquest: Becoming Mexicano in Colonial Guatemala (hardback). First Peoples. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, US: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3537-1. OCLC 752286995.
McVicker, Donald (Januari 1985). "The "Mayanized" Mexicans". American Antiquity. 50 (1). Washington, D.C., US: Society for American Archaeology: 82–101. doi:10.2307/280635. ISSN 2325-5080. JSTOR 280635. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Milbrath, Susan (1999). "Stars, the Milky Way, Comets, and Meteors". Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars. Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press. ku. 249–293. ISBN 0292752253. OCLC 40848420 – kutoka Project MUSE. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
Miles, Susanna W. (1952). "An Analysis of the Modern Middle American Calendars: A Study in Conservation". Katika Sol Tax (mhr.). Acculturation in the Americas. Proceedings and selected papers of the International Congress of Americanists. Chicago, Illinois, US: University of Chicago Press. ku. 273–284. OCLC 180504894.
Miller, Mary (1999). Maya Art and Architecture. London, UK and New York, US: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20327-X. OCLC 41659173.
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Oakley, Francis; Rubin, Benjamin B. (2012). "Sacral Kingship and the Origins of Religious, Social, and Political Orders". Katika Patrick McNamara; Wesley J. Wildman (whr.). Science and the World's Religions: Origins and Destinies. Juz. la 1. Santa Barbara, California, US: Praeger/ABC-CLIO. ku. 69–90. ISBN 978-0-313-38732-6. OCLC 768417915. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
Olmedo Vera, Bertina (1997). "The Mayas of the Classic Period". Katika A. Arellano Hernández; na wenz. (whr.). The Mayas of the Classic Period. Mexico City, Mexico: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes (CONACULTA). ku. 9–99. ISBN 970-18-3005-9. OCLC 42213077.
Phillips, Charles (2007) [2006]. The Complete Illustrated History of the Aztecs & Maya: The definitive chronicle of the ancient peoples of Central America & Mexico – including the Aztec, Maya, Olmec, Mixtec, Toltec & Zapotec. London, UK: Anness Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-84681-197-X. OCLC 642211652.
Popenoe de Hatch, Marion; Christa Schieber de Lavarreda (2001). J.P. Laporte, A.C. Suasnávar and B. Arroyo (mhr.). "Una revisión preliminar de la historia de Tak'alik Ab'aj, departamento de Retalhuleu" (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (kwa Kihispania). XIV (2000). Guatemala City, Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología: 990–1005. OCLC 49563126. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2009-12-11. Iliwekwa mnamo 2009-02-01. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
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Reents-Budet, Dorie; Antonia E. Foias; Ronald L. Bishop; M. James Blackman; Stanley Guenter (2007). J.P. Laporte, B. Arroyo and H. Mejía (mhr.). "Interacciones políticas y el Sitio Ik' (Motul de San José): Datos de la cerámica" (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (kwa Kihispania). XX (2006). Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, Guatemala: 1416–1436. OCLC 173275417. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2011-09-14. Iliwekwa mnamo 2009-11-14. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)Archived 14 Septemba 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
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Rice, Prudence M.; Don S. Rice (2009). "Introduction to the Kowoj and their Petén Neighbors". Katika Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice (eds.) (mhr.). The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala. Boulder, Colorado, US: University Press of Colorado. ku. 3–15. ISBN 978-0-87081-930-8. OCLC 225875268. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
Rice, Prudence M.; Don S. Rice; Timothy W. Pugh; Rómulo Sánchez Polo (2009). "Defensive Architecture and the Context of Warfare at Zacpetén". Katika Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice (eds.) (mhr.). The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala. Boulder, Colorado, US: University Press of Colorado. ku. 123–140. ISBN 978-0-87081-930-8. OCLC 225875268. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
Ros, Narin. "Maya Museum Database". Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-07-08. Iliwekwa mnamo 2015-06-08. Full list from FAMSIarchived from the original on 2015-06-08.
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Ross, Nanci J. (Januari 2011). "Modern tree species composition reflects ancient Maya "forest gardens" in northwest Belize". Ecological Applications. 21 (1). Washington, DC, US: Ecological Society of America: 75–84. doi:10.1890/09-0662.1. ISSN 1051-0761. JSTOR 29779638. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Salisbury, David; Mimi Koumenalis; Barbara Moffett (19 Septemba 2002). "Newly revealed hieroglyphs tell story of superpower conflict in the Maya world" (PDF). Exploration: the online research journal of Vanderbilt University. Nashville, Tennessee: Vanderbilt University Office of Science and Research Communications. OCLC 50324967. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2015-05-20. Iliwekwa mnamo 2015-05-20. {{cite journal}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; 2014-11-02 suggested (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Saturno, William A.; David Stuart; Boris Beltrán (2006-03-03). "Early Maya Writing at San Bartolo, Guatemala". Science. New Series. 311 (5765). American Association for the Advancement of Science: 1281–1283. Bibcode:2006Sci...311.1281S. doi:10.1126/science.1121745. ISSN 1095-9203. JSTOR 3845835. OCLC 863047799. PMID 16400112. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
Schele, Linda; Peter Mathews (1999). The Code of Kings: The language of seven Maya temples and tombs. New York, US: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-85209-6. OCLC 41423034.
SFU Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. "Featured Artifacts: Mayan Eccentric Flints". Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada: Simon Fraser University Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-11-02. Iliwekwa mnamo 2015-03-31.
Sharer, Robert J. (2000). "The Maya Highlands and the Adjacent Pacific Coast". Katika Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. Macleod (eds.) (mhr.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ku. 449–499. ISBN 0-521-35165-0. OCLC 33359444. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
Sharer, Robert J.; Loa P. Traxler (2006). The Ancient Maya (tol. la 6th, fully revised). Stanford, California, US: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4817-9. OCLC 57577446.
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Szymanski, Jan (2013). "Between Death and Divinity. Rethinking the Significance of Triadic Groups in Ancient Maya Culture" (PDF). PhD Dissertation. Warsaw, Poland: University of Warsaw. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2014-11-03. Iliwekwa mnamo 2014-01-13.
Taladoire, Eric; Benoit Colsenet (1991). ""Bois Ton Sang, Beaumanoir": The Political and Conflictual Aspects of the Ballgame in the Northern Chiapas Area". Katika Vernon Scarborough and David R. Wilcox (eds.) (mhr.). The Mesoamerican Ballgame. Tucson, Arizona, US: University of Arizona Press. ku. 161–174. ISBN 0-8165-1360-0. OCLC 51873028. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
Tanaka, Yuki (2008). A Comparative Study of Maya Hieroglyphic Writing and Japanese Orthography in the Quirigua Hieroglyphic Corpus. Ann Arbor, Michigan, US: ProQuest. ISBN 9780549999898.
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Tedlock, Barbara (1992) [1982]. Time and the Highland Maya (tol. la Revised). Albuquerque, New Mexico, US: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-1358-4. OCLC 45732799.
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Tiesler, Vera; Andrea Cucina (Desemba 2006). "Procedures in Human Heart Extraction and Ritual Meaning: A Taphonomic Assessment of Anthropogenic Marks in Classic Maya Skeletons". Latin American Antiquity. 17 (4). Washington, D.C., US: Society for American Archaeology: 493–510. doi:10.2307/25063069. ISSN 2325-5080. JSTOR 25063069. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Tobin, Thomas J. (2001). "The Construction of the Codex in Classic- and Postclassic-Period Maya Civilization". Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US: Duquesne University. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2002-10-17. Iliwekwa mnamo 2015-03-09.
Valdés, Juan Antonio (1994). "El Grupo A de Uaxactun: Manifestaciones arquitectónicas y dinásticas durante el Clásico Temprano" (PDF). I Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1987 (edited by J.P. Laporte, H. Escobedo and S. Villagrán) (kwa Kihispania). Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología: 98–111. OCLC 31177419. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2014-11-03. Iliwekwa mnamo 2010-07-21. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
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