The peopling process of North and South America started in Northeast Asia and was a cultural evol... more The peopling process of North and South America started in Northeast Asia and was a cultural evolutionary event. An evolutionary approach to archaeology, however, begins with detailed description of assemblages. The Uptar site, Russia, played a prominent role in debates about New World colonization, due to the presence of a “fluted” bifacially flaked stone lanceolate. However, in recent years, Uptar has received less attention. We were given the opportunity to study a sample of the Uptar lithic assemblage, and here we compiled descriptions based on thin-sections for mineralogical and textural analyses; X-ray diffraction (XRD) for mineralogical identification; X-ray fluorescence (XRF) for geochemical analysis; computerized axial micro-tomography (MicroCT) for microtextural analysis; technological descriptions; morphometric analysis of its bifaces; and microwear. At a very basic level, our reexamination of this Uptar lithic sample suggests that the site was potentially a re-tooling site, whereby used or broken tools were discarded and new tools were manufactured. We found little evidence of microblade technology in our sample. Our results also suggest that fluted-point technology continues to be absent in Northeast Asia, and that the precise relationship of Uptar to North American Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene cultures remains unknown. Most importantly, our report provides descriptive data that can be used by others in future comparative and meta analyses.
In this paper, we use GIS and 2D geometric morphometrics to explore landscape use and social
inte... more In this paper, we use GIS and 2D geometric morphometrics to explore landscape use and social interaction among Kirk Cluster populations in the lower Ohio River valley. Using cultural transmission as a theoretical foundation, we develop models for identifying assemblages produced by macroband aggregations. We show that two distinct populations occupied northern Indiana and southwestern Kentucky. Intensively occupied sites in these areas are situated in near-upland settings in close proximity to a variety of resources including chert, higher order rivers, and sinkholes. In contrast, the Butterfield site in central Kentucky lies in the lowlands with the Green River as the only obvious resource. Analyses reveal that Butterfield was a macroband aggregation site visited by populations from Indiana, but groups from southwestern Kentucky only minimally participated in aggregations at Butterfield. Results further show that the Ohio River was not a barrier to social interaction in the Early Holocene.
Fluting is a technological and morphological hallmark of some of the most iconic North American P... more Fluting is a technological and morphological hallmark of some of the most iconic North American Paleoindian stone points. Through decades of detailed artifact analyses and replication experiments, archaeologists have spent considerable effort reconstructing how flute removals were achieved, and they have explored possible explanations of why fluting was such an important aspect of early point technologies. However, the end of fluting has been less thoroughly researched. In southern North America, fluting is recognized as a diagnostic characteristic of Clovis points dating to approximately 13,000 cal yr BP, the earliest widespread use of fluting. One thousand years later, fluting occurs more variably in Dalton and is no longer useful as a diagnostic indicator. How did fluting change, and why did point makers eventually abandon fluting? In this article, we use traditional 2D measurements, geometric morphometric (GM) analysis of 3D models, and 2D GM of flute cross sections to compare Clovis and Dalton point flute and basal morphologies. The significant differences observed show that fluting in Clovis was highly standardized, suggesting that fluting may have functioned to improve projectile durability. Because Dalton points were used increasingly as knives and other types of tools, maximizing projectile functionality became less important. We propose that fluting in Dalton is a vestigial technological trait retained beyond its original functional usefulness.
The Spring Lake Site (41HY160) in San Marcos, located along the Balcones Escarpment in central Te... more The Spring Lake Site (41HY160) in San Marcos, located along the Balcones Escarpment in central Texas, produced fluted points that appear diagnostic of Clovis technology as well as ice-age megafauna remains. Unfortunately, these materials were recovered in what appears to be mixed deposits within the lake itself. For over 40 years, researchers have hypothesized that the points represent Clovis technology and presence at the site. We use a two-dimensional landmark approach to geometric morphometric shape analysis to test the typological context of the artifacts against a dataset of well-dated Clovis point specimens. We examine whether they fall within a morphological range of variation in planview shape documented in point assemblages from Clovis sites organized geographically into the Southwest, Northwest, and Northeast regions. Results suggest that the Spring Lake points possess particular affinity in shape to Clovis points found in the Southwest region.
Research has demonstrated that variation in assemblages of prehistoric bifacial stone point blade... more Research has demonstrated that variation in assemblages of prehistoric bifacial stone point blades results from episodes of breakage and resharpening that occur throughout the artifact’s use-life. Is it commonly accepted that point bases were less affected by trauma resulting from use and more likely to retain culturally diagnostic characteristics of shape. Archaeologists using variation in bifacial points, such as projectiles, knives, and drills, as a proxy to study prehistoric cultures’ identity, mobility, and evolutionary trajectories have, therefore, focused most attention on the proximal portions of these artifacts. This approach to the study of stone tools has proven effective, but recently the question has been raised as to whether some cultures, specifically Clovis, the earliest widespread technological tradition in the Americas, included normative resharpening strategies in their technological repertoire. In addressing this question, we use geometric morphometrics to compare the shape of a collection of Clovis points resampled into three datasets: bases, blades, and complete points. We find that the complement of base and blade shape, i.e., the complete point, provides the most parsimonious representation of Clovis-point shape and is most successful in discriminating among regional differences.
A Behavioral Analysis of Clovis Point Morphology Using Geometric Morphometrics. (December 2010) H... more A Behavioral Analysis of Clovis Point Morphology Using Geometric Morphometrics. (December 2010) Heather Lynn Smith, B.A., Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Ted Goebel This thesis presents an investigation into Paleoindian projectile-point morphology. A goal of this research is to determine if evidence of a normative cultural manufacturing protocol can be identified on Clovis projectile points which can then be used to address research questions concerning Clovis point variability, and ultimately, the spread of this tool-form across North America. This paper addresses obstacles to behavioral investigations of stone tool morphology such as the effects of resharpening and raw material type on tool shape. I argue that a culturally normative process of manufacture was maintained throughout the life-history of Clovis projectile points which translated into a specific shape maintained to the time of exhaustion and discard. As an analytical tool, this study utilizes t...
We review some of the current problems and prospects in ongoing Western Stemmed Tradition (WST) s... more We review some of the current problems and prospects in ongoing Western Stemmed Tradition (WST) studies and highlight recent discoveries at important sites in the Intermountain West. While the region has traditionally not been the focus of peopling of the Americas studies, it has received considerable attention in recent years due to the discovery of WST points and other artifacts in Clovis-aged deposits. Fieldwork at sites in Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, and Utah has produced WST assemblages dated to the terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene and generated new fine-grained datasets capable of addressing longstanding questions about WST technology, chronology, and subsistence. Collectively, these efforts have helped to refocus North American Paleoindian studies on the Intermountain West and the role that it played in the peopling of the Americas.
Recent research has begun to shed light on the role the Northern Fluted Complex (NFC) played in t... more Recent research has begun to shed light on the role the Northern Fluted Complex (NFC) played in the peopling of the Americas. Our understanding of NFC chronology and origins has increased with the discovery of new sites with buried and datable fluted-point components and digital means of morphological and technological continent-wide analyses. However, we have had few opportunities to observe examples of NFC points discarded early in the manufacturing process, hindering our understanding of NFC technology and, ultimately, Paleoindian behavior in the North. To resolve this problem, this research contributes a hypothesis of the NFC manufacture process developed from examination of exhausted fluted-point fragments and the addition of a small collection of artifacts that potentially represent earlier stages in the NFC reduction continuum. Flaking Index is used to identify the appropriate placement of artifacts in the reduction sequence. Experimental replication of NFC points is used to test the production sequence hypothesis.
Recent discussions of human dispersals into the Americas have integrated available genomic data, ... more Recent discussions of human dispersals into the Americas have integrated available genomic data, locations and dates of archaeological sites, chronologies for initial biological viability of the Pacific coast and western Canadian ice-free corridors, and respective hypotheses to explain the initial peopling of the continents. Currently, these lines of evidence are incomplete given the lack of geographically and chronologically continuous data available for any one avenue of research. Here we discuss the potential for geometric morphometric shape analysis of human skeletal remains and stone projectile artifacts to supplement these data and expand our understanding of human dispersals into the Americas. The evolutionarily plastic nature of human skeletons and artifacts offers an alternative means of testing hypotheses of initial dispersal events and human adaptation to changing climate and ecosystems.
Convergent Evolution in Stone-Tool Technology, 2018
Here we present analyses of serrated projectile-point blades to identify evidence of evolutionary... more Here we present analyses of serrated projectile-point blades to identify evidence of evolutionary convergence in stone tools using an empirical case study from the prehistoric record of the Southern Plains–Woodland border in central North America. Point-edge serration was introduced in this region during the Late Paleoindian period (12,850–11,700 B.P.), variably used throughout the Archaic period, abandoned by the Middle Woodland period (2,100–1,500 B.P.), and introduced again in the Late Woodland to Early Mississippian/Late Prehistoric period (1,300–650 B.P.). We focus on the evolutionary relationship between the earliest serrated Late Paleoindian Dalton and the Late Prehistoric Scallorn point types and explore how a cultural-evolutionary approach can help identify convergent evolution in the stone-tool record and consider the behavioral situations in which convergence arose. First, we use cladistic analysis to generate a phylogenetic tree that shows hypotheses of relatedness, or, in this case, change within lineages that does not reflect ancestry. Second, we evaluate morphological similarities and differences using geometric morphometric analysis. Third, we consider point evolutionary trajectory and morphology as a response to adaptive challenges that caused two populations with at best dim ancestral connections to converge on the same tool design.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2018
Fluted projectile points have long been recognized as the archaeological
signature of early human... more Fluted projectile points have long been recognized as the archaeological signature of early humans dispersing throughout the Western Hemisphere; however, we still lack a clear understanding of their appearance in the interior “Ice-Free Corridor” of western Canada and eastern Beringia. To solve this problem, we conducted a geometric morphometric shape analysis and a phylogenetic analysis of technological traits on fluted points from the archaeological records of northern Alaska and Yukon, in combination with artifacts from further south in Canada, the Great Plains, and eastern United States to investigate the plausibility of historical relatedness and evolutionary patterns in the spread of fluted-point technology in the latest Pleistocene and earliest Holocene. Results link morphologies and technologies of Clovis, certain western Canadian, and northern fluted points, suggesting that fluting technology arrived in the Arctic from a proximate source in the interior Ice-Free Corridor and ultimately from the earliest populations in temperate North America, complementing new genomic models explaining the peopling of the Americas.
We present new data from the Kovrizhka site, Irkutsk Oblast’, Russia, that suggest traditional co... more We present new data from the Kovrizhka site, Irkutsk Oblast’, Russia, that suggest traditional construction activities in the eastern Siberian Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic. The stone feature, consisting of an interlocking system of vertical and horizontal slabs, appears to have been initially constructed by inhabitants of a cultural layer dating between 12,810 and 11,411 cal yr BP and refurbished by later occupants associated with a cultural layer dated to 9549–8635 cal yr BP, indicating two episodes of construction that occurred millennia apart and the possibility of cultural continuity between them. Charcoal analyses also suggest variability in vegetation between the two building episodes. Associated lithic assemblages provide evidence of the co-existence of two methods of microblade-core preparation and hafted-axe technology, suggesting possible functional and seasonal explanations for variability in lithic technologies within a single cultural system in lieu of traditional multicultural hypotheses.
Analyses of fluted point technology and Paleoindian technological risk have contributed to our un... more Analyses of fluted point technology and Paleoindian technological risk have contributed to our understanding of human adaptation across North America in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene. However, poor chronological control has dissuaded similar studies of fluted points found in Alaska and northern Yukon and our understanding of their adaptive role in early arctic adaptations remains unclear. Two new archeological sites have provided reliable radiocarbon data and for the first time, a comprehensive analysis of northern fluted points is possible. Here, technological and morphological analyses of northern fluted points are presented, including variables statistically evaluated and compared to a collection of fluted Folsom artifacts serving as a reference. Variation in tool shape was measured using geometric morphometrics, and a new approach to landmark placement designed to characterize basal morphology and allow the analysis to include tool fragments is presented. Results confirm that northern fluted points represent a cohesive technological strategy and are used to formulate hypotheses suggesting its service as a risk-management system promoting ease-of-replacement-after-failure to offset transport costs and reduce risk during long-distance travel.
In northeastern Beringia, the area today made up of northern Alaska (USA) and Yukon (Canada), arc... more In northeastern Beringia, the area today made up of northern Alaska (USA) and Yukon (Canada), archaeologists
typically refer to the earliest archaeological assemblages dominated by bifacial technology as “Northern
Paleoindian.” These assemblages mostly date to during and immediately after the Younger Dryas cold period,
12,900–11,200 calendar years ago, although at least one and possibly three occupations pre-date 13,000
calendar years ago and rival Clovis in age. Distinctive lanceolate bifacial points dominate these assemblages;
variation in size, shape, production technique, and basal treatment of these points has led archaeologists to
define three assemblage groups, the fluted-point, Mesa, and Sluiceway complexes. These projectile points
were components of technological systems that emphasized high-quality lithic raw materials used in a formal
bifacial industry. Scarce faunal remains and other evidence suggest a subsistence regime centered on the hunting
of herd animals such as caribou and bison, and land-use patterns characterized by seasonally structured
movements and high logistical mobility. Standardized wedge-shaped core and microblade technology has not
been unequivocally tied to the Northern Paleoindian complexes, giving them a character different from most
other early Beringian sites and more strongly suggesting a link to late-Pleistocene technocomplexes in the
midcontinent. However, careful technological and morphometric studies are needed to assess the relationship
of these early northern Beringian industries to those of like age in the temperate latitudes of North America.
In northeastern Beringia, the area today made up of northern Alaska (USA) and Yukon (Canada), arc... more In northeastern Beringia, the area today made up of northern Alaska (USA) and Yukon (Canada), archaeologists
typically refer to the earliest archaeological assemblages dominated by bifacial technology as “Northern
Paleoindian.” These assemblages mostly date to during and immediately after the Younger Dryas cold period,
12,900–11,200 calendar years ago, although at least one and possibly three occupations pre-date 13,000
calendar years ago and rival Clovis in age. Distinctive lanceolate bifacial points dominate these assemblages;
variation in size, shape, production technique, and basal treatment of these points has led archaeologists to
define three assemblage groups, the fluted-point, Mesa, and Sluiceway complexes. These projectile points
were components of technological systems that emphasized high-quality lithic raw materials used in a formal
bifacial industry. Scarce faunal remains and other evidence suggest a subsistence regime centered on the hunting
of herd animals such as caribou and bison, and land-use patterns characterized by seasonally structured
movements and high logistical mobility. Standardized wedge-shaped core and microblade technology has not
been unequivocally tied to the Northern Paleoindian complexes, giving them a character different from most
other early Beringian sites and more strongly suggesting a link to late-Pleistocene technocomplexes in the
midcontinent. However, careful technological and morphometric studies are needed to assess the relationship
of these early northern Beringian industries to those of like age in the temperate latitudes of North America.
The peopling process of North and South America started in Northeast Asia and was a cultural evol... more The peopling process of North and South America started in Northeast Asia and was a cultural evolutionary event. An evolutionary approach to archaeology, however, begins with detailed description of assemblages. The Uptar site, Russia, played a prominent role in debates about New World colonization, due to the presence of a “fluted” bifacially flaked stone lanceolate. However, in recent years, Uptar has received less attention. We were given the opportunity to study a sample of the Uptar lithic assemblage, and here we compiled descriptions based on thin-sections for mineralogical and textural analyses; X-ray diffraction (XRD) for mineralogical identification; X-ray fluorescence (XRF) for geochemical analysis; computerized axial micro-tomography (MicroCT) for microtextural analysis; technological descriptions; morphometric analysis of its bifaces; and microwear. At a very basic level, our reexamination of this Uptar lithic sample suggests that the site was potentially a re-tooling site, whereby used or broken tools were discarded and new tools were manufactured. We found little evidence of microblade technology in our sample. Our results also suggest that fluted-point technology continues to be absent in Northeast Asia, and that the precise relationship of Uptar to North American Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene cultures remains unknown. Most importantly, our report provides descriptive data that can be used by others in future comparative and meta analyses.
In this paper, we use GIS and 2D geometric morphometrics to explore landscape use and social
inte... more In this paper, we use GIS and 2D geometric morphometrics to explore landscape use and social interaction among Kirk Cluster populations in the lower Ohio River valley. Using cultural transmission as a theoretical foundation, we develop models for identifying assemblages produced by macroband aggregations. We show that two distinct populations occupied northern Indiana and southwestern Kentucky. Intensively occupied sites in these areas are situated in near-upland settings in close proximity to a variety of resources including chert, higher order rivers, and sinkholes. In contrast, the Butterfield site in central Kentucky lies in the lowlands with the Green River as the only obvious resource. Analyses reveal that Butterfield was a macroband aggregation site visited by populations from Indiana, but groups from southwestern Kentucky only minimally participated in aggregations at Butterfield. Results further show that the Ohio River was not a barrier to social interaction in the Early Holocene.
Fluting is a technological and morphological hallmark of some of the most iconic North American P... more Fluting is a technological and morphological hallmark of some of the most iconic North American Paleoindian stone points. Through decades of detailed artifact analyses and replication experiments, archaeologists have spent considerable effort reconstructing how flute removals were achieved, and they have explored possible explanations of why fluting was such an important aspect of early point technologies. However, the end of fluting has been less thoroughly researched. In southern North America, fluting is recognized as a diagnostic characteristic of Clovis points dating to approximately 13,000 cal yr BP, the earliest widespread use of fluting. One thousand years later, fluting occurs more variably in Dalton and is no longer useful as a diagnostic indicator. How did fluting change, and why did point makers eventually abandon fluting? In this article, we use traditional 2D measurements, geometric morphometric (GM) analysis of 3D models, and 2D GM of flute cross sections to compare Clovis and Dalton point flute and basal morphologies. The significant differences observed show that fluting in Clovis was highly standardized, suggesting that fluting may have functioned to improve projectile durability. Because Dalton points were used increasingly as knives and other types of tools, maximizing projectile functionality became less important. We propose that fluting in Dalton is a vestigial technological trait retained beyond its original functional usefulness.
The Spring Lake Site (41HY160) in San Marcos, located along the Balcones Escarpment in central Te... more The Spring Lake Site (41HY160) in San Marcos, located along the Balcones Escarpment in central Texas, produced fluted points that appear diagnostic of Clovis technology as well as ice-age megafauna remains. Unfortunately, these materials were recovered in what appears to be mixed deposits within the lake itself. For over 40 years, researchers have hypothesized that the points represent Clovis technology and presence at the site. We use a two-dimensional landmark approach to geometric morphometric shape analysis to test the typological context of the artifacts against a dataset of well-dated Clovis point specimens. We examine whether they fall within a morphological range of variation in planview shape documented in point assemblages from Clovis sites organized geographically into the Southwest, Northwest, and Northeast regions. Results suggest that the Spring Lake points possess particular affinity in shape to Clovis points found in the Southwest region.
Research has demonstrated that variation in assemblages of prehistoric bifacial stone point blade... more Research has demonstrated that variation in assemblages of prehistoric bifacial stone point blades results from episodes of breakage and resharpening that occur throughout the artifact’s use-life. Is it commonly accepted that point bases were less affected by trauma resulting from use and more likely to retain culturally diagnostic characteristics of shape. Archaeologists using variation in bifacial points, such as projectiles, knives, and drills, as a proxy to study prehistoric cultures’ identity, mobility, and evolutionary trajectories have, therefore, focused most attention on the proximal portions of these artifacts. This approach to the study of stone tools has proven effective, but recently the question has been raised as to whether some cultures, specifically Clovis, the earliest widespread technological tradition in the Americas, included normative resharpening strategies in their technological repertoire. In addressing this question, we use geometric morphometrics to compare the shape of a collection of Clovis points resampled into three datasets: bases, blades, and complete points. We find that the complement of base and blade shape, i.e., the complete point, provides the most parsimonious representation of Clovis-point shape and is most successful in discriminating among regional differences.
A Behavioral Analysis of Clovis Point Morphology Using Geometric Morphometrics. (December 2010) H... more A Behavioral Analysis of Clovis Point Morphology Using Geometric Morphometrics. (December 2010) Heather Lynn Smith, B.A., Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Ted Goebel This thesis presents an investigation into Paleoindian projectile-point morphology. A goal of this research is to determine if evidence of a normative cultural manufacturing protocol can be identified on Clovis projectile points which can then be used to address research questions concerning Clovis point variability, and ultimately, the spread of this tool-form across North America. This paper addresses obstacles to behavioral investigations of stone tool morphology such as the effects of resharpening and raw material type on tool shape. I argue that a culturally normative process of manufacture was maintained throughout the life-history of Clovis projectile points which translated into a specific shape maintained to the time of exhaustion and discard. As an analytical tool, this study utilizes t...
We review some of the current problems and prospects in ongoing Western Stemmed Tradition (WST) s... more We review some of the current problems and prospects in ongoing Western Stemmed Tradition (WST) studies and highlight recent discoveries at important sites in the Intermountain West. While the region has traditionally not been the focus of peopling of the Americas studies, it has received considerable attention in recent years due to the discovery of WST points and other artifacts in Clovis-aged deposits. Fieldwork at sites in Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, and Utah has produced WST assemblages dated to the terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene and generated new fine-grained datasets capable of addressing longstanding questions about WST technology, chronology, and subsistence. Collectively, these efforts have helped to refocus North American Paleoindian studies on the Intermountain West and the role that it played in the peopling of the Americas.
Recent research has begun to shed light on the role the Northern Fluted Complex (NFC) played in t... more Recent research has begun to shed light on the role the Northern Fluted Complex (NFC) played in the peopling of the Americas. Our understanding of NFC chronology and origins has increased with the discovery of new sites with buried and datable fluted-point components and digital means of morphological and technological continent-wide analyses. However, we have had few opportunities to observe examples of NFC points discarded early in the manufacturing process, hindering our understanding of NFC technology and, ultimately, Paleoindian behavior in the North. To resolve this problem, this research contributes a hypothesis of the NFC manufacture process developed from examination of exhausted fluted-point fragments and the addition of a small collection of artifacts that potentially represent earlier stages in the NFC reduction continuum. Flaking Index is used to identify the appropriate placement of artifacts in the reduction sequence. Experimental replication of NFC points is used to test the production sequence hypothesis.
Recent discussions of human dispersals into the Americas have integrated available genomic data, ... more Recent discussions of human dispersals into the Americas have integrated available genomic data, locations and dates of archaeological sites, chronologies for initial biological viability of the Pacific coast and western Canadian ice-free corridors, and respective hypotheses to explain the initial peopling of the continents. Currently, these lines of evidence are incomplete given the lack of geographically and chronologically continuous data available for any one avenue of research. Here we discuss the potential for geometric morphometric shape analysis of human skeletal remains and stone projectile artifacts to supplement these data and expand our understanding of human dispersals into the Americas. The evolutionarily plastic nature of human skeletons and artifacts offers an alternative means of testing hypotheses of initial dispersal events and human adaptation to changing climate and ecosystems.
Convergent Evolution in Stone-Tool Technology, 2018
Here we present analyses of serrated projectile-point blades to identify evidence of evolutionary... more Here we present analyses of serrated projectile-point blades to identify evidence of evolutionary convergence in stone tools using an empirical case study from the prehistoric record of the Southern Plains–Woodland border in central North America. Point-edge serration was introduced in this region during the Late Paleoindian period (12,850–11,700 B.P.), variably used throughout the Archaic period, abandoned by the Middle Woodland period (2,100–1,500 B.P.), and introduced again in the Late Woodland to Early Mississippian/Late Prehistoric period (1,300–650 B.P.). We focus on the evolutionary relationship between the earliest serrated Late Paleoindian Dalton and the Late Prehistoric Scallorn point types and explore how a cultural-evolutionary approach can help identify convergent evolution in the stone-tool record and consider the behavioral situations in which convergence arose. First, we use cladistic analysis to generate a phylogenetic tree that shows hypotheses of relatedness, or, in this case, change within lineages that does not reflect ancestry. Second, we evaluate morphological similarities and differences using geometric morphometric analysis. Third, we consider point evolutionary trajectory and morphology as a response to adaptive challenges that caused two populations with at best dim ancestral connections to converge on the same tool design.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2018
Fluted projectile points have long been recognized as the archaeological
signature of early human... more Fluted projectile points have long been recognized as the archaeological signature of early humans dispersing throughout the Western Hemisphere; however, we still lack a clear understanding of their appearance in the interior “Ice-Free Corridor” of western Canada and eastern Beringia. To solve this problem, we conducted a geometric morphometric shape analysis and a phylogenetic analysis of technological traits on fluted points from the archaeological records of northern Alaska and Yukon, in combination with artifacts from further south in Canada, the Great Plains, and eastern United States to investigate the plausibility of historical relatedness and evolutionary patterns in the spread of fluted-point technology in the latest Pleistocene and earliest Holocene. Results link morphologies and technologies of Clovis, certain western Canadian, and northern fluted points, suggesting that fluting technology arrived in the Arctic from a proximate source in the interior Ice-Free Corridor and ultimately from the earliest populations in temperate North America, complementing new genomic models explaining the peopling of the Americas.
We present new data from the Kovrizhka site, Irkutsk Oblast’, Russia, that suggest traditional co... more We present new data from the Kovrizhka site, Irkutsk Oblast’, Russia, that suggest traditional construction activities in the eastern Siberian Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic. The stone feature, consisting of an interlocking system of vertical and horizontal slabs, appears to have been initially constructed by inhabitants of a cultural layer dating between 12,810 and 11,411 cal yr BP and refurbished by later occupants associated with a cultural layer dated to 9549–8635 cal yr BP, indicating two episodes of construction that occurred millennia apart and the possibility of cultural continuity between them. Charcoal analyses also suggest variability in vegetation between the two building episodes. Associated lithic assemblages provide evidence of the co-existence of two methods of microblade-core preparation and hafted-axe technology, suggesting possible functional and seasonal explanations for variability in lithic technologies within a single cultural system in lieu of traditional multicultural hypotheses.
Analyses of fluted point technology and Paleoindian technological risk have contributed to our un... more Analyses of fluted point technology and Paleoindian technological risk have contributed to our understanding of human adaptation across North America in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene. However, poor chronological control has dissuaded similar studies of fluted points found in Alaska and northern Yukon and our understanding of their adaptive role in early arctic adaptations remains unclear. Two new archeological sites have provided reliable radiocarbon data and for the first time, a comprehensive analysis of northern fluted points is possible. Here, technological and morphological analyses of northern fluted points are presented, including variables statistically evaluated and compared to a collection of fluted Folsom artifacts serving as a reference. Variation in tool shape was measured using geometric morphometrics, and a new approach to landmark placement designed to characterize basal morphology and allow the analysis to include tool fragments is presented. Results confirm that northern fluted points represent a cohesive technological strategy and are used to formulate hypotheses suggesting its service as a risk-management system promoting ease-of-replacement-after-failure to offset transport costs and reduce risk during long-distance travel.
In northeastern Beringia, the area today made up of northern Alaska (USA) and Yukon (Canada), arc... more In northeastern Beringia, the area today made up of northern Alaska (USA) and Yukon (Canada), archaeologists
typically refer to the earliest archaeological assemblages dominated by bifacial technology as “Northern
Paleoindian.” These assemblages mostly date to during and immediately after the Younger Dryas cold period,
12,900–11,200 calendar years ago, although at least one and possibly three occupations pre-date 13,000
calendar years ago and rival Clovis in age. Distinctive lanceolate bifacial points dominate these assemblages;
variation in size, shape, production technique, and basal treatment of these points has led archaeologists to
define three assemblage groups, the fluted-point, Mesa, and Sluiceway complexes. These projectile points
were components of technological systems that emphasized high-quality lithic raw materials used in a formal
bifacial industry. Scarce faunal remains and other evidence suggest a subsistence regime centered on the hunting
of herd animals such as caribou and bison, and land-use patterns characterized by seasonally structured
movements and high logistical mobility. Standardized wedge-shaped core and microblade technology has not
been unequivocally tied to the Northern Paleoindian complexes, giving them a character different from most
other early Beringian sites and more strongly suggesting a link to late-Pleistocene technocomplexes in the
midcontinent. However, careful technological and morphometric studies are needed to assess the relationship
of these early northern Beringian industries to those of like age in the temperate latitudes of North America.
In northeastern Beringia, the area today made up of northern Alaska (USA) and Yukon (Canada), arc... more In northeastern Beringia, the area today made up of northern Alaska (USA) and Yukon (Canada), archaeologists
typically refer to the earliest archaeological assemblages dominated by bifacial technology as “Northern
Paleoindian.” These assemblages mostly date to during and immediately after the Younger Dryas cold period,
12,900–11,200 calendar years ago, although at least one and possibly three occupations pre-date 13,000
calendar years ago and rival Clovis in age. Distinctive lanceolate bifacial points dominate these assemblages;
variation in size, shape, production technique, and basal treatment of these points has led archaeologists to
define three assemblage groups, the fluted-point, Mesa, and Sluiceway complexes. These projectile points
were components of technological systems that emphasized high-quality lithic raw materials used in a formal
bifacial industry. Scarce faunal remains and other evidence suggest a subsistence regime centered on the hunting
of herd animals such as caribou and bison, and land-use patterns characterized by seasonally structured
movements and high logistical mobility. Standardized wedge-shaped core and microblade technology has not
been unequivocally tied to the Northern Paleoindian complexes, giving them a character different from most
other early Beringian sites and more strongly suggesting a link to late-Pleistocene technocomplexes in the
midcontinent. However, careful technological and morphometric studies are needed to assess the relationship
of these early northern Beringian industries to those of like age in the temperate latitudes of North America.
Call for Papers: Please consider contributing a paper presentation to the following Symposium at ... more Call for Papers: Please consider contributing a paper presentation to the following Symposium at the 42nd Annual Meetings of the Alaska Anthropological Association, Anchorage, Alaska. Environmental Archaeology is focused on humans as an integral component of past ecological systems using an eclectic array of approaches from lithic and technological studies, zooarchaeology, paleobotany, and geoarchaeology. This symposium features a diverse collection of research into the effects that environmental factors had on past cultures of Alaska and beyond.
Remote sensing has dramatically changed the way we collect data at archaeological sites, and has ... more Remote sensing has dramatically changed the way we collect data at archaeological sites, and has added new and innovative methodologies to our fieldwork. It has also facilitated greater public engagement by making archaeology more accessible – this is especially true of sites that are considered remote or difficult to access because of challenging terrain. As part of the public outreach initiative of the new Blackwater Draw Museum and its associated website, an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) mapping project was undertaken to provide a layered interpretive experience for visitors. Visitors are only able to physically access limited areas of the archaeological site due to a variety of factors, most importantly their own safety and the safety of our archaeological resources. As a result of the UAV mapping project, the public, students, and researchers alike will able to digitally access and explore the terrain outside of the marked roads. In this manner they will have the unique experience of seeing archaeology through an archaeologist’s eyes, and be better equipped to understand the data collected throughout the site’s history.
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Papers by Heather Smith
event. An evolutionary approach to archaeology, however, begins with detailed description of assemblages. The
Uptar site, Russia, played a prominent role in debates about New World colonization, due to the presence of a
“fluted” bifacially flaked stone lanceolate. However, in recent years, Uptar has received less attention. We were
given the opportunity to study a sample of the Uptar lithic assemblage, and here we compiled descriptions based
on thin-sections for mineralogical and textural analyses; X-ray diffraction (XRD) for mineralogical identification;
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) for geochemical analysis; computerized axial micro-tomography (MicroCT) for microtextural
analysis; technological descriptions; morphometric analysis of its bifaces; and microwear. At a very basic
level, our reexamination of this Uptar lithic sample suggests that the site was potentially a re-tooling site,
whereby used or broken tools were discarded and new tools were manufactured. We found little evidence of
microblade technology in our sample. Our results also suggest that fluted-point technology continues to be absent
in Northeast Asia, and that the precise relationship of Uptar to North American Late Pleistocene and Early
Holocene cultures remains unknown. Most importantly, our report provides descriptive data that can be used by
others in future comparative and meta analyses.
interaction among Kirk Cluster populations in the lower Ohio River valley. Using cultural
transmission as a theoretical foundation, we develop models for identifying assemblages
produced by macroband aggregations. We show that two distinct populations occupied
northern Indiana and southwestern Kentucky. Intensively occupied sites in these areas are
situated in near-upland settings in close proximity to a variety of resources including chert,
higher order rivers, and sinkholes. In contrast, the Butterfield site in central Kentucky lies in the
lowlands with the Green River as the only obvious resource. Analyses reveal that Butterfield was
a macroband aggregation site visited by populations from Indiana, but groups from
southwestern Kentucky only minimally participated in aggregations at Butterfield. Results
further show that the Ohio River was not a barrier to social interaction in the Early Holocene.
variably used throughout the Archaic period, abandoned by the Middle Woodland period (2,100–1,500 B.P.), and introduced again in the Late Woodland to Early Mississippian/Late Prehistoric period (1,300–650 B.P.). We focus on the evolutionary relationship between the earliest serrated Late Paleoindian Dalton and the Late Prehistoric Scallorn point types and explore how a cultural-evolutionary approach can help identify convergent evolution in the stone-tool record and consider the behavioral situations in which convergence arose. First, we use cladistic analysis to generate a phylogenetic tree that shows hypotheses of
relatedness, or, in this case, change within lineages that does not reflect ancestry. Second, we evaluate morphological similarities and differences using geometric morphometric analysis. Third, we consider point evolutionary trajectory and morphology as a response to adaptive challenges that caused two populations with at best dim ancestral connections to converge on the same tool design.
signature of early humans dispersing throughout the
Western Hemisphere; however, we still lack a clear understanding
of their appearance in the interior “Ice-Free Corridor” of western
Canada and eastern Beringia. To solve this problem, we conducted
a geometric morphometric shape analysis and a phylogenetic analysis
of technological traits on fluted points from the archaeological
records of northern Alaska and Yukon, in combination with artifacts
from further south in Canada, the Great Plains, and eastern
United States to investigate the plausibility of historical relatedness
and evolutionary patterns in the spread of fluted-point technology
in the latest Pleistocene and earliest Holocene. Results link
morphologies and technologies of Clovis, certain western Canadian,
and northern fluted points, suggesting that fluting technology
arrived in the Arctic from a proximate source in the interior
Ice-Free Corridor and ultimately from the earliest populations in
temperate North America, complementing new genomic models
explaining the peopling of the Americas.
interlocking system of vertical and horizontal slabs, appears to have been initially constructed by inhabitants of a cultural layer dating between 12,810 and 11,411 cal yr BP and refurbished by later occupants associated with a cultural layer dated to 9549–8635 cal yr BP, indicating two episodes of construction that occurred millennia apart and the possibility of cultural continuity between them. Charcoal analyses also suggest variability in vegetation between the two building episodes. Associated lithic assemblages provide evidence of the co-existence of two methods of microblade-core preparation and hafted-axe technology, suggesting possible functional and seasonal explanations for variability in lithic technologies within a single cultural system in lieu of traditional multicultural hypotheses.
typically refer to the earliest archaeological assemblages dominated by bifacial technology as “Northern
Paleoindian.” These assemblages mostly date to during and immediately after the Younger Dryas cold period,
12,900–11,200 calendar years ago, although at least one and possibly three occupations pre-date 13,000
calendar years ago and rival Clovis in age. Distinctive lanceolate bifacial points dominate these assemblages;
variation in size, shape, production technique, and basal treatment of these points has led archaeologists to
define three assemblage groups, the fluted-point, Mesa, and Sluiceway complexes. These projectile points
were components of technological systems that emphasized high-quality lithic raw materials used in a formal
bifacial industry. Scarce faunal remains and other evidence suggest a subsistence regime centered on the hunting
of herd animals such as caribou and bison, and land-use patterns characterized by seasonally structured
movements and high logistical mobility. Standardized wedge-shaped core and microblade technology has not
been unequivocally tied to the Northern Paleoindian complexes, giving them a character different from most
other early Beringian sites and more strongly suggesting a link to late-Pleistocene technocomplexes in the
midcontinent. However, careful technological and morphometric studies are needed to assess the relationship
of these early northern Beringian industries to those of like age in the temperate latitudes of North America.
typically refer to the earliest archaeological assemblages dominated by bifacial technology as “Northern
Paleoindian.” These assemblages mostly date to during and immediately after the Younger Dryas cold period,
12,900–11,200 calendar years ago, although at least one and possibly three occupations pre-date 13,000
calendar years ago and rival Clovis in age. Distinctive lanceolate bifacial points dominate these assemblages;
variation in size, shape, production technique, and basal treatment of these points has led archaeologists to
define three assemblage groups, the fluted-point, Mesa, and Sluiceway complexes. These projectile points
were components of technological systems that emphasized high-quality lithic raw materials used in a formal
bifacial industry. Scarce faunal remains and other evidence suggest a subsistence regime centered on the hunting
of herd animals such as caribou and bison, and land-use patterns characterized by seasonally structured
movements and high logistical mobility. Standardized wedge-shaped core and microblade technology has not
been unequivocally tied to the Northern Paleoindian complexes, giving them a character different from most
other early Beringian sites and more strongly suggesting a link to late-Pleistocene technocomplexes in the
midcontinent. However, careful technological and morphometric studies are needed to assess the relationship
of these early northern Beringian industries to those of like age in the temperate latitudes of North America.
event. An evolutionary approach to archaeology, however, begins with detailed description of assemblages. The
Uptar site, Russia, played a prominent role in debates about New World colonization, due to the presence of a
“fluted” bifacially flaked stone lanceolate. However, in recent years, Uptar has received less attention. We were
given the opportunity to study a sample of the Uptar lithic assemblage, and here we compiled descriptions based
on thin-sections for mineralogical and textural analyses; X-ray diffraction (XRD) for mineralogical identification;
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) for geochemical analysis; computerized axial micro-tomography (MicroCT) for microtextural
analysis; technological descriptions; morphometric analysis of its bifaces; and microwear. At a very basic
level, our reexamination of this Uptar lithic sample suggests that the site was potentially a re-tooling site,
whereby used or broken tools were discarded and new tools were manufactured. We found little evidence of
microblade technology in our sample. Our results also suggest that fluted-point technology continues to be absent
in Northeast Asia, and that the precise relationship of Uptar to North American Late Pleistocene and Early
Holocene cultures remains unknown. Most importantly, our report provides descriptive data that can be used by
others in future comparative and meta analyses.
interaction among Kirk Cluster populations in the lower Ohio River valley. Using cultural
transmission as a theoretical foundation, we develop models for identifying assemblages
produced by macroband aggregations. We show that two distinct populations occupied
northern Indiana and southwestern Kentucky. Intensively occupied sites in these areas are
situated in near-upland settings in close proximity to a variety of resources including chert,
higher order rivers, and sinkholes. In contrast, the Butterfield site in central Kentucky lies in the
lowlands with the Green River as the only obvious resource. Analyses reveal that Butterfield was
a macroband aggregation site visited by populations from Indiana, but groups from
southwestern Kentucky only minimally participated in aggregations at Butterfield. Results
further show that the Ohio River was not a barrier to social interaction in the Early Holocene.
variably used throughout the Archaic period, abandoned by the Middle Woodland period (2,100–1,500 B.P.), and introduced again in the Late Woodland to Early Mississippian/Late Prehistoric period (1,300–650 B.P.). We focus on the evolutionary relationship between the earliest serrated Late Paleoindian Dalton and the Late Prehistoric Scallorn point types and explore how a cultural-evolutionary approach can help identify convergent evolution in the stone-tool record and consider the behavioral situations in which convergence arose. First, we use cladistic analysis to generate a phylogenetic tree that shows hypotheses of
relatedness, or, in this case, change within lineages that does not reflect ancestry. Second, we evaluate morphological similarities and differences using geometric morphometric analysis. Third, we consider point evolutionary trajectory and morphology as a response to adaptive challenges that caused two populations with at best dim ancestral connections to converge on the same tool design.
signature of early humans dispersing throughout the
Western Hemisphere; however, we still lack a clear understanding
of their appearance in the interior “Ice-Free Corridor” of western
Canada and eastern Beringia. To solve this problem, we conducted
a geometric morphometric shape analysis and a phylogenetic analysis
of technological traits on fluted points from the archaeological
records of northern Alaska and Yukon, in combination with artifacts
from further south in Canada, the Great Plains, and eastern
United States to investigate the plausibility of historical relatedness
and evolutionary patterns in the spread of fluted-point technology
in the latest Pleistocene and earliest Holocene. Results link
morphologies and technologies of Clovis, certain western Canadian,
and northern fluted points, suggesting that fluting technology
arrived in the Arctic from a proximate source in the interior
Ice-Free Corridor and ultimately from the earliest populations in
temperate North America, complementing new genomic models
explaining the peopling of the Americas.
interlocking system of vertical and horizontal slabs, appears to have been initially constructed by inhabitants of a cultural layer dating between 12,810 and 11,411 cal yr BP and refurbished by later occupants associated with a cultural layer dated to 9549–8635 cal yr BP, indicating two episodes of construction that occurred millennia apart and the possibility of cultural continuity between them. Charcoal analyses also suggest variability in vegetation between the two building episodes. Associated lithic assemblages provide evidence of the co-existence of two methods of microblade-core preparation and hafted-axe technology, suggesting possible functional and seasonal explanations for variability in lithic technologies within a single cultural system in lieu of traditional multicultural hypotheses.
typically refer to the earliest archaeological assemblages dominated by bifacial technology as “Northern
Paleoindian.” These assemblages mostly date to during and immediately after the Younger Dryas cold period,
12,900–11,200 calendar years ago, although at least one and possibly three occupations pre-date 13,000
calendar years ago and rival Clovis in age. Distinctive lanceolate bifacial points dominate these assemblages;
variation in size, shape, production technique, and basal treatment of these points has led archaeologists to
define three assemblage groups, the fluted-point, Mesa, and Sluiceway complexes. These projectile points
were components of technological systems that emphasized high-quality lithic raw materials used in a formal
bifacial industry. Scarce faunal remains and other evidence suggest a subsistence regime centered on the hunting
of herd animals such as caribou and bison, and land-use patterns characterized by seasonally structured
movements and high logistical mobility. Standardized wedge-shaped core and microblade technology has not
been unequivocally tied to the Northern Paleoindian complexes, giving them a character different from most
other early Beringian sites and more strongly suggesting a link to late-Pleistocene technocomplexes in the
midcontinent. However, careful technological and morphometric studies are needed to assess the relationship
of these early northern Beringian industries to those of like age in the temperate latitudes of North America.
typically refer to the earliest archaeological assemblages dominated by bifacial technology as “Northern
Paleoindian.” These assemblages mostly date to during and immediately after the Younger Dryas cold period,
12,900–11,200 calendar years ago, although at least one and possibly three occupations pre-date 13,000
calendar years ago and rival Clovis in age. Distinctive lanceolate bifacial points dominate these assemblages;
variation in size, shape, production technique, and basal treatment of these points has led archaeologists to
define three assemblage groups, the fluted-point, Mesa, and Sluiceway complexes. These projectile points
were components of technological systems that emphasized high-quality lithic raw materials used in a formal
bifacial industry. Scarce faunal remains and other evidence suggest a subsistence regime centered on the hunting
of herd animals such as caribou and bison, and land-use patterns characterized by seasonally structured
movements and high logistical mobility. Standardized wedge-shaped core and microblade technology has not
been unequivocally tied to the Northern Paleoindian complexes, giving them a character different from most
other early Beringian sites and more strongly suggesting a link to late-Pleistocene technocomplexes in the
midcontinent. However, careful technological and morphometric studies are needed to assess the relationship
of these early northern Beringian industries to those of like age in the temperate latitudes of North America.