This volume explores the process of social changes which unfolded in rural society of early medie... more This volume explores the process of social changes which unfolded in rural society of early medieval Bengal, especially the formation of stratified land relations and occupational groups which later got systematised as jātis. One of the first books to systematically reconstruct the early history of the region, this book presents a history of the economy, polity, law, and social order of early medieval Bengal through a comprehensive study of land and society. It traces the changing power relations among constituents of rural society and political institutions, and unravels the contradictions growing among them. The author describes the changing forms of agrarian development which were deeply associated with these overarching structures and offers an in-depth analysis of a wide range of textual sources in Sanskrit and other languages, especially contemporary inscriptions pertaining to Bengal. The volume will be an essential resource for researchers and academics interested in the history of Bengal, and the social and economic history of early South Asia.
Pratna Samiksha: A Journal of Archaeology, New Series, 13, 2023
This article provides a revised edition of the Manahali copperplate inscription of Madanapala, da... more This article provides a revised edition of the Manahali copperplate inscription of Madanapala, dated year 8 of his reign (1151/52 ce), based on the digital photographs provided by The Asiatic Society. While the earliest of his three grants, the Rajibpur plate dated year 2, was jointly issued with Gopala IV, his nephew cum predecessor, the present grant was singularly issued by Madanapala. It has some features different from the other two grants issued earlier or later, of which the prominent are the appearance of Paupdravardhana as a name of bhukti which is otherwise called Pupdravardhana and the use of lunar date. These features could be connected with his attempt to assert the control over expanded territory and the superior position against both Gopala IV and Vijayasena, his contenders. The plate also attests to the attempt of Madanapala to consolidate his control through administrative and fiscal rearrangements.
Buddhism, Law & Society, 7, 2021-2022, Apr 20, 2023
From the first epigraphic references in the early sixth century, the Buddhist vihāras in Bengal e... more From the first epigraphic references in the early sixth century, the Buddhist vihāras in Bengal emerged as institutions with extensive landholdings, crucially depending on patronage from temporal powers. In the seventh and eighth centuries, they accumulated more landholdings as widely scattered land plots, a process facilitated by the growth of sub-regional kingships with several layers of rulers and the emergence of stratified land relations engendering tenurial rights. Vihāras also underwent an organizational development that was required for the management of large landholdings. In the ninth and tenth centuries, Buddhist vihāras flourished under regional kingships establishing ever stronger territorial control. The royal patronage conferred on them access to extensive resources and powers in the donated tracts, but also opened a door to political interference and made them a focus of power struggles between kings and their subordinate rulers. The accounts of the Chinese monk Yijing on the practices followed at vihāras in eastern India in the late seventh century complement the picture that can be sketched from the epigraphic sources, with more information on management of landholdings and administration.
Swadhin Sen, Supriya Varma and Bhairabi Prasad Sahu (eds), The Archaeology of Early Medieval and Medieval South Asia: Contesting Narratives from the Eastern Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin, London and New York: Routledge, Nov 30, 2023
Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. Oxford University Press, 2016—, 2022
In the early medieval period (6th–12th centuries), diverse terrains of South Asia experienced the... more In the early medieval period (6th–12th centuries), diverse terrains of South Asia experienced the rise of regional political powers and the socioeconomic development that would later culminate in the formation of regions. Bengal was no exception and saw the plural strands of historical changes and developments, intertwined with each other. In terms of political process, the first phase of the strand consisted of the rise of subregional kingships after the collapse of Gupta rule in the mid-6th century and the growth of subordinate rulers under them in the subsequent centuries. It was followed by the emergence of regional kingships of the Pālas and the Candras traversing several subregions and the enhancement of their powers in relation to subordinate rulers in the period between the mid-8th century and the mid-12th century. The last phase was the integration of almost all the subregions under the Senas, with stronger control over subordinate rulers and rural society in the second half of the 12th century. In terms of social change, the emphasis was on the hierarchization of land relations from the cultivation of moderate plots by the family labor of peasant householders to the management of large landholdings with layers of overlapping land rights, of which the bottom consisted of actual cultivation by agrarian laborers. Social change also came about through the organization of hereditary occupational groups and the systematization of their mutual relations toward a jāti order. The growth of brahmins as a group—by establishing a clearer identity and imposing their authority in social reorganization—constituted another pillar of the historical process. Political and social processes conditioned, as well as were conditioned, by the economic processes of agrarian expansion and the commercialization of rural economy, which proceeded in the subregions of Bengal in different forms and paces.
Pratna Samiksha: A Journal of Archaeology, New Series, 11, 2020, May 6, 2021
This article presents the fifth copperplate inscription explicitly mentioning Sasanka, who was ki... more This article presents the fifth copperplate inscription explicitly mentioning Sasanka, who was king of Gauda in the first quarter of the seventh century CE. Formulated in Sanskrit prose, this document belongs to the class of land-sale grants, and concerns the purchase and donation of a village called Kumudavillika in year 8 of Sasanka’s reign. Among points of interest are the occurrence of the otherwise unknown term naumahattara and the use of the karsapana as a currency unit.
Pratna Samiksha: A Journal of Archaeology, New Series, 2019
The present article offers the edition of the Sujanagar stone inscription of the time of Bhojavar... more The present article offers the edition of the Sujanagar stone inscription of the time of Bhojavarman, year 7, with notes and translation, and the discussion on its contents and implications. The inscription records the two acts of mahasamanta Avudeva, a subordinate ruler of Bhojavarman, in relation to a religious institution called a vihara protected by Allahabhattarakasvamin, namely, the withdrawal of cash endowment and the donation of right to tax at a market. It is the sole inscription mentioning the activity of a subordinate ruler under the Varmans. The transactions recorded in it attests to the developed monetary economy based on cowrie-shells. The inscription can also be the earliest epigraphic evidence for the presence of Islam and Muslims in Bengal, with possible references to a subordinate ruler from Arab or Persian merchant family and his establishment of a madrasa, though we need more evidence to buttress this possibility.
A sub-region of Bengal called Harikela, corresponding to the area around present Chittagong, has ... more A sub-region of Bengal called Harikela, corresponding to the area around present Chittagong, has an interesting historical profile with its closer connection with Arakan and involvement in the vigorous seaborne trade. The peculiarity of this sub-region is also exhibited by a type of inscriptions never found in any other sub-regions of Bengal, namely, lengthy inscriptions on bronze vases. One of them, the inscription of the time of Devātideva on a metal vase kept by Bangladesh National Museum, has important implications for the early history of Harikela as the earliest inscriptional evidence on the subregion so far known to us. Its contents show the progress in state formation, agrarian expansion and complexity of social relations witnessed in Harikela in the eighth century.
Osmund Bopearachchi and Suchandra Ghosh (eds), Early Indian History and Beyond: Essays in Honour of B.D. Chattopadhyaya, Delhi: Primus Books, 2019, pp.155-174.pp., 2019
Agrarian Expansion and rural commercialization may sound contradictory, especially for scholars w... more Agrarian Expansion and rural commercialization may sound contradictory, especially for scholars who support the construct of Indian Feudalism and its core theory of urban decay. The condition of early medieval north Bengal appears to conform to the model of urban decay. Both urban centres and their mercantile elites, which loomed large in the fifth- and sixth-centuries land sale grants, are conspicuous by their absence in the early medieval inscriptions. Coined currency, often connected with commerce as a medium of exchange, is also absent, in contrast to the circulation of Gupta gold and silver coins, attested by the inscriptions of the earlier period. A careful reading of the inscriptions, however, leads to an alternative interpretation-the commercialization of rural society accompanying the expansion of sedentary agriculture and agrarian settlements, all of which saw another phase of progress from the ninth century onwards. This essay discusses the process through a reappraisal of epigraphic and textual sources.
Abdul Momin Chowdhury and Ranabir Chakravarti (eds), History of Bangladesh: Early Bengal in Regional Perspectives (up to c. 1200 CE), Vol.2 Society Economy Culture, Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 2018, pp.43-70., 2018
Some parts were added by the editor presumably for better understanding of the readers. However, ... more Some parts were added by the editor presumably for better understanding of the readers. However, they are sometimes contradictory to my own view and discussions, so that I highlight the parts written by the editor to make my responsibility clear.
B. D. Chattopadhyaya, Suchandra Ghosh and Bishnupriya Basak (eds), Inscriptions and Agrarian Issues in Indian History: Essays in Memory of D. C. Sircar, Kolkata: The Asiatic Society, 2017, pp.168-188.
This is an article based on a paper presented at A Two day National Seminar to observe the birth ... more This is an article based on a paper presented at A Two day National Seminar to observe the birth centenary of Professor D. C. Sircar, on Inscriptions and the Agrarian History of India, held by The Asiatic Society, Kolkata, November 16-17, 2007. As it is published unexpectedly 10 years after the seminar, its content needs to be updated with incorporation of new data and references, especially the new inscriptions published and the revised readings of old ones made later. I herewith upload the article with modification as much as possible for now.
Karashima Noboru and Hirosue Masashi (eds), State Formation and Social Integration in Pre-modern South and Southeast Asia: A Comparative Study of Asian Society, Tokyo: The Toyo Bunko, 2017, pp.73-87., 2017
This is a republished version of my article with the same title, with slight revisions and a map.
Nobuhiro Ota (ed.), Zen-kindai Minami-Ajia Shakai Ni Okeru Matomari To Tsunagari (Clustering and Connections in Pre-Modern South Asian Society), Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 2017
This article constitutes a supplement to my article ‘Brāhmaṇas in Early Medieval Bengal: Construc... more This article constitutes a supplement to my article ‘Brāhmaṇas in Early Medieval Bengal: Construction of their Identity, Networks and Authority’, Indian Historical Review, Vol.40, No.2, 2013, pp.223-248. It provides the data on the inscriptional references to brāhmaṇas, especially donees of land and village grants, as an appendix and gives short remarks and discussions on them.
The political formation in early medieval North India was characterised by subordinate rulers who... more The political formation in early medieval North India was characterised by subordinate rulers who were indispensable components of a monarchical state of the period. Their agency and power relations with the kingship had critical bearings on the early medieval history of Bengal under the Pālas. The epigraphical sources and the Rāmacarita of Sandhyākaranandin show diverse origins of the subordinate rulers, who got the position through their association with the Pāla kings. The royal grants issued on their application show their attempts to enhance their local control and position by negotiation with the king. The Pāla kings got the upper hand in this negotiation by countering the attempts of subordinate rulers and strengthening the local control through new measures. Their success however brought out a conjuncture at which social contradictions and tensions exploded as the Kaivarta rebellion, which resulted in their heavy dependence on subordinate rulers.
The so-called Kaivarta rebellion, which occurred in the last quarter of the eleventh century and ... more The so-called Kaivarta rebellion, which occurred in the last quarter of the eleventh century and provided a main theme to Sandhyākaranandin’s Rāmacarita, was a critical event in the early history of Bengal. It was interpreted either as a revolt of subordinate rulers called sāmantas or a case of peasant protests prevalent in rural society of the early medieval India. The minute reading of the Rāmacarita and its contemporary commentary, however, reveals more complicated characteristics of the event. In the present study, I will discuss the characteristics of the rebellion delineated from the Rāmacarita, especially by analysing its phases described in the text, and suggest the social changes which constituted its context. Five phases of rebellion analysed in this study show its overall character as a revolt of sāmantas of Varendra, in which main line of contention was drawn between them and the Pāla kings. On the other hand, the support for rebels and the participation of wider range of social groups witnessed in the last phase of the rebellion point to its character as popular uprising. The rebellion had the social context. First to mention is the growth of kaivartas to landholding groups with their chiefs. Another was the growing tension between the Pāla kings and their subordinate rulers, in which the former tried to enhance their control by counterpoising brāhmaṇas to the latter and tightening their grip of rural society. The enhanced state control and presence of brāhmṇas bred discontent among not only sāmantas but also rural residents. The analysis of the characteristics and social context of the rebellion make us discern the conjuncture in which social contradictions and tensions would explode as such an event.
This article provides a re-edition of the copper plate inscription of Rājyapāla, dated year 2, ke... more This article provides a re-edition of the copper plate inscription of Rājyapāla, dated year 2, kept at Bharat Kala Bhavan, Benares Hindu University. This is so far the only one known grant of the king. It records the royal grant of two villages to a brāhmaṇa, pertaining to Dūtikā viṣaya of Tīra bhukti in northern Bihar. The eulogy recorded in the plate is important in mentioning Mammā, the daughter of a ruler named Govindarāja, the queen of Nārāyaṇapāla and the mother of Rājyapāla, to whom no other inscriptions refer. The inscription is also important as a document, for one line with smaller characters mentioning a village name is added to the last line of the obverse and a sentence of confirmation with later date is given at the end of the inscription. This seems to have been necessitated for either the omission of the name of one village was detected or the village was given additionally, after the issue of grant.
The present article offers the first proper edition of the Rajibpur Copperplate Inscriptions of G... more The present article offers the first proper edition of the Rajibpur Copperplate Inscriptions of Gopāla IV and Madanapāla with discussions on their contents. As the inscriptions pertain to the last phase of the Pāla rule, they provide us important information on their history in the middle of the twelfth century, especially the regency of Madanapāla, his possible usurpation of the throne of Gopāla IV and parallel reigns of both kings for a substantial period. They also attest to Madanapāla’s effort towards fiscal rearrangement and tighter hold over royal estate urged by the shrinking territorial control. The information on recipients and occasions of grants show us the inclination of the Pāla kings towards Purāṇic rituals, common to the other contemporary dynasties in Bengal.
A new copperplate inscription of Vainyagupta, to be presented in this article, is important as on... more A new copperplate inscription of Vainyagupta, to be presented in this article, is important as one of the rare sources that provide a glimpse of the later history of the Ājīvikas. It also tells us about their worship of Maṇibhadra, one of the eminent yakṣas, with interesting information on his iconography. Finally, it gives us some insights into the early history of Samataṭa, a subregion of Bengal on its eastern fringe, as it includes a copy of the grant of an earlier king named Nāthacandra. In this article, I will present an edition of the inscription and discuss some historical aspects revealed by it in connection with other sources.
Bhairabi Prasad Sahu and Hermann Kulke (eds), Interrogating Political Systems: Integrative Processes and States in Pre-modern India, New Delhi: Manohar, 2015
This volume explores the process of social changes which unfolded in rural society of early medie... more This volume explores the process of social changes which unfolded in rural society of early medieval Bengal, especially the formation of stratified land relations and occupational groups which later got systematised as jātis. One of the first books to systematically reconstruct the early history of the region, this book presents a history of the economy, polity, law, and social order of early medieval Bengal through a comprehensive study of land and society. It traces the changing power relations among constituents of rural society and political institutions, and unravels the contradictions growing among them. The author describes the changing forms of agrarian development which were deeply associated with these overarching structures and offers an in-depth analysis of a wide range of textual sources in Sanskrit and other languages, especially contemporary inscriptions pertaining to Bengal. The volume will be an essential resource for researchers and academics interested in the history of Bengal, and the social and economic history of early South Asia.
Pratna Samiksha: A Journal of Archaeology, New Series, 13, 2023
This article provides a revised edition of the Manahali copperplate inscription of Madanapala, da... more This article provides a revised edition of the Manahali copperplate inscription of Madanapala, dated year 8 of his reign (1151/52 ce), based on the digital photographs provided by The Asiatic Society. While the earliest of his three grants, the Rajibpur plate dated year 2, was jointly issued with Gopala IV, his nephew cum predecessor, the present grant was singularly issued by Madanapala. It has some features different from the other two grants issued earlier or later, of which the prominent are the appearance of Paupdravardhana as a name of bhukti which is otherwise called Pupdravardhana and the use of lunar date. These features could be connected with his attempt to assert the control over expanded territory and the superior position against both Gopala IV and Vijayasena, his contenders. The plate also attests to the attempt of Madanapala to consolidate his control through administrative and fiscal rearrangements.
Buddhism, Law & Society, 7, 2021-2022, Apr 20, 2023
From the first epigraphic references in the early sixth century, the Buddhist vihāras in Bengal e... more From the first epigraphic references in the early sixth century, the Buddhist vihāras in Bengal emerged as institutions with extensive landholdings, crucially depending on patronage from temporal powers. In the seventh and eighth centuries, they accumulated more landholdings as widely scattered land plots, a process facilitated by the growth of sub-regional kingships with several layers of rulers and the emergence of stratified land relations engendering tenurial rights. Vihāras also underwent an organizational development that was required for the management of large landholdings. In the ninth and tenth centuries, Buddhist vihāras flourished under regional kingships establishing ever stronger territorial control. The royal patronage conferred on them access to extensive resources and powers in the donated tracts, but also opened a door to political interference and made them a focus of power struggles between kings and their subordinate rulers. The accounts of the Chinese monk Yijing on the practices followed at vihāras in eastern India in the late seventh century complement the picture that can be sketched from the epigraphic sources, with more information on management of landholdings and administration.
Swadhin Sen, Supriya Varma and Bhairabi Prasad Sahu (eds), The Archaeology of Early Medieval and Medieval South Asia: Contesting Narratives from the Eastern Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin, London and New York: Routledge, Nov 30, 2023
Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. Oxford University Press, 2016—, 2022
In the early medieval period (6th–12th centuries), diverse terrains of South Asia experienced the... more In the early medieval period (6th–12th centuries), diverse terrains of South Asia experienced the rise of regional political powers and the socioeconomic development that would later culminate in the formation of regions. Bengal was no exception and saw the plural strands of historical changes and developments, intertwined with each other. In terms of political process, the first phase of the strand consisted of the rise of subregional kingships after the collapse of Gupta rule in the mid-6th century and the growth of subordinate rulers under them in the subsequent centuries. It was followed by the emergence of regional kingships of the Pālas and the Candras traversing several subregions and the enhancement of their powers in relation to subordinate rulers in the period between the mid-8th century and the mid-12th century. The last phase was the integration of almost all the subregions under the Senas, with stronger control over subordinate rulers and rural society in the second half of the 12th century. In terms of social change, the emphasis was on the hierarchization of land relations from the cultivation of moderate plots by the family labor of peasant householders to the management of large landholdings with layers of overlapping land rights, of which the bottom consisted of actual cultivation by agrarian laborers. Social change also came about through the organization of hereditary occupational groups and the systematization of their mutual relations toward a jāti order. The growth of brahmins as a group—by establishing a clearer identity and imposing their authority in social reorganization—constituted another pillar of the historical process. Political and social processes conditioned, as well as were conditioned, by the economic processes of agrarian expansion and the commercialization of rural economy, which proceeded in the subregions of Bengal in different forms and paces.
Pratna Samiksha: A Journal of Archaeology, New Series, 11, 2020, May 6, 2021
This article presents the fifth copperplate inscription explicitly mentioning Sasanka, who was ki... more This article presents the fifth copperplate inscription explicitly mentioning Sasanka, who was king of Gauda in the first quarter of the seventh century CE. Formulated in Sanskrit prose, this document belongs to the class of land-sale grants, and concerns the purchase and donation of a village called Kumudavillika in year 8 of Sasanka’s reign. Among points of interest are the occurrence of the otherwise unknown term naumahattara and the use of the karsapana as a currency unit.
Pratna Samiksha: A Journal of Archaeology, New Series, 2019
The present article offers the edition of the Sujanagar stone inscription of the time of Bhojavar... more The present article offers the edition of the Sujanagar stone inscription of the time of Bhojavarman, year 7, with notes and translation, and the discussion on its contents and implications. The inscription records the two acts of mahasamanta Avudeva, a subordinate ruler of Bhojavarman, in relation to a religious institution called a vihara protected by Allahabhattarakasvamin, namely, the withdrawal of cash endowment and the donation of right to tax at a market. It is the sole inscription mentioning the activity of a subordinate ruler under the Varmans. The transactions recorded in it attests to the developed monetary economy based on cowrie-shells. The inscription can also be the earliest epigraphic evidence for the presence of Islam and Muslims in Bengal, with possible references to a subordinate ruler from Arab or Persian merchant family and his establishment of a madrasa, though we need more evidence to buttress this possibility.
A sub-region of Bengal called Harikela, corresponding to the area around present Chittagong, has ... more A sub-region of Bengal called Harikela, corresponding to the area around present Chittagong, has an interesting historical profile with its closer connection with Arakan and involvement in the vigorous seaborne trade. The peculiarity of this sub-region is also exhibited by a type of inscriptions never found in any other sub-regions of Bengal, namely, lengthy inscriptions on bronze vases. One of them, the inscription of the time of Devātideva on a metal vase kept by Bangladesh National Museum, has important implications for the early history of Harikela as the earliest inscriptional evidence on the subregion so far known to us. Its contents show the progress in state formation, agrarian expansion and complexity of social relations witnessed in Harikela in the eighth century.
Osmund Bopearachchi and Suchandra Ghosh (eds), Early Indian History and Beyond: Essays in Honour of B.D. Chattopadhyaya, Delhi: Primus Books, 2019, pp.155-174.pp., 2019
Agrarian Expansion and rural commercialization may sound contradictory, especially for scholars w... more Agrarian Expansion and rural commercialization may sound contradictory, especially for scholars who support the construct of Indian Feudalism and its core theory of urban decay. The condition of early medieval north Bengal appears to conform to the model of urban decay. Both urban centres and their mercantile elites, which loomed large in the fifth- and sixth-centuries land sale grants, are conspicuous by their absence in the early medieval inscriptions. Coined currency, often connected with commerce as a medium of exchange, is also absent, in contrast to the circulation of Gupta gold and silver coins, attested by the inscriptions of the earlier period. A careful reading of the inscriptions, however, leads to an alternative interpretation-the commercialization of rural society accompanying the expansion of sedentary agriculture and agrarian settlements, all of which saw another phase of progress from the ninth century onwards. This essay discusses the process through a reappraisal of epigraphic and textual sources.
Abdul Momin Chowdhury and Ranabir Chakravarti (eds), History of Bangladesh: Early Bengal in Regional Perspectives (up to c. 1200 CE), Vol.2 Society Economy Culture, Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 2018, pp.43-70., 2018
Some parts were added by the editor presumably for better understanding of the readers. However, ... more Some parts were added by the editor presumably for better understanding of the readers. However, they are sometimes contradictory to my own view and discussions, so that I highlight the parts written by the editor to make my responsibility clear.
B. D. Chattopadhyaya, Suchandra Ghosh and Bishnupriya Basak (eds), Inscriptions and Agrarian Issues in Indian History: Essays in Memory of D. C. Sircar, Kolkata: The Asiatic Society, 2017, pp.168-188.
This is an article based on a paper presented at A Two day National Seminar to observe the birth ... more This is an article based on a paper presented at A Two day National Seminar to observe the birth centenary of Professor D. C. Sircar, on Inscriptions and the Agrarian History of India, held by The Asiatic Society, Kolkata, November 16-17, 2007. As it is published unexpectedly 10 years after the seminar, its content needs to be updated with incorporation of new data and references, especially the new inscriptions published and the revised readings of old ones made later. I herewith upload the article with modification as much as possible for now.
Karashima Noboru and Hirosue Masashi (eds), State Formation and Social Integration in Pre-modern South and Southeast Asia: A Comparative Study of Asian Society, Tokyo: The Toyo Bunko, 2017, pp.73-87., 2017
This is a republished version of my article with the same title, with slight revisions and a map.
Nobuhiro Ota (ed.), Zen-kindai Minami-Ajia Shakai Ni Okeru Matomari To Tsunagari (Clustering and Connections in Pre-Modern South Asian Society), Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 2017
This article constitutes a supplement to my article ‘Brāhmaṇas in Early Medieval Bengal: Construc... more This article constitutes a supplement to my article ‘Brāhmaṇas in Early Medieval Bengal: Construction of their Identity, Networks and Authority’, Indian Historical Review, Vol.40, No.2, 2013, pp.223-248. It provides the data on the inscriptional references to brāhmaṇas, especially donees of land and village grants, as an appendix and gives short remarks and discussions on them.
The political formation in early medieval North India was characterised by subordinate rulers who... more The political formation in early medieval North India was characterised by subordinate rulers who were indispensable components of a monarchical state of the period. Their agency and power relations with the kingship had critical bearings on the early medieval history of Bengal under the Pālas. The epigraphical sources and the Rāmacarita of Sandhyākaranandin show diverse origins of the subordinate rulers, who got the position through their association with the Pāla kings. The royal grants issued on their application show their attempts to enhance their local control and position by negotiation with the king. The Pāla kings got the upper hand in this negotiation by countering the attempts of subordinate rulers and strengthening the local control through new measures. Their success however brought out a conjuncture at which social contradictions and tensions exploded as the Kaivarta rebellion, which resulted in their heavy dependence on subordinate rulers.
The so-called Kaivarta rebellion, which occurred in the last quarter of the eleventh century and ... more The so-called Kaivarta rebellion, which occurred in the last quarter of the eleventh century and provided a main theme to Sandhyākaranandin’s Rāmacarita, was a critical event in the early history of Bengal. It was interpreted either as a revolt of subordinate rulers called sāmantas or a case of peasant protests prevalent in rural society of the early medieval India. The minute reading of the Rāmacarita and its contemporary commentary, however, reveals more complicated characteristics of the event. In the present study, I will discuss the characteristics of the rebellion delineated from the Rāmacarita, especially by analysing its phases described in the text, and suggest the social changes which constituted its context. Five phases of rebellion analysed in this study show its overall character as a revolt of sāmantas of Varendra, in which main line of contention was drawn between them and the Pāla kings. On the other hand, the support for rebels and the participation of wider range of social groups witnessed in the last phase of the rebellion point to its character as popular uprising. The rebellion had the social context. First to mention is the growth of kaivartas to landholding groups with their chiefs. Another was the growing tension between the Pāla kings and their subordinate rulers, in which the former tried to enhance their control by counterpoising brāhmaṇas to the latter and tightening their grip of rural society. The enhanced state control and presence of brāhmṇas bred discontent among not only sāmantas but also rural residents. The analysis of the characteristics and social context of the rebellion make us discern the conjuncture in which social contradictions and tensions would explode as such an event.
This article provides a re-edition of the copper plate inscription of Rājyapāla, dated year 2, ke... more This article provides a re-edition of the copper plate inscription of Rājyapāla, dated year 2, kept at Bharat Kala Bhavan, Benares Hindu University. This is so far the only one known grant of the king. It records the royal grant of two villages to a brāhmaṇa, pertaining to Dūtikā viṣaya of Tīra bhukti in northern Bihar. The eulogy recorded in the plate is important in mentioning Mammā, the daughter of a ruler named Govindarāja, the queen of Nārāyaṇapāla and the mother of Rājyapāla, to whom no other inscriptions refer. The inscription is also important as a document, for one line with smaller characters mentioning a village name is added to the last line of the obverse and a sentence of confirmation with later date is given at the end of the inscription. This seems to have been necessitated for either the omission of the name of one village was detected or the village was given additionally, after the issue of grant.
The present article offers the first proper edition of the Rajibpur Copperplate Inscriptions of G... more The present article offers the first proper edition of the Rajibpur Copperplate Inscriptions of Gopāla IV and Madanapāla with discussions on their contents. As the inscriptions pertain to the last phase of the Pāla rule, they provide us important information on their history in the middle of the twelfth century, especially the regency of Madanapāla, his possible usurpation of the throne of Gopāla IV and parallel reigns of both kings for a substantial period. They also attest to Madanapāla’s effort towards fiscal rearrangement and tighter hold over royal estate urged by the shrinking territorial control. The information on recipients and occasions of grants show us the inclination of the Pāla kings towards Purāṇic rituals, common to the other contemporary dynasties in Bengal.
A new copperplate inscription of Vainyagupta, to be presented in this article, is important as on... more A new copperplate inscription of Vainyagupta, to be presented in this article, is important as one of the rare sources that provide a glimpse of the later history of the Ājīvikas. It also tells us about their worship of Maṇibhadra, one of the eminent yakṣas, with interesting information on his iconography. Finally, it gives us some insights into the early history of Samataṭa, a subregion of Bengal on its eastern fringe, as it includes a copy of the grant of an earlier king named Nāthacandra. In this article, I will present an edition of the inscription and discuss some historical aspects revealed by it in connection with other sources.
Bhairabi Prasad Sahu and Hermann Kulke (eds), Interrogating Political Systems: Integrative Processes and States in Pre-modern India, New Delhi: Manohar, 2015
Bangladesh has many inscriptions unnoticed or not published properly. One of the most interesting... more Bangladesh has many inscriptions unnoticed or not published properly. One of the most interesting among them is the copperplate inscription of the time of Dvādaśāditya from Kotalipada currently kept in Bangladesh National Museum. In the present article, I will provide a critical re-edition of the inscription with notes to the text, translation and discussions on its contents. The style and contents of the inscription attest to Dvādaśādityas identity as a king belonging to the same line as Dharmāditya, Gopacandra and Samācāradeva. The analysis of their plates establishes the chronological order of their reigns. The present plate also reveals a tendency towards more limited participation by local landed magnates in the process of land sale and donation. The donation recorded in it is peculiar for the fact that fourteen or more brāhmaṇa donees are given only a small plot of land.
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One of the first books to systematically reconstruct the early history of the region, this book presents a history of the economy, polity, law, and social order of early medieval Bengal through a comprehensive study of land and society. It traces the changing power relations among constituents of rural society and political institutions, and unravels the contradictions growing among them. The author describes the changing forms of agrarian development which were deeply associated with these overarching structures and offers an in-depth analysis of a wide range of textual sources in Sanskrit and other languages, especially contemporary inscriptions pertaining to Bengal.
The volume will be an essential resource for researchers and academics interested in the history of Bengal, and the social and economic history of early South Asia.
subsequent centuries. It was followed by the emergence of regional kingships of the Pālas and the Candras traversing several subregions and the enhancement of their powers in relation to subordinate rulers in the period between the mid-8th century and the mid-12th century. The last phase was the integration of almost all the subregions under the Senas, with stronger control over subordinate rulers and rural society in the second half of the 12th century. In terms of social change, the emphasis was on the hierarchization of land relations from the cultivation of moderate plots by the family labor of peasant householders to the management of large landholdings with layers of overlapping land rights, of which the bottom consisted of actual cultivation by agrarian laborers.
Social change also came about through the organization of hereditary occupational groups and the systematization of their mutual relations toward a jāti order. The growth of brahmins as a group—by establishing a clearer identity and imposing their authority in social reorganization—constituted another pillar of the historical process. Political and social processes conditioned, as well as were conditioned, by the economic processes of agrarian expansion and the commercialization of rural economy, which proceeded in the subregions of Bengal in different forms and paces.
Five phases of rebellion analysed in this study show its overall character as a revolt of sāmantas of Varendra, in which main line of contention was drawn between them and the Pāla kings. On the other hand, the support for rebels and the participation of wider range of social groups witnessed in the last phase of the rebellion point to its character as popular uprising.
The rebellion had the social context. First to mention is the growth of kaivartas to landholding groups with their chiefs. Another was the growing tension between the Pāla kings and their subordinate rulers, in which the former tried to enhance their control by counterpoising brāhmaṇas to the latter and tightening their grip of rural society. The enhanced state control and presence of brāhmṇas bred discontent among not only sāmantas but also rural residents. The analysis of the characteristics and social context of the rebellion make us discern the conjuncture in which social contradictions and tensions would explode as such an event.
eulogy recorded in the plate is important in mentioning Mammā, the daughter of a ruler named Govindarāja, the queen of Nārāyaṇapāla and the mother of Rājyapāla, to whom no other inscriptions refer. The inscription is also important as a document, for one line with smaller characters mentioning a village name is added to the last line of the obverse and a sentence of confirmation with later date is given at the end of the inscription. This seems to have been necessitated for either the omission of the name of one village was detected or the village was given additionally, after the issue of grant.
One of the first books to systematically reconstruct the early history of the region, this book presents a history of the economy, polity, law, and social order of early medieval Bengal through a comprehensive study of land and society. It traces the changing power relations among constituents of rural society and political institutions, and unravels the contradictions growing among them. The author describes the changing forms of agrarian development which were deeply associated with these overarching structures and offers an in-depth analysis of a wide range of textual sources in Sanskrit and other languages, especially contemporary inscriptions pertaining to Bengal.
The volume will be an essential resource for researchers and academics interested in the history of Bengal, and the social and economic history of early South Asia.
subsequent centuries. It was followed by the emergence of regional kingships of the Pālas and the Candras traversing several subregions and the enhancement of their powers in relation to subordinate rulers in the period between the mid-8th century and the mid-12th century. The last phase was the integration of almost all the subregions under the Senas, with stronger control over subordinate rulers and rural society in the second half of the 12th century. In terms of social change, the emphasis was on the hierarchization of land relations from the cultivation of moderate plots by the family labor of peasant householders to the management of large landholdings with layers of overlapping land rights, of which the bottom consisted of actual cultivation by agrarian laborers.
Social change also came about through the organization of hereditary occupational groups and the systematization of their mutual relations toward a jāti order. The growth of brahmins as a group—by establishing a clearer identity and imposing their authority in social reorganization—constituted another pillar of the historical process. Political and social processes conditioned, as well as were conditioned, by the economic processes of agrarian expansion and the commercialization of rural economy, which proceeded in the subregions of Bengal in different forms and paces.
Five phases of rebellion analysed in this study show its overall character as a revolt of sāmantas of Varendra, in which main line of contention was drawn between them and the Pāla kings. On the other hand, the support for rebels and the participation of wider range of social groups witnessed in the last phase of the rebellion point to its character as popular uprising.
The rebellion had the social context. First to mention is the growth of kaivartas to landholding groups with their chiefs. Another was the growing tension between the Pāla kings and their subordinate rulers, in which the former tried to enhance their control by counterpoising brāhmaṇas to the latter and tightening their grip of rural society. The enhanced state control and presence of brāhmṇas bred discontent among not only sāmantas but also rural residents. The analysis of the characteristics and social context of the rebellion make us discern the conjuncture in which social contradictions and tensions would explode as such an event.
eulogy recorded in the plate is important in mentioning Mammā, the daughter of a ruler named Govindarāja, the queen of Nārāyaṇapāla and the mother of Rājyapāla, to whom no other inscriptions refer. The inscription is also important as a document, for one line with smaller characters mentioning a village name is added to the last line of the obverse and a sentence of confirmation with later date is given at the end of the inscription. This seems to have been necessitated for either the omission of the name of one village was detected or the village was given additionally, after the issue of grant.