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Sonia Zarrillo

University of British Columbia, Anthropology, Research Associate

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I am an anthropological archaeologist with a specialization in paleoethnobotany - the study of the interaction between people and plants in the past. My primary region of study is the Central Andes, including adjacent tropical forest areas, with a secondary interest in North America Plains.

I am particularly interested in human adaptation, socio-cultural, and biological evolution.

Paleoethnobotany, Archaeology, Environmental Archaeology, Human-Environmental Interactions, Biological Anthropology, Landscape Archaeology, Evolutionary and Behavioral Ecology, Origins of Agriculture, Archaeology of the Great Plains and South America, Microscopy, Photomicroscopy, Technical analysis in archaeology, Traditional knowledge and use studies.

I am a Registered Professional Archaeologist.

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Papers by Sonia Zarrillo

A revisited history of cacao domestication in pre-Columbian times revealed by archaeogenomic approaches

by Sonia Zarrillo and Sarah Rowe

Scientific Reports, 2024

Humans have a long history of transporting and trading plants, contributing to the evolution of d... more Humans have a long history of transporting and trading plants, contributing to the evolution of domesticated plants. Theobroma cacao originated in the Neotropics from South America. However, little is known about its domestication and use in these regions. In this study, ceramic residues from a large sample of pre-Columbian cultures from South and Central America were analyzed using archaeogenomic and biochemical approaches. Here we show, for the first time, the widespread use of cacao in South America out of its native Amazonian area of origin, extending back 5000 years, likely supported by cultural interactions between the Amazon and the Pacific coast. We observed that strong genetic mixing between geographically distant cacao populations occurred as early as the middle Holocene, in South America, driven by humans, favoring the adaptation of T. cacao to new environments. This complex history of cacao domestication is the basis of today's cacao tree populations and its knowledge can help us better manage their genetic resources.

Fire as high-elevation cold adaptation: An evaluation of fuels and Terminal Pleistocene combustion in the Central Andes

by Emily Milton and Sonia Zarrillo

Quaternary Science Reviews, 2023

The use of fire constitutes an essential cultural adaptation to cold, and archaeological evidence... more The use of fire constitutes an essential cultural adaptation to cold, and archaeological evidence for fire can be expected in high-latitude and high-elevation regions successfully inhabited by modern humans. At Cuncaicha rockshelter (4480 m above sea level, or masl) in the southern Peruvian Andes, evidence for fire is present from the earliest occupation, dating to the Terminal Pleistocene (∼12,500–11,200 cal BP). Yet, the site contains relatively few identifiable carbonized macrobotanical remains useful for identifying plants employed as combustible fuel. Based on a comprehensive review of nearly 40 early Andean archaeological sites above 2500 masl, little is known about fuels used for combustion. To understand fuel selection strategies at Cuncaicha, we conducted a combustion field experiment, evaluating the three highland plant taxa most likely to have been used as combustible fuels: Polylepis rugulosa (queñua) tree branches, Parastrephia spp. (tola) woody shrubs, and Azorella compacta (yareta) cushion plants. Temperature measurements informed on the combustion characteristics and efficiency of each fuel. We then compared the experimentally-produced fire residues to the geoarchaeological evidence from Cuncaicha. The resinous cushion plant yareta, endemic to the high Andes, may have been the primary fuel used at Cuncaicha based on the experiment outcome and the geoarchaeological evidence. Due to its high-temperature and complete combustion, yareta leaves little to no macrobotanical evidence, thus its identification at other Andean sites may require a multi-methodological approach. Because the geographic range of this plant corresponds with most early archaeological sites in the high Andes, yareta may have been a key resource enabling early settlement throughout the region.

Ancient Cacao Map, Version 1.0: An Online Database and Mapping Program for Studying the Archaeology of Cacao in the Americas

Human Adaptation. Food Production. amd Cultural Interaction during the Formative Period in Highland Ecuador

Dean’s Research Excellence Award, a SSHRCC CGS Scholarship, the Friend’s of Head-Smashed-In Schol... more Dean’s Research Excellence Award, a SSHRCC CGS Scholarship, the Friend’s of Head-Smashed-In Scholarship (on two occasions), the Dean’s Entrance Scholarship, a SSHRCC Doctoral Fellowship, an Honorary Izaak Walton Killam Memorial Award, the Martha Biggar Anders Memorial Award (on three occasions), a University of Calgary Silver Anniversary Graduate Fellowship, a University of Calgary Graduate Research Scholarship, a University of Calgary Graduate Studies Scholarship, an International Fee Differential Travel Grant, a Faculty of Graduate Studies Travel Award, a Graduate Students Association Professional Development Grant, and a Student Activities Fund Travel Grant. In addition, I was particularly honoured to receive the J.B. Hyne Research Innovation Award.

Evidencias del cultivo de maíz

Clues to Cacao from the Ecuadorian Upper Amazon

The use and domestication of Theobroma cacao during the mid-Holocene in the upper Amazon

Nature ecology & evolution, Jan 29, 2018

Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important economic crop, yet studies of its domestication histor... more Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important economic crop, yet studies of its domestication history and early uses are limited. Traditionally, cacao is thought to have been first domesticated in Mesoamerica. However, genomic research shows that T. cacao's greatest diversity is in the upper Amazon region of northwest South America, pointing to this region as its centre of origin. Here, we report cacao use identified by three independent lines of archaeological evidence-cacao starch grains, absorbed theobromine residues and ancient DNA-dating from approximately 5,300 years ago recovered from the Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF) site in southeast Ecuador. To our knowledge, these findings constitute the earliest evidence of T. cacao use in the Americas and the first unequivocal archaeological example of its pre-Columbian use in South America. They also reveal the upper Amazon region as the oldest centre of cacao domestication yet identified.

Cuncaicha Rockshelter, a Key Site for Understanding Colonization of the High Andes

Current Anthropology, 2016

Evidencias del cultivo de maíz y de otras plantas en la ceja de selva oriental ecuatoriana (Evidence for the cultivation of maize and other plants in the Ecuadorian Upper Amazon)

El Periodo Formativo en el Ecuador ha sido tradicionalmente estudiado desde la óptica de la costa... more El Periodo Formativo en el Ecuador ha sido tradicionalmente estudiado desde la óptica de la costa - desde donde el modo de vida sedentario y agrícola se extendió hacia las tierras altas. Nuevas investigaciones efectuadas en el sitio Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF), ubicado en la vertiente oriental de los Andes ha permitido la recuperación de grainulos de almidón de varias plantas (in cluyendo maíz) del interior de varios recipientes. Estos resultados sugieren la necesidad de un replanteamiento de la opinión tradicional sobre los estímulos que conllevan al proceso de la complejidad social en los Andes ecuatorianos. Por otro lado, se suscita nuevamente el interés sobre las teorías más antiguas de la expansión cultural (o de su influencia) de las culturas del bosque tropical amazónico y de las rutas de trasmisión del cultivo del maíz en América del Sur.

Starch Fossils and the Domestication and Dispersal of Chili Peppers (Capsicum spp. L.) in the Americas

Science, 2007

Chili peppers ( Capsicum spp.) are widely cultivated food plants that arose in the Americas and a... more Chili peppers ( Capsicum spp.) are widely cultivated food plants that arose in the Americas and are now incorporated into cuisines worldwide. Here, we report a genus-specific starch morphotype that provides a means to identify chili peppers from archaeological contexts and trace both their domestication and dispersal. These starch microfossils have been found at seven sites dating from 6000 years before present to European contact and ranging from the Bahamas to southern Peru. The starch grain assemblages demonstrate that maize and chilies occurred together as an ancient and widespread Neotropical plant food complex that predates pottery in some regions.

Evidence for Berry and Maize Processing on the Canadian Plains from Starch Grain Analysis

American Antiquity, 2006

The ethnographic and ethnohistoric records from the Northern and Canadian Plains indicate that a ... more The ethnographic and ethnohistoric records from the Northern and Canadian Plains indicate that a variety of plants were utilized by past peoples. These accounts provide two important insights into plant use in this region where very little archaeological evidence exists for plant utilization. First, plant processing tools are most likely to be unmodified lithic tools that may escape our recognition. Second, a variety of plants, which can be identified via starch grain analysis, were processed with these tools. This project analyzed the residues from two unmodified lithic grinding tools, identified as possible plant processing tools, for starch grains. Our results indicate that not only were a nuinber of wild plant species, such as choke cherry (Prunus virginiana), saskatoon berry (Amelanchier alnifolia) and likely prairie turnip (Psoralea esculenta), processed with these implements, but so too was maize (Zea mays). These results not only provide important insight with respect to identifying a tool class, plant use, and trade within our study area, but also provide an exceptional window into the use of wild plant species, an aspect of human history that is poorly understood in many regions of the world in addition to the Northern Plains.

Directly dated starch residues document early formative maize (Zea mays L.) in tropical Ecuador

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2008

The study of maize ( Zea mays L.) domestication has advanced from questions of its origins to the... more The study of maize ( Zea mays L.) domestication has advanced from questions of its origins to the study—and debate—of its dietary role and the timing of its dispersal from Mexico. Because the investigation of maize's spread is hampered by poor preservation of macrobotanical remains in the Neotropics, research has focused on microbotanical remains whose contexts are often dated by association, leading some to question the dates assigned. Furthermore, some scholars have argued that maize was not introduced to southwestern Ecuador until ≈4150–3850 calendar years before the present (cal B.P.), that it was used first and foremost as a fermented beverage in ceremonial contexts, and that it was not important in everyday subsistence, challenging previous studies based on maize starch and phytoliths. To further investigate these questions, we analyzed every-day cooking vessels, food-processing implements, and sediments for starch and phytoliths from an archaeological site in southwestern...

Early Cacao Use in the Upper Amazon of South America

The archaeological site of Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF), located in the Ecuadorian upper Amazon, i... more The archaeological site of Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF), located in the Ecuadorian upper Amazon, is in the region of Theobroma spp. greatest genetic diversity, thus making it ideal to investigate the origins of domestication of this enigmatic tree. We present research showing that the residents of SALF were involved in the domestication of cacao, traditionally thought to have been first domesticated in Mesoamerica and/or Central America. We used three independent lines of evidence—starch grains, theobromine residues and ancient DNA—dating from approximately 5,300 years ago, to establish the earliest evidence of T. cacao use in the Americas, the first unequivocal archaeological example of its pre-Columbian use in South America and reveal the upper Amazon region as the oldest centre of cacao domestication yet identified. We suggest that new paleoethnobotanical research will expand our knowledge of this process, including the timing, locations, and uses of cacao by Indigenous South Amer...

The Secret Life of Cacao in the Ecuadorian Upper Amazon

Origen de la Domesticacíon del cacao y su uso temprano en Ecuador. (Origin of the domestication of cacao and its early use in Ecuador)

Tradicionalmente se ha sostenido que el punto de origen del la domesticacíon del cacao se encontr... more Tradicionalmente se ha sostenido que el punto de origen del la domesticacíon del cacao se encontraba en Mesoamérica (entre Mexíco, Guatemala y Honduras) donde su uso está atestiguado de 2000 años antes de Christo. No obstante, estudios recientes demuestran que por lo menos una variedad de Theobroma cacao tiene su punto de origen en la Alta Amazonía y que ha estado siendo utilizada en la región por más de 5000 años. Traditionally it has been argued that the point of origin for the domestication cacoa was in Mesoamerica (between Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras) where its use is attested from 2000 years before Christ. However, recent studies show that at least one variety of Theobroma cacao has its point of origin in the Upper Amazon and that it has been used in the region for over 5000 years.

Paleoindian settlement of the high-altitude Peruvian Andes

Science (New York, N.Y.), Jan 24, 2014

Study of human adaptation to extreme environments is important for understanding our cultural and... more Study of human adaptation to extreme environments is important for understanding our cultural and genetic capacity for survival. The Pucuncho Basin in the southern Peruvian Andes contains the highest-altitude Pleistocene archaeological sites yet identified in the world, about 900 meters above confidently dated contemporary sites. The Pucuncho workshop site [4355 meters above sea level (masl)] includes two fishtail projectile points, which date to about 12.8 to 11.5 thousand years ago (ka). Cuncaicha rock shelter (4480 masl) has a robust, well-preserved, and well-dated occupation sequence spanning the past 12.4 thousand years (ky), with 21 dates older than 11.5 ka. Our results demonstrate that despite cold temperatures and low-oxygen conditions, hunter-gatherers colonized extreme high-altitude Andean environments in the Terminal Pleistocene, within about 2 ky of the initial entry of humans to South America.

The use and domestication of Theobroma cacao during the mid-Holocene in the upper Amazon - Main Text

by Sonia Zarrillo and Francisco Valdez

Nature Ecology and Evolution, 2018

Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important economic crop, yet studies of its domestication histor... more Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important economic crop, yet studies of its domestication history and early uses are limited. Traditionally, cacao is thought to have been first domesticated in Mesoamerica. However, genomic research shows that T. cacao’s greatest diversity is in the upper Amazon region of northwest South America, pointing to this region as its centre of origin. Here, we report cacao use identified by three independent lines of archaeological evidence—cacao starch grains, absorbed theobromine residues and ancient DNA—dating from approximately 5,300 years ago recovered from the Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF) site in southeast Ecuador. To our knowledge, these findings constitute the earliest evidence of T. cacao use in the Americas and the first unequivocal archaeological example of its pre-Columbian use in South America. They also reveal the upper Amazon region as the oldest centre of cacao domestication yet identified.

The use and domestication of Theobroma cacao during the mid-Holocene in the upper Amazon

by Sonia Zarrillo, Christopher Viot, Patrick Severts, and Francisco Valdez

Nature Ecology and Evolution, 2018

Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important economic crop, yet studies of its domestication histor... more Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important economic crop, yet studies of its domestication history and early uses are limited. Traditionally, cacao is thought to have been first domesticated in Mesoamerica. However, genomic research shows that T. cacao’s greatest diversity is in the upper Amazon region of northwest South America, pointing to this region as its centre of origin. Here, we report cacao use identified by three independent lines of archaeological evidence—cacao starch grains, absorbed theobromine residues and ancient DNA—dating from approximately 5,300 years ago recovered from the Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF) site in southeast Ecuador. To our knowledge, these findings constitute the earliest evidence of T. cacao use in the Americas and the first unequivocal archaeological example of its pre-Columbian use in South America. They also reveal the upper Amazon region as the oldest centre of cacao domestication yet identified.

Starch Fossils and the Domestication and Dispersal of Chili Peppers (Capsicum Spp. L.) In the Americas

by Anthony Ranere, Dan Sandweiss, James Zeidler, J. Raymond, and Sonia Zarrillo

Science, Jan 1, 2007

Evidencias del cultivo de maíz y de otras plantas en la ceja de selva oriental ecuatoriana (Evidence for the cultivation of maize and other plants in the Ecuadorian Upper Amazon)

by Sonia Zarrillo and Francisco Valdez

El Periodo Formativo en el Ecuador ha sido tradicionalmente estudiado desde la óptica de la costa... more El Periodo Formativo en el Ecuador ha sido tradicionalmente estudiado desde la óptica de la costa - desde donde el modo de vida sedentario y agrícola se extendió hacia las tierras altas. Nuevas investigaciones efectuadas en el sitio Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF), ubicado en la vertiente oriental de los Andes ha permitido la recuperación de grainulos de almidón de varias plantas (in cluyendo maíz) del interior de varios recipientes. Estos resultados sugieren la necesidad de un replanteamiento de la opinión tradicional sobre los estímulos que conllevan al proceso de la complejidad social en los Andes ecuatorianos. Por otro lado, se suscita nuevamente el interés sobre las teorías más antiguas de la expansión cultural (o de su influencia) de las culturas del bosque tropical amazónico y de las rutas de trasmisión del cultivo del maíz en América del Sur.

A revisited history of cacao domestication in pre-Columbian times revealed by archaeogenomic approaches

by Sonia Zarrillo and Sarah Rowe

Scientific Reports, 2024

Humans have a long history of transporting and trading plants, contributing to the evolution of d... more Humans have a long history of transporting and trading plants, contributing to the evolution of domesticated plants. Theobroma cacao originated in the Neotropics from South America. However, little is known about its domestication and use in these regions. In this study, ceramic residues from a large sample of pre-Columbian cultures from South and Central America were analyzed using archaeogenomic and biochemical approaches. Here we show, for the first time, the widespread use of cacao in South America out of its native Amazonian area of origin, extending back 5000 years, likely supported by cultural interactions between the Amazon and the Pacific coast. We observed that strong genetic mixing between geographically distant cacao populations occurred as early as the middle Holocene, in South America, driven by humans, favoring the adaptation of T. cacao to new environments. This complex history of cacao domestication is the basis of today's cacao tree populations and its knowledge can help us better manage their genetic resources.

Fire as high-elevation cold adaptation: An evaluation of fuels and Terminal Pleistocene combustion in the Central Andes

by Emily Milton and Sonia Zarrillo

Quaternary Science Reviews, 2023

The use of fire constitutes an essential cultural adaptation to cold, and archaeological evidence... more The use of fire constitutes an essential cultural adaptation to cold, and archaeological evidence for fire can be expected in high-latitude and high-elevation regions successfully inhabited by modern humans. At Cuncaicha rockshelter (4480 m above sea level, or masl) in the southern Peruvian Andes, evidence for fire is present from the earliest occupation, dating to the Terminal Pleistocene (∼12,500–11,200 cal BP). Yet, the site contains relatively few identifiable carbonized macrobotanical remains useful for identifying plants employed as combustible fuel. Based on a comprehensive review of nearly 40 early Andean archaeological sites above 2500 masl, little is known about fuels used for combustion. To understand fuel selection strategies at Cuncaicha, we conducted a combustion field experiment, evaluating the three highland plant taxa most likely to have been used as combustible fuels: Polylepis rugulosa (queñua) tree branches, Parastrephia spp. (tola) woody shrubs, and Azorella compacta (yareta) cushion plants. Temperature measurements informed on the combustion characteristics and efficiency of each fuel. We then compared the experimentally-produced fire residues to the geoarchaeological evidence from Cuncaicha. The resinous cushion plant yareta, endemic to the high Andes, may have been the primary fuel used at Cuncaicha based on the experiment outcome and the geoarchaeological evidence. Due to its high-temperature and complete combustion, yareta leaves little to no macrobotanical evidence, thus its identification at other Andean sites may require a multi-methodological approach. Because the geographic range of this plant corresponds with most early archaeological sites in the high Andes, yareta may have been a key resource enabling early settlement throughout the region.

Ancient Cacao Map, Version 1.0: An Online Database and Mapping Program for Studying the Archaeology of Cacao in the Americas

Human Adaptation. Food Production. amd Cultural Interaction during the Formative Period in Highland Ecuador

Dean’s Research Excellence Award, a SSHRCC CGS Scholarship, the Friend’s of Head-Smashed-In Schol... more Dean’s Research Excellence Award, a SSHRCC CGS Scholarship, the Friend’s of Head-Smashed-In Scholarship (on two occasions), the Dean’s Entrance Scholarship, a SSHRCC Doctoral Fellowship, an Honorary Izaak Walton Killam Memorial Award, the Martha Biggar Anders Memorial Award (on three occasions), a University of Calgary Silver Anniversary Graduate Fellowship, a University of Calgary Graduate Research Scholarship, a University of Calgary Graduate Studies Scholarship, an International Fee Differential Travel Grant, a Faculty of Graduate Studies Travel Award, a Graduate Students Association Professional Development Grant, and a Student Activities Fund Travel Grant. In addition, I was particularly honoured to receive the J.B. Hyne Research Innovation Award.

Evidencias del cultivo de maíz

Clues to Cacao from the Ecuadorian Upper Amazon

The use and domestication of Theobroma cacao during the mid-Holocene in the upper Amazon

Nature ecology & evolution, Jan 29, 2018

Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important economic crop, yet studies of its domestication histor... more Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important economic crop, yet studies of its domestication history and early uses are limited. Traditionally, cacao is thought to have been first domesticated in Mesoamerica. However, genomic research shows that T. cacao's greatest diversity is in the upper Amazon region of northwest South America, pointing to this region as its centre of origin. Here, we report cacao use identified by three independent lines of archaeological evidence-cacao starch grains, absorbed theobromine residues and ancient DNA-dating from approximately 5,300 years ago recovered from the Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF) site in southeast Ecuador. To our knowledge, these findings constitute the earliest evidence of T. cacao use in the Americas and the first unequivocal archaeological example of its pre-Columbian use in South America. They also reveal the upper Amazon region as the oldest centre of cacao domestication yet identified.

Cuncaicha Rockshelter, a Key Site for Understanding Colonization of the High Andes

Current Anthropology, 2016

Evidencias del cultivo de maíz y de otras plantas en la ceja de selva oriental ecuatoriana (Evidence for the cultivation of maize and other plants in the Ecuadorian Upper Amazon)

El Periodo Formativo en el Ecuador ha sido tradicionalmente estudiado desde la óptica de la costa... more El Periodo Formativo en el Ecuador ha sido tradicionalmente estudiado desde la óptica de la costa - desde donde el modo de vida sedentario y agrícola se extendió hacia las tierras altas. Nuevas investigaciones efectuadas en el sitio Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF), ubicado en la vertiente oriental de los Andes ha permitido la recuperación de grainulos de almidón de varias plantas (in cluyendo maíz) del interior de varios recipientes. Estos resultados sugieren la necesidad de un replanteamiento de la opinión tradicional sobre los estímulos que conllevan al proceso de la complejidad social en los Andes ecuatorianos. Por otro lado, se suscita nuevamente el interés sobre las teorías más antiguas de la expansión cultural (o de su influencia) de las culturas del bosque tropical amazónico y de las rutas de trasmisión del cultivo del maíz en América del Sur.

Starch Fossils and the Domestication and Dispersal of Chili Peppers (Capsicum spp. L.) in the Americas

Science, 2007

Chili peppers ( Capsicum spp.) are widely cultivated food plants that arose in the Americas and a... more Chili peppers ( Capsicum spp.) are widely cultivated food plants that arose in the Americas and are now incorporated into cuisines worldwide. Here, we report a genus-specific starch morphotype that provides a means to identify chili peppers from archaeological contexts and trace both their domestication and dispersal. These starch microfossils have been found at seven sites dating from 6000 years before present to European contact and ranging from the Bahamas to southern Peru. The starch grain assemblages demonstrate that maize and chilies occurred together as an ancient and widespread Neotropical plant food complex that predates pottery in some regions.

Evidence for Berry and Maize Processing on the Canadian Plains from Starch Grain Analysis

American Antiquity, 2006

The ethnographic and ethnohistoric records from the Northern and Canadian Plains indicate that a ... more The ethnographic and ethnohistoric records from the Northern and Canadian Plains indicate that a variety of plants were utilized by past peoples. These accounts provide two important insights into plant use in this region where very little archaeological evidence exists for plant utilization. First, plant processing tools are most likely to be unmodified lithic tools that may escape our recognition. Second, a variety of plants, which can be identified via starch grain analysis, were processed with these tools. This project analyzed the residues from two unmodified lithic grinding tools, identified as possible plant processing tools, for starch grains. Our results indicate that not only were a nuinber of wild plant species, such as choke cherry (Prunus virginiana), saskatoon berry (Amelanchier alnifolia) and likely prairie turnip (Psoralea esculenta), processed with these implements, but so too was maize (Zea mays). These results not only provide important insight with respect to identifying a tool class, plant use, and trade within our study area, but also provide an exceptional window into the use of wild plant species, an aspect of human history that is poorly understood in many regions of the world in addition to the Northern Plains.

Directly dated starch residues document early formative maize (Zea mays L.) in tropical Ecuador

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2008

The study of maize ( Zea mays L.) domestication has advanced from questions of its origins to the... more The study of maize ( Zea mays L.) domestication has advanced from questions of its origins to the study—and debate—of its dietary role and the timing of its dispersal from Mexico. Because the investigation of maize's spread is hampered by poor preservation of macrobotanical remains in the Neotropics, research has focused on microbotanical remains whose contexts are often dated by association, leading some to question the dates assigned. Furthermore, some scholars have argued that maize was not introduced to southwestern Ecuador until ≈4150–3850 calendar years before the present (cal B.P.), that it was used first and foremost as a fermented beverage in ceremonial contexts, and that it was not important in everyday subsistence, challenging previous studies based on maize starch and phytoliths. To further investigate these questions, we analyzed every-day cooking vessels, food-processing implements, and sediments for starch and phytoliths from an archaeological site in southwestern...

Early Cacao Use in the Upper Amazon of South America

The archaeological site of Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF), located in the Ecuadorian upper Amazon, i... more The archaeological site of Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF), located in the Ecuadorian upper Amazon, is in the region of Theobroma spp. greatest genetic diversity, thus making it ideal to investigate the origins of domestication of this enigmatic tree. We present research showing that the residents of SALF were involved in the domestication of cacao, traditionally thought to have been first domesticated in Mesoamerica and/or Central America. We used three independent lines of evidence—starch grains, theobromine residues and ancient DNA—dating from approximately 5,300 years ago, to establish the earliest evidence of T. cacao use in the Americas, the first unequivocal archaeological example of its pre-Columbian use in South America and reveal the upper Amazon region as the oldest centre of cacao domestication yet identified. We suggest that new paleoethnobotanical research will expand our knowledge of this process, including the timing, locations, and uses of cacao by Indigenous South Amer...

The Secret Life of Cacao in the Ecuadorian Upper Amazon

Origen de la Domesticacíon del cacao y su uso temprano en Ecuador. (Origin of the domestication of cacao and its early use in Ecuador)

Tradicionalmente se ha sostenido que el punto de origen del la domesticacíon del cacao se encontr... more Tradicionalmente se ha sostenido que el punto de origen del la domesticacíon del cacao se encontraba en Mesoamérica (entre Mexíco, Guatemala y Honduras) donde su uso está atestiguado de 2000 años antes de Christo. No obstante, estudios recientes demuestran que por lo menos una variedad de Theobroma cacao tiene su punto de origen en la Alta Amazonía y que ha estado siendo utilizada en la región por más de 5000 años. Traditionally it has been argued that the point of origin for the domestication cacoa was in Mesoamerica (between Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras) where its use is attested from 2000 years before Christ. However, recent studies show that at least one variety of Theobroma cacao has its point of origin in the Upper Amazon and that it has been used in the region for over 5000 years.

Paleoindian settlement of the high-altitude Peruvian Andes

Science (New York, N.Y.), Jan 24, 2014

Study of human adaptation to extreme environments is important for understanding our cultural and... more Study of human adaptation to extreme environments is important for understanding our cultural and genetic capacity for survival. The Pucuncho Basin in the southern Peruvian Andes contains the highest-altitude Pleistocene archaeological sites yet identified in the world, about 900 meters above confidently dated contemporary sites. The Pucuncho workshop site [4355 meters above sea level (masl)] includes two fishtail projectile points, which date to about 12.8 to 11.5 thousand years ago (ka). Cuncaicha rock shelter (4480 masl) has a robust, well-preserved, and well-dated occupation sequence spanning the past 12.4 thousand years (ky), with 21 dates older than 11.5 ka. Our results demonstrate that despite cold temperatures and low-oxygen conditions, hunter-gatherers colonized extreme high-altitude Andean environments in the Terminal Pleistocene, within about 2 ky of the initial entry of humans to South America.

The use and domestication of Theobroma cacao during the mid-Holocene in the upper Amazon - Main Text

by Sonia Zarrillo and Francisco Valdez

Nature Ecology and Evolution, 2018

Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important economic crop, yet studies of its domestication histor... more Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important economic crop, yet studies of its domestication history and early uses are limited. Traditionally, cacao is thought to have been first domesticated in Mesoamerica. However, genomic research shows that T. cacao’s greatest diversity is in the upper Amazon region of northwest South America, pointing to this region as its centre of origin. Here, we report cacao use identified by three independent lines of archaeological evidence—cacao starch grains, absorbed theobromine residues and ancient DNA—dating from approximately 5,300 years ago recovered from the Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF) site in southeast Ecuador. To our knowledge, these findings constitute the earliest evidence of T. cacao use in the Americas and the first unequivocal archaeological example of its pre-Columbian use in South America. They also reveal the upper Amazon region as the oldest centre of cacao domestication yet identified.

The use and domestication of Theobroma cacao during the mid-Holocene in the upper Amazon

by Sonia Zarrillo, Christopher Viot, Patrick Severts, and Francisco Valdez

Nature Ecology and Evolution, 2018

Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important economic crop, yet studies of its domestication histor... more Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important economic crop, yet studies of its domestication history and early uses are limited. Traditionally, cacao is thought to have been first domesticated in Mesoamerica. However, genomic research shows that T. cacao’s greatest diversity is in the upper Amazon region of northwest South America, pointing to this region as its centre of origin. Here, we report cacao use identified by three independent lines of archaeological evidence—cacao starch grains, absorbed theobromine residues and ancient DNA—dating from approximately 5,300 years ago recovered from the Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF) site in southeast Ecuador. To our knowledge, these findings constitute the earliest evidence of T. cacao use in the Americas and the first unequivocal archaeological example of its pre-Columbian use in South America. They also reveal the upper Amazon region as the oldest centre of cacao domestication yet identified.

Starch Fossils and the Domestication and Dispersal of Chili Peppers (Capsicum Spp. L.) In the Americas

by Anthony Ranere, Dan Sandweiss, James Zeidler, J. Raymond, and Sonia Zarrillo

Science, Jan 1, 2007

Evidencias del cultivo de maíz y de otras plantas en la ceja de selva oriental ecuatoriana (Evidence for the cultivation of maize and other plants in the Ecuadorian Upper Amazon)

by Sonia Zarrillo and Francisco Valdez

El Periodo Formativo en el Ecuador ha sido tradicionalmente estudiado desde la óptica de la costa... more El Periodo Formativo en el Ecuador ha sido tradicionalmente estudiado desde la óptica de la costa - desde donde el modo de vida sedentario y agrícola se extendió hacia las tierras altas. Nuevas investigaciones efectuadas en el sitio Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF), ubicado en la vertiente oriental de los Andes ha permitido la recuperación de grainulos de almidón de varias plantas (in cluyendo maíz) del interior de varios recipientes. Estos resultados sugieren la necesidad de un replanteamiento de la opinión tradicional sobre los estímulos que conllevan al proceso de la complejidad social en los Andes ecuatorianos. Por otro lado, se suscita nuevamente el interés sobre las teorías más antiguas de la expansión cultural (o de su influencia) de las culturas del bosque tropical amazónico y de las rutas de trasmisión del cultivo del maíz en América del Sur.

Tracing the movement of ancient cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) in the Americas: new approaches.

by Sonia Zarrillo and Michael Blake

Waves of Influence: Revisiting Coastal Connections between Pre-Columbian Northwest South America ... more