James B. Apple is full Professor of Buddhist Studies at the University of Calgary. He received his doctorate in Buddhist Studies from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. His current research focuses upon the critical analysis of Mahāyāna sūtras and topics within Indian and Tibetan Buddhist scholasticism. Phone: +1 (403) 220-8267 Address: Social Sciences #532
Department of Classics and Religion
2500 University Drive N.W.
Calgary, AB T2N 1N4
Canada
This philological study presents a collation of Old Tibetan Dunhuang fragments of the Avaivartika... more This philological study presents a collation of Old Tibetan Dunhuang fragments of the Avaivartikacakrasūtra compared against a text-critical edition of Tibetan Kanjurs. The Avaivartikacakrasūtra is a Mahāyāna Buddhist discourse that describes how bodhisattvas become irreversible (avaivartika) from perfect Buddhahood and how they achieve irreversible bodhisattva status, a prestigious attainment among Mahāyāna Buddhist movements in South, Central, and East Asia. Although previously unstudied, this prominent scripture is one of the most influential of Mahāyāna sūtras in Buddhist culture, preserved and transmitted in South, Central, and East Asia over many centuries. Analysis of the Old Tibetan Dunhuang Avaivartikacakrasūtra provides a number of valuable contributions to the study of the formations of Mahāyāna Buddhism, to the understanding of Old Tibetan language, and to the systematic study of Tibetan Kanjurs. Enhancing the scholarly knowledge of the transmission history of the Tibetan collected teachings of the Buddha (Kanjur), this monograph contributes to the philological study of Tibetan Buddhist canonical texts and traces the genealogical development of the Tibetan language in translating Indian Buddhist canonical texts.
The first-ever biography with selected writings of one of the greatest Indian Buddhist masters in... more The first-ever biography with selected writings of one of the greatest Indian Buddhist masters in history.
Few figures in the history of Buddhism in Tibet have had as far-reaching and profound an influence as the Indian scholar and adept Atiśa Dīpaṃkara (982–1054). Originally from Bengal, Atiśa was a tantric Buddhist master during Vajrayana Buddhism’s flowering in India and traveled extensively, eventually spending the remaining twelve years of his life revitalizing Buddhism in Tibet. Revered by all the schools of Tibetan Buddhism, Atiśa and his students founded what came to be known as the Kadam school, whose teachings have influenced countless Buddhist masters. These teachings, cherished by all major traditions, are preserved by the Geluk in particular, the school of the Dalai Lamas.
Although Atiśa was an influential practitioner and scholar of Tantra, he is best known for introducing many of the core Mahayana teachings that are widely practiced throughout the Tibetan Buddhist world, including the Stages of the Path to Awakening and Mind Training (lojong), as well as having contributed to highly influential commentaries on Madhyamaka that synthesize various schools of thought. This succinct biography of Atiśa’s life, together with a collection of translations, represents for the first time the full range of Atiśa’s contribution to Buddhism. As the most comprehensive work available on this essential Buddhist figure, this book is an indispensable resource for scholars and Buddhist practitioners alike.
Jewels of the Middle Way documents an important tradition of Madhyamaka and provides insight into... more Jewels of the Middle Way documents an important tradition of Madhyamaka and provides insight into both the late Indian Buddhist blend of Madhyamaka and tantra and the Kadampa school founded by the Indian Buddhist master Atiśa (982-1054).
A Stairway taken by the Lucid presents for the first time an annotated English translation accomp... more A Stairway taken by the Lucid presents for the first time an annotated English translation accompanied with a Tibetan critical edition of Tsong kha pa's commentary on the different types of Noble Beings (Skt. arya, Tib.'phags pa) that progress toward awakening. In this edition and translation of his blo-gsal bgrod-pa'i them-skas, Tsong kha pa (1357-1419), revered as one of the foremost masters in the history of Tibetan Buddhism, provides a detailed exegesis of the characteristics and attainments that Noble Beings acquire in advancing toward nirvana through multiple lifetimes in varying cosmological realms. Noble Beings are individuals within the Buddhist spiritual community (samgha) who become constituted by moral virtue, mental quiescence, and cognitive insight through embodying the Buddha's teaching on the way to nirvana. Tsong kha pa details the location and number of lives remaining until nirvana for Noble Beings based on his meticulous analysis of classical Indian Buddhist works like Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakosa and Asanga's Abhidharmasamuccaya.
James B. Apple examines one of the formative subjects in traditional Buddhist studies, the Twenty... more James B. Apple examines one of the formative subjects in traditional Buddhist studies, the Twenty Varieties of the Saṃgha. The Saṃgha (community) is one of the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Saṃgha) universally revered by all Buddhists. While the Saṃgha is generally understood as the community of Buddhist ordained monks and nuns, along with lay adherents, the Twenty Varieties of the Saṃgha concerns an exemplary community of the twenty types of Noble Beings (ārya-pudgala) who embody the Buddha’s teachings. Focusing on the interpretation of the Saṃgha given by the fourteenth-century Tibetan scholar Tsong kha pa, Apple provides a comprehensive typology and analysis of the stages through which Noble Beings pass in their progress toward enlightenment through multiple lifetimes in various cosmological realms. He explains the cosmographic formations and complex structures of Buddhist spiritual cultivation, illustrating how Tibetan and Indian Buddhists conceptualize all possible states on the path to enlightenment.
The Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya, commonly called the Heart Sūtra, is one of the most famous and widely c... more The Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya, commonly called the Heart Sūtra, is one of the most famous and widely commented upon scriptures in Mahāyāna Buddhist cultures. The scripture is preserved in at least seven Asian languages in two recensions, Short and Long. In Indian and Tibetan Buddhist culture the scripture is known as the Heart of Wisdom (prajñāhṛdaya, shes rab snying po) preserved in both recensions. The Long recension preserved in Tibetan, and recited on a daily basis in Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, contains a famous preliminary opening verse. The poetic verse praises the Perfection of Wisdom (prajñāpāramitā) and describes it, in part, as "ineffable, inconceivable…the essence of space." Tibetan commentators often attribute the verse to either the Buddha's son Rāhula or to the Prajñāpāramitāstrotra by Rāhulabhadra. The former attribution is an untraceable oral tradition and the verse is not found in the latter work as recent scholarship has documented. Is there a textual source for this verse? When did Tibetans begin to recite this verse in their monastic institutions? This paper documents an Indian source for this verse and provides evidence for its recitation in Indian Buddhist monasteries. The paper initially discusses the known history of the Heart of Wisdom being transmitted from India to Tibet, the existence of Short recensions of the Heart of Wisdom in Tibet, and the canonization of the Long recension based on the translation and commentary of the Indian Buddhist master Vimalamitra. The paper then documents early extant occurences of the preliminary opening verse and argues that Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 CE) brought to Tibet the practice of reciting this preliminary opening poetic verse to the Heart of Wisdom. The paper concludes that the opening verse of the long Tibetan version of the Heart of Wisdom originates in India and was ritually recited in at least one major Indian monastery during the late Pāla period.
The Heart of Wisdom (shes rab snying po ≈ prajñāhṛdaya), more commonly called the Heart Sūtra, is... more The Heart of Wisdom (shes rab snying po ≈ prajñāhṛdaya), more commonly called the Heart Sūtra, is known world-wide in traditional and modern Mahāyāna Buddhist cultures. The Heart of Wisdom has been textually present in Indian and Tibetan Buddhist cultures for at least the past twelve hundred years.The following study presents for the first time an annotated translation and edition of Kamalaśīla’s Prajñāpāramitāhṛdayavṛtti (Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i snying po bshad pa), the earliest among extant Indian Buddhist commentaries and an Indian Buddhist commentary that was not included in the Tibetan canon. Previously recognized, but not systematically studied, Kamalaśīla’s commentary provides clear evidence that the short recension of the Heart of Wisdom was brought from India to Tibet, that Indian and Tibetan Buddhist traditions knew and recited a short recension of the scripture, that the whole scripture circulated as a dhāraṇī, that the short recension embedded in Kamalaśīla’s commentary circulated independently in Tibet and Dunhuang, that this Indo-Tibetan short recension does not match Xuanzang’s translation, and that the recension preserved in Kamalaśīla’s commentary is similar to, but importantly different from, recensions that circulated in the eighth century that are preserved in Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese sources. The following study provides an important snapshot in the history of the Heart of Wisdom and documents its place in eighth century Indo-Tibetan forms of Buddhism.
Annual Report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University, 2024
This paper documents a late Old Tibetan version of the Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya preserved in the latt... more This paper documents a late Old Tibetan version of the Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya preserved in the latter part of the ninth century “Prayers of De ga g.yu tshal Monastery” manuscript as compared against a well-known Tibetan canonical Vulgate Kangyur (bka’ ’gyur) version. The paper initially presents a brief synopsis of the known reception history in Tibet of the “Heart Sūtra,” commonly called the “Heart of Wisdom” (prajñāhṛdaya ≈ shes rab snying po) in Indian and Tibetan culture. The comparative collation demonstrates that the version found in the De ga g.yu tshal prayers manual, dating to approximately 823 CE slightly differs from all known versions found among Tibetan Kangyurs as well as all versions preserved in Sanskrit and Chinese. The paper concludes that the Dunhuang Tibetan version of the Heart of Wisdom preserved in IOL Tib J 751, despite representing an official ceremonial ninth century version of the sūtra, disappeared from Tibetan Buddhist traditions due to historical circumstances.
This paper provides an English translation and Tibetan edition of Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna’s (982–... more This paper provides an English translation and Tibetan edition of Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna’s (982–1054 CE) The Means for the Attainment of the Twenty-One Tārās (sgrol ma nyi shu rtsa gcig gi sgrub thabs; hereafter, Twenty-One Tārās Sādhana) based on evidence of newly recovered Tibetan manuscripts. Atiśa’s praise of the “Twenty-One Tārās” is iconographically one of the most popular in Tibetan painting, yet textual evidence for Atiśa’s systematic ritual evocation of these forms of Tārā has yet to be documented in publication. The following study, translation, and Tibetan edition furnishes for the first time Atiśa’s Twenty-One Tārās Sādhana. This study also provides the earliest extant Tibetan edition of The Praise to Tārā with Twenty-One Verses of Homage.
Manuscripts for Life -Essays in Memory of Seishi KARASHIMA, 2023
This paper provides an analysis and translation of Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna’s (982–1054 CE) The Es... more This paper provides an analysis and translation of Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna’s (982–1054 CE) The Essence of Bodhisattva Vows (bodhisatvasaṃvarahṛdaya). The Essence of Bodhisattva Vows is introduced with a brief overview explaining its relation to Atiśa’s Stages of the Path to Awakening (byang chub lam gyi rim pa ≈ *bodhipathakrama) and the work’s textual influences including the Bodhisattvabhūmi. The eighteen downfalls and forty-six faulty actions of bodhisattvas listed within The Essence of Bodhisattva Vows are also discussed. The introduction is followed by a Tibetan diplomatic edition and English translation of this previously unknown work. Dedication: To Seishi Karashima-sensei, who always took the time to provide guidance in my research endeavors.
The ‘stream of Dharma’ metaphor often occurs in the early layers of the Buddha’s teaching to illu... more The ‘stream of Dharma’ metaphor often occurs in the early layers of the Buddha’s teaching to illustrate how his followers may be carried to the ocean of nirvāṇa by implementing certain practices. A section found in the Saṃyutta-nikāya, the ‘Ganges repetition’ (gaṅgāpeyyāla), is devoted to these metaphors and receives interpretative attention in Pāli commentaries. Is this metaphor found in Mahāyāna Buddhist scholarly
works? If so, how is the metaphor used and what principles does its use illustrate? This article compares the use of this metaphor among diverse Mahāyāna Buddhist exegetes found in India, Tibet, China, and Japan. It examines the use of this metaphor by select thinkers such as Zhiyi (智顗, 538–97), Atiśa (982–1054), Prajñāmukti (ca. 11th century), and Nichiren (日蓮, 1222–82) to demonstrate how this trope is appropriated in Indian and East Asian forms of Buddhism. Further, the article examines points of difference between these select scholars to illustrate important distinctions between Indian Buddhist and East Asian Buddhist soteriology.
Bulletin of the Institute of Oriental Philosophy 東洋哲学研究所紀要 , 2023
The Tiantai master Zhiyi (智顗, 538-597 CE) is famous for popularizing the Buddhist cosmological co... more The Tiantai master Zhiyi (智顗, 538-597 CE) is famous for popularizing the Buddhist cosmological concept of the ten worlds (十界, shijie) while the Indian Buddhist paṇḍita from Bengal, Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 CE), is celebrated for his stages of the path (lam rim) system. The ten worlds of Zhiyi are constituted by six realms (六道) and four noble ways (四聖). Atiśa’s system, on the other hand, articulates a series of stages of realizations made by three types of spiritual individuals, those of small, medium, and superior spiritual capacity. This paper compares how the ten worlds as conceived by Zhiyi are related to Atiśa’s Buddhist cosmology as found in his Stages of the Path (byang chub lam gyi rim pa). The paper also examines the points of difference between the two Buddhist cosmologies to illustrate important distinctions between these select examples of Indian Buddhist and East Asia Buddhist soteriology.
The 'stream of Dharma' metaphor often occurs in the early layers of the Buddha's teaching to illu... more The 'stream of Dharma' metaphor often occurs in the early layers of the Buddha's teaching to illustrate how his followers may be carried to the ocean of nirvāṇa by implementing certain practices. A section found in the Saṃyutta-nikāya, the 'Ganges repetition' (gaṅgāpeyyāla), is devoted to these metaphors and receives interpretative attention in Pāli commentaries. Is this metaphor found in Mahāyāna Buddhist scholarly works? If so, how is the metaphor used and what principles does its use illustrate? This article compares the use of this metaphor among diverse Mahāyāna Buddhist exegetes found in India, Tibet, China, and Japan. It examines the use of this metaphor by select thinkers such as Zhiyi (智顗, 538-97), Atiśa (982-1054), Prajñāmukti (ca. 11th century), and Nichiren (日蓮, 1222-82) to demonstrate how this trope is appropriated in Indian and East Asian forms of Buddhism. Further, the article examinines points of difference between these select scholars to illustrate important distinctions between Indian Buddhist and East Asian Buddhist soteriology.
Gelukpa is the name of a Tibetan Buddhist school that gained political influence and control acro... more Gelukpa is the name of a Tibetan Buddhist school that gained political influence and control across the Tibetan cultural world after the 17th century. Gelukpa (dge lugs pa) in Tibetan literally means "Followers of the System of Virtue" and refers to a person associated with the Geluk (dge lugs) school of Tibetan Buddhism. Gelukpas are the latest among the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism to develop. There are no subschools within the tradition. The school has its beginnings among the disciples of Tsongkhapa (1357-1419) and was initially known as Gandenpa (dga' ldan pa), "those of Ganden Monastery," based on the founding of Riwo Ganden (ri bo dga' ldan) monastery in 1409.
The Routledge Handbook of Indian Buddhist Philosophy, 2022
The famous eleventh-century Bengali Atiśa (982–1054) was a master of
Madhyamaka (Middle Way thoug... more The famous eleventh-century Bengali Atiśa (982–1054) was a master of Madhyamaka (Middle Way thought and practice) who upheld a lineage based on Nāgārjuna and Candrakīrti that descended down to Atiśa’s direct teachers Bodhibhadra and Avadhūtipa. Atiśa’s lineage of the Middle Way of Nāgārjuna was contemplative in nature and did not utilize epistemological warrants (pramāṇa) to realize ultimate reality. Atiśa’s Middle Way synthesized the teachings of Bhāviveka and Candrakīrti, bringing together compatible elements of their teachings for soteriological efficacy in progression on the path. The following chapter outlines Atiśa's great middle way (dbu ma chen po) or mere appearance (snang ba tsam).
In Indian and Tibetan forms of Buddhism “pointing-out instructions” (ngo sprod) generally signifi... more In Indian and Tibetan forms of Buddhism “pointing-out instructions” (ngo sprod) generally signifies an introduction to the nature of mind by a spiritual teacher to a qualified disciple. Pointing-out instructions are associated with tantric Buddhist lineages of meditation and yogic practice in a number of Indo-Tibetan traditions. In Nyingma lineages pointing-out instructions are connected to varied Great Perfection (rdzogs chen) traditions where one confronts the natural state (gnas lugs ngo sprod). Kagyü and other Tibetan Buddhist traditions of the new sects (gsar ma) associate pointing-out instructions with the practice of mahāmudrā. It is often claimed that the influence of Gampopa Sönam Rinchen’s (1079-1153) mahāmudrā teachings in Tibet was such that, as one erudite scholar has even suggested, “all Kagyü reflections on mahāmudrā is really but a series of footnotes to Gampopa.” Following this mode of thought, most modern scholarly sources have ignored the possibility of Kadampa influence on Gampopa and the varied Kagyü meditation manuals that came after him. This article clearly demonstrates that Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054) and his early Kadampa followers significantly influenced Gampopa and subsequent Kagyü traditions in their structuring of mahāmudrā meditation manuals. The systematized and structured “not-specifically-tantric-practice” type of pointing-out instructions of mahāmudrā are intimately related to Atiśa’s Stages of the Path, its commentaries, and the teachings found in the Pointing-Out Instructions in Sets of Five presented and translated in this article for the first time in English.
Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University (ARIRIAB), 2020
The following article provides a diplomatic edition and analysis of a Dunhuang Tibetan version of... more The following article provides a diplomatic edition and analysis of a Dunhuang Tibetan version of the Vīradattaparipṛcchā, the oldest extant Tibetan version of the discourse. The diplomatic edition of the Dunhuang Tibetan version is based on one complete Dunhuang manuscript as well as two small Dunhuang fragments that restores a Tibetan version of the sūtra that existed around the time of the imperially decreed (bkas bcad) language reforms that were finalized in 814 CE.
Digital Humanities and Buddhism: An Introduction, 2019
This chapter briefly explains the critical editing and restitution of Tibetan Buddhist canonical ... more This chapter briefly explains the critical editing and restitution of Tibetan Buddhist canonical texts through the text critical analysis of manuscripts supported with computer technology. The chapter succinctly outlines the principles and methodology involved in applying phylogenetics to investigating the genealogy of texts found in Tibetan Kanjurs. In the following sections I discuss the current known history of Tibetan Kanjurs to account for the textual witnesses under philological consideration, outline the principles of text criticism for editing Tibetan versions of Buddhist canonical texts, and explain the method of applying phylogenetic analysis to critical editions of Tibetan texts. The chapter concludes with a brief example that illustrates the techniques involved in utilizing phylogenetic analysis in text criticism.
Pure Lands in Asian Texts and Contexts: An Anthology Edited by Georgios T. Halkias, Richard K. Payne, 2019
An overlooked aspect in the study of Tibetan Buddhism is the Gelukpa (dge lugs pa) understanding ... more An overlooked aspect in the study of Tibetan Buddhism is the Gelukpa (dge lugs pa) understanding of Tuṣita Heaven as a pure land (dag pa’i zhing khams). Ever since Tsongkhapa Losang Drakpa (Tsong kha pa blo gzang grags pa, 1357–1419) founded the monastery of Ganden (dga’ ldan, Tuṣita, “Heaven of Joy”) his Gelukpa followers have placed devotional emphasis on creating merit to form links with the Buddha Maitreya, and Maitreya’s pure land within Tuṣita Heaven. The Gelukpa understanding of Tuṣita Heaven as a pure land develops based upon a long history of Maitreya worship in Tibet, upon the aspirations for rebirth in Tuṣita by previous Indian and Tibetan scholars, and in relation to events during and after Tsongkhapa’s life that are connected to Maitreya and Tuṣita Heaven. The practices and devotions surrounding the understanding of Tuṣita Heaven as a pure land are inter-connected with the history of the institutional development among those who follow Tsongkhapa and are centered around the Ganden monastery he founded, an institution that has the very name of the heaven itself. Practices and beliefs related to Tuṣita were developed among Tsongkhapa’s immediate followers and over the course of several centuries and were exported to wherever the Gelukpa tradition thrived, which included areas throughout Tibet, a vast area from Kalmuck Mongolian regions, Inner and Outer Mongolia, the Buriat Republic of Siberia, and even temples in China. The later popularity of these beliefs and practices was also related to the ascendancy of political power of the Gelukpa school in Tibet, particularly from the seventeenth century, and contributed to social cohesion among Gelukpa followers. The following chapter provides a brief historical background to Maitreya and Tuṣita in the life of Tsongkhapa, describes the context for the understanding of Tuṣita Heaven as a buddha-field among Tsongkhapa’s followers, and concludes with a description of the characteristics of Maitreya’s field as a pure land.
This paper argues that semantic elucidation (nirukta) served as a powerful rhetorical technique f... more This paper argues that semantic elucidation (nirukta) served as a powerful rhetorical technique for authorial communities in the propagation of Mahāyāna texts to transform mainstream Buddhist states of attainment—such as the Stream-enterer (srota-āpanna), Nonreturner (anāgāmin), and Arhant—into spiritual levels embodied by bodhisattvas. The paper argues that this transformation of mainstream Buddhist levels of attainment occurred in early Mahāyāna formations before the structure of the bodhisattva ten stages (daśabhūmi) was established. The paper demonstrates, through drawing upon examples from sūtras such as the Śūraṃgamasamādhi, Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, and Avaivartikacakra, that the ‘method of nairukta’ (nairukta-vidhānena), through processes of transvaluation and substitution, hollowed out mainstream Buddhist understandings of spiritual attainment and reformulated them in terms of the bodhisattva way found among nascent Mahāyāna communities.
This philological study presents a collation of Old Tibetan Dunhuang fragments of the Avaivartika... more This philological study presents a collation of Old Tibetan Dunhuang fragments of the Avaivartikacakrasūtra compared against a text-critical edition of Tibetan Kanjurs. The Avaivartikacakrasūtra is a Mahāyāna Buddhist discourse that describes how bodhisattvas become irreversible (avaivartika) from perfect Buddhahood and how they achieve irreversible bodhisattva status, a prestigious attainment among Mahāyāna Buddhist movements in South, Central, and East Asia. Although previously unstudied, this prominent scripture is one of the most influential of Mahāyāna sūtras in Buddhist culture, preserved and transmitted in South, Central, and East Asia over many centuries. Analysis of the Old Tibetan Dunhuang Avaivartikacakrasūtra provides a number of valuable contributions to the study of the formations of Mahāyāna Buddhism, to the understanding of Old Tibetan language, and to the systematic study of Tibetan Kanjurs. Enhancing the scholarly knowledge of the transmission history of the Tibetan collected teachings of the Buddha (Kanjur), this monograph contributes to the philological study of Tibetan Buddhist canonical texts and traces the genealogical development of the Tibetan language in translating Indian Buddhist canonical texts.
The first-ever biography with selected writings of one of the greatest Indian Buddhist masters in... more The first-ever biography with selected writings of one of the greatest Indian Buddhist masters in history.
Few figures in the history of Buddhism in Tibet have had as far-reaching and profound an influence as the Indian scholar and adept Atiśa Dīpaṃkara (982–1054). Originally from Bengal, Atiśa was a tantric Buddhist master during Vajrayana Buddhism’s flowering in India and traveled extensively, eventually spending the remaining twelve years of his life revitalizing Buddhism in Tibet. Revered by all the schools of Tibetan Buddhism, Atiśa and his students founded what came to be known as the Kadam school, whose teachings have influenced countless Buddhist masters. These teachings, cherished by all major traditions, are preserved by the Geluk in particular, the school of the Dalai Lamas.
Although Atiśa was an influential practitioner and scholar of Tantra, he is best known for introducing many of the core Mahayana teachings that are widely practiced throughout the Tibetan Buddhist world, including the Stages of the Path to Awakening and Mind Training (lojong), as well as having contributed to highly influential commentaries on Madhyamaka that synthesize various schools of thought. This succinct biography of Atiśa’s life, together with a collection of translations, represents for the first time the full range of Atiśa’s contribution to Buddhism. As the most comprehensive work available on this essential Buddhist figure, this book is an indispensable resource for scholars and Buddhist practitioners alike.
Jewels of the Middle Way documents an important tradition of Madhyamaka and provides insight into... more Jewels of the Middle Way documents an important tradition of Madhyamaka and provides insight into both the late Indian Buddhist blend of Madhyamaka and tantra and the Kadampa school founded by the Indian Buddhist master Atiśa (982-1054).
A Stairway taken by the Lucid presents for the first time an annotated English translation accomp... more A Stairway taken by the Lucid presents for the first time an annotated English translation accompanied with a Tibetan critical edition of Tsong kha pa's commentary on the different types of Noble Beings (Skt. arya, Tib.'phags pa) that progress toward awakening. In this edition and translation of his blo-gsal bgrod-pa'i them-skas, Tsong kha pa (1357-1419), revered as one of the foremost masters in the history of Tibetan Buddhism, provides a detailed exegesis of the characteristics and attainments that Noble Beings acquire in advancing toward nirvana through multiple lifetimes in varying cosmological realms. Noble Beings are individuals within the Buddhist spiritual community (samgha) who become constituted by moral virtue, mental quiescence, and cognitive insight through embodying the Buddha's teaching on the way to nirvana. Tsong kha pa details the location and number of lives remaining until nirvana for Noble Beings based on his meticulous analysis of classical Indian Buddhist works like Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakosa and Asanga's Abhidharmasamuccaya.
James B. Apple examines one of the formative subjects in traditional Buddhist studies, the Twenty... more James B. Apple examines one of the formative subjects in traditional Buddhist studies, the Twenty Varieties of the Saṃgha. The Saṃgha (community) is one of the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Saṃgha) universally revered by all Buddhists. While the Saṃgha is generally understood as the community of Buddhist ordained monks and nuns, along with lay adherents, the Twenty Varieties of the Saṃgha concerns an exemplary community of the twenty types of Noble Beings (ārya-pudgala) who embody the Buddha’s teachings. Focusing on the interpretation of the Saṃgha given by the fourteenth-century Tibetan scholar Tsong kha pa, Apple provides a comprehensive typology and analysis of the stages through which Noble Beings pass in their progress toward enlightenment through multiple lifetimes in various cosmological realms. He explains the cosmographic formations and complex structures of Buddhist spiritual cultivation, illustrating how Tibetan and Indian Buddhists conceptualize all possible states on the path to enlightenment.
The Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya, commonly called the Heart Sūtra, is one of the most famous and widely c... more The Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya, commonly called the Heart Sūtra, is one of the most famous and widely commented upon scriptures in Mahāyāna Buddhist cultures. The scripture is preserved in at least seven Asian languages in two recensions, Short and Long. In Indian and Tibetan Buddhist culture the scripture is known as the Heart of Wisdom (prajñāhṛdaya, shes rab snying po) preserved in both recensions. The Long recension preserved in Tibetan, and recited on a daily basis in Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, contains a famous preliminary opening verse. The poetic verse praises the Perfection of Wisdom (prajñāpāramitā) and describes it, in part, as "ineffable, inconceivable…the essence of space." Tibetan commentators often attribute the verse to either the Buddha's son Rāhula or to the Prajñāpāramitāstrotra by Rāhulabhadra. The former attribution is an untraceable oral tradition and the verse is not found in the latter work as recent scholarship has documented. Is there a textual source for this verse? When did Tibetans begin to recite this verse in their monastic institutions? This paper documents an Indian source for this verse and provides evidence for its recitation in Indian Buddhist monasteries. The paper initially discusses the known history of the Heart of Wisdom being transmitted from India to Tibet, the existence of Short recensions of the Heart of Wisdom in Tibet, and the canonization of the Long recension based on the translation and commentary of the Indian Buddhist master Vimalamitra. The paper then documents early extant occurences of the preliminary opening verse and argues that Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 CE) brought to Tibet the practice of reciting this preliminary opening poetic verse to the Heart of Wisdom. The paper concludes that the opening verse of the long Tibetan version of the Heart of Wisdom originates in India and was ritually recited in at least one major Indian monastery during the late Pāla period.
The Heart of Wisdom (shes rab snying po ≈ prajñāhṛdaya), more commonly called the Heart Sūtra, is... more The Heart of Wisdom (shes rab snying po ≈ prajñāhṛdaya), more commonly called the Heart Sūtra, is known world-wide in traditional and modern Mahāyāna Buddhist cultures. The Heart of Wisdom has been textually present in Indian and Tibetan Buddhist cultures for at least the past twelve hundred years.The following study presents for the first time an annotated translation and edition of Kamalaśīla’s Prajñāpāramitāhṛdayavṛtti (Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i snying po bshad pa), the earliest among extant Indian Buddhist commentaries and an Indian Buddhist commentary that was not included in the Tibetan canon. Previously recognized, but not systematically studied, Kamalaśīla’s commentary provides clear evidence that the short recension of the Heart of Wisdom was brought from India to Tibet, that Indian and Tibetan Buddhist traditions knew and recited a short recension of the scripture, that the whole scripture circulated as a dhāraṇī, that the short recension embedded in Kamalaśīla’s commentary circulated independently in Tibet and Dunhuang, that this Indo-Tibetan short recension does not match Xuanzang’s translation, and that the recension preserved in Kamalaśīla’s commentary is similar to, but importantly different from, recensions that circulated in the eighth century that are preserved in Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese sources. The following study provides an important snapshot in the history of the Heart of Wisdom and documents its place in eighth century Indo-Tibetan forms of Buddhism.
Annual Report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University, 2024
This paper documents a late Old Tibetan version of the Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya preserved in the latt... more This paper documents a late Old Tibetan version of the Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya preserved in the latter part of the ninth century “Prayers of De ga g.yu tshal Monastery” manuscript as compared against a well-known Tibetan canonical Vulgate Kangyur (bka’ ’gyur) version. The paper initially presents a brief synopsis of the known reception history in Tibet of the “Heart Sūtra,” commonly called the “Heart of Wisdom” (prajñāhṛdaya ≈ shes rab snying po) in Indian and Tibetan culture. The comparative collation demonstrates that the version found in the De ga g.yu tshal prayers manual, dating to approximately 823 CE slightly differs from all known versions found among Tibetan Kangyurs as well as all versions preserved in Sanskrit and Chinese. The paper concludes that the Dunhuang Tibetan version of the Heart of Wisdom preserved in IOL Tib J 751, despite representing an official ceremonial ninth century version of the sūtra, disappeared from Tibetan Buddhist traditions due to historical circumstances.
This paper provides an English translation and Tibetan edition of Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna’s (982–... more This paper provides an English translation and Tibetan edition of Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna’s (982–1054 CE) The Means for the Attainment of the Twenty-One Tārās (sgrol ma nyi shu rtsa gcig gi sgrub thabs; hereafter, Twenty-One Tārās Sādhana) based on evidence of newly recovered Tibetan manuscripts. Atiśa’s praise of the “Twenty-One Tārās” is iconographically one of the most popular in Tibetan painting, yet textual evidence for Atiśa’s systematic ritual evocation of these forms of Tārā has yet to be documented in publication. The following study, translation, and Tibetan edition furnishes for the first time Atiśa’s Twenty-One Tārās Sādhana. This study also provides the earliest extant Tibetan edition of The Praise to Tārā with Twenty-One Verses of Homage.
Manuscripts for Life -Essays in Memory of Seishi KARASHIMA, 2023
This paper provides an analysis and translation of Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna’s (982–1054 CE) The Es... more This paper provides an analysis and translation of Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna’s (982–1054 CE) The Essence of Bodhisattva Vows (bodhisatvasaṃvarahṛdaya). The Essence of Bodhisattva Vows is introduced with a brief overview explaining its relation to Atiśa’s Stages of the Path to Awakening (byang chub lam gyi rim pa ≈ *bodhipathakrama) and the work’s textual influences including the Bodhisattvabhūmi. The eighteen downfalls and forty-six faulty actions of bodhisattvas listed within The Essence of Bodhisattva Vows are also discussed. The introduction is followed by a Tibetan diplomatic edition and English translation of this previously unknown work. Dedication: To Seishi Karashima-sensei, who always took the time to provide guidance in my research endeavors.
The ‘stream of Dharma’ metaphor often occurs in the early layers of the Buddha’s teaching to illu... more The ‘stream of Dharma’ metaphor often occurs in the early layers of the Buddha’s teaching to illustrate how his followers may be carried to the ocean of nirvāṇa by implementing certain practices. A section found in the Saṃyutta-nikāya, the ‘Ganges repetition’ (gaṅgāpeyyāla), is devoted to these metaphors and receives interpretative attention in Pāli commentaries. Is this metaphor found in Mahāyāna Buddhist scholarly
works? If so, how is the metaphor used and what principles does its use illustrate? This article compares the use of this metaphor among diverse Mahāyāna Buddhist exegetes found in India, Tibet, China, and Japan. It examines the use of this metaphor by select thinkers such as Zhiyi (智顗, 538–97), Atiśa (982–1054), Prajñāmukti (ca. 11th century), and Nichiren (日蓮, 1222–82) to demonstrate how this trope is appropriated in Indian and East Asian forms of Buddhism. Further, the article examines points of difference between these select scholars to illustrate important distinctions between Indian Buddhist and East Asian Buddhist soteriology.
Bulletin of the Institute of Oriental Philosophy 東洋哲学研究所紀要 , 2023
The Tiantai master Zhiyi (智顗, 538-597 CE) is famous for popularizing the Buddhist cosmological co... more The Tiantai master Zhiyi (智顗, 538-597 CE) is famous for popularizing the Buddhist cosmological concept of the ten worlds (十界, shijie) while the Indian Buddhist paṇḍita from Bengal, Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 CE), is celebrated for his stages of the path (lam rim) system. The ten worlds of Zhiyi are constituted by six realms (六道) and four noble ways (四聖). Atiśa’s system, on the other hand, articulates a series of stages of realizations made by three types of spiritual individuals, those of small, medium, and superior spiritual capacity. This paper compares how the ten worlds as conceived by Zhiyi are related to Atiśa’s Buddhist cosmology as found in his Stages of the Path (byang chub lam gyi rim pa). The paper also examines the points of difference between the two Buddhist cosmologies to illustrate important distinctions between these select examples of Indian Buddhist and East Asia Buddhist soteriology.
The 'stream of Dharma' metaphor often occurs in the early layers of the Buddha's teaching to illu... more The 'stream of Dharma' metaphor often occurs in the early layers of the Buddha's teaching to illustrate how his followers may be carried to the ocean of nirvāṇa by implementing certain practices. A section found in the Saṃyutta-nikāya, the 'Ganges repetition' (gaṅgāpeyyāla), is devoted to these metaphors and receives interpretative attention in Pāli commentaries. Is this metaphor found in Mahāyāna Buddhist scholarly works? If so, how is the metaphor used and what principles does its use illustrate? This article compares the use of this metaphor among diverse Mahāyāna Buddhist exegetes found in India, Tibet, China, and Japan. It examines the use of this metaphor by select thinkers such as Zhiyi (智顗, 538-97), Atiśa (982-1054), Prajñāmukti (ca. 11th century), and Nichiren (日蓮, 1222-82) to demonstrate how this trope is appropriated in Indian and East Asian forms of Buddhism. Further, the article examinines points of difference between these select scholars to illustrate important distinctions between Indian Buddhist and East Asian Buddhist soteriology.
Gelukpa is the name of a Tibetan Buddhist school that gained political influence and control acro... more Gelukpa is the name of a Tibetan Buddhist school that gained political influence and control across the Tibetan cultural world after the 17th century. Gelukpa (dge lugs pa) in Tibetan literally means "Followers of the System of Virtue" and refers to a person associated with the Geluk (dge lugs) school of Tibetan Buddhism. Gelukpas are the latest among the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism to develop. There are no subschools within the tradition. The school has its beginnings among the disciples of Tsongkhapa (1357-1419) and was initially known as Gandenpa (dga' ldan pa), "those of Ganden Monastery," based on the founding of Riwo Ganden (ri bo dga' ldan) monastery in 1409.
The Routledge Handbook of Indian Buddhist Philosophy, 2022
The famous eleventh-century Bengali Atiśa (982–1054) was a master of
Madhyamaka (Middle Way thoug... more The famous eleventh-century Bengali Atiśa (982–1054) was a master of Madhyamaka (Middle Way thought and practice) who upheld a lineage based on Nāgārjuna and Candrakīrti that descended down to Atiśa’s direct teachers Bodhibhadra and Avadhūtipa. Atiśa’s lineage of the Middle Way of Nāgārjuna was contemplative in nature and did not utilize epistemological warrants (pramāṇa) to realize ultimate reality. Atiśa’s Middle Way synthesized the teachings of Bhāviveka and Candrakīrti, bringing together compatible elements of their teachings for soteriological efficacy in progression on the path. The following chapter outlines Atiśa's great middle way (dbu ma chen po) or mere appearance (snang ba tsam).
In Indian and Tibetan forms of Buddhism “pointing-out instructions” (ngo sprod) generally signifi... more In Indian and Tibetan forms of Buddhism “pointing-out instructions” (ngo sprod) generally signifies an introduction to the nature of mind by a spiritual teacher to a qualified disciple. Pointing-out instructions are associated with tantric Buddhist lineages of meditation and yogic practice in a number of Indo-Tibetan traditions. In Nyingma lineages pointing-out instructions are connected to varied Great Perfection (rdzogs chen) traditions where one confronts the natural state (gnas lugs ngo sprod). Kagyü and other Tibetan Buddhist traditions of the new sects (gsar ma) associate pointing-out instructions with the practice of mahāmudrā. It is often claimed that the influence of Gampopa Sönam Rinchen’s (1079-1153) mahāmudrā teachings in Tibet was such that, as one erudite scholar has even suggested, “all Kagyü reflections on mahāmudrā is really but a series of footnotes to Gampopa.” Following this mode of thought, most modern scholarly sources have ignored the possibility of Kadampa influence on Gampopa and the varied Kagyü meditation manuals that came after him. This article clearly demonstrates that Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054) and his early Kadampa followers significantly influenced Gampopa and subsequent Kagyü traditions in their structuring of mahāmudrā meditation manuals. The systematized and structured “not-specifically-tantric-practice” type of pointing-out instructions of mahāmudrā are intimately related to Atiśa’s Stages of the Path, its commentaries, and the teachings found in the Pointing-Out Instructions in Sets of Five presented and translated in this article for the first time in English.
Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University (ARIRIAB), 2020
The following article provides a diplomatic edition and analysis of a Dunhuang Tibetan version of... more The following article provides a diplomatic edition and analysis of a Dunhuang Tibetan version of the Vīradattaparipṛcchā, the oldest extant Tibetan version of the discourse. The diplomatic edition of the Dunhuang Tibetan version is based on one complete Dunhuang manuscript as well as two small Dunhuang fragments that restores a Tibetan version of the sūtra that existed around the time of the imperially decreed (bkas bcad) language reforms that were finalized in 814 CE.
Digital Humanities and Buddhism: An Introduction, 2019
This chapter briefly explains the critical editing and restitution of Tibetan Buddhist canonical ... more This chapter briefly explains the critical editing and restitution of Tibetan Buddhist canonical texts through the text critical analysis of manuscripts supported with computer technology. The chapter succinctly outlines the principles and methodology involved in applying phylogenetics to investigating the genealogy of texts found in Tibetan Kanjurs. In the following sections I discuss the current known history of Tibetan Kanjurs to account for the textual witnesses under philological consideration, outline the principles of text criticism for editing Tibetan versions of Buddhist canonical texts, and explain the method of applying phylogenetic analysis to critical editions of Tibetan texts. The chapter concludes with a brief example that illustrates the techniques involved in utilizing phylogenetic analysis in text criticism.
Pure Lands in Asian Texts and Contexts: An Anthology Edited by Georgios T. Halkias, Richard K. Payne, 2019
An overlooked aspect in the study of Tibetan Buddhism is the Gelukpa (dge lugs pa) understanding ... more An overlooked aspect in the study of Tibetan Buddhism is the Gelukpa (dge lugs pa) understanding of Tuṣita Heaven as a pure land (dag pa’i zhing khams). Ever since Tsongkhapa Losang Drakpa (Tsong kha pa blo gzang grags pa, 1357–1419) founded the monastery of Ganden (dga’ ldan, Tuṣita, “Heaven of Joy”) his Gelukpa followers have placed devotional emphasis on creating merit to form links with the Buddha Maitreya, and Maitreya’s pure land within Tuṣita Heaven. The Gelukpa understanding of Tuṣita Heaven as a pure land develops based upon a long history of Maitreya worship in Tibet, upon the aspirations for rebirth in Tuṣita by previous Indian and Tibetan scholars, and in relation to events during and after Tsongkhapa’s life that are connected to Maitreya and Tuṣita Heaven. The practices and devotions surrounding the understanding of Tuṣita Heaven as a pure land are inter-connected with the history of the institutional development among those who follow Tsongkhapa and are centered around the Ganden monastery he founded, an institution that has the very name of the heaven itself. Practices and beliefs related to Tuṣita were developed among Tsongkhapa’s immediate followers and over the course of several centuries and were exported to wherever the Gelukpa tradition thrived, which included areas throughout Tibet, a vast area from Kalmuck Mongolian regions, Inner and Outer Mongolia, the Buriat Republic of Siberia, and even temples in China. The later popularity of these beliefs and practices was also related to the ascendancy of political power of the Gelukpa school in Tibet, particularly from the seventeenth century, and contributed to social cohesion among Gelukpa followers. The following chapter provides a brief historical background to Maitreya and Tuṣita in the life of Tsongkhapa, describes the context for the understanding of Tuṣita Heaven as a buddha-field among Tsongkhapa’s followers, and concludes with a description of the characteristics of Maitreya’s field as a pure land.
This paper argues that semantic elucidation (nirukta) served as a powerful rhetorical technique f... more This paper argues that semantic elucidation (nirukta) served as a powerful rhetorical technique for authorial communities in the propagation of Mahāyāna texts to transform mainstream Buddhist states of attainment—such as the Stream-enterer (srota-āpanna), Nonreturner (anāgāmin), and Arhant—into spiritual levels embodied by bodhisattvas. The paper argues that this transformation of mainstream Buddhist levels of attainment occurred in early Mahāyāna formations before the structure of the bodhisattva ten stages (daśabhūmi) was established. The paper demonstrates, through drawing upon examples from sūtras such as the Śūraṃgamasamādhi, Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, and Avaivartikacakra, that the ‘method of nairukta’ (nairukta-vidhānena), through processes of transvaluation and substitution, hollowed out mainstream Buddhist understandings of spiritual attainment and reformulated them in terms of the bodhisattva way found among nascent Mahāyāna communities.
The teachings of Madhyamaka (" middle way philosophy ") have been the basis of Tibetan Buddhist t... more The teachings of Madhyamaka (" middle way philosophy ") have been the basis of Tibetan Buddhist thought and practice since the eighth century. After the twelfth century, Tibetan scholars distinguished two branches of Madhyamaka: Autonomist (rang rgyud pa) and Consequentialist (thal 'gyur ba, *prāsaṅgika). What distinctions in Madhyamaka thought and practice did twelfth century Tibetan scholars make to differentiate these two branches? This article focuses upon a newly identified twelfth century Tibetan manuscript on Madhyamaka from the Collected Works of the Kadampas: Khu lo tsā ba's Treatise. Khu lo tsā ba, also known as Khu ston Mdo sde 'bar, was a contemporary of Jayānanda and Pa tshab Lo tsā ba Nyi ma grags and instrumental for the revitalized reception of Madhyamaka in twelfth century Tibet. Khu lo tsā ba's Treatise outlines a multifaceted understanding of Madhyamaka (" middle way philosophy ") as the work solely focuses upon the distinctions between Autonomist and Consequentialist Mādhyamikas. The paper outlines the structure and content of the Treatise and identifies six topics that the author emphasizes to distinguish Autonomist and Consequentialist branches of Madhyamaka. Based on an overview of these topics, the paper concludes that the Autonomist/Consequentialist distinction of Madhyamaka was already well developed in twelfth century Tibet and involved a differential of systems that encompassed much more than distinct styles of logical proof.
This article examines philosophical differences between Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 CE) and... more This article examines philosophical differences between Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 CE) and Ratnākaraśānti (ca. 970-1030 CE) based on evidence from newly published Tibetan manuscripts. Traditional Tibetan historians describe Atiśa as Ratnākaraśānti's student in the study of Mahāyāna works at Vikramaśīla. Ratnākaraśānti is also recorded in these sources as being a tantric master in a number of lineages upheld by Atiśa. Yet, as this paper demonstrates, these two important Indian Buddhist scholars had significant differences in their philosophical views. The paper compares doctrines found in the works of Ratnākaraśānti and Atiśa to clearly demonstrate how they differed on a number of points of thought and exegesis. Although both Atiśa and Ratnākaraśānti claimed to follow the Middle Way (madhyamā pratipat) of Nāgārjuna, Atiśa's thought was influenced by Candrakīrti, while Ratnākaraśānti expounded his system based on Yogācāra sources. As a specific example to illustrate the differences between these two scholars, the article draws attention to Nāgārjuna's Yuktiṣaṣṭikā (verse 34), where Atiśa interprets the verse in terms of mere appearances that dependently arise while Ratnākaraśānti framed his interpretation on mental qualities whose ultimate nature consists of the " mere luminosity of non-duality " (advayaprakāśamātra). The paper concludes that these differences between Atiśa and Ratnākaraśānti impacted their relationship at Vikramaśīla monastery in eleventh century India.
ARIRIAB-XXI(2018). This paper continues documentation of the Old Tibetan version of the Kāśyapap... more ARIRIAB-XXI(2018). This paper continues documentation of the Old Tibetan version of the Kāśyapaparivarta preserved in fragments from Dunhuang identified and transcribed in Part 1 (Apple 2017). The following comparative collation documents fragment IOL Tib J 59, which corresponds to sections §98-101, and fragment IOL Tib J 55, that corresponds to sections §102-135. The fragments collated in Parts 1 and 2 altogether comprise a version of the Kāśyapaparivarta preserved in Old Tibetan that was previously unknown.
This chapter provides a close reading of the Special Instructions on
the Middle Way (madhyamakopa... more This chapter provides a close reading of the Special Instructions on the Middle Way (madhyamakopadeśa) of Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 CE) using the approach of Pierre Hadot (1922-2010) to interpreting philosophia as a way of life. The paper first outlines the attractiveness of Pierre Hadot’s program for reading ancient philosophy and his notions of spiritual exercises and philosophia. The paper then addresses recent critiques of interpreting Buddhist thought as philosophia within the socio-historical context of Indian Buddhism. In response to such criticisms, a reading of Atiśa’s Special Instructions on the Middle Way (hereafter, Special Instructions) furnishes a case study for Buddhist spiritual exercises within a way of life that brings about self-transformation.
This paper concludes the study of the Lotus Sutra in Tibetan Buddhist History and Culture that wa... more This paper concludes the study of the Lotus Sutra in Tibetan Buddhist History and Culture that was initially published in Volume 32 of the Bulletin. The Lotus Sutra, an important Mahāyāna Buddhist scripture, influenced many East Asian Buddhist traditions such as the Tiantai School in China and Korea, its Japanese Tendai derivative, and Nichiren based traditions in Japan. A recent paper argued that the Lotus Sutra had a significant place in the history of Indian Buddhism (Apple 2016). This essay examines the place of the Lotus Sutra in Tibetan Buddhist history and culture. Part 1 outlined the initial Tibetan translations of the Lotus Sutra in the late eighth century and highlights Tibetan Buddhist understandings of the Lotus Sutra in the early history of Buddhism in Tibetan culture. Part 2 examines the Tibetan understanding of the Lotus Sutra among scholarly commentators from the twelfth century up to the present day. The paper also discusses the differences between East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist beliefs and practices related to the Lotus Sutra.
Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Jan 1, 2009
... s) is a new addition to the series Critical Categories in the Study of Religion edited by the... more ... s) is a new addition to the series Critical Categories in the Study of Religion edited by the always-provocative Russell T. McCutcheon. ... The editors of Defining Buddhism(s), Karen Derris and Natalie Gummer, have skillfully brought together ten essays by leading scholars of ...
36th Conference of the Institute for Oriental Philosophy, Hachioji, Japan, 2022
The "stream of Dharma" metaphor often occurs in the early layers of the Buddha's teaching to illu... more The "stream of Dharma" metaphor often occurs in the early layers of the Buddha's teaching to illustrate how his followers may be carried to the ocean of nirvāṇa by implementing certain practices. A section found in the Saṃyutta-nikāya, the 'Ganges repetition' (gaṅgāpeyyāla), is devoted to these metaphors and receives interpretative attention in Pāli commentaries. Is this metaphor found in Mahāyāna Buddhist scholarly works? If so, how is the metaphor used and what principles does its use illustrate? This paper compares the use of this metaphor among diverse Mahāyāna Buddhist exegetes found in India, China, and Japan. The paper examines the use of this metaphor by select thinkers such as Zhiyi (智顗, 538-597), Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054), Prajñāmukti, and Nichiren (日蓮, 1222-1282) to demonstrate how this trope is appropriated in Indian and East Asian Buddhism. The paper examines the points of difference between these select scholars to illustrate important distinctions between Indian Buddhist and East Asia Buddhist soteriology.
This paper explores Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna’s system of worshipping the Twenty-One Tārās based on... more This paper explores Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna’s system of worshipping the Twenty-One Tārās based on evidence of newly recovered Tibetan manuscripts. No Indian who visited Tibet in the past one thousand years had a greater impact on the Buddhism there than Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982–1054). Atiśa is renowned for his devotion to the goddess Tārā who appeared in his dreams and visions, and bestowed predictions upon him throughout his life. His charismatic devotion to the goddess was the impetus for the faithful worship of Tārā in Tibetan Buddhist culture. Atiśa’s lineage tradition of Tārā is the most distinguished among the five teaching traditions of Tārā in Tibet. The entire ritual edifice of worshipping Tārā in Tibet is built upon Atiśa’s major works on the goddess. Atiśa’s praise of the “Twenty-One Tārās” is iconographically one of the most popular in Tibetan painting, yet the mantras in the ritual evocation of these forms of Tārā have yet to be discussed in publication. This paper presents the mantras for evoking Tārā in Atiśa’s system based on recently recovered manuscripts. The paper provides an initial overview of recently recovered manuscripts of Atiśa’s system of the twenty-one Tārās. The paper then focuses upon a brief text entitled “The Cycle of Prophecies granted by Tārā to Atiśa." Based on this recently published work, the mantras for evoking the twenty-one Tārās and their accompanying hand gestures (mudrās) are described and analyzed for the first time in relation to the iconographic system of Atiśa’s Twenty-One Tārās.
35th Conference of the Institute for Oriental Philosophy , 2021
The Tiantai master Zhiyi (538-597 CE) is famous for popularizing the Buddhist cosmological concep... more The Tiantai master Zhiyi (538-597 CE) is famous for popularizing the Buddhist cosmological concept of the ten worlds (十界,shíjiè) while the Indian Buddhist paṇḍita from Bengal, Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 CE), is famous for his stages of the path (lam rim) system. The ten worlds of Zhiyi are constituted by six realms (六道) and four noble worlds. Atiśa’s system, on the other hand, articulates a series of stages of realizations made by three types of spiritual individuals, those of small, medium, and superior spiritual capacity. This comparative paper compares how the ten worlds as conceived by Zhiyi are related to Atiśa’s Buddhist cosmology as found in his Stages of the Path (byang chub lam gyi rim pa ≈ *bodhipathakrama). The paper also examines the points of difference between the two Buddhist cosmologies to illustrate important distinctions between Indian Buddhist and East Asia Buddhist soteriology.
The seventh-century Indian Buddhist master Candrakīrti is well-known for his influence upon Madhy... more The seventh-century Indian Buddhist master Candrakīrti is well-known for his influence upon Madhyamaka thought and practice in the history of Indian and Tibetan Buddhism, particularly through his Madhyamakāvatāra (Entrance to the Middle Way). This paper outlines significant variant readings of a verse found in the sixth chapter of Candrakīrti's Madhyamakāvatāra (6.79) and discusses the relevance and repercussions of this reading for Indian Buddhist Madhyamaka thought.
The Buddha famously taught the Middle Way (Skt. madhyamā pratipat) between the extremes of existe... more The Buddha famously taught the Middle Way (Skt. madhyamā pratipat) between the extremes of existence and non-existence in the discourse to Kaccāyanagotta. In this early teaching the Buddha indicated the Middle Way between upholding a permanent and substantial " Self " (ātman), or denying the principles of causality (karma) and rebirth altogether. Did the Buddha teach the Middle Way in early Mahāyāna sūtras? If so, what kind of Middle Way did early Mahāyāna sūtras advocate? This paper examines the Middle Way as defined in two early Mahāyāna sūtras, the Kāśyapaparivarta and Ratnacūḍaparipṛcchā.
This paper examines the structure and content of the *Bodhipathakrama, a previously unstudied imp... more This paper examines the structure and content of the *Bodhipathakrama, a previously unstudied important manuscript preserved in Tibetan and attributed to Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (ca. 982-1054). Atiśa’s *Bodhipathakrama, one of the earliest “stages of the path” works composed in Inner Asia, is found among the recently published Tibetan manuscript facsimiles of the Collected Works of the Kadampas (bka’ gdams pa gsung ’bum, 2006-2015). Atiśa, an Indian Buddhist mahāpaṇḍita during the first half of the eleventh century, is well known among both traditional Tibetan and modern scholars for his *Bodhipathapradīpa (byang chub lam gyi sgron ma) composed in Western Tibet for his Tibetan royal disciple lha bla ma Byang-chub ’od. The *Bodhipathapradīpa is generally considered to be the prototype for all subsequent stages of the path (lam rim) literature in Tibetan scholastic history. In contrast, Atiśa’s *Bodhipathakrama is virtually unknown to traditional and modern scholarship. This paper analyzes the structure and content of this important work and describes a number of small accompanying texts found within the 91 folio cursive script manuscript. The paper then compares the structure and content of Atiśa’s *Bodhipathakrama to Atiśa’s *Bodhipathapradīpa. This comparison illustrates that Atiśa’s *Bodhipathakrama includes topics found in later Tibetan stages of the path literature but absent from Atiśa’s *Bodhipathapradīpa, demonstrating that the *Bodhipathakrama was more influential than is commonly known. The paper concludes that the *Bodhipathakrama was composed for Atiśa’s close disciples within a context of teachings for individuals of highest capacity within the stages of the path approach. In its conclusion, the paper also suggests the historical conditions for why this important text by Atiśa has been forgotten and not acknowledged by subsequent generations of Tibetan scholars.
This paper examines philosophical differences between Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 CE) and R... more This paper examines philosophical differences between Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 CE) and Ratnākaraśānti (ca. 1000 CE) based on evidence from newly published Tibetan manuscripts of The Collected Works of the Kadampas (bka' gdams gsung 'bum). Atiśa is famous for his journey to Tibet and his teaching there for thirteen years. His teachings on Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhist thought and practice came to influence all subsequent traditions of Buddhism in Tibet. Ratnākaraśānti (ca. 1000 CE), also known as Śāntipa in Tibetan sources, was a formidable figure at Vikramaśīla monastery, renowned for his enormous breadth of learning and prolific scholarship. Traditional Tibetan historians describe Atiśa as Ratnākaraśānti's student in the study of Mahāyāna works at Vikramaśīla. Ratnākaraśānti is also recorded in these sources as being a tantric master in a number of lineages upheld by Atiśa. Yet, as this paper demonstrates based on newly published manuscripts, these two important Indian Buddhist scholars had significant differences in their philosophical views. Based on these newly available materials, the paper initially outlines how the Madhyamaka teachings that Atiśa received in his youth were in conflict with the views of Ratnākaraśānti that Atiśa learned while studying under him at Vikramaśīla. The paper briefly compares doctrines found in the works of Ratnākaraśānti and Atiśa to clearly demonstrate how they differed on a number of points of thought and exegesis. Although both Atiśa and Ratnākaraśānti claimed to follow the Middle Way (madhyamā pratipat) of Nāgārjuna, Atiśa's thought was influenced by Candrakīrti, while Ratnākaraśānti expounded his system based on Yogācāra sources. The paper outlines their differences in the application of the tetralemma, the use of negation in realizing the ultimate, their understanding of conventional reality, the role of the means of valid cognition (pramāṇa) in the path, and their understanding of Buddhahood. As a specific example to illustrate the differences between these two scholars, the paper focuses on the interpretation of Nāgārjuna's Yuktiṣaṣṭikā (verse 34), where Atiśa posited mental qualities as mere appearances that dependently arise while Ratnākaraśānti framed the ultimate nature of mental qualities as their " mere shining forth of non-duality " (advayaprakāśamātra). Ratnākaraśānti criticized positions that advocated " mere appearance " (snang ba tsam≈ *pratibhāsamātra) and Atiśa clearly articulated an interpretation of Madhyamaka emphasizing mere appearances based on the interpretation of this verse. The paper concludes that the philosophical differences between these two scholars provides evidence that Atiśa's Madhyamaka was a minority viewpoint at Vikramaśīla monastery, that these philosophical differences effected their master/disciple relationship in esoteric Buddhist practice, and that these differences were influential, in part, upon Atiśa's decision to leave Vikramaśīla for Tibet.
This paper examines the question of whether the notion of ekayāna, the single or universal vehicl... more This paper examines the question of whether the notion of ekayāna, the single or universal vehicle (or way), in the early layers of the Lotus sūtra was a form of bodhisattva universalism as the scripture ostensively advocates, or a form of exclusivism in which the validity of other ways of Buddhist practice were not recognized. The paper initially outlines the concept of ekayāna in Mahāyāna Buddhist sūtras and then charts the development of the ekayāna concept within the broader Buddhist historical context of the period of the three vehicles. The paper then examines ekayāna, along with hīnayāna, " inferior vehicle " in the early layers (chapters 1-10) of the Lotus sūtra. The paper concludes that in the historical context of its early development, the Lotus sūtra was less universalistic, or egalitarian, than commonly thought.
This paper examines the structure and content of Atiśa's Stages of the Path to Awakening (byang c... more This paper examines the structure and content of Atiśa's Stages of the Path to Awakening (byang chub lam gyi rim pa, *bodhipathakrama), a previously unstudied important work found among the recently published manuscript facsimiles of the Collected Works of the Kadampas (bka' gdams pa gsung 'bum, 2006-2015). Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (ca. 982-1054), one of the great Indian Buddhist scholars during the first half of the eleventh century, is well known among both traditional Tibetan and modern scholars for his A Lamp for the Path to Awakening (byang chub lam gyi sgron ma, *bodhipathapradīpa) composed in Western Tibet for his Tibetan disciple Byang-chub 'od. A Lamp for the Path to Awakening is generally considered to be the prototype for all subsequent stages of the path (lam rim) literature in Tibetan scholastic history. In contrast, Atiśa's Stages of the Path to Awakening is virtually unknown to traditional and modern scholarship. This paper provides an initial examination of the structure and content of this important work and describes a number of small accompanying texts found within the 91 folio cursive script manuscript. The paper then compares the structure of Atiśa's Stages of the Path to Awakening to Atiśa's Lamp for the Path to Awakening. The paper also compares the structure of the Stages of the Path to Awakening to other comparable early Kadampa based path texts of Po-to-ba (1027-1105), Shar-ba-pa Yon-tan grags (1070-1141 c.e.), and Gro-lung-pa (12 th century). This comparison illustrates that Atiśa's Stages of the Path to Awakening includes such topics as the rarity of human rebirth, the sufferings of cyclic existence, the principles of karma, among others, found in later stages of the path texts but absent from Atiśa's Lamp for the Path to Awakening. Atiśa's Stages of the Path to Awakening also concludes with instructions on the practice of quiescience (śamatha) and insight (vipaśyanā) rather than discussing Tantra as found in the Lamp for the Path to Awakening. Moreover, the instructions on insight in Atiśa's Stages of the Path to Awakening focuses on a non-conceptual direct vision of the emptiness of one's own mind, a significant difference from the analytical insight utilizing reasoning found in the Lamp for the Path to Awakening.
The teachings of Madhyamaka (“middle way philosophy”) have been the basis of Tibetan Buddhist tho... more The teachings of Madhyamaka (“middle way philosophy”) have been the basis of Tibetan Buddhist thought and practice since the eighth century. After the twelfth century Tibetan scholars distinguished two branches of Madhyamaka: Autonomist (rang rgyud pa) and Consequentialist (thal ’gyur ba, *prāsaṅgika). What distinctions in Madhyamaka thought and practice did twelfth century Tibetan scholars make to differentiate these two branches? This paper examines for the first time an early twelfth century Tibetan commentary that solely focuses upon the distinctions between Autonomist and Consequentialist Mādhyamikas. The paper outlines the structure and contents of the commentary and identifies six points that the twelfth century author emphasizes to distinguish Autonomist and Consequentialist branches of Madhyamaka. The paper identifies the commentary’s anonymous author as representing a previously unknown lineage of Tibetan Madhyamaka originating from Nag tsho lo tsā ba tshul khrims rgyal (1011-1064 CE), the well-known translator and disciple of Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 CE).
The Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i snying po; C. Bore boluomiduo xin... more The Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i snying po; C. Bore boluomiduo xin jing; J. Hannya haramitta shingyō; 般若波羅蜜多心經), known simply as the Heart Sūtra, is one of the most famous and widely commented upon sūtras in Mahāyāna Buddhist cultures. The scripture is preserved in at least seven Asian languages in two versions. The longer version preserved in Tibetan, and recited on a daily basis in Tibetan monasteries, contains a famous preliminary opening verse. The poetic verse praises the Perfection of Wisdom (prajñāpāramitā) and describes it, in part, as “ineffable, inconceivable…the essence of space.” Tibetan commentators often attribute the verse to either the Buddha’s son Rāhula or to the Prajñāpāramitāstrotra by Rāhulabhadra. The former attribution is an untraceable oral tradition and the verse is not found in the latter work as recent scholarship has documented. Is there a textual source for this verse? When did Tibetans begin to recite this verse in their monastic institutions? This paper documents an Indian source for this verse and provides evidence for its recitation in Indian Buddhist monasteries. The paper argues that Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 CE) brought the practice of reciting this poetic verse prior to recitation of the Heart Sūtra based on new evidence from recently recovered Tibetan manuscripts. The paper concludes that the opening verse of the long Tibetan version of the Heart Sūtra originates in India and was ritually recited in at least one major Indian monastery during the late Pāla period.
The teachings of Madhyamaka (“middle way philosophy”) have been the basis of Tibetan Buddhist tho... more The teachings of Madhyamaka (“middle way philosophy”) have been the basis of Tibetan Buddhist thought since the eighth century. After the twelfth century Tibetan scholars distinguished two branches of Madhyamaka: Autonomist (rang rgyud pa) and Consequentialist (thal ’gyur ba, *prāsaṅgika). However, before this common and well-known distinction was established, early twelfth century Tibetan followers of the Indian Buddhist scholar Atiśa classified his teachings as “mere appearance Madhyamaka” (snang tsam dbu ma pa, *pratibhāsamātra-madhyamaka). The paper examines this previously unknown Tibetan classification based on a recently recovered early commentary attributed to Rnal ’byor pa shes rab rdo rje (ca. 1120). The paper articulates the characteristics of this type of Madhyamaka and compares this doxographic category with other late Indian classifications of Madhyamaka. The paper concludes by demonstrating how the identification of this Tibetan doxographic category contributes to understanding the history of Madhyamaka in Tibet, particularly during the eleventh to thirteenth centuries.
The Kāśyapaparivarta is regarded as a principal scripture among modern scholars of Mahāyāna B... more The Kāśyapaparivarta is regarded as a principal scripture among modern scholars of Mahāyāna Buddhism due to the antiquity of its oldest sections that were formed at the earliest developmental stages of Mahāyāna literature. The currently known extant versions of the Kāśyapaparivarta are in Sanskrit in two Central Asian manuscripts, three Chinese versions, Khotanese fragments, and a ninth century Tibetan version preserved among Tibetan Kanjur collections. This paper identifies for the first time seven Old Tibetan fragments of the Kāśyapaparivarta found among the Stein and Pelliot collections from the ancient city-state of Dunhuang. Altogether, these fragments cover fifty-five out of the one hundred sixty-six sections of the editio princeps edited by Staël-Holstein (1926). One Sanskrit Kāśyapaparivarta manuscript preserves an earlier contracted prose-only version of the sūtra, while another Sanskrit manuscript contains an ‘extended’ version with verses followed by prose. As this presentation demonstrates, all the Tibetan Dunhuang fragments correspond with the earlier version without verses. This differs from the later Tibetan version found in Kanjur collections that has prose followed by verse. In addition, one fragment indicates that the Old Tibetan version of this sūtra was explicitly called Ratnakuṭa, a title that accords with the title found in extant Indian and Khotanese works. This title also differs from later Kanjur versions where the text is entitled ’Od srung gi le’u together with the reconstructed Sanskrit title Kāśyapaparivarta. One fragment also contains a segment missing from Tibetan canonical versions, and another fragment contains a segment not found in any other extant version of the Kāśyapaparivarta, whether Sanskrit, Chinese, Khotanese, or Tibetan. Based on this evidence, the paper concludes by pointing out how the Old Tibetan version of the Kāśyapaparivarta preserved at Dunhuang, although fragmentary, provides important clues to assessing the chronological development of this sūtra in its history of transmission.
This paper discusses the results of applying phylogenetic analysis, a computer-based method deriv... more This paper discusses the results of applying phylogenetic analysis, a computer-based method derived from principles of evolutionary biology supported by philological study, to select examples of Mahāyāna sūtras found in Tibetan canonical collections (Tib. bka’-’gyur). The paper initially outlines the methodology for utilizing computer assisted cladistic techniques in investigating the genealogy of textual witnesses found in literary texts. Evolutionary biology and textual criticism have in common the principle that species or texts share derived characters in their evolutionary history that indicate relationships between ancestors and descendants. The paper then provides an overview of the results of philological and phylogenetical analysis of select Tibetan versions of Mahāyāna sūtras. Based on these results, the paper considers the costs and benefits of utilizing phylogenetics for the study of Tibetan canonical texts. The paper then concludes with a brief summation of the implications of phylogenetics for future philological study of Tibetan Buddhist canonical works.
This paper examines the structure and important doctrinal points found in a recently discovered a... more This paper examines the structure and important doctrinal points found in a recently discovered and published manuscript of the Stages of the Path (lam rim) by the renowned Tibetan scholar Sha-ra-ba Yon-tan grags (1070-1141 c.e.). The Stages of the Path is a Tibetan Buddhist genre of literature that consists of works that outline teachings that lead a follower to the final goal of buddhahood. The prototype of the genre was created by the famous eleventh-century Indian master Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (ca. 982-1054), who wrote his Bodhipathapradīpa in Western Tibet. The Stages of the Path (lam rim) of Geshe Shar-ba-pa is one of the earliest known indigenous Tibetan lam-rim compositions that was previously not considered extant. This paper briefly describes the manuscript of this text, and then analyzes two doctrinal issues: Shar-ba-pa’s reconcilation of the Madhyamaka and Yogācāra rites for developing the aspiration for awakening (bodhicitta) and his understanding of Madhyamaka thought.
This paper examines Atiśa’s Madhyamakopadeśa, “Special Instructions for [practicing] the Middle W... more This paper examines Atiśa’s Madhyamakopadeśa, “Special Instructions for [practicing] the Middle Way” as a Buddhist example of spiritual exercises within Hadot’s project for valuing philosophy as a way of life. Reading the Madhyamakopadeśa in a Hadotian fashion brings out how forms of practice and exercises of reason are utilized for soteriological purposes in 11th century Buddhist India and Tibet. The paper initially discusses the understanding of ‘spiritual exercise’ within Hadot’s works and briefly explores the correspondence, and contrast, that this concept has to Foucault’s ‘care of the self.’ The paper then applies Hadot’s reading of spiritual exercise to the Madhyamakopadeśa of Atiśa (982-1054 c.e). The Madhyamakopadeśa and its commentaries provide an important case study for a Hadotian reading of Buddhist spiritual exercises. The base text by the author, along with an Indian commentary by Prajñāmukti, a contemporary with Atiśa, as well as early 12th century Tibetan Kadampa commentaries provide evidence for Buddhist exercises of reason within a specific historical and soteriological context. Other Tibetan historical documents provide evidence for when, where, and why Atiśa wrote the Madhyamakopadeśa furnishing a contextual understanding that has parrallels with Hadot’s reading of ancient Greek and Roman philosophical thought. The paper relates spiritual exercises with practices outlined through upadeśa (“instruction”, Tib. man ngag) as it is applied to this specific genre affliated with Madhyamaka (‘middle way’) thought. The Madhyamakopadeśa and its commentaries bring together what has been previously been characterized as two distinct schematics: one involving rational analysis (Eltschinger 2008), that is, the schematic of three successive kinds of wisdom (thos sam sgom gsum kyi shes rab), and the other being the five sciences (pañcavidyā). Moreover, as these works never directly cite or reference either Dignāga or Dharmakīrti regarding the means of valid knowledge (pramāṇa, tshad ma), ‘reasoning’ (yukti) for followers of Atiśa signifies an ‘internal’ Buddhist form of critical analysis that is different from hetu-vidyā, the ‘external’ epistemological devices used to defend Buddhist Dharma and defeat non-Buddhist opponents. The paper demonstrates how internal Buddhist forms of reasoning in these texts function as “exercises of reason” within the soteriological framework of an Indo-Tibetan Mahāyāna Buddhist path system advocated in the 11-12th centuries.
The concept of the “single vehicle” (一乘, ekayāna) is found in various Mahāyāna sūtras such as the... more The concept of the “single vehicle” (一乘, ekayāna) is found in various Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Śrīmālādevīsiṃhanāda-nirdeśa and Laṅkāvatāra. In these sūtras, the term ‘ekayāna’ signifies the ‘one path’ that leads to full Buddhahood as opposed to other paths that are considered unreal. The single vehicle is a celebrated notion in the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka or Lotus Sūtra, whose characterization of the ekayāna strongly influenced forms of Buddhism in East Asia. The earliest of Chinese Buddhist sūtra translations to discuss the single vehicle are Dharmarakṣa’s Lotus sūtra (Zhengfahua jing 正法華經, T. 263), translated in 285 CE, and Avaivartikacakrasūtra (Aweiyuezhizhe jing 阿惟越致遮經, T. 266), translated in 284 CE. In order to gain a greater understanding of the notion of the single vehicle in self-proclaimed Mahāyāna sūtras, this paper examines the characteristics of this concept found in the Avaivartikacakra sūtra and compares these to the characteristics found in the Lotus sūtra. The comparison between these two sūtras’ portrayal of the single vehicle illustrates underlying similarities in how the single vehicle is conceived but also clarifies important differences of meaning that broaden scholarly knowledge of the single vehicle in Mahāyāna literature.
This paper examines the tensions between Buddhist epistemology and Madhyamaka-oriented views of r... more This paper examines the tensions between Buddhist epistemology and Madhyamaka-oriented views of reality as expressed through Atiśa’s (982–1054 C.E.) “Entry to the Two Realities” (Satyadvayāvatāra) and recently identified early Kadampa (bka’ gdams pa) commentaries on the two realities (satyadvaya). An issue for a number of Indian Buddhist thinkers was the question of the role that the means of valid knowledge (pramāṇa) had in Buddhist soteriology. This paper argues that Atiśa and his Kadampa commentators upheld a traditional pre-sixth century Buddhist separation of ‘reasoning’ (yukti), an ‘internal’ Buddhist form of critical analysis, from hetu-vidyā, the ‘external’ epistemological devices used to defend Buddhist Dharma and defeat non-Buddhist opponents. The tension between Buddhist epistemology and Madhyamaka for these authors was mitigated through employing epistemological devices to refute opponents but not for realizing ultimate reality. Atiśa and his followers emphasize that direct realization of ultimate reality comes from non-conceptual meditative cultivation and not through means of valid knowledge (pramāṇa, tshad ma). As these authors never directly cite or reference either Dignāga or Dharmakīrti regarding reasoning procedures, the paper concludes that the processes of yukti followed by these commentaries represents a “pure” Madhyamakan lineage tradition derived from the Prajñāpāramitā and the works of Nāgārjuna to realize emptiness.
The Avaivartikacakrasūtra is an important Mahāyāna sūtra preserved in three canonical Chinese ver... more The Avaivartikacakrasūtra is an important Mahāyāna sūtra preserved in three canonical Chinese versions and a Tibetan canonical version among extant Buddhist canonical collections. This paper discusses the results of analyzing an Old Tibetan fragment of the Avaivartikacakrasūtra from Dunhuang preserved in the Stein Collection (IOL Tib J 53). The paper details the results of restoring the proper order of the manuscript’s folios and compares the Buddhist terminology found in the fragment against the early ninth century Sanskrit-Tibetan lexicon, the Mahāvyutpatti. The paper also identifies for the first time additional Tibetan fragments that belong to this manuscript from among unidentified Tibetan Mahāyāna sūtra fragments preserved in the Stein collection. The paper concludes with a summary of the stemmatic relations that the fragment preserves compared against a collation of Tibetan canonical exemplars based upon the results of philological study and phylogenetic analysis, a computer-based method derived from principles of evolutionary biology.
This paper identifies and analyzes a previously unidentified, yet well-known, stanza found in a n... more This paper identifies and analyzes a previously unidentified, yet well-known, stanza found in a number of Madhyamaka (“Middle Way Philosophy”) commentaries and discusses its rhetorical use among both traditional and modern scholars. A translation of this stanza reads, “The leader of the world has taught that there is no nirvāṇa in nirvāṇa. A knot tied with space is released through space itself” (anirvāṇaṃ hi nirvāṇaṃ lokanāthena deśitaṃ / ākāśena kṛto granthir ākāśenaiva mocitaḥ //). The first section of the paper identifies this verse as part of a Mahāyāna sūtra preserved in Chinese and Tibetan. The Chinese and Tibetan versions of this stanza from the sūtra are documented and compared against the Sanskrit preserved in Candrakīrti’s Prasannapadā providing clear evidence for its identification. The paper notes other sūtras that also utilize a “knot and space” analogy to illustrate non-conceptuality (nirvikalpa) or emptiness (śūnyatā). The paper then discusses the context of the stanza and compares this to the rhetorical use of the stanza in the Madhyamaka commentaries of Bhāviveka (6th century), Candrakīrti (7th century), and Avalokitavrata (late 7th century). The verse is cited in Madhyamaka commentaries in the context of the twenty-fifth chapter of Nāgārjuna’s Madhyamakaśāstra that analyzes nirvāṇa. The verse is cited, but not identified, by at least five modern authors on Madhyamaka philosophy. The paper concludes by noting the contextual differences between the place of this stanza in its sūtra context, its use by traditional Indian commentators, and how the stanza has been understood in modern scholarship.
‘How Mādhyamikas Meditate’ with Prof. James B. Apple. This presentation focuses on Atiśa Dīpaṃka... more ‘How Mādhyamikas Meditate’ with Prof. James B. Apple. This presentation focuses on Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna's system of Mādhyamika meditation. This event will largely focus on Part 3 of James B. Apple’s acclaimed book, Jewels of the Middle Way: The Madhyamaka Legacy of Atisa and His Early Tibetan Followers.
Tse Chen Ling Center for Tibetan Buddhist Studies , 2020
Atiśa Dīpaṃkara: Illuminator of the Awakened Mind
with James B. Apple
Friday, August 28, 2020 ... more Atiśa Dīpaṃkara: Illuminator of the Awakened Mind with James B. Apple
Friday, August 28, 2020 from 6pm to 8pm US PDT Time
This course will be presented via Facebook LIVE on our Facebook page.
Few figures in the history of Buddhism in Tibet have had as far-reaching and profound an influence as the Indian scholar and adept Atiśa Dīpaṃkara (982–1054). Atiśa is best known for introducing many of the core Mahāyāna teachings that are widely practiced throughout the Tibetan Buddhist world, including the Stages of the Path to Awakening and Mind Training (lojong), as well as having contributed to highly influential commentaries on Madhyamaka that synthesize various schools of thought. In addition, Atiśa was an influential practitioner of Tantra.
“…Atiśa has always been dear to the hearts of Tibetans, and by bringing his words and deeds to life, Apple shows us precisely why this is so—and why we ourselves should look to Atiśa for guidance.” —Roger R. Jackson, Professor Emeritus of Asian Studies and Religion, Carleton College
About the speaker: James B. Apple is Professor of Buddhist Studies at the University of Calgary. His research focuses on the critical analysis of the Mahāyāna sūtras and topics within Indian and Tibetan Buddhism. His books include Jewels of the Middle Way: The Madhyamaka Legacy of Atiśa and His Early Tibetan Followers, A Stairway taken by the Lucid: Tsong kha pa's Study of Noble Beings, and Stairway to Nirvāṇa.
This event will largely focus on James B. Apple’s acclaimed book, Atiśa Dīpaṃkara: Illuminator of the Awakened Mind (Shambhala, 2018). We encourage you purchase this amazing work which is composed for a general audience.
To delve deeper into the thought of Atiśa, we encourage you to also seek out Professor Apple’s other recent publication Jewels of the Middle Way: The Madhyamaka Legacy of Atisa and His Early Tibetan Followers (Wisdom, 2018).
The teachings of Madhyamaka (“middle way philosophy”) have been the basis of Tibetan Buddhist tho... more The teachings of Madhyamaka (“middle way philosophy”) have been the basis of Tibetan Buddhist thought and practice since the eighth century. After the twelfth century, Tibetan scholars distinguished two branches of Madhyamaka: Autonomist (rang rgyud pa) and Consequentialist (thal ’gyur ba, *prāsaṅgika). What distinctions in Madhyamaka thought and practice did twelfth century Tibetan scholars make to differentiate these two branches? This presentation focuses upon a newly identified twelfth century Tibetan manuscript on Madhyamaka from the Collected Works of the Kadampas: Khu lo tsā ba’s Treatise on the Svātantrika/Prāsaṅgika Distinction.
This presentation focuses on the understanding of Maitreya’s Tuṣita Heaven as a Pure Land (mait... more This presentation focuses on the understanding of Maitreya’s Tuṣita Heaven as a Pure Land (maitreyakṣetra, byams pa’i zhing, miroku jōdo) in Tibetan forms of Buddhism. The presentation centers upon practices in Gelukpa (dge-lugs-pa) forms of Buddhism that visualize Maitryea’s Pure Land in Tuṣita Heaven in the context of venerating the ‘root’ guru Tsong-kha-pa Blo-gzang grags pa (1357-1419). A point of focus is the historical conditions that develop for the Geluk-pa veneration of Tsong-kha-pa as well as the conditions for the emergence of Maitreya’s Tuṣita Heaven as a Pure Land in Tibetan forms of Buddhism.
The pāramitās, or perfections, are virtues that are fully developed by a bodhisattva
(Buddha-in-t... more The pāramitās, or perfections, are virtues that are fully developed by a bodhisattva (Buddha-in-training) to become a Buddha.
Buddhist saints are consensually recognized embodiments and exemplars of those who have actualize... more Buddhist saints are consensually recognized embodiments and exemplars of those who have actualized the principles of Śākyamuni Buddha’s teachings. In Buddhist cultural formations they are ideal figures, such as arhats or bodhisattvas, who have undergone bodily, verbal, and mental transformation through meditative cultivations, spiritual practices, and exercises of discernment. Within a Buddhist worldview, they represent an individual’s full development of wisdom and unconditional love.
Holy People of the World: A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia , 2004
Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 c.e.) was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist scholar-adept who revital... more Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 c.e.) was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist scholar-adept who revitalized Buddhism in Tibet during the early 11th century.
Holy People of the World: A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia, 2004
Indian Buddhist bodhisattva philosopher renowned for his use of reasoning in articulating a subtl... more Indian Buddhist bodhisattva philosopher renowned for his use of reasoning in articulating a subtle vision of middle way philosophy (madhyamaka) and an outline of the path of Mahāyāna Buddhism.
Holy People of the World: A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia, 2004
Gedun drubpa (དགེ་འདུན་གྲུབ་པ་, dge-’dun-grub-pa, First Dalai Lama, 1391–1474), major scholar-sai... more Gedun drubpa (དགེ་འདུན་གྲུབ་པ་, dge-’dun-grub-pa, First Dalai Lama, 1391–1474), major scholar-saint in the Gelukpa (Tib. dge-lugs-pa) school of Tibetan Buddhism who was a close disciple of Tsong kha pa, founder of Tashilhunpo (bkra-shis lhun-po) monastery, and posthumously designated as the First Dalai Lama.
Holy People of the World: A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia , 2004
Gyeltsap Darma Rinchen (rgyal tshab dar ma rin chen [1364-1432]). Important philosopher-saint in ... more Gyeltsap Darma Rinchen (rgyal tshab dar ma rin chen [1364-1432]). Important philosopher-saint in the Gelukpa (dge lugs pa) school of Tibetan Buddhism who was the immediate successor to Tsong-kha-pa and first throne holder of Ganden monastery (dga’ ldan khri pa).
Holy People of the World: A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia, 2004
Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist monk-scholar who greatly influenced the early formations of
Buddhism in ... more Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist monk-scholar who greatly influenced the early formations of Buddhism in Tibet through his writings on meditation and philosophy.
Holy People of the World: A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia, 2004
Khedrub Jey (mkhas grub dge legs dpal bzang [1385-1438 C.E.]), one of the most important scholar-... more Khedrub Jey (mkhas grub dge legs dpal bzang [1385-1438 C.E.]), one of the most important scholar-saints in the history of the Tibetan Buddhist scholastic tradition, who is considered to be the third patriarch of the Gelukpa (dge lugs pa), or Gandanpa (dga’ ldan pa), school that was founded by Tsong kha pa blo bzang grags pa (1357-1419).
Holy People of the World: A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia, 2004
Nāropā (956-1040 CE) was an Indian Tantric Buddhist master whose life and teachings were highly r... more Nāropā (956-1040 CE) was an Indian Tantric Buddhist master whose life and teachings were highly regarded in Tibet.
Holy People of the World: A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia, 2004
Tsong kha pa blo bzang grags pa, (1357-1419),
Renowned scholar, monk, philosopher who was one of ... more Tsong kha pa blo bzang grags pa, (1357-1419), Renowned scholar, monk, philosopher who was one of the most profoundly influential and innovative minds in the history of Tibetan Buddhism.
Atiśa Dipaṃkaraśrījñāna (ca. 982–1054) was one of the greatest Indian Buddhist masters ever to se... more Atiśa Dipaṃkaraśrījñāna (ca. 982–1054) was one of the greatest Indian Buddhist masters ever to set foot in Tibet. He was an accomplished practitioner and teacher of esoteric Buddhism. Among the esoteric Buddhist deities that he cultivated, the goddess Tārā had a special place in his life as well as his Kadampa (bka’ gdams pa) followers. The following excerpt from “A Staircase to Liberation: A Collection of Prayers” highlights the powerful and swift practice of reciting the Tārā mantra, “Oṃ tāre tuttāre ture svāhā.” Notes to the practice tell of an episode of Atiśa’s life, who, upon praying to Tārā for the recovery of his disciple Ngok Lekpe Sherab (rngog legs pa’i shes rab, ca. 10th century), witnessed auspicious signs and healing. This practice is said to be as effective as reciting the entire Tārā Tantra.
The following is an English translation of The Noble Mahāyāna Sūtra “The Questions of the Househo... more The following is an English translation of The Noble Mahāyāna Sūtra “The Questions of the Householder Vīradatta (Āryavīradattagṛhapatiparipṛcchā-nāma-mahāyāna-sūtra). The Questions of the Householder Vīradatta is preserved in Gāndhārī fragments and in Chinese, Tibetan, and Mongolian versions. There are three Chinese versions: the Pusa xiuxing jing 菩薩修⾏經 translated by Bo Fazuo circa 290–306 ᴄᴇ (Taishō 330), the Quan shou chang zhe hui 勸授⻑者會 translated by Bodhiruci in 713 ᴄᴇ (Taishō 310(28)), and the Wu wei shou suo wen da cheng jing 無畏授所問⼤乘經 translated by Dānapāla circa 980 ᴄᴇ. The Tibetan version is preserved in one Dunhuang manuscript (IOL Tib J 184) and approximately twenty-eight Kangyur editions. This English translation is based on a complete Dunhuang Tibetan manuscript (IOL Tib J 184), which was compared against another Dunhuang Tibetan manuscript (IOL Tib J 185) and seven Kangyur editions. The IOL Tib J 184 manuscript version is the oldest and most complete version of the extant Tibetan textual witnesses.
The verse is an oral tradition attributed to Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054). The English tran... more The verse is an oral tradition attributed to Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054). The English translation (Apple, 2019, p. 6): "I pay homage to the awakening mind, Which destroys any rebirth in the lower realms, Liberates from all obstructions, and Illuminates the majesty of complete buddhahood."
The Dwelling Place of Mañjuśrī first presents a dialogue between Mañjuśrī and Śāriputra regarding... more The Dwelling Place of Mañjuśrī first presents a dialogue between Mañjuśrī and Śāriputra regarding the activity of “dwelling” (vihāra) during meditation, the nature of dharmas, and the “true nature” (tathatā). This opens into a conversation between Mañjuśrī and a large gathering of monks whereby Mañjuśrī corrects the monks’ misinterpretations. Mañjuśrī then instructs Śāriputra on the enduring and indestructible nature of the realm of sentient beings and the realm of reality. Finally, the power of Mañjuśrī’s teaching is explained and reiterated by the Buddha.
Translation of Tibetan version of the Avalokiteśvaraparipṛcchāsaptadharmaka based on ten editions... more Translation of Tibetan version of the Avalokiteśvaraparipṛcchāsaptadharmaka based on ten editions of the Tibetan Kanjur (bka' 'gyur)
Asian Religions is a general introduction to the academic study of Asian religious traditions. Th... more Asian Religions is a general introduction to the academic study of Asian religious traditions. The course familiarizes students with the major religious and philosophical traditions of select geographical areas in South, Central, and East Asia. While refining the skills of empathetic description and non-evaluative comparison, the course also examines religion as an area of academic study, examining the function of religion in relation to human beliefs, social practices, and culture in general. A primary goal of the course is for all students to learn to define, accurately describe, and compare in a non-evaluative manner, various religious traditions within Asia so as to discover significant similarities and differences in various forms of human thought and behavior.
Religious Studies 327 is a selective survey of the philosophical, cultural, and historical aspect... more Religious Studies 327 is a selective survey of the philosophical, cultural, and historical aspects of Buddhist and related formations in Tibet. The course surveys the history of Buddhism in Tibet, from Buddhism's introduction into this country up to the predominance of Tibet's four principal Buddhist traditions. The course then focus upon selected thematic topics such as the gradual stages to awakening (lam rim) literature, mind training (blo sbyong), buddha-nature, tantra, women in Tibetan Buddhism, life and institution of the Dalai Lama, along with the issues of orientalism and the modern interpretation of Tibetan Buddhist formations.
Tsongkhapa (1357-1419) , Three Important Pathways (lam gtso rnam gsum).
Course handout for modu... more Tsongkhapa (1357-1419) , Three Important Pathways (lam gtso rnam gsum).
Course handout for module on Géluk (dge lugs) in Tibetan forms of Buddhism.
This seminar examines Buddhist Thought in India. Buddhists like to place emphasis not on belief a... more This seminar examines Buddhist Thought in India. Buddhists like to place emphasis not on belief as such but on practicing, following a path, and knowing, directly seeing. This direct 'seeing things the way they really are' is held to free a person from the depths of suffering through cognitive transformation. By 'Buddhist thought' we mean, in this general context, the discussions, speculations, and arguments concerning 'how things really are.' In this seminar we will try to understand this issue through the works of various Buddhist philosophers beginning with Śākyamuni Buddha (480-400 BCE) through to Candrakīrti (ca. 570-650 CE). In examining the primary sources (via translations), we will question the notion of "schools" of Buddhism as historical realities while accepting the importance of "schools" for subsequent traditions. The goal is to perceive continuities between the works of philosophers while recognizing their unique attempts to solve some persistent philosophical problems.
Mahāyāna streams of Buddhism have had a profound impact on the shape of Buddhist formations in In... more Mahāyāna streams of Buddhism have had a profound impact on the shape of Buddhist formations in India, throughout Asia, and beyond. This course examines, in a selected survey format, the classification, cultural formations, literature, and systematic thought of Mahāyāna doctrines and practices utilizing a range of interdisciplinary methods and approaches. The course focuses on the problems of classification and definition; the "new metaphysics" of emptiness; controversies in the conception of Buddhahood; the centrality of compassion; visualization and other meditation techniques; the role of faith and the practices of lay people; and the development of the bodhisattva ideal.
Religious Studies 319 focuses upon the formation and development of Esoteric Buddhism in South As... more Religious Studies 319 focuses upon the formation and development of Esoteric Buddhism in South Asia from c. 500 CE to 1200 CE. Esoteric Buddhist formations, as part of broader pan-Indic cultural movements known as Tantra, are some of the most popular yet most misunderstood forms of Buddhism. In this course, we will examine the social and historical contexts for the formation of Esoteric movements as well as consider some of the many questions concerning the history, literature, and practices of these cultural movements.
Asian Religions is a general introduction to the academic study of Asian religious traditions. Th... more Asian Religions is a general introduction to the academic study of Asian religious traditions. The course familiarizes students with the major religious and philosophical traditions of select geographical areas in South, Central, and East Asia. While refining the skills of empathetic description and non-evaluative comparison, the course also examines religion as an area of academic study, examining the function of religion in relation to human beliefs, social practices, and culture in general. A primary goal of the course is for all students to learn to define, accurately describe, and compare in a non-evaluative manner, various religious traditions within Asia so as to discover significant similarities and differences in various forms of human thought and behavior.
As an introduction to Buddhism, this course focuses on the historical development of Early Buddhi... more As an introduction to Buddhism, this course focuses on the historical development of Early Buddhist formations (500 BCE to 100 CE), investigating their beginnings and transformation in India and other SE Asian cultures. The course begins by examining the historical and cultural context in which Early Buddhism began, first as represented in the life and teachings of Siddhārtha Gautama, and then followed by the socio-cultural institutions and religious practices that developed after his life. The course then examines the cosmological structures of Buddhist universes, the early socio-economic structure of Buddhist schools and institutions, including the relationships between monastic and lay communities, the oral/written transmission of texts, as well as the archaeology of Buddhist devotion that develops during the Mauryan period with the worship of stūpas, relics, and images. The course concludes with describing Buddhist developments in the northwestern borderlands (Gandhāra) and a discussion on the place of women in early Buddhism.
This course examines the lives of Indian and Tibetan Buddhist masters within their social histori... more This course examines the lives of Indian and Tibetan Buddhist masters within their social historical context of India and Tibet. The course will examine the lives of the following four individuals: Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054), Sönam Peldren (1328-1372), Tsongkhapa (1357-1419), and Gendun Chopel (1903-1951).
Asian Religions is a general introduction to the academic study of Asian religious traditions. Th... more Asian Religions is a general introduction to the academic study of Asian religious traditions. The course familiarizes students with the major religious and philosophical traditions of select geographical areas in South, Central, and East Asia. While refining the skills of empathetic description and non-evaluative comparison, the course also examines religion as an area of academic study, examining the function of religion in relation to human beliefs, social practices, and culture in general. A primary goal of the course is for all students to learn to define, accurately describe, and compare in a non-evaluative manner, various religious traditions within Asia so as to discover significant similarities and differences in various forms of human thought and behavior.
Mahāyāna streams of Buddhism have had a profound impact on the shape of Buddhist formations in In... more Mahāyāna streams of Buddhism have had a profound impact on the shape of Buddhist formations in India, throughout Asia, and beyond. This course examines, in a selected survey format, the classification, cultural formations, literature, and systematic thought of Mahāyāna doctrines and practices utilizing a range of interdisciplinary methods and approaches. The course focuses on the problems of classification and definition; the "new metaphysics" of emptiness; controversies in the conception of Buddhahood; the centrality of compassion; visualization and other meditation techniques; the role of faith and the practices of lay people; and the development of the bodhisattva ideal.
This seminar examines the history of Buddhist Thought in India. Buddhists like to place emphasis ... more This seminar examines the history of Buddhist Thought in India. Buddhists like to place emphasis not on belief as such but on practicing, following a path, and knowing, directly seeing. This direct ‘seeing things the way they really are’ (Skt. yathābhūtadarśana ≈ P.
yathābhūtadassana) is held to free a person from the depths of suffering through cognitive transformation. By ‘Buddhist thought’ we mean, in this general context, the discussions, speculations, and arguments concerning ‘how things really are.’ In this seminar we will try to understand this issue through the works of various Buddhist philosophers beginning with Śākyamuni Buddha (480-400 BCE) through to Candrakīrti (ca. 570-650 CE).
Religious Studies 319 focuses upon the formation and development of Esoteric Buddhism in South As... more Religious Studies 319 focuses upon the formation and development of Esoteric Buddhism in South Asia from c. 500 CE to 1200 CE. Esoteric Buddhist formations, as part of broader pan-Indic cultural movements known as Tantra, are some of the most popular yet most misunderstood forms of Buddhism. In this course, we will examine the social and historical contexts for the formation of Esoteric movements as well as consider some of the many questions concerning the history, literature, and practices of these cultural movements.
This course examines the lives of Indian and Tibetan Buddhist masters within the social historica... more This course examines the lives of Indian and Tibetan Buddhist masters within the social historical context of India and Tibet. The course will examine the lives of the following four individuals: Atiśa Dīpaṃkara-śrījñāna (982-1054), Sönam Peldren (1328-1372), Tsongkhapa (1357-1419), and Gendun Chopel (1903-1951).
Asian Religions is a general introduction to the academic study of Asian religious traditions. Th... more Asian Religions is a general introduction to the academic study of Asian religious traditions. The course familiarizes students with the major religious and philosophical traditions of select geographical areas in South, Central, and East Asia. While refining the skills of empathetic description and non-evaluative comparison, the course also examines religion as an area of academic study, examining the function of religion in relation to human beliefs, social practices, and culture in general. A primary goal of the course is for all students to learn to define, accurately describe, and compare in a non-evaluative manner, various religious traditions within Asia so as to discover significant similarities and differences in various forms of human thought and behavior.
Religious Studies 327 is a selective survey of the philosophical, cultural, and historical aspect... more Religious Studies 327 is a selective survey of the philosophical, cultural, and historical aspects of Buddhist and related formations in Tibet. We initially consider the Indian Buddhist doctrines and practices that are often essentialized as "Buddhism," which nevertheless are necessary for understanding “Buddhism” as it developed in Tibet. The course then surveys the history of Buddhism in Tibet, from Buddhism’s introduction into this country up to the predominance of Tibet’s four principal Buddhist traditions. We then focus upon selected thematic topics such as the gradual stages to awakening (lam rim) literature, mind training (blo sbyong), buddha-nature, tantra, women in Tibetan Buddhism, life and institution of the Dalai Lama, along with the issues of orientalism and the modern interpretation of Tibetan Buddhist formations.
RELS 323 Mahāyāna Buddhism examines, in a selected survey format, the classification, cultural fo... more RELS 323 Mahāyāna Buddhism examines, in a selected survey format, the classification, cultural formations, literature, and systematic thought of Mahāyāna doctrines and practices utilizing a range of interdisciplinary methods and approaches. The course focuses on the problems of classification and definition; the "new metaphysics" of emptiness; controversies in the conception of Buddhahood; the centrality of compassion; visualization and other meditation techniques; the role of faith and the practices of lay people; and the development of the bodhisattva ideal.
This course focuses upon the formation and development of Esoteric Buddhisms in South Asia from c... more This course focuses upon the formation and development of Esoteric Buddhisms in South Asia from c. 500 c.e. to 1200 c.e. Esoteric Buddhist formations, as part of broader pan-Indic cultural movements known as Tantra, are some of the most popular yet most misunderstood forms of Buddhism.
This seminar examines the history of Buddhist Thought in India. Buddhists like to place emphasis ... more This seminar examines the history of Buddhist Thought in India. Buddhists like to place emphasis not on belief as such but on practicing, following a path, and knowing, directly seeing. This direct ‘seeing things the way they really are’ is held to free a person from the depths of suffering through cognitive transformation. By ‘Buddhist thought’ we mean, in this general context, the discussions, speculations, and arguments concerning ‘how things really are.’ In this seminar we will try to understand this issue through the works of various Buddhist philosophers beginning with Śākyamuni Buddha (480-400 BCE) through to Candrakīrti (ca. 570-650 CE).
This course focuses upon the formation and development of Esoteric Buddhisms in South Asia from c... more This course focuses upon the formation and development of Esoteric Buddhisms in South Asia from c. 500 c.e. to 1200 c.e. Esoteric Buddhist formations, as part of broader pan-Indic cultural movements known as Tantra, are some of the most popular yet most misunderstood forms of Buddhism. In this course, we will examine the social and historical contexts for the formation of Esoteric movements as well as consider some of the many questions concerning the history, literature, and practices of these cultural movements.
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Books by James Apple
Few figures in the history of Buddhism in Tibet have had as far-reaching and profound an influence as the Indian scholar and adept Atiśa Dīpaṃkara (982–1054). Originally from Bengal, Atiśa was a tantric Buddhist master during Vajrayana Buddhism’s flowering in India and traveled extensively, eventually spending the remaining twelve years of his life revitalizing Buddhism in Tibet. Revered by all the schools of Tibetan Buddhism, Atiśa and his students founded what came to be known as the Kadam school, whose teachings have influenced countless Buddhist masters. These teachings, cherished by all major traditions, are preserved by the Geluk in particular, the school of the Dalai Lamas.
Although Atiśa was an influential practitioner and scholar of Tantra, he is best known for introducing many of the core Mahayana teachings that are widely practiced throughout the Tibetan Buddhist world, including the Stages of the Path to Awakening and Mind Training (lojong), as well as having contributed to highly influential commentaries on Madhyamaka that synthesize various schools of thought. This succinct biography of Atiśa’s life, together with a collection of translations, represents for the first time the full range of Atiśa’s contribution to Buddhism. As the most comprehensive work available on this essential Buddhist figure, this book is an indispensable resource for scholars and Buddhist practitioners alike.
Papers by James Apple
paper initially presents a brief synopsis of the known reception history in Tibet of the “Heart Sūtra,” commonly called the “Heart of Wisdom” (prajñāhṛdaya ≈ shes rab snying po) in Indian and Tibetan culture. The comparative collation demonstrates that the version found in the De ga g.yu tshal prayers manual, dating to approximately 823 CE slightly differs from all known versions found among Tibetan Kangyurs as well as all
versions preserved in Sanskrit and Chinese. The paper concludes that the Dunhuang Tibetan version of the Heart of Wisdom preserved in IOL Tib J 751, despite representing an official ceremonial ninth century version of the sūtra, disappeared from Tibetan Buddhist traditions due to historical circumstances.
Dedication: To Seishi Karashima-sensei, who always took the time to provide guidance in my research endeavors.
works? If so, how is the metaphor used and what principles does its use illustrate? This article compares the use of this metaphor among diverse Mahāyāna Buddhist exegetes found in India, Tibet, China, and Japan. It examines the use of this metaphor by select thinkers such as Zhiyi (智顗, 538–97), Atiśa (982–1054), Prajñāmukti (ca. 11th century), and Nichiren (日蓮, 1222–82) to demonstrate how this trope is appropriated in Indian and East Asian forms of Buddhism. Further, the article examines points of difference between these select scholars to illustrate important distinctions between Indian Buddhist and East Asian Buddhist soteriology.
Madhyamaka (Middle Way thought and practice) who upheld a lineage based on Nāgārjuna and Candrakīrti that descended down to Atiśa’s direct teachers Bodhibhadra and Avadhūtipa. Atiśa’s lineage of the Middle Way of Nāgārjuna was contemplative in nature and did not utilize epistemological warrants (pramāṇa) to realize ultimate reality. Atiśa’s Middle Way synthesized the teachings of Bhāviveka and Candrakīrti, bringing together compatible elements of their teachings for soteriological efficacy in progression on the path. The following chapter outlines Atiśa's great middle way (dbu ma chen po) or mere appearance (snang ba tsam).
The following chapter provides a brief historical background to Maitreya and Tuṣita in the life of Tsongkhapa, describes the context for the understanding of Tuṣita Heaven as a buddha-field among Tsongkhapa’s followers, and concludes
with a description of the characteristics of Maitreya’s field as a pure land.
Few figures in the history of Buddhism in Tibet have had as far-reaching and profound an influence as the Indian scholar and adept Atiśa Dīpaṃkara (982–1054). Originally from Bengal, Atiśa was a tantric Buddhist master during Vajrayana Buddhism’s flowering in India and traveled extensively, eventually spending the remaining twelve years of his life revitalizing Buddhism in Tibet. Revered by all the schools of Tibetan Buddhism, Atiśa and his students founded what came to be known as the Kadam school, whose teachings have influenced countless Buddhist masters. These teachings, cherished by all major traditions, are preserved by the Geluk in particular, the school of the Dalai Lamas.
Although Atiśa was an influential practitioner and scholar of Tantra, he is best known for introducing many of the core Mahayana teachings that are widely practiced throughout the Tibetan Buddhist world, including the Stages of the Path to Awakening and Mind Training (lojong), as well as having contributed to highly influential commentaries on Madhyamaka that synthesize various schools of thought. This succinct biography of Atiśa’s life, together with a collection of translations, represents for the first time the full range of Atiśa’s contribution to Buddhism. As the most comprehensive work available on this essential Buddhist figure, this book is an indispensable resource for scholars and Buddhist practitioners alike.
paper initially presents a brief synopsis of the known reception history in Tibet of the “Heart Sūtra,” commonly called the “Heart of Wisdom” (prajñāhṛdaya ≈ shes rab snying po) in Indian and Tibetan culture. The comparative collation demonstrates that the version found in the De ga g.yu tshal prayers manual, dating to approximately 823 CE slightly differs from all known versions found among Tibetan Kangyurs as well as all
versions preserved in Sanskrit and Chinese. The paper concludes that the Dunhuang Tibetan version of the Heart of Wisdom preserved in IOL Tib J 751, despite representing an official ceremonial ninth century version of the sūtra, disappeared from Tibetan Buddhist traditions due to historical circumstances.
Dedication: To Seishi Karashima-sensei, who always took the time to provide guidance in my research endeavors.
works? If so, how is the metaphor used and what principles does its use illustrate? This article compares the use of this metaphor among diverse Mahāyāna Buddhist exegetes found in India, Tibet, China, and Japan. It examines the use of this metaphor by select thinkers such as Zhiyi (智顗, 538–97), Atiśa (982–1054), Prajñāmukti (ca. 11th century), and Nichiren (日蓮, 1222–82) to demonstrate how this trope is appropriated in Indian and East Asian forms of Buddhism. Further, the article examines points of difference between these select scholars to illustrate important distinctions between Indian Buddhist and East Asian Buddhist soteriology.
Madhyamaka (Middle Way thought and practice) who upheld a lineage based on Nāgārjuna and Candrakīrti that descended down to Atiśa’s direct teachers Bodhibhadra and Avadhūtipa. Atiśa’s lineage of the Middle Way of Nāgārjuna was contemplative in nature and did not utilize epistemological warrants (pramāṇa) to realize ultimate reality. Atiśa’s Middle Way synthesized the teachings of Bhāviveka and Candrakīrti, bringing together compatible elements of their teachings for soteriological efficacy in progression on the path. The following chapter outlines Atiśa's great middle way (dbu ma chen po) or mere appearance (snang ba tsam).
The following chapter provides a brief historical background to Maitreya and Tuṣita in the life of Tsongkhapa, describes the context for the understanding of Tuṣita Heaven as a buddha-field among Tsongkhapa’s followers, and concludes
with a description of the characteristics of Maitreya’s field as a pure land.
to sections §102-135. The fragments collated in Parts 1 and 2 altogether comprise a version of the Kāśyapaparivarta preserved in Old Tibetan that was previously unknown.
the Middle Way (madhyamakopadeśa) of Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna
(982-1054 CE) using the approach of Pierre Hadot (1922-2010) to
interpreting philosophia as a way of life. The paper first outlines the
attractiveness of Pierre Hadot’s program for reading ancient philosophy
and his notions of spiritual exercises and philosophia. The paper
then addresses recent critiques of interpreting Buddhist thought as
philosophia within the socio-historical context of Indian Buddhism. In
response to such criticisms, a reading of Atiśa’s Special Instructions on
the Middle Way (hereafter, Special Instructions) furnishes a case study
for Buddhist spiritual exercises within a way of life that brings about
self-transformation.
天台大師智顗（５３８−５９７CE）は、十界論という仏教的宇宙観を確立し広めたことで有名であるが、ベンガル出身のインド仏教学僧アティシャ ディーパンカラシュリージニャーナ（９８２−１０５４CE）は、ラムリム、つまり道次第という修行の階梯を確立した事で有名である。智顗の十界論は六道と四聖で構成されている一方で、アティシャのシステムは法を求める人々を「劣った能力の人」「中位の能力の人」「勝れた能力の人」という三種に分類し、それらの人々の悟りへの階梯を詳細に叙述している。
これらの二者の比較を意図とするこの発表では、智顗によって示された十界論が、アティシャの『道次第』に描かれた仏教的宇宙観と近似しあっている事についての比較研究を行う事を目的とするとともに、これらの二つの宇宙観がそれぞれ異なりを持っている事を検証し、それによってインド仏教と東アジア仏教の重要な相違点を描いていきたい。
April 21, 2021 from 6pm to 8pm US PDT Time
www.tsechenling.org
Registration is required - you can register using the Tickets link on this page, or through our website. If you are able, please consider sponsoring this course (includes registration).
https://tsechenlingcenter.ticketspice.com/atia-dpakara-jewels-of-the-middle-way-with-profjames-
b-apple
with James B. Apple
Friday, August 28, 2020 from 6pm to 8pm US PDT Time
This course will be presented via Facebook LIVE on our Facebook page.
https://www.facebook.com/events/269820591020572/
Few figures in the history of Buddhism in Tibet have had as far-reaching and profound an influence as the Indian scholar and adept Atiśa Dīpaṃkara (982–1054). Atiśa is best known for introducing many of the core Mahāyāna teachings that are widely practiced throughout the Tibetan Buddhist world, including the Stages of the Path to Awakening and Mind Training (lojong), as well as having contributed to highly influential commentaries on Madhyamaka that synthesize various schools of thought. In addition, Atiśa was an influential practitioner of Tantra.
“…Atiśa has always been dear to the hearts of Tibetans, and by bringing his words and deeds to life, Apple shows us precisely why this is so—and why we ourselves should look to Atiśa for guidance.” —Roger R. Jackson, Professor Emeritus of Asian Studies and Religion, Carleton College
About the speaker:
James B. Apple is Professor of Buddhist Studies at the University of Calgary. His research focuses on the critical analysis of the Mahāyāna sūtras and topics within Indian and Tibetan Buddhism. His books include Jewels of the Middle Way: The Madhyamaka Legacy of Atiśa and His Early Tibetan Followers, A Stairway taken by the Lucid: Tsong kha pa's Study of Noble Beings, and Stairway to Nirvāṇa.
This event will largely focus on James B. Apple’s acclaimed book, Atiśa Dīpaṃkara: Illuminator of the Awakened Mind (Shambhala, 2018). We encourage you purchase this amazing work which is composed for a general audience.
Order direct from Shambhala here:
https://www.shambhala.com/authors/a-f/james-b-apple/atisa-dipamkara.html
To delve deeper into the thought of Atiśa, we encourage you to also seek out Professor Apple’s other recent publication Jewels of the Middle Way: The Madhyamaka Legacy of Atisa and His Early Tibetan Followers (Wisdom, 2018).
Order direct from Wisdom Publications here:
https://wisdomexperience.org/product/jewels-middle-way/
(Buddha-in-training) to become a Buddha.
Buddhism in Tibet through his writings on meditation and philosophy.
Renowned scholar, monk, philosopher who was one of the most profoundly influential and innovative minds in the history of Tibetan Buddhism.
Course handout for module on Géluk (dge lugs) in Tibetan forms of Buddhism.
yathābhūtadassana) is held to free a person from the depths of suffering through cognitive transformation. By ‘Buddhist thought’ we mean, in this general context, the discussions, speculations, and arguments concerning ‘how things really are.’ In this seminar we will try to understand this issue through the works of various Buddhist philosophers beginning with Śākyamuni Buddha (480-400 BCE) through to Candrakīrti (ca. 570-650 CE).
mean, in this general context, the discussions, speculations, and arguments concerning ‘how things really are.’ In this seminar we will try to understand this issue through the works of various Buddhist philosophers beginning with Śākyamuni Buddha (480-400 BCE) through to Candrakīrti (ca. 570-650 CE).