Five fleeces representing the range of appearances and colors of 17 registered Navajo-Churro shee... more Five fleeces representing the range of appearances and colors of 17 registered Navajo-Churro sheep as well as seven fleeces from Dorset, Hampshire, and Suffolk mutton/lamb breeds were surveyed for their colors, fiber dimensions, surface structures, and tensile properties. The double-coated Navajo-Churro fleece consists, in majority, of fine and short undercoat fibers (28.3-32.8 µm wide, 99.2-185 mm long) with slight crimp and contains few much coarser, longer, straight, and medullated guard hairs (50-60 µm wide, 185-274 mm long). Mutton/lamb fibers ranged from 25.9 to 40.1 µm in diameter and from 41 to 123 mm in lengths, mostly wider and shorter than the Navajo-Churro undercoat fibers, both from 6 months of growth. The Navajo-Churro undercoat fibers exhibit slight crimp and wrap-around and angled scale patterns, as do mutton/lamb breed fibers, but their guard hairs have polygonal/elongated scale patterns and no crimp. The Navajo-Churro undercoat fibers had similar tensile strength (147-188 MPa) and strain (63.8-73.5%) values as mutton/lamb fibers (136-202 MPa, 55.8-74.7%), but their modulus values fell into a narrower range (1515-1955 MPa vs 1202-2224 MPa). This first fiber survey serves to document key fiber attributes of culturally significant Navajo-Churro and mutton/lamb breeds for quality assessments, breeding, product design, and developing potential applications for underutilized by-product wool.
International journal of biological macromolecules, May 1, 2024
Surface-functionalized cellulose materials are developed for various purposes, including food add... more Surface-functionalized cellulose materials are developed for various purposes, including food additives and food contact materials. A new biologically relevant testing strategy has been developed based on guidance from the European Food Safety Authority to demonstrate the safety of several next-generation surface-functionalized cellulose materials. This strategy involves a complex three-stage simulated digestion to compare the health effects of thirteen novel different types of cellulose. The physical and chemical properties of surface-functionalized fibrillated celluloses differed depending on the type, amount, and location of functional groups such as sulfonate, TEMPO-oxidized carboxy, and periodate-chlorite oxidized dicarboxylic acid celluloses. Despite exposure to gastrointestinal fluids, the celluloses maintained their physicochemical properties, such as negative surface charges and high length-to-width/thickness aspect ratios. An established intestinal co-culture model was used to measure cytotoxicity, barrier integrity, oxidative stress, and pro-inflammatory response to create a toxicological profile for these unique materials. We conclude that the C6 carboxylated cellulose nanofibrils by TEMPOoxidation induced the most toxicity in the biological model used in this study and that the observed effects were most prominent at the 4-hour post-exposure time point.
This fiber population study has assessed the prevalence of the color and type of trace fibers pre... more This fiber population study has assessed the prevalence of the color and type of trace fibers present on upholstered seats in a specific setting to identify the most common and rare colors and to determine their evidentiary value. Nearly 22,000 fibers were collected via tape lifts from 25 fabric covered chair seats in a lobby area on Beale Air Force Base and examined microscopically to determine their apparent colors. Overall, blue and white/ colorless were the most and nearly equally common colors (32.0 % and 31.5 %, respectively), followed by black/ grey (19.6 %), brown (8.6 %), yellow/tan (4.9 %), and red/pink (2.5 %), while orange, purple, and green were the rarest (0.5 %, 0.3 %, and 0.3 %, respectively). Among rarest color fibers, plant-based fibers were predominant (77.7 %), consisting of mainly cotton, followed by synthetic fibers (17.4 %), then the least prevalent animal fibers (5.0 %). These color rankings align similarly to previous studies, despite the prominence of blue color fibers and higher proportions of brown and yellow/tan color fibers.
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 2024
Surface-functionalized cellulose materials are developed for various purposes, including food add... more Surface-functionalized cellulose materials are developed for various purposes, including food additives and food contact materials. A new biologically relevant testing strategy has been developed based on guidance from the European Food Safety Authority to demonstrate the safety of several next-generation surface-functionalized cellulose materials. This strategy involves a complex three-stage simulated digestion to compare the health effects of thirteen novel different types of cellulose. The physical and chemical properties of surface-functionalized fibrillated celluloses differed depending on the type, amount, and location of functional groups such as sulfonate, TEMPO-oxidized carboxy, and periodate-chlorite oxidized dicarboxylic acid celluloses. Despite exposure to gastrointestinal fluids, the celluloses maintained their physicochemical properties, such as negative surface charges and high length-to-width/thickness aspect ratios. An established intestinal co-culture model was used to measure cytotoxicity, barrier integrity, oxidative stress, and pro-inflammatory response to create a toxicological profile for these unique materials. We conclude that the C6 carboxylated cellulose nanofibrils by TEMPOoxidation induced the most toxicity in the biological model used in this study and that the observed effects were most prominent at the 4-hour post-exposure time point.
This fiber population study has assessed the prevalence of the color and type of trace fibers pre... more This fiber population study has assessed the prevalence of the color and type of trace fibers present on upholstered seats in a specific setting to identify the most common and rare colors and to determine their evidentiary value. Nearly 22,000 fibers were collected via tape lifts from 25 fabric covered chair seats in a lobby area on Beale Air Force Base and examined microscopically to determine their apparent colors. Overall, blue and white/ colorless were the most and nearly equally common colors (32.0 % and 31.5 %, respectively), followed by black/ grey (19.6 %), brown (8.6 %), yellow/tan (4.9 %), and red/pink (2.5 %), while orange, purple, and green were the rarest (0.5 %, 0.3 %, and 0.3 %, respectively). Among rarest color fibers, plant-based fibers were predominant (77.7 %), consisting of mainly cotton, followed by synthetic fibers (17.4 %), then the least prevalent animal fibers (5.0 %). These color rankings align similarly to previous studies, despite the prominence of blue color fibers and higher proportions of brown and yellow/tan color fibers.
Five fleeces representing the range of appearances and colors of 17 registered Navajo-Churro shee... more Five fleeces representing the range of appearances and colors of 17 registered Navajo-Churro sheep as well as seven fleeces from Dorset, Hampshire, and Suffolk mutton/lamb breeds were surveyed for their colors, fiber dimensions, surface structures, and tensile properties. The double-coated Navajo-Churro fleece consists, in majority, of fine and short undercoat fibers (28.3-32.8 µm wide, 99.2-185 mm long) with slight crimp and contains few much coarser, longer, straight, and medullated guard hairs (50-60 µm wide, 185-274 mm long). Mutton/lamb fibers ranged from 25.9 to 40.1 µm in diameter and from 41 to 123 mm in lengths, mostly wider and shorter than the Navajo-Churro undercoat fibers, both from 6 months of growth. The Navajo-Churro undercoat fibers exhibit slight crimp and wrap-around and angled scale patterns, as do mutton/lamb breed fibers, but their guard hairs have polygonal/elongated scale patterns and no crimp. The Navajo-Churro undercoat fibers had similar tensile strength (147-188 MPa) and strain (63.8-73.5%) values as mutton/lamb fibers (136-202 MPa, 55.8-74.7%), but their modulus values fell into a narrower range (1515-1955 MPa vs 1202-2224 MPa). This first fiber survey serves to document key fiber attributes of culturally significant Navajo-Churro and mutton/lamb breeds for quality assessments, breeding, product design, and developing potential applications for underutilized by-product wool.
The combinations of antimony trioxide with a halogen source are often described as being synergis... more The combinations of antimony trioxide with a halogen source are often described as being synergistic and have been an effective and widely used flame retardant system in polymeric materials.6 In the Sb2O3-halogen systems, the primary site of retardant action was thought to be in the gas phase. A major function of the halogen has been thought to transport the relatively non-volatile antimony to the gas phase. The volatile species produced in these systems have been generally agreed to be antimony halides (Sb2 X3 or probably as SbX when insufficient halogen is used)5,6,9,10,11 where antimony halides decompose and inhibit the flame.
ABSTRACT Cibacron Blue F3GA (CB) dye and lipase from Candida rugosa were assembled into multiple ... more ABSTRACT Cibacron Blue F3GA (CB) dye and lipase from Candida rugosa were assembled into multiple alternating bilayers on ultra-fine cellulose (Cell) fiber surfaces via electrostatic layer-by-layer (LBL) deposition. The presence and even coverage of CB and lipase molecules on the fibers were clearly evident by FTIR spectra and microprobe element mapping. The average thickness of each CB/lipase bilayer was ∼11nm and the total LBL thickness increased with increasing numbers of bilayers up to 5 bilayers. The CB and lipase loadings on the Cell fibrous membrane also increased with the increasing bilayers. While CB was loaded at ∼8.1mg/g Cell from layers 2–4, lipase loading was ∼3.3mg/g Cell for the first 2 then became more varied, i.e., between 1.5 and 6.5mg/g Cell, from layers 3–5. The maximum catalytic activities of lipase bound in the CB/lipase bilayers were 97.0, 90.4, 85.2, 76.1, and 55.6U/mg of lipase with 1–5 bilayers, respectively. The catalytic activity of lipase bound in all 5-bilayer LBL was equivalent to 45% of that of free lipase. The successful assembling of alternating layers of CB and lipase as shown by incrementally increasing thickness and loading demonstrate that LBL is a promising approach to immobilize enzymes as nano-films on 3D fibrous templates.
With downward pressure on the value of almond hulls (AH), the major byproduct from the largest tr... more With downward pressure on the value of almond hulls (AH), the major byproduct from the largest tree nut crop globally, the streamlined production of several grades of cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) toward novel aerogels with concurrent sugar extraction was introduced to synergistically drive these products toward commercial adoption. Hot water extraction produced 50 % lignocellulose with equal water-soluble sugars from AH of a soft-shell variety. Aqueous NaOH and NaClO2/KOH treatments isolated ca. 15 % alkali cellulose and 12% cellulose, respectively. Coupled TEMPO oxidation and blending yielded 88 %, 91 %, and 95 % lignocellulose micro/nanofibrils (LCMNF), alkali cellulose nanofibrils (ACNFs), and cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) with respective 0.76, 1.02, and 0.84 mmol/g surface carboxyls in similar 4:1 width-to-thickness aspect ratio and ultra-high length-to-thickness aspect ratios (800–1900). The LCMNF aerogel was most wet-resilient, wet-stable, and dry and wet shape-recoverable, whereas the most charged ACNFs gave the toughest aerogel (31.6 kPa/(mg/cm3)).
A simple and efficient method for the synthesis of lactose-based homopolymers from lactose O-(p-v... more A simple and efficient method for the synthesis of lactose-based homopolymers from lactose O-(p-vinylbenzyl)oxime (4) is described. Free radical polymerization of the new oxime monomers proceeded smoothly in an aqueous solution using potassium persulfate (KPS) and N,N,N‘,N‘-tetramethylethylenediamine (TMEDA) as the initiating system and gave water-soluble homopolymers in good yields. These synthetic lactose-based polymers had high molecular weights and narrow polydispersities (Mw/Mn: 1.20−1.35) as determined by size exclusion chromatography, in conjunction with multiangle laser light scattering (SEC−MALLS). The Mark−Houwink equation was obtained as [η] = 2.15 × 10-4Mv0.73. When the monomer was copolymerized with the cross-linking reagent N,N‘-methylenebis(acrylamide) (BisA) (16% mol), hydrogels were formed which swelled as much as 21-fold in deionized water. These gels have potential applications as biocompatible materials.
ABSTRACT Pure cellulose have been isolated from rice straw at 36% yield and hydrolyzed (64% H2SO4... more ABSTRACT Pure cellulose have been isolated from rice straw at 36% yield and hydrolyzed (64% H2SO4, 8.75 mL/g, 45 °C) for 30 and 45 min to cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), i.e., CNC30 and CNC45, respectively. CNC45 was smaller (11.2 nm wide, 5.06 nm thick and 117 nm long) than CNC30 (30.7 nm wide, 5.95 nm thick and 270 nm long). Freeze–drying of diluted CNC suspensions showed both assembled into long fibrous structures: ultra-fine fibers (∼400 nm wide) from CNC45 and 1–2 μm wide broad ribbons interspersed with CNC clusters from CNC30. The self-assembled fibers from CNC30 and CNC45 were more highly crystalline (86.0% and 91.2%, respectively) and contained larger crystallites (7.36 nm and 8.33 nm, respectively) than rice straw cellulose (61.8%, 4.42 nm). These self-assembled fibers had essentially nonporous or macroporous structures with the CNCs well aligned along the fiber axis. Furthermore, the self-assembled ultra-fine fibers showed extraordinary structural stability, withstanding vigorous shaking and prolong stirring in water.
Five fleeces representing the range of appearances and colors of 17 registered Navajo-Churro shee... more Five fleeces representing the range of appearances and colors of 17 registered Navajo-Churro sheep as well as seven fleeces from Dorset, Hampshire, and Suffolk mutton/lamb breeds were surveyed for their colors, fiber dimensions, surface structures, and tensile properties. The double-coated Navajo-Churro fleece consists, in majority, of fine and short undercoat fibers (28.3-32.8 µm wide, 99.2-185 mm long) with slight crimp and contains few much coarser, longer, straight, and medullated guard hairs (50-60 µm wide, 185-274 mm long). Mutton/lamb fibers ranged from 25.9 to 40.1 µm in diameter and from 41 to 123 mm in lengths, mostly wider and shorter than the Navajo-Churro undercoat fibers, both from 6 months of growth. The Navajo-Churro undercoat fibers exhibit slight crimp and wrap-around and angled scale patterns, as do mutton/lamb breed fibers, but their guard hairs have polygonal/elongated scale patterns and no crimp. The Navajo-Churro undercoat fibers had similar tensile strength (147-188 MPa) and strain (63.8-73.5%) values as mutton/lamb fibers (136-202 MPa, 55.8-74.7%), but their modulus values fell into a narrower range (1515-1955 MPa vs 1202-2224 MPa). This first fiber survey serves to document key fiber attributes of culturally significant Navajo-Churro and mutton/lamb breeds for quality assessments, breeding, product design, and developing potential applications for underutilized by-product wool.
International journal of biological macromolecules, May 1, 2024
Surface-functionalized cellulose materials are developed for various purposes, including food add... more Surface-functionalized cellulose materials are developed for various purposes, including food additives and food contact materials. A new biologically relevant testing strategy has been developed based on guidance from the European Food Safety Authority to demonstrate the safety of several next-generation surface-functionalized cellulose materials. This strategy involves a complex three-stage simulated digestion to compare the health effects of thirteen novel different types of cellulose. The physical and chemical properties of surface-functionalized fibrillated celluloses differed depending on the type, amount, and location of functional groups such as sulfonate, TEMPO-oxidized carboxy, and periodate-chlorite oxidized dicarboxylic acid celluloses. Despite exposure to gastrointestinal fluids, the celluloses maintained their physicochemical properties, such as negative surface charges and high length-to-width/thickness aspect ratios. An established intestinal co-culture model was used to measure cytotoxicity, barrier integrity, oxidative stress, and pro-inflammatory response to create a toxicological profile for these unique materials. We conclude that the C6 carboxylated cellulose nanofibrils by TEMPOoxidation induced the most toxicity in the biological model used in this study and that the observed effects were most prominent at the 4-hour post-exposure time point.
This fiber population study has assessed the prevalence of the color and type of trace fibers pre... more This fiber population study has assessed the prevalence of the color and type of trace fibers present on upholstered seats in a specific setting to identify the most common and rare colors and to determine their evidentiary value. Nearly 22,000 fibers were collected via tape lifts from 25 fabric covered chair seats in a lobby area on Beale Air Force Base and examined microscopically to determine their apparent colors. Overall, blue and white/ colorless were the most and nearly equally common colors (32.0 % and 31.5 %, respectively), followed by black/ grey (19.6 %), brown (8.6 %), yellow/tan (4.9 %), and red/pink (2.5 %), while orange, purple, and green were the rarest (0.5 %, 0.3 %, and 0.3 %, respectively). Among rarest color fibers, plant-based fibers were predominant (77.7 %), consisting of mainly cotton, followed by synthetic fibers (17.4 %), then the least prevalent animal fibers (5.0 %). These color rankings align similarly to previous studies, despite the prominence of blue color fibers and higher proportions of brown and yellow/tan color fibers.
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 2024
Surface-functionalized cellulose materials are developed for various purposes, including food add... more Surface-functionalized cellulose materials are developed for various purposes, including food additives and food contact materials. A new biologically relevant testing strategy has been developed based on guidance from the European Food Safety Authority to demonstrate the safety of several next-generation surface-functionalized cellulose materials. This strategy involves a complex three-stage simulated digestion to compare the health effects of thirteen novel different types of cellulose. The physical and chemical properties of surface-functionalized fibrillated celluloses differed depending on the type, amount, and location of functional groups such as sulfonate, TEMPO-oxidized carboxy, and periodate-chlorite oxidized dicarboxylic acid celluloses. Despite exposure to gastrointestinal fluids, the celluloses maintained their physicochemical properties, such as negative surface charges and high length-to-width/thickness aspect ratios. An established intestinal co-culture model was used to measure cytotoxicity, barrier integrity, oxidative stress, and pro-inflammatory response to create a toxicological profile for these unique materials. We conclude that the C6 carboxylated cellulose nanofibrils by TEMPOoxidation induced the most toxicity in the biological model used in this study and that the observed effects were most prominent at the 4-hour post-exposure time point.
This fiber population study has assessed the prevalence of the color and type of trace fibers pre... more This fiber population study has assessed the prevalence of the color and type of trace fibers present on upholstered seats in a specific setting to identify the most common and rare colors and to determine their evidentiary value. Nearly 22,000 fibers were collected via tape lifts from 25 fabric covered chair seats in a lobby area on Beale Air Force Base and examined microscopically to determine their apparent colors. Overall, blue and white/ colorless were the most and nearly equally common colors (32.0 % and 31.5 %, respectively), followed by black/ grey (19.6 %), brown (8.6 %), yellow/tan (4.9 %), and red/pink (2.5 %), while orange, purple, and green were the rarest (0.5 %, 0.3 %, and 0.3 %, respectively). Among rarest color fibers, plant-based fibers were predominant (77.7 %), consisting of mainly cotton, followed by synthetic fibers (17.4 %), then the least prevalent animal fibers (5.0 %). These color rankings align similarly to previous studies, despite the prominence of blue color fibers and higher proportions of brown and yellow/tan color fibers.
Five fleeces representing the range of appearances and colors of 17 registered Navajo-Churro shee... more Five fleeces representing the range of appearances and colors of 17 registered Navajo-Churro sheep as well as seven fleeces from Dorset, Hampshire, and Suffolk mutton/lamb breeds were surveyed for their colors, fiber dimensions, surface structures, and tensile properties. The double-coated Navajo-Churro fleece consists, in majority, of fine and short undercoat fibers (28.3-32.8 µm wide, 99.2-185 mm long) with slight crimp and contains few much coarser, longer, straight, and medullated guard hairs (50-60 µm wide, 185-274 mm long). Mutton/lamb fibers ranged from 25.9 to 40.1 µm in diameter and from 41 to 123 mm in lengths, mostly wider and shorter than the Navajo-Churro undercoat fibers, both from 6 months of growth. The Navajo-Churro undercoat fibers exhibit slight crimp and wrap-around and angled scale patterns, as do mutton/lamb breed fibers, but their guard hairs have polygonal/elongated scale patterns and no crimp. The Navajo-Churro undercoat fibers had similar tensile strength (147-188 MPa) and strain (63.8-73.5%) values as mutton/lamb fibers (136-202 MPa, 55.8-74.7%), but their modulus values fell into a narrower range (1515-1955 MPa vs 1202-2224 MPa). This first fiber survey serves to document key fiber attributes of culturally significant Navajo-Churro and mutton/lamb breeds for quality assessments, breeding, product design, and developing potential applications for underutilized by-product wool.
The combinations of antimony trioxide with a halogen source are often described as being synergis... more The combinations of antimony trioxide with a halogen source are often described as being synergistic and have been an effective and widely used flame retardant system in polymeric materials.6 In the Sb2O3-halogen systems, the primary site of retardant action was thought to be in the gas phase. A major function of the halogen has been thought to transport the relatively non-volatile antimony to the gas phase. The volatile species produced in these systems have been generally agreed to be antimony halides (Sb2 X3 or probably as SbX when insufficient halogen is used)5,6,9,10,11 where antimony halides decompose and inhibit the flame.
ABSTRACT Cibacron Blue F3GA (CB) dye and lipase from Candida rugosa were assembled into multiple ... more ABSTRACT Cibacron Blue F3GA (CB) dye and lipase from Candida rugosa were assembled into multiple alternating bilayers on ultra-fine cellulose (Cell) fiber surfaces via electrostatic layer-by-layer (LBL) deposition. The presence and even coverage of CB and lipase molecules on the fibers were clearly evident by FTIR spectra and microprobe element mapping. The average thickness of each CB/lipase bilayer was ∼11nm and the total LBL thickness increased with increasing numbers of bilayers up to 5 bilayers. The CB and lipase loadings on the Cell fibrous membrane also increased with the increasing bilayers. While CB was loaded at ∼8.1mg/g Cell from layers 2–4, lipase loading was ∼3.3mg/g Cell for the first 2 then became more varied, i.e., between 1.5 and 6.5mg/g Cell, from layers 3–5. The maximum catalytic activities of lipase bound in the CB/lipase bilayers were 97.0, 90.4, 85.2, 76.1, and 55.6U/mg of lipase with 1–5 bilayers, respectively. The catalytic activity of lipase bound in all 5-bilayer LBL was equivalent to 45% of that of free lipase. The successful assembling of alternating layers of CB and lipase as shown by incrementally increasing thickness and loading demonstrate that LBL is a promising approach to immobilize enzymes as nano-films on 3D fibrous templates.
With downward pressure on the value of almond hulls (AH), the major byproduct from the largest tr... more With downward pressure on the value of almond hulls (AH), the major byproduct from the largest tree nut crop globally, the streamlined production of several grades of cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) toward novel aerogels with concurrent sugar extraction was introduced to synergistically drive these products toward commercial adoption. Hot water extraction produced 50 % lignocellulose with equal water-soluble sugars from AH of a soft-shell variety. Aqueous NaOH and NaClO2/KOH treatments isolated ca. 15 % alkali cellulose and 12% cellulose, respectively. Coupled TEMPO oxidation and blending yielded 88 %, 91 %, and 95 % lignocellulose micro/nanofibrils (LCMNF), alkali cellulose nanofibrils (ACNFs), and cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) with respective 0.76, 1.02, and 0.84 mmol/g surface carboxyls in similar 4:1 width-to-thickness aspect ratio and ultra-high length-to-thickness aspect ratios (800–1900). The LCMNF aerogel was most wet-resilient, wet-stable, and dry and wet shape-recoverable, whereas the most charged ACNFs gave the toughest aerogel (31.6 kPa/(mg/cm3)).
A simple and efficient method for the synthesis of lactose-based homopolymers from lactose O-(p-v... more A simple and efficient method for the synthesis of lactose-based homopolymers from lactose O-(p-vinylbenzyl)oxime (4) is described. Free radical polymerization of the new oxime monomers proceeded smoothly in an aqueous solution using potassium persulfate (KPS) and N,N,N‘,N‘-tetramethylethylenediamine (TMEDA) as the initiating system and gave water-soluble homopolymers in good yields. These synthetic lactose-based polymers had high molecular weights and narrow polydispersities (Mw/Mn: 1.20−1.35) as determined by size exclusion chromatography, in conjunction with multiangle laser light scattering (SEC−MALLS). The Mark−Houwink equation was obtained as [η] = 2.15 × 10-4Mv0.73. When the monomer was copolymerized with the cross-linking reagent N,N‘-methylenebis(acrylamide) (BisA) (16% mol), hydrogels were formed which swelled as much as 21-fold in deionized water. These gels have potential applications as biocompatible materials.
ABSTRACT Pure cellulose have been isolated from rice straw at 36% yield and hydrolyzed (64% H2SO4... more ABSTRACT Pure cellulose have been isolated from rice straw at 36% yield and hydrolyzed (64% H2SO4, 8.75 mL/g, 45 °C) for 30 and 45 min to cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), i.e., CNC30 and CNC45, respectively. CNC45 was smaller (11.2 nm wide, 5.06 nm thick and 117 nm long) than CNC30 (30.7 nm wide, 5.95 nm thick and 270 nm long). Freeze–drying of diluted CNC suspensions showed both assembled into long fibrous structures: ultra-fine fibers (∼400 nm wide) from CNC45 and 1–2 μm wide broad ribbons interspersed with CNC clusters from CNC30. The self-assembled fibers from CNC30 and CNC45 were more highly crystalline (86.0% and 91.2%, respectively) and contained larger crystallites (7.36 nm and 8.33 nm, respectively) than rice straw cellulose (61.8%, 4.42 nm). These self-assembled fibers had essentially nonporous or macroporous structures with the CNCs well aligned along the fiber axis. Furthermore, the self-assembled ultra-fine fibers showed extraordinary structural stability, withstanding vigorous shaking and prolong stirring in water.
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