We investigated developmental trajectories of and the relation between reading and writing (word ... more We investigated developmental trajectories of and the relation between reading and writing (word reading, reading comprehension, spelling, and written composition), using longitudinal data from students in Grades 3-6 in the US. Results revealed that word reading and spelling were best described as having linear growth trajectories whereas reading comprehension and written composition showed nonlinear growth trajectories with a quadratic function during the examined developmental period. Word reading and spelling were consistently strongly related (.73 B rs B .80) whereas reading comprehension and written composition were weakly related (.21 B rs B .37). Initial status and linear slope were negatively and moderately related for word reading (-.44) whereas they were strongly and positively related for spelling (.73). Initial status of word reading predicted initial status and growth rate of spelling; and growth rate of word reading predicted growth rate of spelling. In contrast, spelling did not predict word reading. When it comes to reading comprehension and writing, initial status of reading comprehension predicted initial status (.69), but not linear growth rate, of written comprehension. These results indicate that reading-writing relations are stronger at the lexical level than at the discourse level and may be a unidirectional one from reading to writing at least between Grades 3 and 6. Results are discussed in light of the interactive dynamic literacy model of reading-writing relations, and component skills of reading and writing development.
We examined how raters and tasks influence measurement error in writing evaluation and how many r... more We examined how raters and tasks influence measurement error in writing evaluation and how many raters and tasks are needed to reach a desirable level of .90 and .80 reliabilities for children in Grades 3 and 4. A total of 211 children (102 boys) were administered three tasks in narrative and expository genres, respectively, and their written compositions were evaluated in widely used evaluation methods for developing writers: holistic scoring, productivity, and curriculum-based writing scores. Results showed that 54 and 52% of variance in narrative and expository compositions were attributable to true individual differences in writing. Students' scores varied largely by tasks (30.44 and 28.61% of variance), but not by raters. To reach the reliability of .90, multiple tasks and raters were needed, and for the reliability of .80, a single rater and multiple tasks were needed. These findings offer important implications about reliably evaluating children's writing skills, given that writing is typically evaluated by a single task and a single rater in classrooms and even in some state accountability systems.
Adults enrolled in basic education exhibit poor academic performance, often reading at elementary... more Adults enrolled in basic education exhibit poor academic performance, often reading at elementary and middle-school levels. The current study investigated the similarities and differences of reading skills and eye movement behavior between a sample of 25 low-skilled adult readers and 25 first grade students matched on word reading skill. t tests for matched pairs found no significant differences on language comprehension, reading comprehension, or eye movement variables. Regression analyses revealed that language comprehension made greater contributions to reading comprehension for adults (verses children) in the simple view of reading model. Processing time (gaze duration) was found to account for unique variance in both passage reading comprehension and sentence comprehension efficiency after controlling for word reading and language skills for adults. For children, processing time was only a significant predictor for sentence comprehension efficiency.
The role of working memory in vocabulary acquisition has been well established in the literature.... more The role of working memory in vocabulary acquisition has been well established in the literature. In this study, we proposed and empirically tested the multicomponent view of vocabulary acquisition, which states that multiple language and cognitive skills are involved to facilitate phonological and semantic representations needed for vocabulary acquisition. Working memory and attention were hypothesized to be directly and indirectly related to vocabulary, whereas inference and morphosyntactic knowledge were hypothesized to be directly related to vocabulary (measured by the Picture Vocabulary Test of the Woodcock-Johnson III battery). Results from 262 kindergartners using path analysis revealed that all the multiple cognitive and language skills were directly related to vocabulary after controlling for age, gender, racial/ethnic backgrounds, socioeconomic status (as measured by free or reduced-price lunch eligibility), and each other. Furthermore, working memory and attention also ma...
, H. (2016). What is listening comprehension and what does it take to improve listening comprehen... more , H. (2016). What is listening comprehension and what does it take to improve listening comprehension? In R. Schiff & M. Joshi (Eds.), Handbook of interventions in learning disabilities (pp. 159-174). New York: Springer.
Reading buddies programs, which pair older and younger students to read books together on a regul... more Reading buddies programs, which pair older and younger students to read books together on a regular basis, are common in many U.S. elementary schools. Yet, the research base on these programs is limited. Therefore, we conducted a quasiexperimental study of a reading buddies program targeting vocabulary and comprehension. The program we studied paired fourth-grade students with kindergarten students to read, talk, play, and write together. In all, 16 Grade 4 classrooms and 16 kindergarten classrooms participated in the treatment group and in the comparison group. The treatment included 10 one-hour sessions implemented over the course of roughly 10 weeks. Analyses revealed effects of treatment on proximal measures of vocabulary for both kindergarteners and fourth-grade students. However, there were no effects on distal measures for either group. Teachers' perceptions of the program are presented, and findings are discussed in light of the extant literature.
We investigated direct and indirect effects of component skills on writing (DIEW) using data from... more We investigated direct and indirect effects of component skills on writing (DIEW) using data from 193 children in Grade 1. In this model, working memory was hypothesized to be a foundational cognitive ability for language and cognitive skills as well as transcription skills, which, in turn, contribute to writing. Foundational oral language skills (vocabulary and grammatical knowledge) and higher-order cognitive skills (inference and theory of mind) were hypothesized to be component skills of text generation (i.e., discourse-level oral language). Results from structural equation modeling largely supported a complete mediation model among four variations of the DIEW model. Discourse-level oral language, spelling, and handwriting fluency completely mediated the relations of higher-order cognitive skills, foundational oral language, and working memory to writing. Moreover, language and cognitive skills had both direct and indirect relations to discourse-level oral language. Total effects, including direct and indirect effects, were substantial for discourse-level oral language (.46), working memory (.43), and spelling (.37), followed by vocabulary (.19), handwriting (.17), theory of mind (.12), inference (.10), and grammatical knowledge (.10). The model explained approximately 67% of variance in writing quality. These results indicate that multiple language and cognitive skills make direct and indirect contributions, and it is important to consider both direct and indirect pathways of influences when considering skills that are important to writing.
Language, speech, and hearing services in schools, 2016
The primary aim of the present study was to examine whether different ways of presenting narrativ... more The primary aim of the present study was to examine whether different ways of presenting narrative stimuli (i.e., live narrative stimuli versus audio-recorded narrative stimuli) influence children's performances on narrative comprehension and oral-retell quality. Children in kindergarten (n = 54), second grade (n = 74), and fourth grade (n = 65) were matched on their performance on a standardized oral-language comprehension task and then were randomly assigned to 1 of the 2 conditions that differed in how narrative stimuli were presented to children: live narrative stimuli and audio-recorded narrative stimuli. Kindergartners and 2nd graders in the live condition had higher mean performance on narrative comprehension, with effect sizes of .43 and .39, respectively, after accounting for age, gender, and school. No differences were found in narrative comprehension for children in 4th grade. Children's oral-retell quality did not differ as a function of condition in any grade. T...
The primary goal was to expand our understanding of text reading fluency (efficiency or automatic... more The primary goal was to expand our understanding of text reading fluency (efficiency or automaticity)-how its relation to other constructs (e.g., word reading fluency and reading comprehension) changes over time and how it is different from word reading fluency and reading comprehension. We examined (1) developmentally changing relations among word reading fluency, listening comprehension, text reading fluency, and reading comprehension; (2) the relation of reading comprehension to text reading fluency; (3) unique emergent literacy predictors (i.e., phonological awareness, orthographic awareness, morphological awareness, letter name knowledge, vocabulary) of text reading fluency vs. word reading fluency; and (4) unique language and cognitive predictors (e.g., vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, theory of mind) of text reading fluency vs. reading comprehension. These questions were addressed using longitudinal data (two timepoints; Mean age = 5;24 & 6;08) from Korean-speaking children...
We investigated component language and cognitive skills of oral language comprehension of narrati... more We investigated component language and cognitive skills of oral language comprehension of narrative texts (i.e., listening comprehension). Using the construction-integration model of text comprehension as an overarching theoretical framework, we examined direct and mediated relations of foundational cognitive skills (working memory and attention), foundational language skills (vocabulary and grammatical knowledge), and higher-order cognitive skills (inference, theory of mind, and comprehension monitoring) to listening comprehension. A total of 201 first grade children in South Korea participated in the study. Structural equation modeling results showed that listening comprehension is directly predicted by working memory, grammatical knowledge, inference, and theory of mind and is indirectly predicted by attention, vocabulary, and comprehension monitoring. The total effects were .46 for working memory, .07 for attention, .30 for vocabulary, .49 for grammatical knowledge, .31 for infe...
The present study explored the reading skills of a sample of 48 adults enrolled in a basic educat... more The present study explored the reading skills of a sample of 48 adults enrolled in a basic education program in northern Florida, United States. Previous research has reported on reading component skills for students in adult education settings, but little is known about eye movement patterns or their relation to reading skills for this population. In this study, reading component skills including decoding, language comprehension, and reading fluency are reported, as are eye movement variables for connected-text oral reading. Eye movement comparisons between individuals with higher and lower oral reading fluency revealed within- and between-subject effects for word frequency and word length as well as group and word frequency interactions. Bivariate correlations indicated strong relations between component skills of reading, eye movement measures, and both the Test of Adult Basic Education (Reading subtest) and the Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery Passage Comprehensio...
Using data from children in South Korea (N = 145, Mage = 6.08), it was determined how low-level l... more Using data from children in South Korea (N = 145, Mage = 6.08), it was determined how low-level language and cognitive skills (vocabulary, syntactic knowledge, and working memory) and high-level cognitive skills (comprehension monitoring and theory of mind [ToM]) are related to listening comprehension and whether listening comprehension and word reading mediate the relations of language and cognitive skills to reading comprehension. Low-level skills predicted comprehension monitoring and ToM, which in turn predicted listening comprehension. Vocabulary and syntactic knowledge were also directly related to listening comprehension, whereas working memory was indirectly related via comprehension monitoring and ToM. Listening comprehension and word reading completely mediated the relations of language and cognitive skills to reading comprehension.
This study investigated the phonological awareness of low-income Spanish–English bilingual childr... more This study investigated the phonological awareness of low-income Spanish–English bilingual children, because phonological awareness has been found to be an important prerequisite for literacy acquisition and because such children have been identified as at risk for successful literacy acquisition. Our sample included 123 Spanish–English bilingual preschool children (M=49.1 months) attending Head Start programs. Children's receptive vocabulary was assessed using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—3rd Edition and the Test de Vocabulario en Imagines Peabody. We assessed phonological awareness using English and Spanish versions of the Early Phonological Awareness Profile, which includes deletion detection and rhyming tasks. Emergent literacy was assessed in the child's stronger language using the Emergent Literacy Profile, which includes tests of environmental print knowledge, printed word awareness, alphabet knowledge, and early writing. Spring levels of phonological awareness...
The goal of this study was to investigate the nature of online comprehension monitoring, its pred... more The goal of this study was to investigate the nature of online comprehension monitoring, its predictors, and its relation to reading comprehension. Questions were concerned with (a) beginning readers' sensitivity to inconsistencies, (b) predictors of online comprehension monitoring, and (c) the relation of online comprehension monitoring to reading comprehension over and above word reading and listening comprehension. Using eye tracking technology, online comprehension monitoring was measured as the amount of time spent rereading target implausible words and looking back at surrounding contexts. Results from 319 second graders revealed that children spent greater time fixating on inconsistent than consistent words and engaged in more frequent lookbacks. Comprehension monitoring was explained by both word reading and listening comprehension. However, comprehension monitoring did not uniquely predict reading comprehension after accounting for word reading and listening comprehension. These results provide insight into the nature of comprehension monitoring and its role in reading comprehension for beginning readers. Reading comprehension involves complex processes, including many language, cognitive, and printrelated skills. According to the simple view of reading , this complexity can be captured by two essential skills, language comprehension and word reading (
Pathways of relations of language, cognitive, and literacy skills (i.e., working memory, vocabula... more Pathways of relations of language, cognitive, and literacy skills (i.e., working memory, vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, inference, comprehension monitoring, word reading, and listening comprehension) to reading comprehension were examined by comparing four variations of direct and indirect effects model of reading. Results from 350 English-speaking second graders revealed that language and cognitive component skills had direct and indirect relations to listening comprehension, explaining 86% of variance. Word reading and listening comprehension completely mediated the relations of language and cognitive component skills to reading comprehension and explained virtually all the variance in reading comprehension. Total effects of component skills varied from small to substantial. The findings support the direct and indirect effects model of reading model and indicate that word reading and listening comprehension are upperlevel skills that are built on multiple language and cognitive component skills, which have direct and indirect relations among themselves. The results underscore the importance of understanding nature of relations. One of the influential models of reading comprehension for developing readers is the simple view of reading. According to this model, reading comprehension is a function of decoding or efficient word recognition and linguistic comprehension . The simple view of reading has been supported in many languages with varying orthographic depths including
The Simple View of Reading has been extensively studied and supported in the research literature,... more The Simple View of Reading has been extensively studied and supported in the research literature, across languages and writing systems. Simplicity of the simple view of reading is a strength in that it is easy to work with. On other hand, simplicity is an important shortcoming as critical information about the details underlying decoding and linguistic comprehension is not detailed. In this article, I update and expand the simple view using the direct and indirect effects model of reading (DIER), which captures both simplicity and complexity of reading.
Assessment to Inform Instruction: Formative Assessment , 2019
Our goal in this paper is to provide an overview of assessment for learning, commonly called form... more Our goal in this paper is to provide an overview of assessment for learning, commonly called formative assessment. Among several different types of assessment, formative assessment most directly informs instructional practice. Conducted correctly, formative assessment is an essential element in effective primary grade reading instruction. Our paper begins with a review of key aspects about formative assessment relevant to literacy development, including types of formative assessment, their links to the instructional decision cycle, and requisite features of quality formative assessment. We then present specific guidance and information for successfully implementing formative assessment as part of effective literacy instruction.
Promoting Successful Literacy Acquisition through Structured Pedagogy , 2019
In this paper, we present the case for structured pedagogy. We define what structured pedagogy is... more In this paper, we present the case for structured pedagogy. We define what structured pedagogy is and is not, and then describe the six principles of structured pedagogy: 1) Maximizing instructional time; 2) Practicing systematic and explicit instruction; 3) Establishing instructional routines; 4) Providing scaffolding; 5) Making assessment-informed decisions; and 6) Fostering socio-emotional learning. We also delve into the challenges posed in implementing structured pedagogy in developing country contexts, and offer some recommendations for addressing these challenges. Finally, we offer an illustrative case of a classroom employing structured pedagogy in reading instruction.
Using a randomized control trial, this study examined the causal evidence
of cross-language trans... more Using a randomized control trial, this study examined the causal evidence of cross-language transfer of phonological awareness and letter knowledge (names and sounds) using data from multilingual 1st-grade children (N = 322) in Kenya. Children in the treatment condition received an 8- week instruction on phonological awareness and letter knowledge in Kiswahili. The comparison group received business-as-usual classroom instruction. Children in the treatment condition showed greater improvement in phonological awareness and letter-sound knowledge in Kiswahili and English (positive transfer; effect sizes from .37 to .95), whereas a negative effect was found in letter-name knowledge (interference; effect size, g = .27). No effects were found in reading, nor did the results vary by moderators (e.g., Kiswahili vocabulary). Path analyses revealed divergent patterns of results for different outcomes. Results provide causal evidence for cross-language transfer of phonological awareness and letter knowledge and offer important theoretical and practical implications.
We investigated developmental trajectories of and the relation between reading and writing (word ... more We investigated developmental trajectories of and the relation between reading and writing (word reading, reading comprehension, spelling, and written composition), using longitudinal data from students in Grades 3-6 in the US. Results revealed that word reading and spelling were best described as having linear growth trajectories whereas reading comprehension and written composition showed nonlinear growth trajectories with a quadratic function during the examined developmental period. Word reading and spelling were consistently strongly related (.73 B rs B .80) whereas reading comprehension and written composition were weakly related (.21 B rs B .37). Initial status and linear slope were negatively and moderately related for word reading (-.44) whereas they were strongly and positively related for spelling (.73). Initial status of word reading predicted initial status and growth rate of spelling; and growth rate of word reading predicted growth rate of spelling. In contrast, spelling did not predict word reading. When it comes to reading comprehension and writing, initial status of reading comprehension predicted initial status (.69), but not linear growth rate, of written comprehension. These results indicate that reading-writing relations are stronger at the lexical level than at the discourse level and may be a unidirectional one from reading to writing at least between Grades 3 and 6. Results are discussed in light of the interactive dynamic literacy model of reading-writing relations, and component skills of reading and writing development.
We examined how raters and tasks influence measurement error in writing evaluation and how many r... more We examined how raters and tasks influence measurement error in writing evaluation and how many raters and tasks are needed to reach a desirable level of .90 and .80 reliabilities for children in Grades 3 and 4. A total of 211 children (102 boys) were administered three tasks in narrative and expository genres, respectively, and their written compositions were evaluated in widely used evaluation methods for developing writers: holistic scoring, productivity, and curriculum-based writing scores. Results showed that 54 and 52% of variance in narrative and expository compositions were attributable to true individual differences in writing. Students' scores varied largely by tasks (30.44 and 28.61% of variance), but not by raters. To reach the reliability of .90, multiple tasks and raters were needed, and for the reliability of .80, a single rater and multiple tasks were needed. These findings offer important implications about reliably evaluating children's writing skills, given that writing is typically evaluated by a single task and a single rater in classrooms and even in some state accountability systems.
Adults enrolled in basic education exhibit poor academic performance, often reading at elementary... more Adults enrolled in basic education exhibit poor academic performance, often reading at elementary and middle-school levels. The current study investigated the similarities and differences of reading skills and eye movement behavior between a sample of 25 low-skilled adult readers and 25 first grade students matched on word reading skill. t tests for matched pairs found no significant differences on language comprehension, reading comprehension, or eye movement variables. Regression analyses revealed that language comprehension made greater contributions to reading comprehension for adults (verses children) in the simple view of reading model. Processing time (gaze duration) was found to account for unique variance in both passage reading comprehension and sentence comprehension efficiency after controlling for word reading and language skills for adults. For children, processing time was only a significant predictor for sentence comprehension efficiency.
The role of working memory in vocabulary acquisition has been well established in the literature.... more The role of working memory in vocabulary acquisition has been well established in the literature. In this study, we proposed and empirically tested the multicomponent view of vocabulary acquisition, which states that multiple language and cognitive skills are involved to facilitate phonological and semantic representations needed for vocabulary acquisition. Working memory and attention were hypothesized to be directly and indirectly related to vocabulary, whereas inference and morphosyntactic knowledge were hypothesized to be directly related to vocabulary (measured by the Picture Vocabulary Test of the Woodcock-Johnson III battery). Results from 262 kindergartners using path analysis revealed that all the multiple cognitive and language skills were directly related to vocabulary after controlling for age, gender, racial/ethnic backgrounds, socioeconomic status (as measured by free or reduced-price lunch eligibility), and each other. Furthermore, working memory and attention also ma...
, H. (2016). What is listening comprehension and what does it take to improve listening comprehen... more , H. (2016). What is listening comprehension and what does it take to improve listening comprehension? In R. Schiff & M. Joshi (Eds.), Handbook of interventions in learning disabilities (pp. 159-174). New York: Springer.
Reading buddies programs, which pair older and younger students to read books together on a regul... more Reading buddies programs, which pair older and younger students to read books together on a regular basis, are common in many U.S. elementary schools. Yet, the research base on these programs is limited. Therefore, we conducted a quasiexperimental study of a reading buddies program targeting vocabulary and comprehension. The program we studied paired fourth-grade students with kindergarten students to read, talk, play, and write together. In all, 16 Grade 4 classrooms and 16 kindergarten classrooms participated in the treatment group and in the comparison group. The treatment included 10 one-hour sessions implemented over the course of roughly 10 weeks. Analyses revealed effects of treatment on proximal measures of vocabulary for both kindergarteners and fourth-grade students. However, there were no effects on distal measures for either group. Teachers' perceptions of the program are presented, and findings are discussed in light of the extant literature.
We investigated direct and indirect effects of component skills on writing (DIEW) using data from... more We investigated direct and indirect effects of component skills on writing (DIEW) using data from 193 children in Grade 1. In this model, working memory was hypothesized to be a foundational cognitive ability for language and cognitive skills as well as transcription skills, which, in turn, contribute to writing. Foundational oral language skills (vocabulary and grammatical knowledge) and higher-order cognitive skills (inference and theory of mind) were hypothesized to be component skills of text generation (i.e., discourse-level oral language). Results from structural equation modeling largely supported a complete mediation model among four variations of the DIEW model. Discourse-level oral language, spelling, and handwriting fluency completely mediated the relations of higher-order cognitive skills, foundational oral language, and working memory to writing. Moreover, language and cognitive skills had both direct and indirect relations to discourse-level oral language. Total effects, including direct and indirect effects, were substantial for discourse-level oral language (.46), working memory (.43), and spelling (.37), followed by vocabulary (.19), handwriting (.17), theory of mind (.12), inference (.10), and grammatical knowledge (.10). The model explained approximately 67% of variance in writing quality. These results indicate that multiple language and cognitive skills make direct and indirect contributions, and it is important to consider both direct and indirect pathways of influences when considering skills that are important to writing.
Language, speech, and hearing services in schools, 2016
The primary aim of the present study was to examine whether different ways of presenting narrativ... more The primary aim of the present study was to examine whether different ways of presenting narrative stimuli (i.e., live narrative stimuli versus audio-recorded narrative stimuli) influence children's performances on narrative comprehension and oral-retell quality. Children in kindergarten (n = 54), second grade (n = 74), and fourth grade (n = 65) were matched on their performance on a standardized oral-language comprehension task and then were randomly assigned to 1 of the 2 conditions that differed in how narrative stimuli were presented to children: live narrative stimuli and audio-recorded narrative stimuli. Kindergartners and 2nd graders in the live condition had higher mean performance on narrative comprehension, with effect sizes of .43 and .39, respectively, after accounting for age, gender, and school. No differences were found in narrative comprehension for children in 4th grade. Children's oral-retell quality did not differ as a function of condition in any grade. T...
The primary goal was to expand our understanding of text reading fluency (efficiency or automatic... more The primary goal was to expand our understanding of text reading fluency (efficiency or automaticity)-how its relation to other constructs (e.g., word reading fluency and reading comprehension) changes over time and how it is different from word reading fluency and reading comprehension. We examined (1) developmentally changing relations among word reading fluency, listening comprehension, text reading fluency, and reading comprehension; (2) the relation of reading comprehension to text reading fluency; (3) unique emergent literacy predictors (i.e., phonological awareness, orthographic awareness, morphological awareness, letter name knowledge, vocabulary) of text reading fluency vs. word reading fluency; and (4) unique language and cognitive predictors (e.g., vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, theory of mind) of text reading fluency vs. reading comprehension. These questions were addressed using longitudinal data (two timepoints; Mean age = 5;24 & 6;08) from Korean-speaking children...
We investigated component language and cognitive skills of oral language comprehension of narrati... more We investigated component language and cognitive skills of oral language comprehension of narrative texts (i.e., listening comprehension). Using the construction-integration model of text comprehension as an overarching theoretical framework, we examined direct and mediated relations of foundational cognitive skills (working memory and attention), foundational language skills (vocabulary and grammatical knowledge), and higher-order cognitive skills (inference, theory of mind, and comprehension monitoring) to listening comprehension. A total of 201 first grade children in South Korea participated in the study. Structural equation modeling results showed that listening comprehension is directly predicted by working memory, grammatical knowledge, inference, and theory of mind and is indirectly predicted by attention, vocabulary, and comprehension monitoring. The total effects were .46 for working memory, .07 for attention, .30 for vocabulary, .49 for grammatical knowledge, .31 for infe...
The present study explored the reading skills of a sample of 48 adults enrolled in a basic educat... more The present study explored the reading skills of a sample of 48 adults enrolled in a basic education program in northern Florida, United States. Previous research has reported on reading component skills for students in adult education settings, but little is known about eye movement patterns or their relation to reading skills for this population. In this study, reading component skills including decoding, language comprehension, and reading fluency are reported, as are eye movement variables for connected-text oral reading. Eye movement comparisons between individuals with higher and lower oral reading fluency revealed within- and between-subject effects for word frequency and word length as well as group and word frequency interactions. Bivariate correlations indicated strong relations between component skills of reading, eye movement measures, and both the Test of Adult Basic Education (Reading subtest) and the Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery Passage Comprehensio...
Using data from children in South Korea (N = 145, Mage = 6.08), it was determined how low-level l... more Using data from children in South Korea (N = 145, Mage = 6.08), it was determined how low-level language and cognitive skills (vocabulary, syntactic knowledge, and working memory) and high-level cognitive skills (comprehension monitoring and theory of mind [ToM]) are related to listening comprehension and whether listening comprehension and word reading mediate the relations of language and cognitive skills to reading comprehension. Low-level skills predicted comprehension monitoring and ToM, which in turn predicted listening comprehension. Vocabulary and syntactic knowledge were also directly related to listening comprehension, whereas working memory was indirectly related via comprehension monitoring and ToM. Listening comprehension and word reading completely mediated the relations of language and cognitive skills to reading comprehension.
This study investigated the phonological awareness of low-income Spanish–English bilingual childr... more This study investigated the phonological awareness of low-income Spanish–English bilingual children, because phonological awareness has been found to be an important prerequisite for literacy acquisition and because such children have been identified as at risk for successful literacy acquisition. Our sample included 123 Spanish–English bilingual preschool children (M=49.1 months) attending Head Start programs. Children's receptive vocabulary was assessed using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—3rd Edition and the Test de Vocabulario en Imagines Peabody. We assessed phonological awareness using English and Spanish versions of the Early Phonological Awareness Profile, which includes deletion detection and rhyming tasks. Emergent literacy was assessed in the child's stronger language using the Emergent Literacy Profile, which includes tests of environmental print knowledge, printed word awareness, alphabet knowledge, and early writing. Spring levels of phonological awareness...
The goal of this study was to investigate the nature of online comprehension monitoring, its pred... more The goal of this study was to investigate the nature of online comprehension monitoring, its predictors, and its relation to reading comprehension. Questions were concerned with (a) beginning readers' sensitivity to inconsistencies, (b) predictors of online comprehension monitoring, and (c) the relation of online comprehension monitoring to reading comprehension over and above word reading and listening comprehension. Using eye tracking technology, online comprehension monitoring was measured as the amount of time spent rereading target implausible words and looking back at surrounding contexts. Results from 319 second graders revealed that children spent greater time fixating on inconsistent than consistent words and engaged in more frequent lookbacks. Comprehension monitoring was explained by both word reading and listening comprehension. However, comprehension monitoring did not uniquely predict reading comprehension after accounting for word reading and listening comprehension. These results provide insight into the nature of comprehension monitoring and its role in reading comprehension for beginning readers. Reading comprehension involves complex processes, including many language, cognitive, and printrelated skills. According to the simple view of reading , this complexity can be captured by two essential skills, language comprehension and word reading (
Pathways of relations of language, cognitive, and literacy skills (i.e., working memory, vocabula... more Pathways of relations of language, cognitive, and literacy skills (i.e., working memory, vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, inference, comprehension monitoring, word reading, and listening comprehension) to reading comprehension were examined by comparing four variations of direct and indirect effects model of reading. Results from 350 English-speaking second graders revealed that language and cognitive component skills had direct and indirect relations to listening comprehension, explaining 86% of variance. Word reading and listening comprehension completely mediated the relations of language and cognitive component skills to reading comprehension and explained virtually all the variance in reading comprehension. Total effects of component skills varied from small to substantial. The findings support the direct and indirect effects model of reading model and indicate that word reading and listening comprehension are upperlevel skills that are built on multiple language and cognitive component skills, which have direct and indirect relations among themselves. The results underscore the importance of understanding nature of relations. One of the influential models of reading comprehension for developing readers is the simple view of reading. According to this model, reading comprehension is a function of decoding or efficient word recognition and linguistic comprehension . The simple view of reading has been supported in many languages with varying orthographic depths including
The Simple View of Reading has been extensively studied and supported in the research literature,... more The Simple View of Reading has been extensively studied and supported in the research literature, across languages and writing systems. Simplicity of the simple view of reading is a strength in that it is easy to work with. On other hand, simplicity is an important shortcoming as critical information about the details underlying decoding and linguistic comprehension is not detailed. In this article, I update and expand the simple view using the direct and indirect effects model of reading (DIER), which captures both simplicity and complexity of reading.
Assessment to Inform Instruction: Formative Assessment , 2019
Our goal in this paper is to provide an overview of assessment for learning, commonly called form... more Our goal in this paper is to provide an overview of assessment for learning, commonly called formative assessment. Among several different types of assessment, formative assessment most directly informs instructional practice. Conducted correctly, formative assessment is an essential element in effective primary grade reading instruction. Our paper begins with a review of key aspects about formative assessment relevant to literacy development, including types of formative assessment, their links to the instructional decision cycle, and requisite features of quality formative assessment. We then present specific guidance and information for successfully implementing formative assessment as part of effective literacy instruction.
Promoting Successful Literacy Acquisition through Structured Pedagogy , 2019
In this paper, we present the case for structured pedagogy. We define what structured pedagogy is... more In this paper, we present the case for structured pedagogy. We define what structured pedagogy is and is not, and then describe the six principles of structured pedagogy: 1) Maximizing instructional time; 2) Practicing systematic and explicit instruction; 3) Establishing instructional routines; 4) Providing scaffolding; 5) Making assessment-informed decisions; and 6) Fostering socio-emotional learning. We also delve into the challenges posed in implementing structured pedagogy in developing country contexts, and offer some recommendations for addressing these challenges. Finally, we offer an illustrative case of a classroom employing structured pedagogy in reading instruction.
Using a randomized control trial, this study examined the causal evidence
of cross-language trans... more Using a randomized control trial, this study examined the causal evidence of cross-language transfer of phonological awareness and letter knowledge (names and sounds) using data from multilingual 1st-grade children (N = 322) in Kenya. Children in the treatment condition received an 8- week instruction on phonological awareness and letter knowledge in Kiswahili. The comparison group received business-as-usual classroom instruction. Children in the treatment condition showed greater improvement in phonological awareness and letter-sound knowledge in Kiswahili and English (positive transfer; effect sizes from .37 to .95), whereas a negative effect was found in letter-name knowledge (interference; effect size, g = .27). No effects were found in reading, nor did the results vary by moderators (e.g., Kiswahili vocabulary). Path analyses revealed divergent patterns of results for different outcomes. Results provide causal evidence for cross-language transfer of phonological awareness and letter knowledge and offer important theoretical and practical implications.
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Papers by Young-Suk Kim
Our paper begins with a review of key aspects about formative assessment relevant to literacy development, including types of formative assessment, their links to the instructional decision cycle, and requisite features of quality formative assessment. We then present specific guidance and information for successfully implementing formative assessment as part of effective literacy instruction.
of cross-language transfer of phonological awareness and letter knowledge
(names and sounds) using data from multilingual 1st-grade children
(N = 322) in Kenya. Children in the treatment condition received an 8-
week instruction on phonological awareness and letter knowledge in
Kiswahili. The comparison group received business-as-usual classroom
instruction. Children in the treatment condition showed greater improvement
in phonological awareness and letter-sound knowledge in Kiswahili
and English (positive transfer; effect sizes from .37 to .95), whereas a
negative effect was found in letter-name knowledge (interference; effect
size, g = .27). No effects were found in reading, nor did the results vary by
moderators (e.g., Kiswahili vocabulary). Path analyses revealed divergent
patterns of results for different outcomes. Results provide causal evidence
for cross-language transfer of phonological awareness and letter knowledge
and offer important theoretical and practical implications.
Our paper begins with a review of key aspects about formative assessment relevant to literacy development, including types of formative assessment, their links to the instructional decision cycle, and requisite features of quality formative assessment. We then present specific guidance and information for successfully implementing formative assessment as part of effective literacy instruction.
of cross-language transfer of phonological awareness and letter knowledge
(names and sounds) using data from multilingual 1st-grade children
(N = 322) in Kenya. Children in the treatment condition received an 8-
week instruction on phonological awareness and letter knowledge in
Kiswahili. The comparison group received business-as-usual classroom
instruction. Children in the treatment condition showed greater improvement
in phonological awareness and letter-sound knowledge in Kiswahili
and English (positive transfer; effect sizes from .37 to .95), whereas a
negative effect was found in letter-name knowledge (interference; effect
size, g = .27). No effects were found in reading, nor did the results vary by
moderators (e.g., Kiswahili vocabulary). Path analyses revealed divergent
patterns of results for different outcomes. Results provide causal evidence
for cross-language transfer of phonological awareness and letter knowledge
and offer important theoretical and practical implications.