This study investigated cognitions of cyclists during a competitive time trial (TT)
event using T... more This study investigated cognitions of cyclists during a competitive time trial (TT) event using Think Aloud (TA) protocol analysis. Design: Single group, observational design. Method: Fifteen male and three female cyclists from the NorthWest of England verbalised their thoughts throughout an outdoor competitive 16.1 km cycling TT (Level 2 TA). Verbalisations were recorded using iVue Horizon 1080P camera glasses. Data were transcribed verbatim, analysed using deductive content analysis and grouped into themes: (i) Pain And Discomfort (Fatigue, Pain), (ii) External Feedback (Time, Speed, Heart Rate), (iii) Environment (Surroundings, Traffic and Other Cyclists), and (iv) Pace and Distance (Pace, Distance). The number of verbalisations within each theme was analysed by distance quartile using Friedman tests to examine changes in cognitions over time. Results: Associative themes, including Fatigue and Pain, were verbalised more frequently in the earlier stages of the TT and less in the final quartile, whereas verbalisations about Distance significantly increased in the last quartile. Conclusions: This study demonstrates how a novel data collection method can capture in-event cognitions of endurance athletes. It provides an important extension to previous literature, showing how individuals may process and attend to information over time during an exercise bout. Future research should establish the relationship between performance and cognitive processes.
There is considerable research interest in psychological aspects of endurance performance. Until ... more There is considerable research interest in psychological aspects of endurance performance. Until recently, research typically lacked a theoretical underpinning, and contemporary research is particularly informed by the psychobiological model of endurance performance. In this critical review, we propose that psychological theories relating to self-regulation, particularly self-efficacy theory and the process model of emotion regulation, could shed more light on how endurance performance is determined and lead to additional understanding of how psychological interventions can be used. We argue that people encounter fewer stressors in most experimental studies than are encountered before and during real-life events. In addition, we argue that most research conducted to date has focused on the forethought and performance phases of self-regulation, rather than the self-reflection phase, and research has not considered the cyclical nature of self-regulation. We also argue that if research participants are not endurance athletes, then their motivation may not be self-determined, and self-regulatory learning may not take place. Recommendations are given for future research, and evidence-based guidance is offered on enhancing performance and improving the quality of experience for endurance athletes.
Deceptive manipulations of performance intensity have previously been investigated in cycling tim... more Deceptive manipulations of performance intensity have previously been investigated in cycling time trials (TT), but used different magnitudes, methods and task durations. This study examines previously employed magnitudes of deception, during 16.1 km TT and explores as yet unexamined psychological responses. Fifteen trained cyclists completed five TT, performing two alone (BLs), one against a simulated dynamic avatar representing 102% of fastest BL (TT102%), one against a 105% avatar (TT105%), and one against both avatars (TT102%,105%). Deceptive use of competitors to disguise intensity manipulation enabled accomplishment of performance improvements greater than their perceived maximal (1.3% - 1.7%). Despite a similar improvement in performance, during TT102%,105% there was a significantly lower affect and self-efficacy to continue pace than TT105% (p < 0.05), significantly lower self-efficacy to compete than TT102% (p = 0.004), and a greater RPE than TTFBL (p < 0.001). Since the interpretation of performance information and perceptions are dependent on the manner in which it is presented; 'framing effect', it could be suggested that the summative impact of two opponents could have evoked negative perceptions despite eliciting a similar performance. Magnitudes of deception produce similar performance enhancement, yet elicit diverse psychological responses mediated by the external competitive environment performing in.
Athletes anticipatorily set and continuously adjust pacing strategies before and during events to... more Athletes anticipatorily set and continuously adjust pacing strategies before and during events to produce optimal performance. Self-regulation ensures maximal effort is exerted in correspondence with the end point of exercise, while preventing physiological changes that are detrimental and disruptive to homeostatic control. The integration of feedforward and feedback information, together with the proposed brain_s performance modifiers is said to be fundamental to this anticipatory and continuous regulation of exercise. The manipulation of central, regulatory internal and external stimuli has been a key focus within deception research, attempting to influence the self-regulation of exercise and induce improvements in performance. Methods of manipulating performance modifiers such as unknown task end point, deceived duration or intensity feedback, self-belief, or previous experience create a challenge within research, as although they contextualize theoretical propositions, there are few ecological and practical approaches which integrate theory with practice. In addition, the different methods and measures demonstrated in manipulation studies have produced inconsistent results. This review examines and critically evaluates the current methods of how specific centrally controlled performance modifiers have been manipulated, within previous deception studies. From the 31 studies reviewed, 10 reported positive effects on performance, encouraging future investigations to explore the mechanisms responsible for influencing pacing and consequently how deceptive approaches can further facilitate performance. The review acts to discuss the use of expectation manipulation not only to examine which methods of deception are successful in facilitating performance but also to understand further the key components used in the regulation of exercise and performance.
Objectives: Whilst the presence of a competitor has been found to improve performance, the mechan... more Objectives: Whilst the presence of a competitor has been found to improve performance, the mechanisms influencing the change in selected work rates during direct competition have been suggested but not specifically assessed. The aim was to investigate the physiological and psychological influences of a visual avatar competitor during a 16.1-km cycling time trial performance, using trained, competitive cyclists. Design: Randomised cross-over design. Methods: Fifteen male cyclists completed four 16.1 km cycling time trials on a cycle ergometer, performing two with a visual display of themselves as a simulated avatar (FAM and SELF), one with no visual display (DO), and one with themselves and an opponent as simulated avatars (COMP). Participants were informed the competitive avatar was a similar ability cyclist but it was actually a representation of their fastest previous performance. Results: Increased performance times were evident during COMP (27.8 ± 2.0 min) compared to SELF (28.7 ± 1.9 min) and DO (28.4 ± 2.3 min). Greater power output, speed and heart rate were apparent during COMP trial than SELF (p < 0.05) and DO (p ≤ 0.06). There were no differences between SELF and DO. Ratings of perceived exertion were unchanged across all conditions. Internal attentional focus was significantly reduced during COMP trial (p < 0.05), suggesting reduced focused on internal sensations during an increase in performance. Conclusions: Competitive cyclists performed significantly faster during a 16.1-km competitive trial than when performing maximally, without a competitor. The improvement in performance was elicited due to a greater external distraction, deterring perceived exertion.
Objectives: Feedback deception is used to explore the importance of expectations on pacing strate... more Objectives: Feedback deception is used to explore the importance of expectations on pacing strategy and performance in self-paced exercise. The deception of feedback from a previous performance explores the importance of experience knowledge on exercise behaviour. This study aimed to explore the acute and residual effects of the deception of previous performance speed on perceptual responses and performance in cycling time trials. Design: A parallel-group design. Methods: Twenty cyclists were assigned to a control or deception group and performed 16.1 km time trials. Following a ride-alone baseline time trial (FBL), participants performed against a virtual avatar representing their FBL performance (PACER), then completed a subsequent ride-alone time trial (SUB). The avatar in the deception group, however, was unknowingly set 2% faster than their FBL. Results: Both groups performed faster in PACER than FBL and SUB (p < 0.05), but SUB was not significantly different to FBL. Affect was more negative and Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) were higher in PACER than FBL in the deception group (p < 0.05). Conclusions: The presence of a visual pacer acutely facilitated time trial performance, but deceptive feedback had no additional effect on performance. The deception group, however, experienced more negative affect and higher RPE in PACER, whereas these responses were absent in the control group. The performance improvement was not sustained in SUB, suggesting no residual performance effects occurred.
The psychological construct of affect is proposed to significantly contribute to pacing decisions... more The psychological construct of affect is proposed to significantly contribute to pacing decisions during exercise. Borg's RPE scale, another important regulator of work rate, is criticized as an inadequate measure of the multiple perceptual responses experienced. This study aimed to examine power output distribution and associated changes in affect, self-efficacy, perceptual cues, HR, and respiratory gases during both 16.1-and 40-km self-paced cycling time trials (TT). Secondly, the differentiation between physical perceptions of exertion and sense of effort in self-paced exercise was investigated. Method: Fifteen trained male cyclists completed 16.1-and 40-km TT using a CompuTrainer cycle ergometer. Time, power output distribution, affect, self-efficacy, physical RPE (P-RPE), task effort and awareness (TEA), HR, and respiratory gases were measured throughout each TT. Linear mixed models explored associations of these variables with power output distribution and the relationship between P-RPE and TEA. Results: Similar pacing strategies were adopted in the 16.1-and 40-km TT (P = 0.31), and the main effects were found for affect (P = 0.001) and RER (P G 0.001). Interactions between affect (P = 0.037) and RER (P = 0.004), with condition, indicated closer associations with power output distribution in 16.1 km than that in 40 km TT. P-RPE was not significantly different from TEA (P = 0.053). Conclusion: A significant association between affect and power output distribution suggests that affective responses are task dependent even in self-paced exercise, and a greater association is demonstrated in higher intensity, 16.1 km TT. Furthermore, physical perceptions of exertion are not clearly differentiated from the sense of effort in self-paced exercise. Key Words: EXERCISE REGULATION, POWER OUTPUT, AFFECTIVE VALENCE, PERCEIVED EXERTION, SENSE OF EFFORT P acing strategies are often defined as the distribution of work rate during exercise (1) and are widely accepted to be an important factor influencing overall athletic performance (14). Previous experience and knowledge of the exercise end point are essential factors in the formation of a stable performance template for a given exercise bout and the initial setting of work rate (15,18), which is crucial in the development of an optimal pacing strategy. The mechanisms by which pacing strategy is continually regulated during exercise, however, have yet to be clearly identified (21,44) despite receiving considerable attention in the literature (1,9,32). One important cue that has been implicated in the regulation of exercise is the conscious awareness of the sensation of fatigue (37), most commonly measured using Borg's RPE scale (6). Despite its widespread use, the appropriateness of the single-item RPE scale has recently been criticized as an oversimplification of the complex psychophysiological construct of effort perception, and that it is an inadequate measure of the multiple perceptual responses experienced during exercise (4,19,33,34). Recent applications of the decision-making theory to pacing (33,35) further questions the ability of the RPE scale to explain the coupling of perceptions and actions to establish behaviour. As RPE encompasses the sense of effort and sensations arising from afferent feedback such as pain and discomfort, it limits our ability to determine which perceptual cues are influential to the regulation of exercise intensity. Swart et al. (40) recently proposed a new methodological approach that endeavoured to separate perceptions of physical exertion from the mental sense of effort during maximal and fixed-intensity 100-km cycling time trials (TT) interspersed with 1-km sprints. Dissociation was observed between the two perceptions in the fixed-intensity trial performed at 70% of the power output produced in the maximal TT and during the sprints in both trials, suggesting that the physical and mental sensations were related yet distinct perceptual cues. These findings further support the multidimensionality of perceived exertion and the complex manner in which cues interact to determine performance in exercise of different intensities (12,19,29,30). Unfortunately, the inclusion of interspersed sprints and a fixed-intensity TT in Swart et al.'s (40) study may limit the generalizability of the findings to ''real-world'' self-paced TT performance because the trained cyclists were unlikely to have acquired a strong, experience-primed
The aim of an optimal pacing strategy during exercise is to enhance performance whilst ensuring p... more The aim of an optimal pacing strategy during exercise is to enhance performance whilst ensuring physiological limits are not surpassed, which has been shown to result in a metabolic reserve at the end of the exercise. There has been debate surrounding the theoretical models that have been proposed to explain how pace is regulated, with more recent research investigating a central control of exercise regulation. Deception has recently emerged as a common, practical approach to manipulate key variables during exercise. There are a number of ways in which deception interventions have been designed, each intending to gain particular insights into pacing behaviour and performance. Deception methodologies can be conceptualised according to a number of dimensions such as deception timing (prior to or during exercise), presentation frequency (blind, discontinuous or continuous) and type of deception (performance, biofeedback or environmental feedback). However, research evidence on the effects of deception has been perplexing and the use of complex designs and varied methodologies makes it difficult to draw any definitive conclusions about how pacing strategy and performance are affected by deception. This review examines existing research in the area of deception and pacing strategies, and provides a critical appraisal of the different methodological approaches used to date. It is hoped that this analysis will inform the direction and methodology of future investigations in this area by addressing the mechanisms through which deception impacts upon performance and by elucidating the potential application of deception techniques in training and competitive settings.
This study investigated cognitions of cyclists during a competitive time trial (TT)
event using T... more This study investigated cognitions of cyclists during a competitive time trial (TT) event using Think Aloud (TA) protocol analysis. Design: Single group, observational design. Method: Fifteen male and three female cyclists from the NorthWest of England verbalised their thoughts throughout an outdoor competitive 16.1 km cycling TT (Level 2 TA). Verbalisations were recorded using iVue Horizon 1080P camera glasses. Data were transcribed verbatim, analysed using deductive content analysis and grouped into themes: (i) Pain And Discomfort (Fatigue, Pain), (ii) External Feedback (Time, Speed, Heart Rate), (iii) Environment (Surroundings, Traffic and Other Cyclists), and (iv) Pace and Distance (Pace, Distance). The number of verbalisations within each theme was analysed by distance quartile using Friedman tests to examine changes in cognitions over time. Results: Associative themes, including Fatigue and Pain, were verbalised more frequently in the earlier stages of the TT and less in the final quartile, whereas verbalisations about Distance significantly increased in the last quartile. Conclusions: This study demonstrates how a novel data collection method can capture in-event cognitions of endurance athletes. It provides an important extension to previous literature, showing how individuals may process and attend to information over time during an exercise bout. Future research should establish the relationship between performance and cognitive processes.
There is considerable research interest in psychological aspects of endurance performance. Until ... more There is considerable research interest in psychological aspects of endurance performance. Until recently, research typically lacked a theoretical underpinning, and contemporary research is particularly informed by the psychobiological model of endurance performance. In this critical review, we propose that psychological theories relating to self-regulation, particularly self-efficacy theory and the process model of emotion regulation, could shed more light on how endurance performance is determined and lead to additional understanding of how psychological interventions can be used. We argue that people encounter fewer stressors in most experimental studies than are encountered before and during real-life events. In addition, we argue that most research conducted to date has focused on the forethought and performance phases of self-regulation, rather than the self-reflection phase, and research has not considered the cyclical nature of self-regulation. We also argue that if research participants are not endurance athletes, then their motivation may not be self-determined, and self-regulatory learning may not take place. Recommendations are given for future research, and evidence-based guidance is offered on enhancing performance and improving the quality of experience for endurance athletes.
Deceptive manipulations of performance intensity have previously been investigated in cycling tim... more Deceptive manipulations of performance intensity have previously been investigated in cycling time trials (TT), but used different magnitudes, methods and task durations. This study examines previously employed magnitudes of deception, during 16.1 km TT and explores as yet unexamined psychological responses. Fifteen trained cyclists completed five TT, performing two alone (BLs), one against a simulated dynamic avatar representing 102% of fastest BL (TT102%), one against a 105% avatar (TT105%), and one against both avatars (TT102%,105%). Deceptive use of competitors to disguise intensity manipulation enabled accomplishment of performance improvements greater than their perceived maximal (1.3% - 1.7%). Despite a similar improvement in performance, during TT102%,105% there was a significantly lower affect and self-efficacy to continue pace than TT105% (p &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt; 0.05), significantly lower self-efficacy to compete than TT102% (p = 0.004), and a greater RPE than TTFBL (p &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt; 0.001). Since the interpretation of performance information and perceptions are dependent on the manner in which it is presented; &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;framing effect&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;, it could be suggested that the summative impact of two opponents could have evoked negative perceptions despite eliciting a similar performance. Magnitudes of deception produce similar performance enhancement, yet elicit diverse psychological responses mediated by the external competitive environment performing in.
Athletes anticipatorily set and continuously adjust pacing strategies before and during events to... more Athletes anticipatorily set and continuously adjust pacing strategies before and during events to produce optimal performance. Self-regulation ensures maximal effort is exerted in correspondence with the end point of exercise, while preventing physiological changes that are detrimental and disruptive to homeostatic control. The integration of feedforward and feedback information, together with the proposed brain_s performance modifiers is said to be fundamental to this anticipatory and continuous regulation of exercise. The manipulation of central, regulatory internal and external stimuli has been a key focus within deception research, attempting to influence the self-regulation of exercise and induce improvements in performance. Methods of manipulating performance modifiers such as unknown task end point, deceived duration or intensity feedback, self-belief, or previous experience create a challenge within research, as although they contextualize theoretical propositions, there are few ecological and practical approaches which integrate theory with practice. In addition, the different methods and measures demonstrated in manipulation studies have produced inconsistent results. This review examines and critically evaluates the current methods of how specific centrally controlled performance modifiers have been manipulated, within previous deception studies. From the 31 studies reviewed, 10 reported positive effects on performance, encouraging future investigations to explore the mechanisms responsible for influencing pacing and consequently how deceptive approaches can further facilitate performance. The review acts to discuss the use of expectation manipulation not only to examine which methods of deception are successful in facilitating performance but also to understand further the key components used in the regulation of exercise and performance.
Objectives: Whilst the presence of a competitor has been found to improve performance, the mechan... more Objectives: Whilst the presence of a competitor has been found to improve performance, the mechanisms influencing the change in selected work rates during direct competition have been suggested but not specifically assessed. The aim was to investigate the physiological and psychological influences of a visual avatar competitor during a 16.1-km cycling time trial performance, using trained, competitive cyclists. Design: Randomised cross-over design. Methods: Fifteen male cyclists completed four 16.1 km cycling time trials on a cycle ergometer, performing two with a visual display of themselves as a simulated avatar (FAM and SELF), one with no visual display (DO), and one with themselves and an opponent as simulated avatars (COMP). Participants were informed the competitive avatar was a similar ability cyclist but it was actually a representation of their fastest previous performance. Results: Increased performance times were evident during COMP (27.8 ± 2.0 min) compared to SELF (28.7 ± 1.9 min) and DO (28.4 ± 2.3 min). Greater power output, speed and heart rate were apparent during COMP trial than SELF (p < 0.05) and DO (p ≤ 0.06). There were no differences between SELF and DO. Ratings of perceived exertion were unchanged across all conditions. Internal attentional focus was significantly reduced during COMP trial (p < 0.05), suggesting reduced focused on internal sensations during an increase in performance. Conclusions: Competitive cyclists performed significantly faster during a 16.1-km competitive trial than when performing maximally, without a competitor. The improvement in performance was elicited due to a greater external distraction, deterring perceived exertion.
Objectives: Feedback deception is used to explore the importance of expectations on pacing strate... more Objectives: Feedback deception is used to explore the importance of expectations on pacing strategy and performance in self-paced exercise. The deception of feedback from a previous performance explores the importance of experience knowledge on exercise behaviour. This study aimed to explore the acute and residual effects of the deception of previous performance speed on perceptual responses and performance in cycling time trials. Design: A parallel-group design. Methods: Twenty cyclists were assigned to a control or deception group and performed 16.1 km time trials. Following a ride-alone baseline time trial (FBL), participants performed against a virtual avatar representing their FBL performance (PACER), then completed a subsequent ride-alone time trial (SUB). The avatar in the deception group, however, was unknowingly set 2% faster than their FBL. Results: Both groups performed faster in PACER than FBL and SUB (p < 0.05), but SUB was not significantly different to FBL. Affect was more negative and Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) were higher in PACER than FBL in the deception group (p < 0.05). Conclusions: The presence of a visual pacer acutely facilitated time trial performance, but deceptive feedback had no additional effect on performance. The deception group, however, experienced more negative affect and higher RPE in PACER, whereas these responses were absent in the control group. The performance improvement was not sustained in SUB, suggesting no residual performance effects occurred.
The psychological construct of affect is proposed to significantly contribute to pacing decisions... more The psychological construct of affect is proposed to significantly contribute to pacing decisions during exercise. Borg's RPE scale, another important regulator of work rate, is criticized as an inadequate measure of the multiple perceptual responses experienced. This study aimed to examine power output distribution and associated changes in affect, self-efficacy, perceptual cues, HR, and respiratory gases during both 16.1-and 40-km self-paced cycling time trials (TT). Secondly, the differentiation between physical perceptions of exertion and sense of effort in self-paced exercise was investigated. Method: Fifteen trained male cyclists completed 16.1-and 40-km TT using a CompuTrainer cycle ergometer. Time, power output distribution, affect, self-efficacy, physical RPE (P-RPE), task effort and awareness (TEA), HR, and respiratory gases were measured throughout each TT. Linear mixed models explored associations of these variables with power output distribution and the relationship between P-RPE and TEA. Results: Similar pacing strategies were adopted in the 16.1-and 40-km TT (P = 0.31), and the main effects were found for affect (P = 0.001) and RER (P G 0.001). Interactions between affect (P = 0.037) and RER (P = 0.004), with condition, indicated closer associations with power output distribution in 16.1 km than that in 40 km TT. P-RPE was not significantly different from TEA (P = 0.053). Conclusion: A significant association between affect and power output distribution suggests that affective responses are task dependent even in self-paced exercise, and a greater association is demonstrated in higher intensity, 16.1 km TT. Furthermore, physical perceptions of exertion are not clearly differentiated from the sense of effort in self-paced exercise. Key Words: EXERCISE REGULATION, POWER OUTPUT, AFFECTIVE VALENCE, PERCEIVED EXERTION, SENSE OF EFFORT P acing strategies are often defined as the distribution of work rate during exercise (1) and are widely accepted to be an important factor influencing overall athletic performance (14). Previous experience and knowledge of the exercise end point are essential factors in the formation of a stable performance template for a given exercise bout and the initial setting of work rate (15,18), which is crucial in the development of an optimal pacing strategy. The mechanisms by which pacing strategy is continually regulated during exercise, however, have yet to be clearly identified (21,44) despite receiving considerable attention in the literature (1,9,32). One important cue that has been implicated in the regulation of exercise is the conscious awareness of the sensation of fatigue (37), most commonly measured using Borg's RPE scale (6). Despite its widespread use, the appropriateness of the single-item RPE scale has recently been criticized as an oversimplification of the complex psychophysiological construct of effort perception, and that it is an inadequate measure of the multiple perceptual responses experienced during exercise (4,19,33,34). Recent applications of the decision-making theory to pacing (33,35) further questions the ability of the RPE scale to explain the coupling of perceptions and actions to establish behaviour. As RPE encompasses the sense of effort and sensations arising from afferent feedback such as pain and discomfort, it limits our ability to determine which perceptual cues are influential to the regulation of exercise intensity. Swart et al. (40) recently proposed a new methodological approach that endeavoured to separate perceptions of physical exertion from the mental sense of effort during maximal and fixed-intensity 100-km cycling time trials (TT) interspersed with 1-km sprints. Dissociation was observed between the two perceptions in the fixed-intensity trial performed at 70% of the power output produced in the maximal TT and during the sprints in both trials, suggesting that the physical and mental sensations were related yet distinct perceptual cues. These findings further support the multidimensionality of perceived exertion and the complex manner in which cues interact to determine performance in exercise of different intensities (12,19,29,30). Unfortunately, the inclusion of interspersed sprints and a fixed-intensity TT in Swart et al.'s (40) study may limit the generalizability of the findings to ''real-world'' self-paced TT performance because the trained cyclists were unlikely to have acquired a strong, experience-primed
The aim of an optimal pacing strategy during exercise is to enhance performance whilst ensuring p... more The aim of an optimal pacing strategy during exercise is to enhance performance whilst ensuring physiological limits are not surpassed, which has been shown to result in a metabolic reserve at the end of the exercise. There has been debate surrounding the theoretical models that have been proposed to explain how pace is regulated, with more recent research investigating a central control of exercise regulation. Deception has recently emerged as a common, practical approach to manipulate key variables during exercise. There are a number of ways in which deception interventions have been designed, each intending to gain particular insights into pacing behaviour and performance. Deception methodologies can be conceptualised according to a number of dimensions such as deception timing (prior to or during exercise), presentation frequency (blind, discontinuous or continuous) and type of deception (performance, biofeedback or environmental feedback). However, research evidence on the effects of deception has been perplexing and the use of complex designs and varied methodologies makes it difficult to draw any definitive conclusions about how pacing strategy and performance are affected by deception. This review examines existing research in the area of deception and pacing strategies, and provides a critical appraisal of the different methodological approaches used to date. It is hoped that this analysis will inform the direction and methodology of future investigations in this area by addressing the mechanisms through which deception impacts upon performance and by elucidating the potential application of deception techniques in training and competitive settings.
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Papers by Hollie Jones
event using Think Aloud (TA) protocol analysis. Design: Single group, observational design.
Method: Fifteen male and three female cyclists from the NorthWest of England verbalised their
thoughts throughout an outdoor competitive 16.1 km cycling TT (Level 2 TA). Verbalisations
were recorded using iVue Horizon 1080P camera glasses. Data were transcribed verbatim,
analysed using deductive content analysis and grouped into themes: (i) Pain And
Discomfort (Fatigue, Pain), (ii) External Feedback (Time, Speed, Heart Rate), (iii)
Environment (Surroundings, Traffic and Other Cyclists), and (iv) Pace and Distance (Pace,
Distance). The number of verbalisations within each theme was analysed by distance
quartile using Friedman tests to examine changes in cognitions over time. Results:
Associative themes, including Fatigue and Pain, were verbalised more frequently in the
earlier stages of the TT and less in the final quartile, whereas verbalisations about Distance
significantly increased in the last quartile. Conclusions: This study demonstrates how a
novel data collection method can capture in-event cognitions of endurance athletes. It
provides an important extension to previous literature, showing how individuals may
process and attend to information over time during an exercise bout. Future research should
establish the relationship between performance and cognitive processes.
event using Think Aloud (TA) protocol analysis. Design: Single group, observational design.
Method: Fifteen male and three female cyclists from the NorthWest of England verbalised their
thoughts throughout an outdoor competitive 16.1 km cycling TT (Level 2 TA). Verbalisations
were recorded using iVue Horizon 1080P camera glasses. Data were transcribed verbatim,
analysed using deductive content analysis and grouped into themes: (i) Pain And
Discomfort (Fatigue, Pain), (ii) External Feedback (Time, Speed, Heart Rate), (iii)
Environment (Surroundings, Traffic and Other Cyclists), and (iv) Pace and Distance (Pace,
Distance). The number of verbalisations within each theme was analysed by distance
quartile using Friedman tests to examine changes in cognitions over time. Results:
Associative themes, including Fatigue and Pain, were verbalised more frequently in the
earlier stages of the TT and less in the final quartile, whereas verbalisations about Distance
significantly increased in the last quartile. Conclusions: This study demonstrates how a
novel data collection method can capture in-event cognitions of endurance athletes. It
provides an important extension to previous literature, showing how individuals may
process and attend to information over time during an exercise bout. Future research should
establish the relationship between performance and cognitive processes.