Chiara Bragagnolo is a post-doc researcher at the Federal University of Alagoas in northeast Brazil. Her main interest is studying and understanding the interaction between human and natural systems with the purpose to support environmental decision-making and Protected Areas (PAs) governance.
ABSTRACT Calado, H., Bragagnolo, C., Silva, S.F., Pereira, M. 2014. A multi-scale analysis to sup... more ABSTRACT Calado, H., Bragagnolo, C., Silva, S.F., Pereira, M. 2014. A multi-scale analysis to support the implementation of a regional conservation policy in a small-island archipelago – the Azores, Portugal. In: Green, A.N. and Cooper, J.A.G. (eds.), Proceedings 13th International Coastal Symposium (Durban, South Africa), Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 70, pp. 485–489, ISSN 0749-0208. Small islands present both exceptional biodiversity and higher vulnerability. Their isolation has been identified as the main driver contributing to preserve the unique natural capital (10 of the 34 terrestrial biodiversity hotspots listed by Conservation International are wholly comprised of islands). However, small-island archipelagos may present a great variability among islands in terms of size and population, remoteness, incomes, natural and cultural landscapes, human pressures and vulnerabilities to global changes. This inexorably leads to different values, life-styles, and land use forms, which combine to shape cultural and socio-economic relationships of archipelagos, creating inter- and intra- island networks. Therefore, exploring inter- and intra-island relationships (based on historical, geographical, political and economic factors) can support a better understanding of networks and scale-dependent processes (ecological, economic, political, etc.), facilitating a more effective implementation of sustainable and biodiversity conservation policies at different levels. In this contribution, we present a multi-scale analyse to support the implementation of a regional conservation policy in a small-island archipelago (The Azores, Portugal). It represents a decision-making challenge for biodiversity conservation where a new management system of Protected Areas (PAs) was recently adopted. Three spatial units are considered: archipelago, island groups and island per se. The analysis integrates qualitative information, quantitative indicators and land use analyses in order to identify key areas of concern and relevant challenges for implementing the regional conservation policy at multiple levels. Findings underlined the importance to provide appropriate arrangements to better deal with scale mismatches arising from the divergence between spatial scale (where conservation challenges are identified) and administrative levels (where management interventions can be made).
Cultural ecosystem services (CES) are “non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems”. Thes... more Cultural ecosystem services (CES) are “non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems”. These benefits include recreation, aesthetic enjoyment, and spiritual fulfillment arising from the interaction between cultural and natural features. In this chapter, we describe the role of the Caatinga—a unique semiarid region located in northeast Brazil—as a source of cultural inspiration, recreation, knowledge, and spiritual significance. Firstly, we define and discuss the current conception of CES, exploring available approaches to measure them. Secondly, we reframe the Caatinga as a biocultural environment, created and maintained by the dynamic interactions between human communities and the landscape. We then identify and discuss the CES provided by the Caatinga, by combining a review of key literature and a novel big data approach based on content analysis of geo-referenced digital photographs. Finally, we critically evaluate the current state of knowledge about CES in the Caatinga, recommending multiple approaches to assess and quantify cultural values. Studies of CES in the Caatinga are only just beginning, but are critically important to demonstrate the enormous contribution of this unique environment to local cultures and the regional economy in the face of increasing land-use competition.
Protected areas (PAs) are the cornerstone of global conservation policy and have expanded dramati... more Protected areas (PAs) are the cornerstone of global conservation policy and have expanded dramatically over the last century. Though unequivocally beneficial for biodiversity, gazetting land for protecting nature can also be seen as an 'opportunity cost' that some politicians are unwilling to pay. One of the most effective strategies to increase the political resilience of PAs in the face of such threats is to demonstrate their broader value to society. This is one of the objectives of the recently proposed 'PA asset framework'. The framework conceptualizes PAs as being composed of suites of biophysical, human, infrastructure, institutional and cultural assets that interact with individuals and institutions to generate different forms of tangible and intangible value. Here, we test the utility of the framework by conducting an asset-based analysis of Brazilian National Parks (NPs) at two different scales (NP system and NP unit). Assets were identified at the system level through a systematic review of 49 Management Plans (MPs) using a typology of PA asset classes as a tool for characterising the presence and state of assets in or associated with NPs. At the NP unit level, assets were identified through semi-structured interviews with local managers of the Chapada Diamantina National Park. Biophysical and infrastructure assets were the most represented asset classes at both scales. Our analysis successfully revealed: (i) which assets can be managed to generate wider forms of values at local scale (e.g. natural spectacles, iconic species, park volunteers) (ii) relational values between assets (e.g. trails and outdoor recreational features), and (iii) value generating practices (VGPs) to capture values from the interaction between different assets (i.e. restoration of degraded areas through voluntary programmes, etc.). We conclude by discussing how the PA asset framework can be operatively integrated into NP management to improve the future allocation of limited financial resources.
As áreas protegidas (APs) são as principais ferramentas capazes de assegurar a preservaçãodos sis... more As áreas protegidas (APs) são as principais ferramentas capazes de assegurar a preservaçãodos sistemas naturais e sua respectiva biodiversidade, principalmente no caso de áreas com prioridade para conservação, como ocorre com as áreas úmidas. A implementação de APs tem potencial para gerar benefícios fundamentais para proteger paisagens icônicas, espécies ameaçadas e serviços ecossistêmicos; entretanto, essas áreas têm custos sociais e econômicos que, muitas vezes, se tornam difíceis de justificar em períodos de crescente insegurança alimentar e crise financeira. Recentemente, sugeriu-se um modelo conceitual para apoiar a gestão das APs (PA Asset Framework) que (re)define as APs como um sistema de assets biofísicos, humanos, de infraestrutura, institucionais e culturais. De acordo com esse marco, as APs podem ser geridas e planejadas para gerar diferentes formas de valores, desse modo contribuindo para aumentar sua resiliência política/social e identificar investimentos financeiros ...
When effectively managed, Protected Areas (PAs) are capable of generating multiple forms of value... more When effectively managed, Protected Areas (PAs) are capable of generating multiple forms of value, both tangible and intangible, for individuals and institutions. However, the value-generating potential of many PAs may be going unrecognized and underutilized due to a limited view of management objectives as codified within the parks' Management Plan. Here, we test the hypothesis that PAs are undervalued by evaluating the degree to which Management Plans from four different Brazilian designations (National Parks, Ecological Stations, Environmental Protected Areas and National Forests) recognize different categories of nature-related assets (entities, attributes and relationships that can be protected, managed and/or invested in to generate forms of value). Based on a recently proposed PA Asset Framework, we identify what assets are mentioned by Management Plans and what assets are under-represented. Our results indicate that Human and Cultural assets are the least represented of the major asset classes (Biophysical, Human, Infrastructural, Institutional and Cultural) and that many asset sub-categories that should reasonably be expected to be present in Management Plans are frequently not mentioned. Assets that are not being considered in Management Plans are, by extension, less likely to be managed and/or invested in. Given the strong similarities between PA Management Plans in different countries, these results probably reflect a general trend. A simple way to ensure that PAs maximize the value generating potential (within the context of their designation) would be to survey their assets and generate a 'PA Asset Management and Investment Plan' to supplement and support existing planning documentation.
Summary Protected areas are frequently used loci for ecological and conservation research, with s... more Summary Protected areas are frequently used loci for ecological and conservation research, with several national/international designations identifying scientific research as a key objective. For example, Ecological Stations (ESs) in Brazil are strictly protected areas with the explicit goals of protecting nature and hosting scientific research. Nevertheless, simply mandating scientific research does not necessarily translate into action. Here, we quantitatively assess the scientific productivity of ESs and identify the main socio-ecological factors associated with different levels of scientific research. Specifically, we adopt a multi-model inference approach with a hurdle regression model to independently evaluate the factors associated with the presence/absence of research and the volume of studies in ESs. Surprisingly, given their stated remit, a large proportion of ESs had little or no scientific productivity. Results also indicate that older ESs were more likely to be associat...
Abstract Cultural ecosystem services (CES) are defined as the non-material benefits that arise fr... more Abstract Cultural ecosystem services (CES) are defined as the non-material benefits that arise from human-ecosystem relationships. Such benefits contribute to quality of life and positive sentiment towards protected areas but are difficult to quantify, especially at large spatial scales. Building on recent studies, we assess CES in Brazil's largest marine protected area (MPA) using user-contributed georeferenced photographs from a popular image- and video-hosting website. In total, we assessed 1,984 photographs taken by 207 users between 2010 and 2016. The most represented CES categories were landscape appreciation and social recreation, clearly reflecting the obvious attractions of this tropical beach location. Artistic/cultural expressions and appreciation, and nature appreciation where also highly represented, though no photographs depicting educational engagements or scientific research were identified. Engagements with CES had clear spatial and temporal patterns relating to user behaviour and reflecting the biophysical and infrastructural characteristics of different sites within this MPA. The broad spatial coverage and high spatio-temporal resolution of the data makes this approach ideal for identifying CES hotspots/coldspots and, despite limitations, holds great potential to monitor the impact of management interventions on CES provision. Our study highlights how the analysis of high volumes of digital photographs extends the methodological tool-box available to researchers and provides a powerful new means to quantify and map CES at broad spatial scales.
Abstract In Brazil most forms of hunting and keeping of wild animals are illegal, although they r... more Abstract In Brazil most forms of hunting and keeping of wild animals are illegal, although they remain widely practiced and are deeply culturally embedded in many regions. The drivers of such widespread non-compliance are poorly understood and evidence to support future policy decisions is generally lacking. In this paper, we seek to stimulate a critical debate on how to deal with hunting in Brazil by analysing the main factors driving non-compliance with current legislation. This is particularly timely given that several amendments to existing legislation are currently under consideration. Our analysis suggests that, while there are no simple solutions to non-compliance, a targeted suite of the following policy options could improve the monitoring, sustainability and conservation consequences of hunting in Brazil: (i) simplifying the process to become a registered subsistence hunter; (ii) expanding participation in licensing schemes; (iii) investing in pilot studies and assessing their environmental and socioeconomic impacts; (iv) expanding community-based management programmes; (v) trailing education and social marketing campaigns. These policy options are geographically and social-context specific and would be most effectively be implemented at regional or sub-regional scales.
Cultural ecosystem services (CES) include non-material values such as recreation, aesthetic enjoy... more Cultural ecosystem services (CES) include non-material values such as recreation, aesthetic enjoyment, and spiritual fulfilment. Such values are culturally specific, and frequently difficult to measure and monetarize. The standard methodology to assess CES is through social surveys, though these are often costly, lack standardization and are geographically restricted. An alternative to surveys is to use information from social media. Here, we propose a novel salience index to quantify and compare CES provision for multiple user groups (local residents, researchers and visitors) of Catimbau National Park in Brazil using data derived from distinct methodologies: i) a traditional social survey; ii) an online survey, and iii) analysis of photos published on Flickr and Instagram. Our index allowed direct comparison between groups despite the data being collected using different approaches. As predicted, residents identified more locations providing CES and a higher overall diversity of CES. Correspondingly, researchers and visitors identified CES from a more restricted set of locations and were biased towards educational services and aesthetic value, respectively. Since multi-stakeholder, multi-method approaches are essential for a comprehensive understanding of CES, integrating results using standardized metrics such as our salience index will allow broad scale analysis of this poorly quantified class of ecosystem services.
Protected areas (PAs) are the main strategy to conserve natural values and reduce biodiversity lo... more Protected areas (PAs) are the main strategy to conserve natural values and reduce biodiversity loss. However, with increasing global food requirements, using land for protecting landscapes and species is becoming increasingly difficult to justify. Here, we argue that framing PAs as spatial assets provides an ideal platform for generating investment and increasing their political/cultural resilience. Specifically, we define and characterize PAs in terms of their biophysical, human, infrastructure, institutional and cultural assets, making explicit the forms of value they create and for whom, and identifying types of investment needed to generate value in the medium and long term. These assets can be protected, managed and/or invested in to generate (monetizable and non-monetizable) forms of value. They can also be at risk from a variety of factors. Building on contemporary conservation policy, our asset framework provides an innovative approach to the development and management of PAs in the 21st Century.
Abstract In the Anthropocene, governments are increasingly being forced to take action to minimiz... more Abstract In the Anthropocene, governments are increasingly being forced to take action to minimize or reverse human impacts on the environment. One of the most widespread legal instruments to prevent negative impacts on the environment is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Almost all countries have an EIA system in place aimed at mitigating the diverse impacts causing by development projects. A common drawback of such systems is that they are often ineffective and time-consuming, and are therefore frequently viewed by politicians as “in the way” of development. This is the case in Brazil, where EIA has had a very limited influence on decision-making and where environment reforms (e.g. the new Forest Code) have often been strongly influenced by powerful lobbies (e.g. agribusiness groups, industry actors, etc.) and conservative legislators. Continuing this trend, the most recent political developments have seen the proposal of a series of amendments aimed at “streamlining” the Brazilian EIA system. In this viewpoint, we provide an in depth analysis of the proposed changes, highlighting the serious consequences that would accompany the weakening of environmental licensing and EIA legislation in Brazil.
During a time of intensifying competition for land, Protected Areas (PAs) are coming under increa... more During a time of intensifying competition for land, Protected Areas (PAs) are coming under increasing pressure to justify their status. Positive local attitudes to a PA are a potentially important component of any such justification, especially in the developing world where human pressure on natural resources is often high. However, despite numerous studies our understanding of what drives positive attitudes to PAs is still exceedingly limited. Here, we review the literature on local attitudes towards PAs in developing countries. Our survey reveals a highly fragmented research area where studies typically lack an explicit conceptual basis, and where there is wide variation in choice of statistical approach, explanatory and response variables, and incorporation of contextual information. Nevertheless, there is a relatively high degree of concordance between studies, with certain variables showing strong associations with attitudes. We recommend that PA attitude researchers in developing countries adopt a more rigorous model building approach based on a clear conceptual framework and drawing on the extensive empirical literature. Such an approach would improve the quality of research, increase comparability, and provide a stronger basis to support conservation decision-making.
Protected areas (PAs) are under increasing pressure to demonstrate their broader value and contri... more Protected areas (PAs) are under increasing pressure to demonstrate their broader value and contribution to society. Scientific research and associated knowledge production comprise one such value, which has received relatively little attention in the academic literature. Here, we use the Amazon region as a case study to quantify scientific knowledge production (as measured by scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals) in PAs and identify the main biophysical, geographical and social characteristics that influence such production. We adopt a multi-model inference approach with an innovative hurdle regression model to independently assess the factors influencing the presence of research and the number of studies in PAs. Our results indicate a highly skewed pattern of scientific production, with many PAs with few or no associated scientific articles. Larger, older and more highly protected PAs in Ecuador and Peru were most likely to have scientific production, while time since first publication was most strongly associated with the number of publications from a PA. These findings provide important insights that could be used to support and strengthen policy aimed at increasing the value of Amazonian protected areas for scientific research.
Abstract Non-compliance with conservation regulations is a key issue for protected area managemen... more Abstract Non-compliance with conservation regulations is a key issue for protected area management effectiveness in most parts of the world. Effectively managing such behaviours requires a clear understanding of who is non-compliant, what is driving their non-compliance, and what the likely conservation consequences of compliant and non-compliant behaviours are. However, such information is notoriously difficult to obtain due to the (understandable) reluctance of transgressors to discuss illegal activities. Here, we adopt the Kiping social survey method to assess the drivers of non-compliance with resource use rules in two national parks (Catimbau and Chapada Diamantina) in Northeast Brazil. The method is therefore used to support the exploration of suitable solutions for coping with non-compliance on the ground. We found high levels of social acceptability for illegal behaviours in both Parks, though hunting and cutting trees inside the park were viewed more negatively by local residents. Respondents from both areas generally supported the collection of plants and firewood, especially by poor people and local residents. Acceptance of illegal activities was statistically correlated with awareness of park regulations in both parks and, in Catimbau NP, it was also prevalent among older, poorer and less educated residents. To deter non-compliance, a mix of interventions from more coercive measures to softer instruments are recommended, especially in Catimbau NP where the area is not patrolled and the close proximity of indigenous lands gives rise to land- and resource-use conflicts.
The last 20 years have seen remarkable progress in monitoring and modelling environmental change ... more The last 20 years have seen remarkable progress in monitoring and modelling environmental change in the Amazon region. As a result, scientists and policy makers now have robust and spatially explicit knowledge and forecasts of critical phenomena such as deforestation and bioclimatic uncertainty. However, whether this knowledge is used to support the implementation of policies and initiatives to cope with environmental changes in the Amazon depends on the ability of the political institutions to proactively integrate the scientific evidence into land planning at multiple spatial scales. In Brazil, municipalities are constitutionally responsible for legislating on land planning and therefore have a power to significantly influence the future trajectory of environmental change. Here, we assess the environmental capacity of municipalities in the Brazilian legal Amazon based on data from a self-assessment survey and from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics database. Municipalities generally have a low level of institutional capacity and there is no evidence that the municipalities most at threat from environmental change are taking proactive measures to reduce their vulnerability. We argue that structural reforms and capacity raising initiatives are urgently needed, especially in smaller, less economically developed municipalities located in areas at high risk of imminent environmental change.
ABSTRACT Calado, H., Bragagnolo, C., Silva, S.F., Pereira, M. 2014. A multi-scale analysis to sup... more ABSTRACT Calado, H., Bragagnolo, C., Silva, S.F., Pereira, M. 2014. A multi-scale analysis to support the implementation of a regional conservation policy in a small-island archipelago – the Azores, Portugal. In: Green, A.N. and Cooper, J.A.G. (eds.), Proceedings 13th International Coastal Symposium (Durban, South Africa), Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 70, pp. 485–489, ISSN 0749-0208. Small islands present both exceptional biodiversity and higher vulnerability. Their isolation has been identified as the main driver contributing to preserve the unique natural capital (10 of the 34 terrestrial biodiversity hotspots listed by Conservation International are wholly comprised of islands). However, small-island archipelagos may present a great variability among islands in terms of size and population, remoteness, incomes, natural and cultural landscapes, human pressures and vulnerabilities to global changes. This inexorably leads to different values, life-styles, and land use forms, which combine to shape cultural and socio-economic relationships of archipelagos, creating inter- and intra- island networks. Therefore, exploring inter- and intra-island relationships (based on historical, geographical, political and economic factors) can support a better understanding of networks and scale-dependent processes (ecological, economic, political, etc.), facilitating a more effective implementation of sustainable and biodiversity conservation policies at different levels. In this contribution, we present a multi-scale analyse to support the implementation of a regional conservation policy in a small-island archipelago (The Azores, Portugal). It represents a decision-making challenge for biodiversity conservation where a new management system of Protected Areas (PAs) was recently adopted. Three spatial units are considered: archipelago, island groups and island per se. The analysis integrates qualitative information, quantitative indicators and land use analyses in order to identify key areas of concern and relevant challenges for implementing the regional conservation policy at multiple levels. Findings underlined the importance to provide appropriate arrangements to better deal with scale mismatches arising from the divergence between spatial scale (where conservation challenges are identified) and administrative levels (where management interventions can be made).
Cultural ecosystem services (CES) are “non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems”. Thes... more Cultural ecosystem services (CES) are “non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems”. These benefits include recreation, aesthetic enjoyment, and spiritual fulfillment arising from the interaction between cultural and natural features. In this chapter, we describe the role of the Caatinga—a unique semiarid region located in northeast Brazil—as a source of cultural inspiration, recreation, knowledge, and spiritual significance. Firstly, we define and discuss the current conception of CES, exploring available approaches to measure them. Secondly, we reframe the Caatinga as a biocultural environment, created and maintained by the dynamic interactions between human communities and the landscape. We then identify and discuss the CES provided by the Caatinga, by combining a review of key literature and a novel big data approach based on content analysis of geo-referenced digital photographs. Finally, we critically evaluate the current state of knowledge about CES in the Caatinga, recommending multiple approaches to assess and quantify cultural values. Studies of CES in the Caatinga are only just beginning, but are critically important to demonstrate the enormous contribution of this unique environment to local cultures and the regional economy in the face of increasing land-use competition.
Protected areas (PAs) are the cornerstone of global conservation policy and have expanded dramati... more Protected areas (PAs) are the cornerstone of global conservation policy and have expanded dramatically over the last century. Though unequivocally beneficial for biodiversity, gazetting land for protecting nature can also be seen as an 'opportunity cost' that some politicians are unwilling to pay. One of the most effective strategies to increase the political resilience of PAs in the face of such threats is to demonstrate their broader value to society. This is one of the objectives of the recently proposed 'PA asset framework'. The framework conceptualizes PAs as being composed of suites of biophysical, human, infrastructure, institutional and cultural assets that interact with individuals and institutions to generate different forms of tangible and intangible value. Here, we test the utility of the framework by conducting an asset-based analysis of Brazilian National Parks (NPs) at two different scales (NP system and NP unit). Assets were identified at the system level through a systematic review of 49 Management Plans (MPs) using a typology of PA asset classes as a tool for characterising the presence and state of assets in or associated with NPs. At the NP unit level, assets were identified through semi-structured interviews with local managers of the Chapada Diamantina National Park. Biophysical and infrastructure assets were the most represented asset classes at both scales. Our analysis successfully revealed: (i) which assets can be managed to generate wider forms of values at local scale (e.g. natural spectacles, iconic species, park volunteers) (ii) relational values between assets (e.g. trails and outdoor recreational features), and (iii) value generating practices (VGPs) to capture values from the interaction between different assets (i.e. restoration of degraded areas through voluntary programmes, etc.). We conclude by discussing how the PA asset framework can be operatively integrated into NP management to improve the future allocation of limited financial resources.
As áreas protegidas (APs) são as principais ferramentas capazes de assegurar a preservaçãodos sis... more As áreas protegidas (APs) são as principais ferramentas capazes de assegurar a preservaçãodos sistemas naturais e sua respectiva biodiversidade, principalmente no caso de áreas com prioridade para conservação, como ocorre com as áreas úmidas. A implementação de APs tem potencial para gerar benefícios fundamentais para proteger paisagens icônicas, espécies ameaçadas e serviços ecossistêmicos; entretanto, essas áreas têm custos sociais e econômicos que, muitas vezes, se tornam difíceis de justificar em períodos de crescente insegurança alimentar e crise financeira. Recentemente, sugeriu-se um modelo conceitual para apoiar a gestão das APs (PA Asset Framework) que (re)define as APs como um sistema de assets biofísicos, humanos, de infraestrutura, institucionais e culturais. De acordo com esse marco, as APs podem ser geridas e planejadas para gerar diferentes formas de valores, desse modo contribuindo para aumentar sua resiliência política/social e identificar investimentos financeiros ...
When effectively managed, Protected Areas (PAs) are capable of generating multiple forms of value... more When effectively managed, Protected Areas (PAs) are capable of generating multiple forms of value, both tangible and intangible, for individuals and institutions. However, the value-generating potential of many PAs may be going unrecognized and underutilized due to a limited view of management objectives as codified within the parks' Management Plan. Here, we test the hypothesis that PAs are undervalued by evaluating the degree to which Management Plans from four different Brazilian designations (National Parks, Ecological Stations, Environmental Protected Areas and National Forests) recognize different categories of nature-related assets (entities, attributes and relationships that can be protected, managed and/or invested in to generate forms of value). Based on a recently proposed PA Asset Framework, we identify what assets are mentioned by Management Plans and what assets are under-represented. Our results indicate that Human and Cultural assets are the least represented of the major asset classes (Biophysical, Human, Infrastructural, Institutional and Cultural) and that many asset sub-categories that should reasonably be expected to be present in Management Plans are frequently not mentioned. Assets that are not being considered in Management Plans are, by extension, less likely to be managed and/or invested in. Given the strong similarities between PA Management Plans in different countries, these results probably reflect a general trend. A simple way to ensure that PAs maximize the value generating potential (within the context of their designation) would be to survey their assets and generate a 'PA Asset Management and Investment Plan' to supplement and support existing planning documentation.
Summary Protected areas are frequently used loci for ecological and conservation research, with s... more Summary Protected areas are frequently used loci for ecological and conservation research, with several national/international designations identifying scientific research as a key objective. For example, Ecological Stations (ESs) in Brazil are strictly protected areas with the explicit goals of protecting nature and hosting scientific research. Nevertheless, simply mandating scientific research does not necessarily translate into action. Here, we quantitatively assess the scientific productivity of ESs and identify the main socio-ecological factors associated with different levels of scientific research. Specifically, we adopt a multi-model inference approach with a hurdle regression model to independently evaluate the factors associated with the presence/absence of research and the volume of studies in ESs. Surprisingly, given their stated remit, a large proportion of ESs had little or no scientific productivity. Results also indicate that older ESs were more likely to be associat...
Abstract Cultural ecosystem services (CES) are defined as the non-material benefits that arise fr... more Abstract Cultural ecosystem services (CES) are defined as the non-material benefits that arise from human-ecosystem relationships. Such benefits contribute to quality of life and positive sentiment towards protected areas but are difficult to quantify, especially at large spatial scales. Building on recent studies, we assess CES in Brazil's largest marine protected area (MPA) using user-contributed georeferenced photographs from a popular image- and video-hosting website. In total, we assessed 1,984 photographs taken by 207 users between 2010 and 2016. The most represented CES categories were landscape appreciation and social recreation, clearly reflecting the obvious attractions of this tropical beach location. Artistic/cultural expressions and appreciation, and nature appreciation where also highly represented, though no photographs depicting educational engagements or scientific research were identified. Engagements with CES had clear spatial and temporal patterns relating to user behaviour and reflecting the biophysical and infrastructural characteristics of different sites within this MPA. The broad spatial coverage and high spatio-temporal resolution of the data makes this approach ideal for identifying CES hotspots/coldspots and, despite limitations, holds great potential to monitor the impact of management interventions on CES provision. Our study highlights how the analysis of high volumes of digital photographs extends the methodological tool-box available to researchers and provides a powerful new means to quantify and map CES at broad spatial scales.
Abstract In Brazil most forms of hunting and keeping of wild animals are illegal, although they r... more Abstract In Brazil most forms of hunting and keeping of wild animals are illegal, although they remain widely practiced and are deeply culturally embedded in many regions. The drivers of such widespread non-compliance are poorly understood and evidence to support future policy decisions is generally lacking. In this paper, we seek to stimulate a critical debate on how to deal with hunting in Brazil by analysing the main factors driving non-compliance with current legislation. This is particularly timely given that several amendments to existing legislation are currently under consideration. Our analysis suggests that, while there are no simple solutions to non-compliance, a targeted suite of the following policy options could improve the monitoring, sustainability and conservation consequences of hunting in Brazil: (i) simplifying the process to become a registered subsistence hunter; (ii) expanding participation in licensing schemes; (iii) investing in pilot studies and assessing their environmental and socioeconomic impacts; (iv) expanding community-based management programmes; (v) trailing education and social marketing campaigns. These policy options are geographically and social-context specific and would be most effectively be implemented at regional or sub-regional scales.
Cultural ecosystem services (CES) include non-material values such as recreation, aesthetic enjoy... more Cultural ecosystem services (CES) include non-material values such as recreation, aesthetic enjoyment, and spiritual fulfilment. Such values are culturally specific, and frequently difficult to measure and monetarize. The standard methodology to assess CES is through social surveys, though these are often costly, lack standardization and are geographically restricted. An alternative to surveys is to use information from social media. Here, we propose a novel salience index to quantify and compare CES provision for multiple user groups (local residents, researchers and visitors) of Catimbau National Park in Brazil using data derived from distinct methodologies: i) a traditional social survey; ii) an online survey, and iii) analysis of photos published on Flickr and Instagram. Our index allowed direct comparison between groups despite the data being collected using different approaches. As predicted, residents identified more locations providing CES and a higher overall diversity of CES. Correspondingly, researchers and visitors identified CES from a more restricted set of locations and were biased towards educational services and aesthetic value, respectively. Since multi-stakeholder, multi-method approaches are essential for a comprehensive understanding of CES, integrating results using standardized metrics such as our salience index will allow broad scale analysis of this poorly quantified class of ecosystem services.
Protected areas (PAs) are the main strategy to conserve natural values and reduce biodiversity lo... more Protected areas (PAs) are the main strategy to conserve natural values and reduce biodiversity loss. However, with increasing global food requirements, using land for protecting landscapes and species is becoming increasingly difficult to justify. Here, we argue that framing PAs as spatial assets provides an ideal platform for generating investment and increasing their political/cultural resilience. Specifically, we define and characterize PAs in terms of their biophysical, human, infrastructure, institutional and cultural assets, making explicit the forms of value they create and for whom, and identifying types of investment needed to generate value in the medium and long term. These assets can be protected, managed and/or invested in to generate (monetizable and non-monetizable) forms of value. They can also be at risk from a variety of factors. Building on contemporary conservation policy, our asset framework provides an innovative approach to the development and management of PAs in the 21st Century.
Abstract In the Anthropocene, governments are increasingly being forced to take action to minimiz... more Abstract In the Anthropocene, governments are increasingly being forced to take action to minimize or reverse human impacts on the environment. One of the most widespread legal instruments to prevent negative impacts on the environment is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Almost all countries have an EIA system in place aimed at mitigating the diverse impacts causing by development projects. A common drawback of such systems is that they are often ineffective and time-consuming, and are therefore frequently viewed by politicians as “in the way” of development. This is the case in Brazil, where EIA has had a very limited influence on decision-making and where environment reforms (e.g. the new Forest Code) have often been strongly influenced by powerful lobbies (e.g. agribusiness groups, industry actors, etc.) and conservative legislators. Continuing this trend, the most recent political developments have seen the proposal of a series of amendments aimed at “streamlining” the Brazilian EIA system. In this viewpoint, we provide an in depth analysis of the proposed changes, highlighting the serious consequences that would accompany the weakening of environmental licensing and EIA legislation in Brazil.
During a time of intensifying competition for land, Protected Areas (PAs) are coming under increa... more During a time of intensifying competition for land, Protected Areas (PAs) are coming under increasing pressure to justify their status. Positive local attitudes to a PA are a potentially important component of any such justification, especially in the developing world where human pressure on natural resources is often high. However, despite numerous studies our understanding of what drives positive attitudes to PAs is still exceedingly limited. Here, we review the literature on local attitudes towards PAs in developing countries. Our survey reveals a highly fragmented research area where studies typically lack an explicit conceptual basis, and where there is wide variation in choice of statistical approach, explanatory and response variables, and incorporation of contextual information. Nevertheless, there is a relatively high degree of concordance between studies, with certain variables showing strong associations with attitudes. We recommend that PA attitude researchers in developing countries adopt a more rigorous model building approach based on a clear conceptual framework and drawing on the extensive empirical literature. Such an approach would improve the quality of research, increase comparability, and provide a stronger basis to support conservation decision-making.
Protected areas (PAs) are under increasing pressure to demonstrate their broader value and contri... more Protected areas (PAs) are under increasing pressure to demonstrate their broader value and contribution to society. Scientific research and associated knowledge production comprise one such value, which has received relatively little attention in the academic literature. Here, we use the Amazon region as a case study to quantify scientific knowledge production (as measured by scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals) in PAs and identify the main biophysical, geographical and social characteristics that influence such production. We adopt a multi-model inference approach with an innovative hurdle regression model to independently assess the factors influencing the presence of research and the number of studies in PAs. Our results indicate a highly skewed pattern of scientific production, with many PAs with few or no associated scientific articles. Larger, older and more highly protected PAs in Ecuador and Peru were most likely to have scientific production, while time since first publication was most strongly associated with the number of publications from a PA. These findings provide important insights that could be used to support and strengthen policy aimed at increasing the value of Amazonian protected areas for scientific research.
Abstract Non-compliance with conservation regulations is a key issue for protected area managemen... more Abstract Non-compliance with conservation regulations is a key issue for protected area management effectiveness in most parts of the world. Effectively managing such behaviours requires a clear understanding of who is non-compliant, what is driving their non-compliance, and what the likely conservation consequences of compliant and non-compliant behaviours are. However, such information is notoriously difficult to obtain due to the (understandable) reluctance of transgressors to discuss illegal activities. Here, we adopt the Kiping social survey method to assess the drivers of non-compliance with resource use rules in two national parks (Catimbau and Chapada Diamantina) in Northeast Brazil. The method is therefore used to support the exploration of suitable solutions for coping with non-compliance on the ground. We found high levels of social acceptability for illegal behaviours in both Parks, though hunting and cutting trees inside the park were viewed more negatively by local residents. Respondents from both areas generally supported the collection of plants and firewood, especially by poor people and local residents. Acceptance of illegal activities was statistically correlated with awareness of park regulations in both parks and, in Catimbau NP, it was also prevalent among older, poorer and less educated residents. To deter non-compliance, a mix of interventions from more coercive measures to softer instruments are recommended, especially in Catimbau NP where the area is not patrolled and the close proximity of indigenous lands gives rise to land- and resource-use conflicts.
The last 20 years have seen remarkable progress in monitoring and modelling environmental change ... more The last 20 years have seen remarkable progress in monitoring and modelling environmental change in the Amazon region. As a result, scientists and policy makers now have robust and spatially explicit knowledge and forecasts of critical phenomena such as deforestation and bioclimatic uncertainty. However, whether this knowledge is used to support the implementation of policies and initiatives to cope with environmental changes in the Amazon depends on the ability of the political institutions to proactively integrate the scientific evidence into land planning at multiple spatial scales. In Brazil, municipalities are constitutionally responsible for legislating on land planning and therefore have a power to significantly influence the future trajectory of environmental change. Here, we assess the environmental capacity of municipalities in the Brazilian legal Amazon based on data from a self-assessment survey and from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics database. Municipalities generally have a low level of institutional capacity and there is no evidence that the municipalities most at threat from environmental change are taking proactive measures to reduce their vulnerability. We argue that structural reforms and capacity raising initiatives are urgently needed, especially in smaller, less economically developed municipalities located in areas at high risk of imminent environmental change.
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