Functional data accumulated over the recent decades confirm that tool use mechanics, working edge... more Functional data accumulated over the recent decades confirm that tool use mechanics, working edge maintenance, and hafting are important factors determining stone tool form. Yet such data are rarely considered in studies on lithic standardization, and tool hafting has entered the discussion mostly in the form of untested hypotheses. In this paper, we examine the effects of tool use, resharpening, and hafting on lithic standardization by drawing on recent use-wear data on Paleolithic domestic tools and projectiles. We evaluate morphological constraints posed by different tool use tasks and hafting systems, and the effects of these on blank selection. We conclude that the concept of standardization can be useful in making sense of lithic assemblage patterning, but it needs to be redefined to accommodate functional considerations. We advise shifting the focus from stone tool form to working edge qualities and hafted tool design, which drastically alters the perspective on inter-assemblage variability.
Bone mineral residues derived from stone tool production and use can survive on lithic artefacts ... more Bone mineral residues derived from stone tool production and use can survive on lithic artefacts for extended periods of time. They thus form a line of evidence for reconstructing Palaeolithic human activities. Despite having been frequently reported on ancient stone tools, the identification of these residues is not without complications, and their diagenesis as well as their potential overlap with residues formed in the burial environment are only beginning to be addressed. We report here environmental and use-related calcium phosphate residues on previously washed and handled Gravettian stone tools from Hohle Fels (Germany) and Abri Pataud (France). The residues were characterised with optical microscopes and SEM–EDS. Our results provide an optimistic note on the preservation of bone mineral residues at sheltered Upper Palaeolithic sites, but also point to multiple and complex origins of apatite deposits on lithic tools. We discuss the characteristics of functional versus taphonomic residues and draw attention to the formation of authigenic hydroxylapa- tite and its implications for the identification of ancient bone mineral residues from tool use. We argue that this aspect has been largely overlooked by analysts until now. This calls for further refinement of analytical techniques, including continued research into sediment diagenesis and residue taphonomy, as well as the incorpora- tion of production and use-wear evidence to ensure reliable residue interpretations.
Monographs of the Archaeological Society of Finland 10, 2022
In this paper we describe the results of small-scale archaeological fieldwork projects carried ou... more In this paper we describe the results of small-scale archaeological fieldwork projects carried out in North Karelia, Finland, in 2003-2014, which ended up having a far greater research impact than anyone could have anticipated. The projects yielded a multitude of new and relevant information, especially on the Early Mesolithic, including the earliest radiocarbon dates for human occupation in Eastern Fennoscandia. Results of this research have been published in a variety of venues. We use this opportunity to present the first summary of these results and to emphasize that even with discontinuous short-term funding it is possible to carry out ambitious and influential research. Over the years, Karelia has been one of the main focus areas of Mika Lavento's research. We want to honour Mika's 60th birthday by providing an overview of the results of our studies conducted in the northern parts of this large geographical and administrative area.
Projectile technology is commonly viewed as a significant contributor to past human subsistence a... more Projectile technology is commonly viewed as a significant contributor to past human subsistence and, consequently, to our evolution. Due to the allegedly central role of projectile weapons in the food-getting strategies of Upper Palaeolithic people, typo-technological changes in the European lithic record have often been linked to supposed developments in hunting weaponry. Yet, relatively little reliable functional data is currently available that would aid the detailed reconstruction of past weapon designs. In this paper, we take a usewear approach to the backed tool assemblages from the Recent and Final Gravettian layers (Levels 3 and 2) of Abri Pataud (Dordogne, France). Our use of strict projectile identification criteria relying on combinations of low and high magnification features and our critical view of the overlap between production and use-related fractures permitted us to confidently identify a large number of used armatures in both collections. By isolating lithic projectiles with the strongest evidence of impact and by recording wear attributes on them in detail, we could establish that the hunting equipment used during the Level 3 occupations involved both lithic weapon tips and composite points armed with lithic inserts. By contrast, the Level 2 assemblage reflects a heavy reliance on composite points in hunting reindeer and other game. Instead of an entirely new weapon design, the Level 2 collection therefore marks a shift in weapon preferences. Using recent faunal data, we discuss the significance of the observed diachronic change from the point of view of prey choice, seasonality, and social organisation of hunting activities. Our analysis shows that to understand their behavioural significance, typo-technological changes in the lithic record must be viewed in the light of functional data and detailed contextual information.
Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte, 2020
Backed lithic artifacts are an important part of the Upper Paleolithic tool kit, and are often am... more Backed lithic artifacts are an important part of the Upper Paleolithic tool kit, and are often among the most abundant categories of lithic tools found at Magdalenian and Gravettian sites. Often these tools are exclusively referred to as projectiles, and indeed many – if not most – backed pieces may have been parts of composite projectile heads, mounted laterally onto organic points (e.g., Allain and Descouts 1957; Allain 1979; Abramova 1982; Bergman and Newcomer 1983; Leroi- Gourhan 1983; Plisson 1985; Nuzhnyi 1993; Christensen and Valentin 2004; Sano 2009; Langlais 2010; Araujo-Igreja 2011; Tomasso et al. 2018). Experiments of varying comprehensiveness concerned with the use of (Magdalenian) backed pieces as projectile inserts have confirmed the effectivity of this setup (e.g., Moss and Newcomer 1982; Pétillon et al. 2011; Gauvrit Roux et al. 2020). However, backed pieces sometimes also served other purposes like cutting, sawing, shaving, scraping or perforating (Moss and Newcomer 1982; Moss 1983; Owen 1988; Piel-Desruisseaux 1998; Christensen and Valentin 2004; Taller et al. 2012). The modular technological system involving these lithic artifacts is highly versatile, mobile and dynamic as there are numerous possibilities of use and as the small lithic inserts are easy to transport and the composite tools themselves are easy to maintain and repair. Here, we present the results of an experiment where different tasks were carried out using backed pieces hafted in a wooden handle or operated handheld. The design of the handles loosely follows examples found at Canadian Dorset sites where bladelets comparable in size to Magdalenian backed pieces were hafted and used as knives (Owen 1988, 88ff.). We tried out the tools in various activities (cutting, perforating and carving/whittling) on a set of worked materials (wood, antler, marine shell, smoked meat, dried, semi-tanned hide, and tanned leather). After the completion of these tasks, the applicability, durability and usefulness of the setup were evaluated and the lithic inserts were checked microscopically for use-wear traces.
Despite the central role butchering tools have had in the origins and development of human techno... more Despite the central role butchering tools have had in the origins and development of human technologies, they have been overlooked in technological and functional studies with few exceptions. We use new results on the Gravettian assemblage from Maisières-Canal (Belgium) to illustrate how butchering knives were integrated in lithic production sequences and how the hafting, use and maintenance of these tools have affected the characteristics of the resulting lithic assemblage. The detailed low and high magnification analysis of a sample of knives, previously characterised as "tanged points", "Maisières points", and "tanged scrapers", shows that these hunting knives were nearly always used hafted and had extensive use-lives. They were therefore an important component in the toolkits of the Gravettian hunter-gatherers occupying the site and are partly responsible for some of the most idiosyncratic traits of the lithic assemblage. These results underline the importance of maintaining a broad view of different tasks and needs to which toolkits responded, and encourage future studies to approach lithic assemblages from this perspective instead of prioritising projectile armatures.
The Early Gravettian open-air site of Maisières-Canal (Belgium) is known for its rich lithic indu... more The Early Gravettian open-air site of Maisières-Canal (Belgium) is known for its rich lithic industry that involves unique tool designs such as large, elaborately manufactured tanged points. The flint exploited at the site is particularly fine-grained and exceptionally well preserved, and therefore an ideal subject for detailed technological and functional analyses. The site has also yielded a rich and diverse collection of osseous artefacts and their manufacturing waste as well as faunal remains informative of the Pleistocene environment and human subsistence strategies. Despite its conse- quently high potential for studies interested in Upper Palaeolithic technologies in their ecological and social context, the lithic assemblage has until recent years been studied from a functional point of view only to a limited extent. We present the results of the first use-wear study that included several tool categories as well as sizeable samples outside the collection of tanged tools. We analysed these artefacts with a combination of microscopic methods and could show that all the tool categories (burins, scrapers, scraper-burins, and pointed tools) bear evidence of hafting and allow a detailed reconstruction of tool use-lives. These results are informative of the tech- nical choices made by tool users at the site. We discuss the data with an eye on the recent results on osseous industry, and offer points of view to the nature and duration of site occupation.
Hunter-Gatherers' Tool-Kit: A Functional Perspective, 2020
Equipment used for fire-making must have formed an integral part of the toolkits of Palaeolithic ... more Equipment used for fire-making must have formed an integral part of the toolkits of Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers, especially during cold periods and in regions where caves were exploited. Yet evidence of the use of flint in fire-making only becomes abundant towards the end of the Palaeolithic period. We present here a number of newly identified strike-a-lights from the Magdalenian occupation of Hohle Fels Cave (Swabian Jura, Germany), dated to between 16,300 and 14,700 cal BP. The artefacts are interpreted as strike-a-lights on the basis of relatively heavy rounding, scarring and linear features located at their extremities. Two of them also have deposits of red mineral residue that were deemed the possible degraded remains of sulphuric iron and further analysed with SEM-EDS. All the potential strike-a-lights presented here are recycled tools originally used for other activities. We use them as a basis for discussing the use of lithic raw material in hunter-gatherer toolkits in the younger part of the Upper Palaeolithic sequence of Hohle Fels.
Quartz projectiles have received attention in the recent years due to, for instance, their discov... more Quartz projectiles have received attention in the recent years due to, for instance, their discovery at prominent South African Middle Stone Age sites. However, very few methodological studies have been dedicated to quartz armatures and the ones published so far are not built on an understanding of the particular behaviour of quartz under mechanical stress. Here, we investigate impact damage formation on automorphic and xenomorphic quartz (crystal quartz and vein quartz) through the microscopic analysis of 91 experimental armatures using a combination of low and high magnifications and SEM. Our results show that the structural properties of quartz affect the attributes of impact breaks and other damage. We also examine wear patterns on three different types of projectiles and offer preliminary guidelines for identifying them in archaeological assemblages. We argue that while quartz assemblages withhold significant potential for understanding past hunting technologies, the methods used for identifying and interpreting quartz projectiles need to be adjusted so that they take into account the notable differences between the macrocrystalline and cryptocrystalline varieties of this raw material.
In this paper we present the results of a use-wear study of quartz micro-notches identified durin... more In this paper we present the results of a use-wear study of quartz micro-notches identified during a technological analysis of lithics from the Howiesons Poort layers of Sibudu Cave. Building on the technological analysis and preliminary functional screening of the archaeological material, a series of experiments was designed to evaluate different hypotheses for notch formation (blank production, intentional notching, hafting, projectile use, and trampling). The experimental reference collection was compared with archaeological micro-notches and a large sample of other archaeological quartz pieces (including bladelets, bipolar blanks, flakes and retouched pieces). This allowed us to evaluate the causes of micro-notch formation in the studied assemblage. Results indicate two novelties in the Howiesons Poort hunting technology at Sibudu: the use of quartz barbs and non-retouched quartz blanks. It seems that in addition to backed pieces (segments, obliquely backed points, etc.), unretouched pieces were mounted as elements in hunting weapons during the Howiesons Poort techno-tradition. Seven probable and 29 tentative barbs were identified. We thus present one of the strongest and oldest bodies of evidence for the use of barbs as projectile elements.
In this contribution, we focus on the Lake Sarvinki area in eastern Finland and its position in t... more In this contribution, we focus on the Lake Sarvinki area in eastern Finland and its position in the postglacial colonisation of Fennoscandia. Two sites (Rahakangas 1 and Jokivarsi 1) with radiocarbon dates reaching as far as c. 11,100–10,600 cal BP, contemporary to the late part of Yoldia Sea phase in the Baltic Sea basin, have been studied on a former lake shore. The excavations at Rahakangas 1 in 2009–10 concentrated in and around a house-pit. The main finds consist of a red ochre grave, burnt bones and chipped lithics. Radiocarbon determinations show three periods of site use, one in the Early Mesolithic, one in the Late Mesolithic and one in the Early Metal Period. The refuse fauna from Rahakangas 1 indicates a versatile use of animal resources. The collection of chipped lithics shows a similar pattern, and includes some exotic flints together with local quartz, quartzite and slate. Preserved tooth enamel of a child or a juvenile was found in the grave. Charcoal from the sand fi...
In this contribution, we focus on the Lake Sarvinki area in eastern Finland and its position in t... more In this contribution, we focus on the Lake Sarvinki area in eastern Finland and its position in the postglacial colonisation of Fennoscandia. Two sites (Rahakangas 1 and Jokivarsi 1) with radiocarbon dates reaching as far as c. 11,100–10,600 cal BP, contemporary to the late part of Yoldia Sea phase in the Baltic Sea basin, have been studied on a former lake shore. The excavations at Rahakangas 1 in 2009–10 concentrated in and around a house-pit. The main finds consist of a red ochre grave, burnt bones and chipped lithics. Radiocarbon determinations show three periods of site use, one in the Early Mesolithic, one in the Late Mesolithic and one in the Early Metal Period. The refuse fauna from Rahakangas 1 indicates a versatile use of animal resources. The collection of chipped lithics shows a similar pattern, and includes some exotic flints together with local quartz, quartzite and slate. Preserved tooth enamel of a child or a juvenile was found in the grave. Charcoal from the sand fi...
We present the results of the first microwear analysis made on quartz artefacts excavated in Finl... more We present the results of the first microwear analysis made on quartz artefacts excavated in Finland. Fifty-nine pieces from two Late Mesolithic sites were analyzed, including both morphological tools and unmodified flakes and flake fragments. Both assemblages have been previously analyzed using a stereomicroscope (Pesonen & Tallavaara 2006, Rankama & Kankaanpää 2011). Our results show that unmodified quartz fragments have been utilized as tools and therefore new tool categories can be found among the material previously treated as production waste. The results also indicate that the reliability of low magnification analysis depends greatly on the level of wear preservation, as well as on tool edge morphology, as obtuse-angled working edges could only be identified as used with high magnifications. Preliminary observations about possible tool blank selection criteria, such as the preference of intact flakes over flake fragments, should be tested with larger and more varied samples.
BAR S2599 2014: Lateglacial and Postglacial Pioneers in Northern Europe edited by Miikka Tallaavaara and Felix Riede. ISBN 9781407312316., 2014
"In this contribution, we focus on the Lake Sarvinki area in eastern Finland and its position in ... more "In this contribution, we focus on the Lake Sarvinki area in eastern Finland and its position in the postglacial colonisation of Fennoscandia. Two sites (Rahakangas 1 and Jokivarsi 1) with radiocarbon dates reaching as far as c. 11,100–10,600 cal BP, contemporary to the late part of Yoldia Sea phase in the Baltic Sea basin, have been studied on a former lake shore. The excavations at Rahakangas 1 in 2009–10 concentrated in and around a house-pit. The main finds consist of a red ochre grave, burnt bones and chipped lithics. Radiocarbon determinations show three periods of site use, one in the Early Mesolithic, one in the Late Mesolithic and one in the Early Metal Period. The refuse fauna from Rahakangas 1 indicates a versatile use of animal resources. The collection of chipped lithics shows a similar pattern, and includes some exotic flints together with local quartz, quartzite and slate. Preserved tooth enamel of a child or a juvenile was found in the grave. Charcoal from the sand filling was dated to the Late Mesolithic, 8600–8408 cal BP. This makes it the oldest dated grave with preserved organic material in Finland and alsothe earliest piece of evidence that connects eastern Finland with the widespread tradition of using red ochre in burials. AMS-dates, artefacts and structures indicate a complex history of site use, and suggest shifts in foraging strategies, mobility, the length of site occupation, and the size and composition of the occupying group."
This MA thesis presents the results of a microwear analysis of two samples of quartz tools and fl... more This MA thesis presents the results of a microwear analysis of two samples of quartz tools and flakes from the Late Mesolithic sites of Pello Kaaraneskoski and Lohja Hossanmäki, Finland. The goals of the study were to evaluate the relationship between the microwear and earlier macrowear analysis results, to compare the level of microwear preservation between the two sites, and to discuss the use-wear analysis results from the point of view of tool blank selection. The analysis was carried out using magnifications of 200× and 400×. In addition to this, the material was classified using fracture analysis. The results show that while low magnification analysis (in this case, up to 24×) can identify strong wear on acute-angled tool edges reasonably well, its possibilities in identifying wear on obtuse-angled edges as well as distinguishing between use-related and
postdepositional wear are very limited. When compared with Kaaraneskoski, the wear traces are somewhat better preserved in the Hossanmäki assemblage, which is also reflected in the correspondence between the microwear and macrowear results. Although conclusions about the criteria used in tool blank selection at the two sites cannot be drawn on the basis of the two small groups of used tools, this study suggests that preliminary observations such as the possible dominance of intact flakes among the used pieces should be tested against larger samples. The results show that the microwear method is applicable on Finnish assemblages and is the only reliable way to recognize used edges on quartz tools. Therefore it should be integrated into Finnish quartz studies.
Functional data accumulated over the recent decades confirm that tool use mechanics, working edge... more Functional data accumulated over the recent decades confirm that tool use mechanics, working edge maintenance, and hafting are important factors determining stone tool form. Yet such data are rarely considered in studies on lithic standardization, and tool hafting has entered the discussion mostly in the form of untested hypotheses. In this paper, we examine the effects of tool use, resharpening, and hafting on lithic standardization by drawing on recent use-wear data on Paleolithic domestic tools and projectiles. We evaluate morphological constraints posed by different tool use tasks and hafting systems, and the effects of these on blank selection. We conclude that the concept of standardization can be useful in making sense of lithic assemblage patterning, but it needs to be redefined to accommodate functional considerations. We advise shifting the focus from stone tool form to working edge qualities and hafted tool design, which drastically alters the perspective on inter-assemblage variability.
Bone mineral residues derived from stone tool production and use can survive on lithic artefacts ... more Bone mineral residues derived from stone tool production and use can survive on lithic artefacts for extended periods of time. They thus form a line of evidence for reconstructing Palaeolithic human activities. Despite having been frequently reported on ancient stone tools, the identification of these residues is not without complications, and their diagenesis as well as their potential overlap with residues formed in the burial environment are only beginning to be addressed. We report here environmental and use-related calcium phosphate residues on previously washed and handled Gravettian stone tools from Hohle Fels (Germany) and Abri Pataud (France). The residues were characterised with optical microscopes and SEM–EDS. Our results provide an optimistic note on the preservation of bone mineral residues at sheltered Upper Palaeolithic sites, but also point to multiple and complex origins of apatite deposits on lithic tools. We discuss the characteristics of functional versus taphonomic residues and draw attention to the formation of authigenic hydroxylapa- tite and its implications for the identification of ancient bone mineral residues from tool use. We argue that this aspect has been largely overlooked by analysts until now. This calls for further refinement of analytical techniques, including continued research into sediment diagenesis and residue taphonomy, as well as the incorpora- tion of production and use-wear evidence to ensure reliable residue interpretations.
Monographs of the Archaeological Society of Finland 10, 2022
In this paper we describe the results of small-scale archaeological fieldwork projects carried ou... more In this paper we describe the results of small-scale archaeological fieldwork projects carried out in North Karelia, Finland, in 2003-2014, which ended up having a far greater research impact than anyone could have anticipated. The projects yielded a multitude of new and relevant information, especially on the Early Mesolithic, including the earliest radiocarbon dates for human occupation in Eastern Fennoscandia. Results of this research have been published in a variety of venues. We use this opportunity to present the first summary of these results and to emphasize that even with discontinuous short-term funding it is possible to carry out ambitious and influential research. Over the years, Karelia has been one of the main focus areas of Mika Lavento's research. We want to honour Mika's 60th birthday by providing an overview of the results of our studies conducted in the northern parts of this large geographical and administrative area.
Projectile technology is commonly viewed as a significant contributor to past human subsistence a... more Projectile technology is commonly viewed as a significant contributor to past human subsistence and, consequently, to our evolution. Due to the allegedly central role of projectile weapons in the food-getting strategies of Upper Palaeolithic people, typo-technological changes in the European lithic record have often been linked to supposed developments in hunting weaponry. Yet, relatively little reliable functional data is currently available that would aid the detailed reconstruction of past weapon designs. In this paper, we take a usewear approach to the backed tool assemblages from the Recent and Final Gravettian layers (Levels 3 and 2) of Abri Pataud (Dordogne, France). Our use of strict projectile identification criteria relying on combinations of low and high magnification features and our critical view of the overlap between production and use-related fractures permitted us to confidently identify a large number of used armatures in both collections. By isolating lithic projectiles with the strongest evidence of impact and by recording wear attributes on them in detail, we could establish that the hunting equipment used during the Level 3 occupations involved both lithic weapon tips and composite points armed with lithic inserts. By contrast, the Level 2 assemblage reflects a heavy reliance on composite points in hunting reindeer and other game. Instead of an entirely new weapon design, the Level 2 collection therefore marks a shift in weapon preferences. Using recent faunal data, we discuss the significance of the observed diachronic change from the point of view of prey choice, seasonality, and social organisation of hunting activities. Our analysis shows that to understand their behavioural significance, typo-technological changes in the lithic record must be viewed in the light of functional data and detailed contextual information.
Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte, 2020
Backed lithic artifacts are an important part of the Upper Paleolithic tool kit, and are often am... more Backed lithic artifacts are an important part of the Upper Paleolithic tool kit, and are often among the most abundant categories of lithic tools found at Magdalenian and Gravettian sites. Often these tools are exclusively referred to as projectiles, and indeed many – if not most – backed pieces may have been parts of composite projectile heads, mounted laterally onto organic points (e.g., Allain and Descouts 1957; Allain 1979; Abramova 1982; Bergman and Newcomer 1983; Leroi- Gourhan 1983; Plisson 1985; Nuzhnyi 1993; Christensen and Valentin 2004; Sano 2009; Langlais 2010; Araujo-Igreja 2011; Tomasso et al. 2018). Experiments of varying comprehensiveness concerned with the use of (Magdalenian) backed pieces as projectile inserts have confirmed the effectivity of this setup (e.g., Moss and Newcomer 1982; Pétillon et al. 2011; Gauvrit Roux et al. 2020). However, backed pieces sometimes also served other purposes like cutting, sawing, shaving, scraping or perforating (Moss and Newcomer 1982; Moss 1983; Owen 1988; Piel-Desruisseaux 1998; Christensen and Valentin 2004; Taller et al. 2012). The modular technological system involving these lithic artifacts is highly versatile, mobile and dynamic as there are numerous possibilities of use and as the small lithic inserts are easy to transport and the composite tools themselves are easy to maintain and repair. Here, we present the results of an experiment where different tasks were carried out using backed pieces hafted in a wooden handle or operated handheld. The design of the handles loosely follows examples found at Canadian Dorset sites where bladelets comparable in size to Magdalenian backed pieces were hafted and used as knives (Owen 1988, 88ff.). We tried out the tools in various activities (cutting, perforating and carving/whittling) on a set of worked materials (wood, antler, marine shell, smoked meat, dried, semi-tanned hide, and tanned leather). After the completion of these tasks, the applicability, durability and usefulness of the setup were evaluated and the lithic inserts were checked microscopically for use-wear traces.
Despite the central role butchering tools have had in the origins and development of human techno... more Despite the central role butchering tools have had in the origins and development of human technologies, they have been overlooked in technological and functional studies with few exceptions. We use new results on the Gravettian assemblage from Maisières-Canal (Belgium) to illustrate how butchering knives were integrated in lithic production sequences and how the hafting, use and maintenance of these tools have affected the characteristics of the resulting lithic assemblage. The detailed low and high magnification analysis of a sample of knives, previously characterised as "tanged points", "Maisières points", and "tanged scrapers", shows that these hunting knives were nearly always used hafted and had extensive use-lives. They were therefore an important component in the toolkits of the Gravettian hunter-gatherers occupying the site and are partly responsible for some of the most idiosyncratic traits of the lithic assemblage. These results underline the importance of maintaining a broad view of different tasks and needs to which toolkits responded, and encourage future studies to approach lithic assemblages from this perspective instead of prioritising projectile armatures.
The Early Gravettian open-air site of Maisières-Canal (Belgium) is known for its rich lithic indu... more The Early Gravettian open-air site of Maisières-Canal (Belgium) is known for its rich lithic industry that involves unique tool designs such as large, elaborately manufactured tanged points. The flint exploited at the site is particularly fine-grained and exceptionally well preserved, and therefore an ideal subject for detailed technological and functional analyses. The site has also yielded a rich and diverse collection of osseous artefacts and their manufacturing waste as well as faunal remains informative of the Pleistocene environment and human subsistence strategies. Despite its conse- quently high potential for studies interested in Upper Palaeolithic technologies in their ecological and social context, the lithic assemblage has until recent years been studied from a functional point of view only to a limited extent. We present the results of the first use-wear study that included several tool categories as well as sizeable samples outside the collection of tanged tools. We analysed these artefacts with a combination of microscopic methods and could show that all the tool categories (burins, scrapers, scraper-burins, and pointed tools) bear evidence of hafting and allow a detailed reconstruction of tool use-lives. These results are informative of the tech- nical choices made by tool users at the site. We discuss the data with an eye on the recent results on osseous industry, and offer points of view to the nature and duration of site occupation.
Hunter-Gatherers' Tool-Kit: A Functional Perspective, 2020
Equipment used for fire-making must have formed an integral part of the toolkits of Palaeolithic ... more Equipment used for fire-making must have formed an integral part of the toolkits of Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers, especially during cold periods and in regions where caves were exploited. Yet evidence of the use of flint in fire-making only becomes abundant towards the end of the Palaeolithic period. We present here a number of newly identified strike-a-lights from the Magdalenian occupation of Hohle Fels Cave (Swabian Jura, Germany), dated to between 16,300 and 14,700 cal BP. The artefacts are interpreted as strike-a-lights on the basis of relatively heavy rounding, scarring and linear features located at their extremities. Two of them also have deposits of red mineral residue that were deemed the possible degraded remains of sulphuric iron and further analysed with SEM-EDS. All the potential strike-a-lights presented here are recycled tools originally used for other activities. We use them as a basis for discussing the use of lithic raw material in hunter-gatherer toolkits in the younger part of the Upper Palaeolithic sequence of Hohle Fels.
Quartz projectiles have received attention in the recent years due to, for instance, their discov... more Quartz projectiles have received attention in the recent years due to, for instance, their discovery at prominent South African Middle Stone Age sites. However, very few methodological studies have been dedicated to quartz armatures and the ones published so far are not built on an understanding of the particular behaviour of quartz under mechanical stress. Here, we investigate impact damage formation on automorphic and xenomorphic quartz (crystal quartz and vein quartz) through the microscopic analysis of 91 experimental armatures using a combination of low and high magnifications and SEM. Our results show that the structural properties of quartz affect the attributes of impact breaks and other damage. We also examine wear patterns on three different types of projectiles and offer preliminary guidelines for identifying them in archaeological assemblages. We argue that while quartz assemblages withhold significant potential for understanding past hunting technologies, the methods used for identifying and interpreting quartz projectiles need to be adjusted so that they take into account the notable differences between the macrocrystalline and cryptocrystalline varieties of this raw material.
In this paper we present the results of a use-wear study of quartz micro-notches identified durin... more In this paper we present the results of a use-wear study of quartz micro-notches identified during a technological analysis of lithics from the Howiesons Poort layers of Sibudu Cave. Building on the technological analysis and preliminary functional screening of the archaeological material, a series of experiments was designed to evaluate different hypotheses for notch formation (blank production, intentional notching, hafting, projectile use, and trampling). The experimental reference collection was compared with archaeological micro-notches and a large sample of other archaeological quartz pieces (including bladelets, bipolar blanks, flakes and retouched pieces). This allowed us to evaluate the causes of micro-notch formation in the studied assemblage. Results indicate two novelties in the Howiesons Poort hunting technology at Sibudu: the use of quartz barbs and non-retouched quartz blanks. It seems that in addition to backed pieces (segments, obliquely backed points, etc.), unretouched pieces were mounted as elements in hunting weapons during the Howiesons Poort techno-tradition. Seven probable and 29 tentative barbs were identified. We thus present one of the strongest and oldest bodies of evidence for the use of barbs as projectile elements.
In this contribution, we focus on the Lake Sarvinki area in eastern Finland and its position in t... more In this contribution, we focus on the Lake Sarvinki area in eastern Finland and its position in the postglacial colonisation of Fennoscandia. Two sites (Rahakangas 1 and Jokivarsi 1) with radiocarbon dates reaching as far as c. 11,100–10,600 cal BP, contemporary to the late part of Yoldia Sea phase in the Baltic Sea basin, have been studied on a former lake shore. The excavations at Rahakangas 1 in 2009–10 concentrated in and around a house-pit. The main finds consist of a red ochre grave, burnt bones and chipped lithics. Radiocarbon determinations show three periods of site use, one in the Early Mesolithic, one in the Late Mesolithic and one in the Early Metal Period. The refuse fauna from Rahakangas 1 indicates a versatile use of animal resources. The collection of chipped lithics shows a similar pattern, and includes some exotic flints together with local quartz, quartzite and slate. Preserved tooth enamel of a child or a juvenile was found in the grave. Charcoal from the sand fi...
In this contribution, we focus on the Lake Sarvinki area in eastern Finland and its position in t... more In this contribution, we focus on the Lake Sarvinki area in eastern Finland and its position in the postglacial colonisation of Fennoscandia. Two sites (Rahakangas 1 and Jokivarsi 1) with radiocarbon dates reaching as far as c. 11,100–10,600 cal BP, contemporary to the late part of Yoldia Sea phase in the Baltic Sea basin, have been studied on a former lake shore. The excavations at Rahakangas 1 in 2009–10 concentrated in and around a house-pit. The main finds consist of a red ochre grave, burnt bones and chipped lithics. Radiocarbon determinations show three periods of site use, one in the Early Mesolithic, one in the Late Mesolithic and one in the Early Metal Period. The refuse fauna from Rahakangas 1 indicates a versatile use of animal resources. The collection of chipped lithics shows a similar pattern, and includes some exotic flints together with local quartz, quartzite and slate. Preserved tooth enamel of a child or a juvenile was found in the grave. Charcoal from the sand fi...
We present the results of the first microwear analysis made on quartz artefacts excavated in Finl... more We present the results of the first microwear analysis made on quartz artefacts excavated in Finland. Fifty-nine pieces from two Late Mesolithic sites were analyzed, including both morphological tools and unmodified flakes and flake fragments. Both assemblages have been previously analyzed using a stereomicroscope (Pesonen & Tallavaara 2006, Rankama & Kankaanpää 2011). Our results show that unmodified quartz fragments have been utilized as tools and therefore new tool categories can be found among the material previously treated as production waste. The results also indicate that the reliability of low magnification analysis depends greatly on the level of wear preservation, as well as on tool edge morphology, as obtuse-angled working edges could only be identified as used with high magnifications. Preliminary observations about possible tool blank selection criteria, such as the preference of intact flakes over flake fragments, should be tested with larger and more varied samples.
BAR S2599 2014: Lateglacial and Postglacial Pioneers in Northern Europe edited by Miikka Tallaavaara and Felix Riede. ISBN 9781407312316., 2014
"In this contribution, we focus on the Lake Sarvinki area in eastern Finland and its position in ... more "In this contribution, we focus on the Lake Sarvinki area in eastern Finland and its position in the postglacial colonisation of Fennoscandia. Two sites (Rahakangas 1 and Jokivarsi 1) with radiocarbon dates reaching as far as c. 11,100–10,600 cal BP, contemporary to the late part of Yoldia Sea phase in the Baltic Sea basin, have been studied on a former lake shore. The excavations at Rahakangas 1 in 2009–10 concentrated in and around a house-pit. The main finds consist of a red ochre grave, burnt bones and chipped lithics. Radiocarbon determinations show three periods of site use, one in the Early Mesolithic, one in the Late Mesolithic and one in the Early Metal Period. The refuse fauna from Rahakangas 1 indicates a versatile use of animal resources. The collection of chipped lithics shows a similar pattern, and includes some exotic flints together with local quartz, quartzite and slate. Preserved tooth enamel of a child or a juvenile was found in the grave. Charcoal from the sand filling was dated to the Late Mesolithic, 8600–8408 cal BP. This makes it the oldest dated grave with preserved organic material in Finland and alsothe earliest piece of evidence that connects eastern Finland with the widespread tradition of using red ochre in burials. AMS-dates, artefacts and structures indicate a complex history of site use, and suggest shifts in foraging strategies, mobility, the length of site occupation, and the size and composition of the occupying group."
This MA thesis presents the results of a microwear analysis of two samples of quartz tools and fl... more This MA thesis presents the results of a microwear analysis of two samples of quartz tools and flakes from the Late Mesolithic sites of Pello Kaaraneskoski and Lohja Hossanmäki, Finland. The goals of the study were to evaluate the relationship between the microwear and earlier macrowear analysis results, to compare the level of microwear preservation between the two sites, and to discuss the use-wear analysis results from the point of view of tool blank selection. The analysis was carried out using magnifications of 200× and 400×. In addition to this, the material was classified using fracture analysis. The results show that while low magnification analysis (in this case, up to 24×) can identify strong wear on acute-angled tool edges reasonably well, its possibilities in identifying wear on obtuse-angled edges as well as distinguishing between use-related and
postdepositional wear are very limited. When compared with Kaaraneskoski, the wear traces are somewhat better preserved in the Hossanmäki assemblage, which is also reflected in the correspondence between the microwear and macrowear results. Although conclusions about the criteria used in tool blank selection at the two sites cannot be drawn on the basis of the two small groups of used tools, this study suggests that preliminary observations such as the possible dominance of intact flakes among the used pieces should be tested against larger samples. The results show that the microwear method is applicable on Finnish assemblages and is the only reliable way to recognize used edges on quartz tools. Therefore it should be integrated into Finnish quartz studies.
Nous présentons dans cette contribution un projet collectif porté par le Service de Préhistoire d... more Nous présentons dans cette contribution un projet collectif porté par le Service de Préhistoire de l’Université de Liège et l’équipe Ethnologie préhistorique de l'unité mixte de recherche du CNRS Archéologie et Sciences de l'Antiquité. Le projet « ECOPRAT » entend contribuer au renouvellement des connaissances relatives aux sociétés gravettiennes du Nord-Ouest européen, et prolonger ainsi la dynamique de recherche actuelle touchant ces sociétés (Bodu et al., 2013). Il s’inscrit dans une perspective pluridisciplinaire envisagée grâce à l’association d’études technologiques, tracéologiques et archéozoologiques.
Quatre sites majeurs du Nord-Ouest européen ont été retenus : les gisements de plein air de Maisières-Canal (Prov. Hainaut, Belgique) et d’Ormesson – Les Bossats (Seine-et-Marne, France), et les grottes de Goyet (Prov. Namur, Belgique) et du massif d’Arcy-sur-Cure (Yonne, France). Les sites sélectionnés possédant des historiques de recherche spécifiques, la stratégie d’analyse adoptée pour chacun d’eux est développée en adéquation avec l’état des connaissances actuelles. Les recherches sont ainsi guidées par l’obtention de données inédites qui doivent permettre, à terme :
1) une lecture renouvelée et croisée des industries lithiques et osseuses, ainsi que des ensembles fauniques et des matières colorantes découverts dans ces gisements, 2) un rééquilibrage quantitatif et qualitatif de l’intégration des différentes sources documentaires disponibles, la recherche s’étant davantage concentrée depuis plus d’un siècle sur les données de l’industrie lithique.
Les deux gisements de plein air réunissent les conditions indispensables au développement d’une approche interdisciplinaire permettant de croiser objets et méthodes d’étude, afin de proposer une lecture fine des comportements techniques et économiques des sociétés gravettiennes. A cet égard, cette contribution est l’occasion de présenter les premiers résultats obtenus sur le site de Maisières-Canal. Les recherches réalisées jusqu’à présent permettent de réévaluer l’importance de l’industrie sur matières dures d’origine animale, au sein de laquelle le travail de l’ivoire de mammouth se révèle particulièrement significatif. En outre, le corpus faunique traduit une exploitation récurrente du lièvre, ce type de comportement s’avérant singulier au regard de ce qui est habituellement documenté chez les sociétés du Gravettien.
Parmi les différentes activités susceptibles de laisser une trace archéologique, l’usage de matières colorantes apparaît particulièrement discret dans le cadre spatio-temporel considéré. Cet usage est cependant avéré dans les grottes d’Arcy-sur-Cure (grottes du Renne et du Trilobite), lesquelles permettront ainsi d’entreprendre une étude ciblée de ce phénomène. Enfin, les grottes de Goyet offrent la possibilité de contribuer à la connaissance de la séquence gravettienne du Nord-Ouest européen. Si le long historique des fouilles menées dans ces grottes, ainsi que les mélanges manifestes affectant les collections, ne permettent pas d’envisager une étude approfondie des comportements gravettiens, des observations préliminaires permettent en revanche de s’interroger sur le potentiel de ces sites pour la reconstitution de cette séquence. A l’instar de ce qu’ont montré les travaux récemment conduits sur le Gravettien de Spy (Pesesse & Flas, 2013), il est en effet vraisemblable que les grottes de Goyet aient été occupées à plusieurs moments de la période gravettienne.
BODU P., CHEHMANA L., KLARIC L., MEVEL L., SORIANO S., TEYSSANDIER N. (dir.), 2013. Le Paléolithique supérieur ancien de l’Europe du Nord-Ouest : réflexions et synthèses à partir d’un projet collectif de recherche sur le centre et le sud du Bassin parisien, Actes du colloque de Sens, 15-18 avril 2009. Paris : Société préhistorique française (Mémoires de la Société préhistorique française, 56), 516 p.
PESESSE D., FLAS D., 2013. Which Gravettians at Spy? In : ROUGIER H., SEMAL P. (eds), Spy Cave. 125 years of multidisciplinary research at the Betche-aux-Roches (Jemeppe-sur-Sambre, Province of Namur, Belgium). Volume I. Bruxelles : Institut royal des Sciences naturelles de Belgique, Société royale belge d'Anthropologie et de Préhistoire, NESPOS Society (Anthropologica et Praehistorica, 123), pp. 257-268.
Innovations relevant to human evolution often involve subsistence technology, which can affect th... more Innovations relevant to human evolution often involve subsistence technology, which can affect the success of individual groups, and Homo sapiens in general. However, Palaeolithic technologies include more than just hunting tools, and a proper understanding of hunter-gatherer ways of living requires knowledge of the organisation of diverse tasks and activities, including the manufacture and maintenance of tools and other equipment. One central aspect of technological evolution is the development of tool hafting [1, 2], which is not only restricted to hunting and gathering implements, but also affects so-called domestic tool categories.
We present the results of an on-going project that focuses on hafting and use of stone tools in the Upper Palaeolithic through detailed functional analysis of selected assemblages from European key sites (Hohle Fels, Abri Pataud, Maisières-Canal), which have yielded rich lithic and organic assemblages from secure chronological contexts. Here the focus is on classic Upper Palaeolithic tool categories, such as endscrapers and burins, from the Gravettian and Magdalenian levels of the cave site Hohle Fels (Germany) [3, 4]. We suggest that domestic tools can offer a valuable source material, since for most of them, hafting is not a necessity as it is for spear and arrow tips. An increase in hafting implies an increase in time investment, which has implications for task organisation and specialisation.
The Hohle Fels assemblage offers an interesting case study for temporal changes (or continuity) in the frequency and techniques of tool hafting. The projectile technology shows a clear shift from the Gravettian to the Magadalenian, marked by the introduction of a microlithic technology (backed bladelets). For other tool categories, the changes seem more subtle. Our goal is to characterise the tools used in manufacture and maintenance tasks, and to evaluate whether the Gravettian to Magdalenian transition witnesses changes in tool design and use that go beyond hunting equipment. The observed differences between tool classes and time periods are explained with a reference to details of tool use, such as the rate of edge wear development and stone tool exhaustion, as well as shifts in treatment of organic raw materials. The results suggest that domestic tools can aid in understanding long-term technological evolution, and create a baseline against which we can (re)assess the role of shifts observed in technologies that are more susceptible to morphological change, such as projectiles.
References: [1] Rots, V., 2013. Insights into early Middle Palaeolithic tool use and hafting in Western Europe: The functional analysis of level IIa of the early Middle Palaeolithic site of Biache-Saint-Vaast (France). J. Archaeol. Sci. 40, 497–506. [2] Barham, L., 2013. From Hand to Handle: The First Industrial Revolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford. [3] Conard, N. J., Bolus, M., 2003. Radiocarbon dating the appearance of modern humans and timing of cultural innovations in Europe: New results and new challenges. J. Hum. Evol. 44, 331–371. [4] Taller, A., Bolus, M., Conard, N. J., 2014. The Magdalenian of Hohle Fels Cave and the Resettlement of the Swabian Jura after the LGM. In: Otte, M., Le Brun-Ricalens, F. (Eds.), Modes de contacts et de déplacements au Paléolithique eurasiatique: Actes du Colloque international de la commission 8 (Paléolithique supérieur) de l'UISPP, Université de Liège, 28–31 mai 2012. Centre National de Recherche Archéologique, Luxembourg.
Study of stone tool hafting extends the scope of traceological analysis into the reconstruction o... more Study of stone tool hafting extends the scope of traceological analysis into the reconstruction of composite tools, which aids in assessing the time and resources invested in Palaeolithic technology independently of the level of organic preservation. We present the results of a PhD project that investigated stone tool hafting at three Gravettian and Magdalenian sites located in Western and Central Europe. The data from a functional screening of tens of thousands of stone tools and a detailed use-wear analysis of over 1000 artefacts recovered at the rock shelter Abri Pataud, the cave site Hohle Fels, and the open-air site Maisières-Canal are used to describe and explain variability in lithic tool hafting. Domestic tools are given here particular attention and, in the case of Abri Pataud, studied in parallel with projectile armatures. We attempt to start from the simplest mechanical explanations for the observed patterns and proceed towards more complex ones involving the social organisation of subsistence and other activities. Our analysis demonstrates that while certain patterns, such as the difference in the relative frequency of scraper and burin hafting, are best explained by basic task mechanical requirements and tool use preferences, others, such as the varying frequency of hafted scrapers in different sub-assemblages, seem to require other explanations. We show that scraper hafting likely predates the oldest assemblages analysed here and is applied lexibly according to context. By ruling out explanations related to e.g. lithic raw material economy, we wish to show that the variability may be linked to the differences in the investment in hafted tool technologies, which is likely to have been related to social organisation. Based on these results, we argue that data on stone tool hafting can be valuable to enquiries into the ways in which past technologies were tied to their social contexts.
Impact fractures are a complex phenomenon controlled by many parameters, including the physical p... more Impact fractures are a complex phenomenon controlled by many parameters, including the physical properties of the lithic raw material. In projectile studies, the influence of raw material has been regularly underestimated and even considered irrelevant by some researchers. However, research into the fracture mechanics of brittle solids performed since the 1970s presents raw material as one of the main parameters which affect the propagation of a crack inside a brittle material. Further work on fracture mechanics of brittle solids for archaeological application seems to have been on hold since the beginning of 1990s. Given that new analytical tools have been developed in the meantime, it is perhaps time to reopen the discussion, especially when we consider the importance of fracture mechanics for the identification of projectile points and the understanding of projectile technology. Therefore, we carried out a pilot experiment with a universal testing machine to examine how a set of different raw materials react to standard mechanical stress (simulating the stress developed during projectile impact). We present the results of this experiment and reflect on their implications for future work aimed at identifying projectiles in archaeological assemblages.
Lithic use-wear analysis was originally dominantly developed for determining the uses of flint to... more Lithic use-wear analysis was originally dominantly developed for determining the uses of flint tools, and a large majority of archaeological applications continue to be focused on flint and flint-like rocks. While several relevant contributions have been made to extend the methodology to raw materials such as quartz and quartzite (e.g. Knutsson 1988; Pedergnana et al. 2017) and wear formation on igneous rocks is also under further investigation (e.g. Asryan et al. 2014), many non-flint rocks remain underexplored in terms of their potential for functional analysis. Equally lacking is a clear consensus as to what (if any) extent the principles of wear formation can be transferred from one raw material to the next. We address this question by discussing the results of a recent blind test and complementary analysis of experimentally used tools made of dolerite, hornfels, mudstone, quartz, and quartzite. The test was taken by an analyst who had previous experience in the analysis of flint, quartz, and, to a more limited extent, quartzite, but no prior experience with dolerite, hornfels, or mudstone. The artefacts were first analysed for use-wear under low magnification with a stereomicroscope (magnifications 6.5-50×) and subsequently with the combined use of both low and high magnification (the latter achieved with a metallurgical microscope, magnifications 100-500×). The interpretations from the two steps of analysis were handed in separately to allow examining the effect of analytical technique. The blind test results permit directly discussing the transferability of identification criteria and the potential risks involved, and shed light on the basic differences in macroscopic edge damage and microwear formation between the selected raw materials. With this contribution, we hope to encourage further discussion among experts to determine how to best construct lithic reference libraries and how to deal with the particularities of different raw materials in order to maximise their potential for functional studies.
We are presenting the preliminary results of an ongoing collaborative study that aims at understa... more We are presenting the preliminary results of an ongoing collaborative study that aims at understanding the manufacturing, hafting, and use of Maisières points and tanged points during the main occupation of Maisières-Canal, attributed to the beginning of the Gravettian period. We combine technological and functional analysis with experimentation to put together an interpretation of the knapping sequences and hafting systems necessary for the successful use of these types of points. In this contribution we present the first observations on the chaîne opératoire and use of the artefacts. A combined study of the finished tools and the waste material coming from their shaping process allows us to present a new, more comprehensive view of the specific characteristics and constraints of the shaping method. Functional analysis shows that several of the points have clear macroscopic and microscopic impact damage, which demonstrates their use as armatures. We also further explore the possibility that some of the tanged pointed tools have served as knives. Our results illustrate the potential of an integrated approach in the study of lithic assemblages.
European Upper Palaeolithic lithic assemblages have been so far defined largely on a typological ... more European Upper Palaeolithic lithic assemblages have been so far defined largely on a typological or technological basis, while extensive studies that would utilise the full potential of microwear analysis have been few. This contribution presents the first results of an ongoing PhD project dedicated to the variability in stone tool use and hafting in the Upper Palaeolithic of Central and Western Europe. The aim of the project is to understand the development as well as regional patterns in tool hafting and use in the Gravettian and Magdalenian, and thus better explain the observed morphological and technological shifts. For this purpose, samples of tools from five European key sites with well-dated sequences (Hohle Fels, Geißenklösterle, Vogelherd, Maisières-Canal, and Abri Pataud) will be analysed giving a special emphasis on hafting traces. The study wishes to promote functional analysis as an integral part of technological studies, not as a mere side note. The German cave site Hohle Fels is used here as a case study to illustrate the potential of this kind of approach. The first results of the analysis of the site’s Gravettian material will be put into a wider context of earlier published results as well as preliminary observations made on the other assemblages included in the present study. Building on these results, the impact of tool hafting and use on the morphology of Gravettian lithic implements will be discussed.
Tanged tools have always attracted archaeologists' attention, and have often been considered to m... more Tanged tools have always attracted archaeologists' attention, and have often been considered to mark the beginnings of stone tool hafting. Very little is known, however, of the specifics of hafting these tools. Also the role of tanged tools in toolkits and lithic assemblages, as well as their significance in terms of technological evolution and human behaviour, are still largely under debate. We are presenting here some of our first observations and ideas of hafting and use of tanged tools building on our ongoing PhD research on the Mousterian/Aterian cave site Ifri n'Ammar (Morocco) and the Gravettian open-air site Maisières-Canal (Belgium). Our experimental and analytical work aims at reconstructing plausible methods of hafting and using tanged tools, and contributing to a better understanding of the role of tangs in the assemblages under study. Our preliminary results suggest that several hafting modes are possible for tools of similar morphology, and that tanged and non-tanged tools can in some cases be hafted using the same logic. We therefore argue that more detailed functional data on both tanged and non-tanged tools is needed before we can meaningfully assess the importance of the presence of tanged tools in various archaeological contexts.
Hunting and preparing for the hunt – manufacturing, using, and repairing the equipment – were und... more Hunting and preparing for the hunt – manufacturing, using, and repairing the equipment – were undoubtedly important and time-consuming activities in the lives of Palaeolithic groups [1, 2]. Studying hunting equipment in detail is thus essential for our understanding of a crucial aspect of Palaeolithic human behaviour and allows us to understand developments in human technologies and problem-solving across wide geographical and chronological ranges. Yet, our current knowledge about the development of prehistoric hunting technologies (projecting modes, weapon design) is mainly based on a few important but isolated discoveries of organic remains in Europe, such as the Lower Palaeolithic spears or spear fragments recovered at Schöningen, Lehringen, and Clacton-on-Sea, the Solutrean and Magdalenian spear-thrower hooks, and the arrows and bow fragments from Mesolithic and Neolithic contexts [3].
In this paper we demonstrate how to exploit the full potential of a much more durable and ubiquitous type of remains, lithic armatures, in the study of Palaeolithic hunting practices. We present the results of a collaborative project that combines technological and functional analysis with experimental archaeology, and aims at understanding the manufacture and use of a specific lithic projectile type, the Early Gravettian tanged point. Our archaeological material comes from the Gravettian occupation phase of the open-air site of Maisières-Canal (Belgium), dated between 33 and 32 cal BP [4]. This stratigraphically well-isolated sequence has yielded an important collection of tanged points that are in excellent state of preservation.
A combined study of the finished armatures and the related shaping waste allows us to present a new, more comprehensive view of the characteristics and constraints of the shaping method. The points were made on large, thin blades produced by hard or soft stone percussion, and subsequently shaped by several generations of direct, flat, invasive (sometimes overshot) removals with an organic hammer. These points, which all display a long, elaborately shaped tang, thus form a distinct tool type with a unique chaîne opératoire and a very particular morphology in terms of weapon design and hafting systems.
Many of the points show clear macroscopic and microscopic damage from impact that can be attributed to their use as armatures. The morphology, the organisation, and the orientation of the traces allowed us to propose specific hafting modes that were tested experimentally. The experimental program focused on both the details of the hafting mode and the mode of projection. In addition, alternative tool uses such as butchering were considered, and the points were framed within the broader functional context of tanged and non-tanged tools recovered at the site. The results allow evaluating what kind of weapon system the tanged points were part of, and what their place was in the Early Gravettian technology. We argue that when approached from an experimental and techno-functional point of view, lithic projectile points can help us understand the development of hunting technologies as well as broader patterns of technological change.
Acknowledgements: This research is supported by the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013) / ERC Grant Agreement n. 312283. NT’s work is also supported by Kone Foundation (grant number 088817). OT and VR are indebted to the Fund for Scientific Research (FNRS-FRS). We are grateful to Ivan Jadin of Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences for giving us access to the Maisières-Canal collection, and to Christian Lepers of University of Liège for his participation in the experimental work.
References: [1] Ellis, C.J., 1997. Factors influencing the use of stone projectile tips. In: Knecht, H. (Ed.), Projectile Technology. Springer Science & Business Media, New York, pp. 37–74. [2] Greaves, R., 1997. Hunting and multifunctional use of bows and arrows. In: Knecht, H. (Ed.), Projectile Technology. Springer Science & Business Media, New York, pp. 287–320. [3] Knecht, H., 1997. Projectile technology. Springer Science & Business Media, New York. [4] Jacobi, R. M., Haesaerts, P., Jadin, I., Basell, L.S., 2010. Radiocarbon chronology for the Early Gravettian of northern Europe: new AMS determinations for Maisières-Canal, Belgium. Antiquity 84 (323), 26–40.
vand use of tanged points from the open-air site Maisières-Canal (circa 31.500 cal. BP) through a... more vand use of tanged points from the open-air site Maisières-Canal (circa 31.500 cal. BP) through an experimental program and detailed technological and functional analyses. Our aim is to understand the interactions between tool design, knapping process, and functional demands. The technological analysis of the points and their shaping waste has allowed us to reconstruct the manufacturing sequence. Our experiments have shown that the shaping method, once mastered, allows the transformation of a variety of blanks into finished tanged points. Evidence of projectile use is frequent on the archaeological points. The breakage patterns on the tangs, together with tang morphologies, have led us to propose a hafting arrangement where the tang is inserted in a split wooden shaft and supported from the lateral sides. Furthermore, our first experimental dataset suggests that we are, for the first time, able to consider specific modes of propulsion for the tanged points. This demonstrates that an improved understanding of the technological and functional characteristics of this particular point type, achieved through careful analysis and experimental testing, allows us to push the limits of the analytical potential of stone tools and directly address questions dealing with Palaeolithic hunting strategies.
Use-wear analysis of stone tools is a powerful means for understanding lithic assemblages and pas... more Use-wear analysis of stone tools is a powerful means for understanding lithic assemblages and past human behaviour. While the method has traditionally only played a supportive role in lithic studies that have been predominantly oriented towards understanding the production sequences of stone tools, recent years have witnessed a change in the way functional analysis is applied. We present here the methodological outline of the project Evolution of stone tool hafting in the Palaeolithic, aimed at understanding long-term and large-scale changes in hunter-gatherer technology. New results from three Gravettian sites will be used to illustrate the potential of the method in understanding the formation of lithic assemblages and the human choices behind it. This study is the first large-scale application of the hafting wear method to Upper Palaeolithic assemblages, and has so far involved the detailed analysis of c. 1050 stone tools, most of which Gravettian, from the cave site Hohle Fels, the open air site Maisières-Canal and the rock shelter Abri Pataud. Selected functional data will be presented with a special focus on the often overlooked domestic tools. The purpose of the presentation is to give perspectives on the variability of Gravettian assemblages by discussing tool design and function, lithic recycling, and chronological and site-specific patterns in tool hafting. In addition to proposing new interpretations, the goal is also to point out open questions and to encourage interaction and collaboration between technologists and functional analysts.
Tanged tools are the most obvious typological hint of stone tool hafting in the Palaeolithic reco... more Tanged tools are the most obvious typological hint of stone tool hafting in the Palaeolithic record. As a result, their appearance has been viewed as the advent of tool hafting, and tangs in younger assemblages are often taken as a sign of technological change. Despite these assumptions, the implications of tanged morphologies for hafting, overall tool design, and raw material use are only starting to become addressed in functional studies. Meanwhile the significance of morphological and technological variability among tangs from different periods has received little attention. We discuss this aspect by presenting new results on Aterian and Early Gravettian tanged tools. Our data comes from the work done on the assemblages from the rock shelter Ifri n’Ammar (Morocco, 171 000–80 000 BP) and the open-air site Maisières-Canal (Belgium, 28 000 BP). We tested different hafting alternatives for the tanged tools and used them in tasks identified in the archaeological assemblages. On the basis of these results, we argue that despite their superficial similarity, different tangs require different approaches to haft material selection and tool design, and their novelty and specificity as technological innovations can only be evaluated when these aspects are well understood and the tangs placed in the broader context of morphological adaptations for hafting. The evidence of hafting on non-tanged tools from Palaeolithic sites clearly demonstrates that tool morphology can be adjusted for hafting in a variety of ways, few of which are macroscopically as visible as the tang. This calls for a need to view lithic assemblages as dynamic wholes where tool shapes are controlled by lithic and organic raw material strategies as well as learned and shared ways of tool production.
Hunting is commonly believed to have been one of the central aspects in the lives of Palaeolithic... more Hunting is commonly believed to have been one of the central aspects in the lives of Palaeolithic groups and it is therefore an integral part of almost any attempt to explain the archaeological record. Different methods are used to understand prey selection (archaeozoology), to identify lithic or osseous armatures (use-wear analysis) and to reconstruct their production sequences (chaîne opératoire analysis). Despite these achievements, our current methods tell us little about the overall design of hunting weapons and their change through time, which would be a key aspect for a true reconstruction of Palaeolithic hunting practices.
In this contribution, we argue that this methodological gap can be bridged and weapon design (projecting modes and hafting arrangements) reconstructed. As an example of exploiting the full potential of lithic armatures, we present the results of a collaborative project which aims at identifying possible changes in weapon design and use and at understanding their links with morphological variation of lithic armatures within Gravettian industries. Our approach represents a strong integration of morphological, technological and functional analyses supported by a multi-step experimental program.
The archaeological material consists of tanged points from Maisières-Canal (Belgium, 28 000 BP) and microgravette points from Ormesson - les Bossats (France, 26 500 BP) and Abri Pataud (France, 24 000 BP). The results provide a more profound understanding of the weapon systems the tanged points and microgravette points were part of, including their mode of propulsion, and shed new light on the evolution of these systems during the Gravettian. We argue that detailed data on organisation and operation of hunting equipment can help us understand certain major technological changes observed in the Upper Palaeolithic.
The importance of understanding the influence of raw material on fracture mechanics when searchin... more The importance of understanding the influence of raw material on fracture mechanics when searching for projectiles The results of an elaborate experimental program on projectiles indicate that raw material is among the key variables affecting the fracture mechanical behaviour of a lithic armature on impact. This aspect has been underestimated in earlier projectile studies, where results have either been directly compared to previously published experimental data irrespective of raw material differences, meaning that raw material has been considered an irrelevant parameter, or experimental replicas have been made of materials that closely resemble their archaeological counterparts. Considering the variability in lithic resources in Africa, projectile studies focused there should rely on a clear understanding of the effect of raw material on fracture formation. We conducted a pilot experiment with a universal testing machine to examine how different raw materials react to standard mechanical stress. This communication presents the results of the experiment and puts them in the context of experience gained from our previous work.
Recent advances in functional studies, including the development of a method for identifying haft... more Recent advances in functional studies, including the development of a method for identifying hafted tools, make this approach highly relevant for understanding early technologies. However, most of the reference framework is based on experimental work with flint, while the African archaeological record is characterised by a wide range of lithic raw materials, not all of which are well-studied in terms of use-wear formation. This can lead into difficulties in comparing tools within and between sites. We use the results of a blind test to address differential wear patterns on quartzite, dolerite, hornfels, and mudstone from Southern Africa. This test sheds light on the basic differences in macroscopic edge damage and microwear formation and allows evaluating biases analysts who are used to flint may be facing. We discuss the observations in the context of previous studies, and offer new guidelines for researchers who wish to tackle questions related to aspects of raw material economy and tool use in Southern Africa.
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Papers by Noora Taipale
Gourhan 1983; Plisson 1985; Nuzhnyi 1993; Christensen and Valentin 2004; Sano 2009; Langlais 2010; Araujo-Igreja 2011; Tomasso et al. 2018). Experiments of varying comprehensiveness concerned with the use of (Magdalenian) backed pieces as projectile inserts have confirmed the effectivity of this setup (e.g., Moss and Newcomer 1982; Pétillon et al. 2011; Gauvrit Roux et al. 2020). However, backed pieces sometimes also served other purposes like cutting, sawing, shaving, scraping or
perforating (Moss and Newcomer 1982; Moss 1983; Owen 1988; Piel-Desruisseaux 1998; Christensen and Valentin 2004; Taller et al. 2012). The modular technological system involving these lithic artifacts is highly versatile, mobile and dynamic as there are numerous possibilities of use and as the small lithic inserts are easy to transport and the composite tools themselves are easy to maintain and repair. Here, we present the results of an experiment where different tasks were carried out using backed pieces hafted in a wooden handle or operated handheld. The design of the handles loosely follows examples found at Canadian Dorset sites where bladelets comparable in size to Magdalenian backed pieces were hafted and used as knives (Owen 1988, 88ff.). We tried out the tools in various activities (cutting, perforating and carving/whittling) on a set of worked materials (wood, antler, marine shell, smoked meat, dried, semi-tanned hide, and tanned leather). After the completion of these tasks, the applicability, durability and usefulness of the setup were evaluated and the lithic inserts were checked microscopically for use-wear traces.
postdepositional wear are very limited. When compared with Kaaraneskoski, the wear traces are somewhat better preserved in the Hossanmäki assemblage, which is also reflected in the correspondence between the microwear and macrowear results. Although conclusions about the criteria used in tool blank selection at the two sites cannot be drawn on the basis of the two small groups of used tools, this study suggests that preliminary observations such as the possible dominance of intact flakes among the used pieces should be tested against larger samples. The results show that the microwear method is applicable on Finnish assemblages and is the only reliable way to recognize used edges on quartz tools. Therefore it should be integrated into Finnish quartz studies.
Posters by Noora Taipale
Gourhan 1983; Plisson 1985; Nuzhnyi 1993; Christensen and Valentin 2004; Sano 2009; Langlais 2010; Araujo-Igreja 2011; Tomasso et al. 2018). Experiments of varying comprehensiveness concerned with the use of (Magdalenian) backed pieces as projectile inserts have confirmed the effectivity of this setup (e.g., Moss and Newcomer 1982; Pétillon et al. 2011; Gauvrit Roux et al. 2020). However, backed pieces sometimes also served other purposes like cutting, sawing, shaving, scraping or
perforating (Moss and Newcomer 1982; Moss 1983; Owen 1988; Piel-Desruisseaux 1998; Christensen and Valentin 2004; Taller et al. 2012). The modular technological system involving these lithic artifacts is highly versatile, mobile and dynamic as there are numerous possibilities of use and as the small lithic inserts are easy to transport and the composite tools themselves are easy to maintain and repair. Here, we present the results of an experiment where different tasks were carried out using backed pieces hafted in a wooden handle or operated handheld. The design of the handles loosely follows examples found at Canadian Dorset sites where bladelets comparable in size to Magdalenian backed pieces were hafted and used as knives (Owen 1988, 88ff.). We tried out the tools in various activities (cutting, perforating and carving/whittling) on a set of worked materials (wood, antler, marine shell, smoked meat, dried, semi-tanned hide, and tanned leather). After the completion of these tasks, the applicability, durability and usefulness of the setup were evaluated and the lithic inserts were checked microscopically for use-wear traces.
postdepositional wear are very limited. When compared with Kaaraneskoski, the wear traces are somewhat better preserved in the Hossanmäki assemblage, which is also reflected in the correspondence between the microwear and macrowear results. Although conclusions about the criteria used in tool blank selection at the two sites cannot be drawn on the basis of the two small groups of used tools, this study suggests that preliminary observations such as the possible dominance of intact flakes among the used pieces should be tested against larger samples. The results show that the microwear method is applicable on Finnish assemblages and is the only reliable way to recognize used edges on quartz tools. Therefore it should be integrated into Finnish quartz studies.
Quatre sites majeurs du Nord-Ouest européen ont été retenus : les gisements de plein air de Maisières-Canal (Prov. Hainaut, Belgique) et d’Ormesson – Les Bossats (Seine-et-Marne, France), et les grottes de Goyet (Prov. Namur, Belgique) et du massif d’Arcy-sur-Cure (Yonne, France). Les sites sélectionnés possédant des historiques de recherche spécifiques, la stratégie d’analyse adoptée pour chacun d’eux est développée en adéquation avec l’état des connaissances actuelles. Les recherches sont ainsi guidées par l’obtention de données inédites qui doivent permettre, à terme :
1) une lecture renouvelée et croisée des industries lithiques et osseuses, ainsi que des ensembles fauniques et des matières colorantes découverts dans ces gisements,
2) un rééquilibrage quantitatif et qualitatif de l’intégration des différentes sources documentaires disponibles, la recherche s’étant davantage concentrée depuis plus d’un siècle sur les données de l’industrie lithique.
Les deux gisements de plein air réunissent les conditions indispensables au développement d’une approche interdisciplinaire permettant de croiser objets et méthodes d’étude, afin de proposer une lecture fine des comportements techniques et économiques des sociétés gravettiennes. A cet égard, cette contribution est l’occasion de présenter les premiers résultats obtenus sur le site de Maisières-Canal. Les recherches réalisées jusqu’à présent permettent de réévaluer l’importance de l’industrie sur matières dures d’origine animale, au sein de laquelle le travail de l’ivoire de mammouth se révèle particulièrement significatif. En outre, le corpus faunique traduit une exploitation récurrente du lièvre, ce type de comportement s’avérant singulier au regard de ce qui est habituellement documenté chez les sociétés du Gravettien.
Parmi les différentes activités susceptibles de laisser une trace archéologique, l’usage de matières colorantes apparaît particulièrement discret dans le cadre spatio-temporel considéré. Cet usage est cependant avéré dans les grottes d’Arcy-sur-Cure (grottes du Renne et du Trilobite), lesquelles permettront ainsi d’entreprendre une étude ciblée de ce phénomène. Enfin, les grottes de Goyet offrent la possibilité de contribuer à la connaissance de la séquence gravettienne du Nord-Ouest européen. Si le long historique des fouilles menées dans ces grottes, ainsi que les mélanges manifestes affectant les collections, ne permettent pas d’envisager une étude approfondie des comportements gravettiens, des observations préliminaires permettent en revanche de s’interroger sur le potentiel de ces sites pour la reconstitution de cette séquence. A l’instar de ce qu’ont montré les travaux récemment conduits sur le Gravettien de Spy (Pesesse & Flas, 2013), il est en effet vraisemblable que les grottes de Goyet aient été occupées à plusieurs moments de la période gravettienne.
BODU P., CHEHMANA L., KLARIC L., MEVEL L., SORIANO S., TEYSSANDIER N. (dir.), 2013. Le Paléolithique supérieur ancien de l’Europe du Nord-Ouest : réflexions et synthèses à partir d’un projet collectif de recherche sur le centre et le sud du Bassin parisien, Actes du colloque de Sens, 15-18 avril 2009. Paris : Société préhistorique française (Mémoires de la Société préhistorique française, 56), 516 p.
PESESSE D., FLAS D., 2013. Which Gravettians at Spy? In : ROUGIER H., SEMAL P. (eds), Spy Cave. 125 years of multidisciplinary research at the Betche-aux-Roches (Jemeppe-sur-Sambre, Province of Namur, Belgium). Volume I. Bruxelles : Institut royal des Sciences naturelles de Belgique, Société royale belge d'Anthropologie et de Préhistoire, NESPOS Society (Anthropologica et Praehistorica, 123), pp. 257-268.
We present the results of an on-going project that focuses on hafting and use of stone tools in the Upper Palaeolithic through detailed functional analysis of selected assemblages from European key sites (Hohle Fels, Abri Pataud, Maisières-Canal), which have yielded rich lithic and organic assemblages from secure chronological contexts. Here the focus is on classic Upper Palaeolithic tool categories, such as endscrapers and burins, from the Gravettian and Magdalenian levels of the cave site Hohle Fels (Germany) [3, 4]. We suggest that domestic tools can offer a valuable source material, since for most of them, hafting is not a necessity as it is for spear and arrow tips. An increase in hafting implies an increase in time investment, which has implications for task organisation and specialisation.
The Hohle Fels assemblage offers an interesting case study for temporal changes (or continuity) in the frequency and techniques of tool hafting. The projectile technology shows a clear shift from the Gravettian to the Magadalenian, marked by the introduction of a microlithic technology (backed bladelets). For other tool categories, the changes seem more subtle. Our goal is to characterise the tools used in manufacture and maintenance tasks, and to evaluate whether the Gravettian to Magdalenian transition witnesses changes in tool design and use that go beyond hunting equipment. The observed differences between tool classes and time periods are explained with a reference to details of tool use, such as the rate of edge wear development and stone tool exhaustion, as well as shifts in treatment of organic raw materials. The results suggest that domestic tools can aid in understanding long-term technological evolution, and create a baseline against which we can (re)assess the role of shifts observed in technologies that are more susceptible to morphological change, such as projectiles.
References: [1] Rots, V., 2013. Insights into early Middle Palaeolithic tool use and hafting in Western Europe: The functional analysis of level IIa of the early Middle Palaeolithic site of Biache-Saint-Vaast (France). J. Archaeol. Sci. 40, 497–506. [2] Barham, L., 2013. From Hand to Handle: The First Industrial Revolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford. [3] Conard, N. J., Bolus, M., 2003. Radiocarbon dating the appearance of modern humans and timing of cultural innovations in Europe: New results and new challenges. J. Hum. Evol. 44, 331–371. [4] Taller, A., Bolus, M., Conard, N. J., 2014. The Magdalenian of Hohle Fels Cave and the Resettlement of the Swabian Jura after the LGM. In: Otte, M., Le Brun-Ricalens, F. (Eds.), Modes de contacts et de déplacements au Paléolithique eurasiatique: Actes du Colloque international de la commission 8 (Paléolithique supérieur) de l'UISPP, Université de Liège, 28–31 mai 2012. Centre National de Recherche Archéologique, Luxembourg.
quartzite, but no prior experience with dolerite, hornfels, or mudstone. The artefacts were first analysed for use-wear under low magnification with a stereomicroscope (magnifications 6.5-50×) and subsequently with the combined use of both low and high magnification (the latter achieved with a metallurgical microscope, magnifications 100-500×). The interpretations from the two steps of analysis were handed in
separately to allow examining the effect of analytical technique. The blind test results permit directly discussing the transferability of identification criteria and the potential risks involved, and shed light on the basic differences in macroscopic edge damage and microwear formation between the selected raw materials. With this contribution,
we hope to encourage further discussion among experts to determine how to best construct lithic reference libraries and how to deal with the particularities of different raw materials in order to maximise their potential for functional studies.
(Hohle Fels, Geißenklösterle, Vogelherd, Maisières-Canal, and Abri Pataud) will be analysed giving a special emphasis on hafting traces. The study wishes to promote functional analysis as an integral part of technological studies, not as a mere side note. The German cave site
Hohle Fels is used here as a case study to illustrate the potential of this kind of approach. The first results of the analysis of the site’s Gravettian material will be put into a wider context of earlier published results as well as preliminary observations made on the other assemblages included in the present study. Building on these results, the impact of tool hafting and use on the morphology of Gravettian lithic implements will be discussed.
In this paper we demonstrate how to exploit the full potential of a much more durable and ubiquitous type of remains, lithic armatures, in the study of Palaeolithic hunting practices. We present the results of a collaborative project that combines technological and functional analysis with experimental archaeology, and aims at understanding the manufacture and use of a specific lithic projectile type, the Early Gravettian tanged point. Our archaeological material comes from the Gravettian occupation phase of the open-air site of Maisières-Canal (Belgium), dated between 33 and 32 cal BP [4]. This stratigraphically well-isolated sequence has yielded an important collection of tanged points that are in excellent state of preservation.
A combined study of the finished armatures and the related shaping waste allows us to present a new, more comprehensive view of the characteristics and constraints of the shaping method. The points were made on large, thin blades produced by hard or soft stone percussion, and subsequently shaped by several generations of direct, flat, invasive (sometimes overshot) removals with an organic hammer. These points, which all display a long, elaborately shaped tang, thus form a distinct tool type with a unique chaîne opératoire and a very particular morphology in terms of weapon design and hafting systems.
Many of the points show clear macroscopic and microscopic damage from impact that can be attributed to their use as armatures. The morphology, the organisation, and the orientation of the traces allowed us to propose specific hafting modes that were tested experimentally. The experimental program focused on both the details of the hafting mode and the mode of projection. In addition, alternative tool uses such as butchering were considered, and the points were framed within the broader functional context of tanged and non-tanged tools recovered at the site. The results allow evaluating what kind of weapon system the tanged points were part of, and what their place was in the Early Gravettian technology. We argue that when approached from an experimental and techno-functional point of view, lithic projectile points can help us understand the development of hunting technologies as well as broader patterns of technological change.
Acknowledgements: This research is supported by the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013) / ERC Grant Agreement n. 312283. NT’s work is also supported by Kone Foundation (grant number 088817). OT and VR are indebted to the Fund for Scientific Research (FNRS-FRS). We are grateful to Ivan Jadin of Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences for giving us access to the Maisières-Canal collection, and to Christian Lepers of University of Liège for his participation in the experimental work.
References: [1] Ellis, C.J., 1997. Factors influencing the use of stone projectile tips. In: Knecht, H. (Ed.), Projectile Technology. Springer Science & Business Media, New York, pp. 37–74. [2] Greaves, R., 1997. Hunting and multifunctional use of bows and arrows. In: Knecht, H. (Ed.), Projectile Technology. Springer Science & Business Media, New York, pp. 287–320. [3] Knecht, H., 1997. Projectile technology. Springer Science & Business Media, New York. [4] Jacobi, R. M., Haesaerts, P., Jadin, I., Basell, L.S., 2010. Radiocarbon chronology for the Early Gravettian of northern Europe: new AMS determinations for Maisières-Canal, Belgium. Antiquity 84 (323), 26–40.
waste has allowed us to reconstruct the manufacturing sequence. Our experiments have shown that the shaping method, once mastered, allows the transformation of a variety of blanks into finished tanged points. Evidence of projectile use is frequent on the archaeological points. The breakage patterns on the tangs, together with tang
morphologies, have led us to propose a hafting arrangement where the tang is inserted in a split wooden shaft and supported from the lateral sides. Furthermore, our first experimental dataset suggests that we are, for the first time, able to consider specific modes of propulsion for the tanged points. This demonstrates that an improved understanding of the technological and functional characteristics of this particular point type, achieved through careful analysis and experimental testing, allows us to push the limits of the analytical potential of stone tools and directly address questions dealing with Palaeolithic hunting strategies.
In this contribution, we argue that this methodological gap can be bridged and weapon design (projecting modes and hafting arrangements) reconstructed. As an example of exploiting the full potential of lithic armatures, we present the results of a collaborative project which aims at identifying possible changes in weapon design and use and at understanding their links with morphological variation of lithic armatures within Gravettian industries. Our approach represents a strong integration of morphological, technological and functional analyses supported by a multi-step experimental program.
The archaeological material consists of tanged points from Maisières-Canal (Belgium, 28 000 BP) and microgravette points from Ormesson - les Bossats (France, 26 500 BP) and Abri Pataud (France, 24 000 BP). The results provide a more profound understanding of the weapon systems the tanged points and microgravette points were part of, including their mode of propulsion, and shed new light on the evolution of these systems during the Gravettian. We argue that detailed data on organisation and operation of hunting equipment can help us understand certain major technological changes observed in the Upper Palaeolithic.