This article investigates split infinitives in 12 World Englishes using Kachru's concentric circl... more This article investigates split infinitives in 12 World Englishes using Kachru's concentric circles framework. Beginning with a brief description of split infinitives, the article explores two significant aspects of splitting: the most common 'breakers' , and split infinitive use across different genres and domains. Sourcing from the International Corpus of English, findings reveal that split infinitive use in Inner Circle and Outer Circle Englishes both exhibit similarities and differences. The seemingly contradicting data indicate that the split between Inner and Outer Circle Englishes is not as defined as Kachru initially hypothesized, but overlapping. While the similarities can partially be attributed to the prevailing first language (L1) prescriptive norms in the Outer Circle, the perceptible divergences in split infinitive use are mainly argued to involve subconscious substratum transfer and identity-formation processes; the deviations from L1 norms can be viewed as a sign of nativization and, perhaps, differentiation from their ex-colonizers or settlers' English(es).
This study provides a corpus-based description of telephone-conversation openings in Philippine E... more This study provides a corpus-based description of telephone-conversation openings in Philippine English. Data for the analysis of telephone conversations in Philippine English come from the Philippine component of the International Corpus of English (ICE-PH); to be more specific, this study makes use of the telephone calls documented in the dialogic, spoken texts in ICE-PH coded as S1A-091 to S1A-100. The analysis of a rather limited sample from ICE-PH-ten samples, to be specific-reveals interesting insights with regard to how similar or different openings in telephone conversations are in Philippine English with reference to American English. The sequences employed or afforded by Filipino speakers of English in telephone conversations appear to be rather tentatively established thus far. The openings documented in ICE-PH range from strict observants of Schegloff's (1972, 1979, 1986) four core opening sequences in American English to complete deviations from the purported patterns in the superstrate variety.
This paper investigates tag questions in a Philippine contact variety spoken by Chinese in the Ph... more This paper investigates tag questions in a Philippine contact variety spoken by Chinese in the Philippines called Philippine Hybrid Hokkien (PHH)-a trilingual admixture that is characterized by the systematic coexistence of the Hokkien, Tagalog, and English grammatical (sub)systems. After analyzing spontaneous oral data gathered from native speakers, ten types of tag questions were identified, with two of them being bilingually innovative and unique to PHH (e.g. m si ba?). Further analyses of data reveal that attitudinal tag questions are more frequently used than confirmatory tag questions. That alternative tags (e.g. okay?) are more preferred compared to their canonical counterparts have also been suggested by initial data. Although the use of tag questions in PHH is reminiscent of the individual grammars of English, Tagalog, and Hokkien, data suggests that PHH, whether analyzed as a trilingual linguistic variety or a hybrid X-English, is developing away from these normative languages and that the Chinese Filipinos are creating new norms for this variety.
Adopting a quantitative approach, this paper highlights findings of an exploratory study on Hokag... more Adopting a quantitative approach, this paper highlights findings of an exploratory study on Hokaglish, initially describing it as a trilingual code-switching phenomenon involving Hokkien, Tagalog, and English in a Filipino-Chinese enclave in Binondo, Manila, the Philippines. Departing from the (socio)linguistic landscape of the archipelagic nation, the discussion eventually leads to a frequency-based description of this phenomenon. Preliminary findings suggest that, in Hokaglish, code-switching from Hokkien to English appears to be the most frequent code-switching combination among the six possible ones and that it is typically found in religious institutions. From the investigation, Hokaglish yielded more attestations of intrasentential codeswitching than intersentential ones in households particularly. Moreover, findings also indicate that switches in the word-level are very frequent and that morphological code-switching is virtually non-existent in Hokaglish conversations. The paper ends with a discussion that will more or less provide some justification for the findings.
This article narrates the sociohistory of the Philippines through the lens of a Sinitic minority ... more This article narrates the sociohistory of the Philippines through the lens of a Sinitic minority group – the Chinese Filipinos. It provides a systematic account of the history, language policies, and educational policies in six major eras, beginning from the precolonial period until the Fifth Republic (960 – pres-ent). Concurrently, it presents a diachronic narrative on the different linguistic varieties utilized by the ethnic minority, such as English, Hokkien, Tagalog, and Philippine Hybrid Hokkien (PHH). Following an exposition on how these varieties were introduced to the ecology is a discussion focused on contact that highlights potential theories as to how Philippine contact varieties like PHH emerged. How this account contributes to the overall language ecology forms the conclusion. Overall, this article delineates the socio-historical sources that intrinsically play a significant role in the (re)description of Philippine contact varieties. In its breadth, this article goes beyond providing second-hand infor-mation, and presents ideas that can be crucial for understanding how Philippine contact languages work.
Although World Englishes (WE) scholarship is concerned with the study of English varieties in dif... more Although World Englishes (WE) scholarship is concerned with the study of English varieties in different social contexts, there is a tendency to treat postcolonial ones as homogenous regional phenomena (e.g., Philippine English). Few researchers have discussed variation and social differentiation in detail with empirical evidence. Thus, in order to understand how layers of different varieties of WE operate within a specific group of speakers, this study takes an empirical intergroup approach from a substratist framework. This study explores distinctive features of a metropolitan Manila variety of Chinese English used in the Philippines, Manila Chinese English (MCE), an English contact variety used by Manila Chinese Filipinos. After comparing the frequencies of selected features observed in a 52,000-word MCE database with frequencies in Manila English and American English corpora, this study found that a distinct variety – MCE – most likely emerged in the 1960s due to the extensive contact between general Manila English and local tongues of Chinese Filipinos such as (Hybrid) Hokkien and Tagalog, which function as MCE’s substrate languages. This study takes into account MCE’s structure, sources, and genesis, and discusses MCE in relation to Philippine English as positioned in Schneider’s dynamic model, to demonstrate how intergroup variations coexist but take divergent paths within a WE variety.
The Manila variety of Philippine Hybrid Hokkien (PHH-M) or Lánnang-uè is a contact language used ... more The Manila variety of Philippine Hybrid Hokkien (PHH-M) or Lánnang-uè is a contact language used by the metropolitan Manila Chinese Filipinos; it is primarily comprised of Hokkien, Tagalog/Filipino, and English elements. Approaching PHH-M as a mixed language, we investigate linguistically and socially conditioned variation in the monophthongs of PHH-M, focusing on the extent to which the vowel systems of the three source languages have converged. This analysis draws on data gathered from 34 native speakers; Pillai scores are calculated to assess the degree of merger. Contrary to certain predictions of prior work on mixed languages, PHH-M is found to have a unified, eight-vowel inventory distinct from any of its sources. Older women use more stable vowels across source languages, suggesting that they have led in the development of PHH-M as a mixed code; however, signs of change among younger women suggest either the endangerment of the code or its evolution in response to the community’s shifting identity. We contextualize our conclusions in relation to the sociohistory and language ecology of metropolitan Manila’s Chinese Filipino community.
After outlining recent developments and surveying various perspectives, I argue that scholars sho... more After outlining recent developments and surveying various perspectives, I argue that scholars should adopt the notion of Philippine ‘Englishes’ to acknowledge all substrate-influenced ‘regional’ (e.g. Iloilo English), social, and hybrid varieties (e.g. Hokaglish). Beginning with a brief overview of the current situation, I examine literature hinting for the invalidation of a standard Philippine English, identifying some evidence of variation due to (socio)linguistic factors through a concise survey of local Englishes. The study asserts that the Philippine Englishes model is more encompassing and forward-looking; it also shows some evidence that Philippine English is at the dawn of stage 5 (differentiation) of Schneider’s dynamic model. Although this model might raise more questions, it hopes to challenge researchers to embark on new-wave investigations on local Englishes while encouraging them to utilize existing research and frameworks. Ultimately, what this study hopes to provide is a fresh perspective on the preponderance of literature on Philippine English by introducing the said model.
This paper focuses on a specific community of individuals who have mixed Southern Chinese and Fil... more This paper focuses on a specific community of individuals who have mixed Southern Chinese and Filipino cultural heritage in the Philippinesthe 'Lannangs'. I investigate the Lannang identity and, with ethnographic interviews and survey data, propose that the identity should be broadly defined as comprising of four dynamic parts: being Filipino, being Chinese, being neither, and being both. Focusing on the Manila community, I show how the Lannangs navigate between these orientations depending on the social context and the interlocutors. Moreover, drawing on the notions of indexicality and simultaneity, I investigate the role of language in the characterization of the Lannang identity. I also show that Hokkien, Lánnanguè, Tagalog, English, among other languages, are being used to embody the aspects of 'Lannang-ness'.
The Palgrave Handbook of Chinese Language Studies, 2021
This chapter explores the interactions between Sinitic and Philippine-based languages in the Phil... more This chapter explores the interactions between Sinitic and Philippine-based languages in the Philippine context. It focuses on the complex dynamics between the languages of the historically indigenous population and those of the (heritage and homeland) Chinese groups. Using oral and written data sampled from 12 linguistic varieties in three major Philippine cities across the archipelago, the chapter features the processes of Sinicization, Filipinization, and language crea-tion. It shows that languages that co-exist in the same linguistic ecology can actually affect each other differently, depending on the sociohistorical context in which such interactions take place. Overall, this descriptive overview chapter hopes to highlight the intricacies of the relationship between the Sinitic and Philippine-based languages and attempts to provide a holistic characterization of the Sino-Philippine and, consequently, broader Philippine linguistic landscape.
This article investigates split infinitives in 12 World Englishes using Kachru's concentric circl... more This article investigates split infinitives in 12 World Englishes using Kachru's concentric circles framework. Beginning with a brief description of split infinitives, the article explores two significant aspects of splitting: the most common 'breakers' , and split infinitive use across different genres and domains. Sourcing from the International Corpus of English, findings reveal that split infinitive use in Inner Circle and Outer Circle Englishes both exhibit similarities and differences. The seemingly contradicting data indicate that the split between Inner and Outer Circle Englishes is not as defined as Kachru initially hypothesized, but overlapping. While the similarities can partially be attributed to the prevailing first language (L1) prescriptive norms in the Outer Circle, the perceptible divergences in split infinitive use are mainly argued to involve subconscious substratum transfer and identity-formation processes; the deviations from L1 norms can be viewed as a sign of nativization and, perhaps, differentiation from their ex-colonizers or settlers' English(es).
This study provides a corpus-based description of telephone-conversation openings in Philippine E... more This study provides a corpus-based description of telephone-conversation openings in Philippine English. Data for the analysis of telephone conversations in Philippine English come from the Philippine component of the International Corpus of English (ICE-PH); to be more specific, this study makes use of the telephone calls documented in the dialogic, spoken texts in ICE-PH coded as S1A-091 to S1A-100. The analysis of a rather limited sample from ICE-PH-ten samples, to be specific-reveals interesting insights with regard to how similar or different openings in telephone conversations are in Philippine English with reference to American English. The sequences employed or afforded by Filipino speakers of English in telephone conversations appear to be rather tentatively established thus far. The openings documented in ICE-PH range from strict observants of Schegloff's (1972, 1979, 1986) four core opening sequences in American English to complete deviations from the purported patterns in the superstrate variety.
This paper investigates tag questions in a Philippine contact variety spoken by Chinese in the Ph... more This paper investigates tag questions in a Philippine contact variety spoken by Chinese in the Philippines called Philippine Hybrid Hokkien (PHH)-a trilingual admixture that is characterized by the systematic coexistence of the Hokkien, Tagalog, and English grammatical (sub)systems. After analyzing spontaneous oral data gathered from native speakers, ten types of tag questions were identified, with two of them being bilingually innovative and unique to PHH (e.g. m si ba?). Further analyses of data reveal that attitudinal tag questions are more frequently used than confirmatory tag questions. That alternative tags (e.g. okay?) are more preferred compared to their canonical counterparts have also been suggested by initial data. Although the use of tag questions in PHH is reminiscent of the individual grammars of English, Tagalog, and Hokkien, data suggests that PHH, whether analyzed as a trilingual linguistic variety or a hybrid X-English, is developing away from these normative languages and that the Chinese Filipinos are creating new norms for this variety.
Adopting a quantitative approach, this paper highlights findings of an exploratory study on Hokag... more Adopting a quantitative approach, this paper highlights findings of an exploratory study on Hokaglish, initially describing it as a trilingual code-switching phenomenon involving Hokkien, Tagalog, and English in a Filipino-Chinese enclave in Binondo, Manila, the Philippines. Departing from the (socio)linguistic landscape of the archipelagic nation, the discussion eventually leads to a frequency-based description of this phenomenon. Preliminary findings suggest that, in Hokaglish, code-switching from Hokkien to English appears to be the most frequent code-switching combination among the six possible ones and that it is typically found in religious institutions. From the investigation, Hokaglish yielded more attestations of intrasentential codeswitching than intersentential ones in households particularly. Moreover, findings also indicate that switches in the word-level are very frequent and that morphological code-switching is virtually non-existent in Hokaglish conversations. The paper ends with a discussion that will more or less provide some justification for the findings.
This article narrates the sociohistory of the Philippines through the lens of a Sinitic minority ... more This article narrates the sociohistory of the Philippines through the lens of a Sinitic minority group – the Chinese Filipinos. It provides a systematic account of the history, language policies, and educational policies in six major eras, beginning from the precolonial period until the Fifth Republic (960 – pres-ent). Concurrently, it presents a diachronic narrative on the different linguistic varieties utilized by the ethnic minority, such as English, Hokkien, Tagalog, and Philippine Hybrid Hokkien (PHH). Following an exposition on how these varieties were introduced to the ecology is a discussion focused on contact that highlights potential theories as to how Philippine contact varieties like PHH emerged. How this account contributes to the overall language ecology forms the conclusion. Overall, this article delineates the socio-historical sources that intrinsically play a significant role in the (re)description of Philippine contact varieties. In its breadth, this article goes beyond providing second-hand infor-mation, and presents ideas that can be crucial for understanding how Philippine contact languages work.
Although World Englishes (WE) scholarship is concerned with the study of English varieties in dif... more Although World Englishes (WE) scholarship is concerned with the study of English varieties in different social contexts, there is a tendency to treat postcolonial ones as homogenous regional phenomena (e.g., Philippine English). Few researchers have discussed variation and social differentiation in detail with empirical evidence. Thus, in order to understand how layers of different varieties of WE operate within a specific group of speakers, this study takes an empirical intergroup approach from a substratist framework. This study explores distinctive features of a metropolitan Manila variety of Chinese English used in the Philippines, Manila Chinese English (MCE), an English contact variety used by Manila Chinese Filipinos. After comparing the frequencies of selected features observed in a 52,000-word MCE database with frequencies in Manila English and American English corpora, this study found that a distinct variety – MCE – most likely emerged in the 1960s due to the extensive contact between general Manila English and local tongues of Chinese Filipinos such as (Hybrid) Hokkien and Tagalog, which function as MCE’s substrate languages. This study takes into account MCE’s structure, sources, and genesis, and discusses MCE in relation to Philippine English as positioned in Schneider’s dynamic model, to demonstrate how intergroup variations coexist but take divergent paths within a WE variety.
The Manila variety of Philippine Hybrid Hokkien (PHH-M) or Lánnang-uè is a contact language used ... more The Manila variety of Philippine Hybrid Hokkien (PHH-M) or Lánnang-uè is a contact language used by the metropolitan Manila Chinese Filipinos; it is primarily comprised of Hokkien, Tagalog/Filipino, and English elements. Approaching PHH-M as a mixed language, we investigate linguistically and socially conditioned variation in the monophthongs of PHH-M, focusing on the extent to which the vowel systems of the three source languages have converged. This analysis draws on data gathered from 34 native speakers; Pillai scores are calculated to assess the degree of merger. Contrary to certain predictions of prior work on mixed languages, PHH-M is found to have a unified, eight-vowel inventory distinct from any of its sources. Older women use more stable vowels across source languages, suggesting that they have led in the development of PHH-M as a mixed code; however, signs of change among younger women suggest either the endangerment of the code or its evolution in response to the community’s shifting identity. We contextualize our conclusions in relation to the sociohistory and language ecology of metropolitan Manila’s Chinese Filipino community.
After outlining recent developments and surveying various perspectives, I argue that scholars sho... more After outlining recent developments and surveying various perspectives, I argue that scholars should adopt the notion of Philippine ‘Englishes’ to acknowledge all substrate-influenced ‘regional’ (e.g. Iloilo English), social, and hybrid varieties (e.g. Hokaglish). Beginning with a brief overview of the current situation, I examine literature hinting for the invalidation of a standard Philippine English, identifying some evidence of variation due to (socio)linguistic factors through a concise survey of local Englishes. The study asserts that the Philippine Englishes model is more encompassing and forward-looking; it also shows some evidence that Philippine English is at the dawn of stage 5 (differentiation) of Schneider’s dynamic model. Although this model might raise more questions, it hopes to challenge researchers to embark on new-wave investigations on local Englishes while encouraging them to utilize existing research and frameworks. Ultimately, what this study hopes to provide is a fresh perspective on the preponderance of literature on Philippine English by introducing the said model.
This paper focuses on a specific community of individuals who have mixed Southern Chinese and Fil... more This paper focuses on a specific community of individuals who have mixed Southern Chinese and Filipino cultural heritage in the Philippinesthe 'Lannangs'. I investigate the Lannang identity and, with ethnographic interviews and survey data, propose that the identity should be broadly defined as comprising of four dynamic parts: being Filipino, being Chinese, being neither, and being both. Focusing on the Manila community, I show how the Lannangs navigate between these orientations depending on the social context and the interlocutors. Moreover, drawing on the notions of indexicality and simultaneity, I investigate the role of language in the characterization of the Lannang identity. I also show that Hokkien, Lánnanguè, Tagalog, English, among other languages, are being used to embody the aspects of 'Lannang-ness'.
The Palgrave Handbook of Chinese Language Studies, 2021
This chapter explores the interactions between Sinitic and Philippine-based languages in the Phil... more This chapter explores the interactions between Sinitic and Philippine-based languages in the Philippine context. It focuses on the complex dynamics between the languages of the historically indigenous population and those of the (heritage and homeland) Chinese groups. Using oral and written data sampled from 12 linguistic varieties in three major Philippine cities across the archipelago, the chapter features the processes of Sinicization, Filipinization, and language crea-tion. It shows that languages that co-exist in the same linguistic ecology can actually affect each other differently, depending on the sociohistorical context in which such interactions take place. Overall, this descriptive overview chapter hopes to highlight the intricacies of the relationship between the Sinitic and Philippine-based languages and attempts to provide a holistic characterization of the Sino-Philippine and, consequently, broader Philippine linguistic landscape.
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Papers by Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales