The rapidly changing environmental, economic and demographic context of the globe impacted urban ... more The rapidly changing environmental, economic and demographic context of the globe impacted urban planning processes worldwide and made traditional comprehensive planning practices incapable of handling future uncertainties. Popper 2008's argument about the inability to predict the future, and the need to suggest actions for steering future urban development to deal with uncertainties, required a new approach to urban planning, urban foresight. The pedagogical shifts for urban planning from aesthetical and conceptual visions to negotiation and stakeholder participation till we reached system thinking and anticipation, created a base for urban foresight that is fused with multiple futures and sustainability (Roggema, 2016). UK foresight research is discussed as an example of government efforts to deal with the changing world uncertain conditions that is already more than 29 years since its first published report. UK city foresight is a good example of non-traditional approach to planning that uses both qualitative and quantitative methods. This article discusses three urban foresight examples from Mumbai, Singapore and Tokyo before it ends with an epilogue on urban foresight guidelines and main characteristics. I.
Planning after an unexpected contextual condition, or a natural disaster, requires content and pr... more Planning after an unexpected contextual condition, or a natural disaster, requires content and process readjustments till the environmental, demographic, and physical contexts stabilize. Planning as an evidence-based discipline suffers from data fluidity after any unexpected contextual change making the comprehensive planning model unfit to the many uncertainties. The short-term objective for postdisaster is to save lives and restore basic community functions, it requires a segmented decision-making process that uses fragmented data, and not necessarily involving all the stakeholders because of the time limitations. The first response stage to uncertain contextual occurrences, especially in post disaster conditions, is at best incremental and short-term. To the contrary of that, long-term comprehensive plans require a unified decision-making process involving all the stakeholders based on better data availability after the initial fast thinking stage. This paper’s enquiry is about the appropriate planning processes for post-disaster contexts, with the goal of exploring the planning concepts, processes, and data needs in uncertain planning conditions. Post-disaster planning visions will be explored so that they are not limited to recovery or bounce back to the old plans, but rather consider new future visions to accommodate the changing contextual conditions. The paper discusses scenario planning, incremental planning, muddling through and similar planning concepts for visionary futures. It discusses the creation of theoretical frameworks for innovative community engagement in urban planning. The paper concludes with recommendations on planning for uncertainties that consider the city as a nested system, where each system has its own objectives and processes for being resilient.
This paper proposes a conceptual framework for the Green Building Industry based on a detailed re... more This paper proposes a conceptual framework for the Green Building Industry based on a detailed review of the existing scholarly sources and visual analysis tools. The study reveals an expansive and diverse stakeholder landscape, which includes government agencies, architects, community groups, investors, and environmental organizations. Notably, government agencies wield significant influence through policies and incentives, architects impact environmental performance, and community groups serve as advocates for sustainability. Sustainability metrics, such as energy efficiency and life cycle assessment, have proven central in assessing green building performance, while technological innovation, collaboration, and policy regulations drive sustainability. Future trends suggest global standard harmonization, stricter emission targets, and a focus on social innovation, with digital tools and social equity playing prominent roles in future stakeholder engagement. In conclusion, it is envisaged that this theoretical model provides a useful tool for industry practitioners in developing a more comprehensive overall green building strategy.
City streets are an important component of public realm since people have to use them every day, ... more City streets are an important component of public realm since people have to use them every day, all the time. The presented research study addresses the problem of the multiple negative feelings of stress, tension, fatigue, pain, sadness, depression and anxiety that affects different users during their daily life and are increased by their presence in the cities' streets. The incorporation of nature into urban landscapes is now seen as having restorative benefits for city residents. It all began with Kaplan and Kaplan's attention restoration theory in 1989. Well-designed restorative streetscape's planning might improve city users' health: physiologically and sociologically. This research aims to formulate a conceptual framework for restorative streetscapes in cities. It follows a descriptive analytical approach to answering two main research questions: (Q1) what are the main restorative principles for healthy street design and public realm in cities? (Q2) what are the main streetscape design elements that apply the restorative principles? The research introduces relevant concepts from a historic perspective then it reviews the Attention Restoration Theory (ART) and identifies the principles and the main elements of restorative streetscapes in their four main categories: urban, environmental, social, and economic principles. The research paper ends by identifying a methodology to define applications for achieving restorative streetscapes in our cities. The limitations of the study are that there is few published research on restorative streetscape. Moreover, there were some significant gaps in the literature. Furthermore, there aren't many guidelines or frameworks addressing the integration of restorative landscape into street design.
Volume 8, Issue 8, pp. 29-38, ISSN (Online): 2456-7361, 2024
University campus design and planning has been an active research topic lately, Kenney et al. (20... more University campus design and planning has been an active research topic lately, Kenney et al. (2005) advocated a comprehensive university campus plan that "prioritizes the plan, establishes a language of landscape elements, embraces environmental considerations, reduces of vehicular traffic, integrates technology, and enhances the beauty and meaning of special places on campus". University campus planning gained more interest post COVID-19 as a tool to impede the spread of disease and improve the quality of students' lives as outdoor activities proved to lead to a healthier life. University campuses are controlled access communities that fit the vision of China Manual 2020, to stop the spread of possible pandemics when designed with no through-traffic penetrations. For pandemic resistant university campuses, they need to be considered 15-minute communities that provide all the necessary amenities and services for their users without having to wander into the surrounding communities (Knight, Gehl, 2021). The purpose of this study is to understand University Campus adaptations after COVID-19 to encourage students to use their campus outdoors and create design and planning guidelines. A study sample of ten university campuses was selected: three across the globe and Seven national universities. The research starts with literature review of the topic and a critical analysis of campus improvement plans for the selected universities, especially those adopted after the pandemic. Comparative analysis of the university campuses covered their published improvement plans and the maps showing the proposed physical changes, ending with a summary of the different proposed university campus development guidelines. I.
The rapidly changing environmental, economic and demographic context of the globe impacted urban ... more The rapidly changing environmental, economic and demographic context of the globe impacted urban planning processes worldwide and made traditional comprehensive planning practices incapable of handling future uncertainties. Popper 2008's argument about the inability to predict the future, and the need to suggest actions for steering future urban development to deal with uncertainties, required a new approach to urban planning, urban foresight. The pedagogical shifts for urban planning from aesthetical and conceptual visions to negotiation and stakeholder participation till we reached system thinking and anticipation, created a base for urban foresight that is fused with multiple futures and sustainability (Roggema, 2016). UK foresight research is discussed as an example of government efforts to deal with the changing world uncertain conditions that is already more than 29 years since its first published report. UK city foresight is a good example of non-traditional approach to planning that uses both qualitative and quantitative methods. This article discusses three urban foresight examples from Mumbai, Singapore and Tokyo before it ends with an epilogue on urban foresight guidelines and main characteristics. I.
Industry plays an important role in the economic life of all developed nations, however, sometime... more Industry plays an important role in the economic life of all developed nations, however, sometimes industry might have bad effect on the environment, making it necessary to plan industrial areas so that they are economically sustainable. There are many sustainability indices that were developed after the turn of the century to achieve sustainable industrial areas such as (SIA) by (UNIDO) United Nation Development Organization. This research represents and analyzes successful experiments of two eco-industrial parks (EIP) one in Canada (Hinton) and the other in South Korea (Ulsan) which implement the (SIA) Sustainable Industrial Areas requirements to decrease the negative impacts of industry and create eco-industrial parks (EIP). in addition to the salient importance of the economic, social, and environmental aspects in planning industrial areas, management factors are more than necessary in planning any eco-industrial park as appears in Sustainable Industrial Area (SIA) framework. Th...
Public realm development in many cities around the world suffers from being under a dyadic design... more Public realm development in many cities around the world suffers from being under a dyadic design process that keeps the public as “users” and not as “participants” and that keeps formal design control over the public realm. In addition, this research considers another important factor that shapes Egypt’s public realm; the existence of informal user groups and informal public realm behavior as the city poor and the discouraged user groups adapt the public realm features to fit their needs. This research paper considers informality in the public realm of Egyptian cities after January 2011 as a protest against formal control and its dyadic image. The public revolution of January 2011 in Egypt was a cry for more democracy that touched on the main two features of public realm: it encouraged more democracy in the public realm design process and at the same time allowed more informal public realm behavior by almost all the user groups. This research paper analyzes the current situation of the public realm in Cairo and explores the theoretical base for a solid understanding of the user group behavior and their possible public realm code of conduct.
A global concern claims that activities and functions that once filled traditional public spaces ... more A global concern claims that activities and functions that once filled traditional public spaces are privatized being less and less oriented to the public. In Cairo’s new settlements, public spaces don’t seem to contribute to its public life. Each community’s most valuable assets are the ones they already have; thus, urbanisms advocate the role of retaining traditional street patterns, vistas, and landscape of a community’s distinct character. The research aim is to identify design attributes to be added to the literature in terms of designing public spaces for the specific cultural context of Cairo, Egypt, and its new suburban settlements. The methodology then follows a comparative analysis study to reach the desired objectives of buildings a community character approach. In an exploratory method, two case studies of public spaces in Cairo are chosen following a purposive selection most relevant to the study. The target is to choose two cases in proximity for users to be familiar w...
Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science
Informal settlement growth is a vital challenge for developing countries, which requires monitori... more Informal settlement growth is a vital challenge for developing countries, which requires monitoring and assessment by urban planners and city managers. Rural migration to urban areas leads to the unplanned expansion that grows within and beyond the city’s official boundaries. Although informal housing (IH) is growing fast, very little attention is oriented toward exploring tools and procedures for predicting its future expansion. Many studies have shown that informal housing is widespread and represents one of the most dominant features of urbanization in Egypt. Modern simulation and modeling technologies provide new methodologies to explore the complexity of urban growth. As a result, many planning models were developed and successfully used to simulate the spread of planned settlements in developed nations. However, the implementation of these models rarely achieves realistic simulation in the case of unplanned growth due to the developer’s field of study and the available resourc...
The rapidly changing environmental, economic and demographic context of the globe impacted urban ... more The rapidly changing environmental, economic and demographic context of the globe impacted urban planning processes worldwide and made traditional comprehensive planning practices incapable of handling future uncertainties. Popper 2008's argument about the inability to predict the future, and the need to suggest actions for steering future urban development to deal with uncertainties, required a new approach to urban planning, urban foresight. The pedagogical shifts for urban planning from aesthetical and conceptual visions to negotiation and stakeholder participation till we reached system thinking and anticipation, created a base for urban foresight that is fused with multiple futures and sustainability (Roggema, 2016). UK foresight research is discussed as an example of government efforts to deal with the changing world uncertain conditions that is already more than 29 years since its first published report. UK city foresight is a good example of non-traditional approach to planning that uses both qualitative and quantitative methods. This article discusses three urban foresight examples from Mumbai, Singapore and Tokyo before it ends with an epilogue on urban foresight guidelines and main characteristics. I.
Planning after an unexpected contextual condition, or a natural disaster, requires content and pr... more Planning after an unexpected contextual condition, or a natural disaster, requires content and process readjustments till the environmental, demographic, and physical contexts stabilize. Planning as an evidence-based discipline suffers from data fluidity after any unexpected contextual change making the comprehensive planning model unfit to the many uncertainties. The short-term objective for postdisaster is to save lives and restore basic community functions, it requires a segmented decision-making process that uses fragmented data, and not necessarily involving all the stakeholders because of the time limitations. The first response stage to uncertain contextual occurrences, especially in post disaster conditions, is at best incremental and short-term. To the contrary of that, long-term comprehensive plans require a unified decision-making process involving all the stakeholders based on better data availability after the initial fast thinking stage. This paper’s enquiry is about the appropriate planning processes for post-disaster contexts, with the goal of exploring the planning concepts, processes, and data needs in uncertain planning conditions. Post-disaster planning visions will be explored so that they are not limited to recovery or bounce back to the old plans, but rather consider new future visions to accommodate the changing contextual conditions. The paper discusses scenario planning, incremental planning, muddling through and similar planning concepts for visionary futures. It discusses the creation of theoretical frameworks for innovative community engagement in urban planning. The paper concludes with recommendations on planning for uncertainties that consider the city as a nested system, where each system has its own objectives and processes for being resilient.
This paper proposes a conceptual framework for the Green Building Industry based on a detailed re... more This paper proposes a conceptual framework for the Green Building Industry based on a detailed review of the existing scholarly sources and visual analysis tools. The study reveals an expansive and diverse stakeholder landscape, which includes government agencies, architects, community groups, investors, and environmental organizations. Notably, government agencies wield significant influence through policies and incentives, architects impact environmental performance, and community groups serve as advocates for sustainability. Sustainability metrics, such as energy efficiency and life cycle assessment, have proven central in assessing green building performance, while technological innovation, collaboration, and policy regulations drive sustainability. Future trends suggest global standard harmonization, stricter emission targets, and a focus on social innovation, with digital tools and social equity playing prominent roles in future stakeholder engagement. In conclusion, it is envisaged that this theoretical model provides a useful tool for industry practitioners in developing a more comprehensive overall green building strategy.
City streets are an important component of public realm since people have to use them every day, ... more City streets are an important component of public realm since people have to use them every day, all the time. The presented research study addresses the problem of the multiple negative feelings of stress, tension, fatigue, pain, sadness, depression and anxiety that affects different users during their daily life and are increased by their presence in the cities' streets. The incorporation of nature into urban landscapes is now seen as having restorative benefits for city residents. It all began with Kaplan and Kaplan's attention restoration theory in 1989. Well-designed restorative streetscape's planning might improve city users' health: physiologically and sociologically. This research aims to formulate a conceptual framework for restorative streetscapes in cities. It follows a descriptive analytical approach to answering two main research questions: (Q1) what are the main restorative principles for healthy street design and public realm in cities? (Q2) what are the main streetscape design elements that apply the restorative principles? The research introduces relevant concepts from a historic perspective then it reviews the Attention Restoration Theory (ART) and identifies the principles and the main elements of restorative streetscapes in their four main categories: urban, environmental, social, and economic principles. The research paper ends by identifying a methodology to define applications for achieving restorative streetscapes in our cities. The limitations of the study are that there is few published research on restorative streetscape. Moreover, there were some significant gaps in the literature. Furthermore, there aren't many guidelines or frameworks addressing the integration of restorative landscape into street design.
Volume 8, Issue 8, pp. 29-38, ISSN (Online): 2456-7361, 2024
University campus design and planning has been an active research topic lately, Kenney et al. (20... more University campus design and planning has been an active research topic lately, Kenney et al. (2005) advocated a comprehensive university campus plan that "prioritizes the plan, establishes a language of landscape elements, embraces environmental considerations, reduces of vehicular traffic, integrates technology, and enhances the beauty and meaning of special places on campus". University campus planning gained more interest post COVID-19 as a tool to impede the spread of disease and improve the quality of students' lives as outdoor activities proved to lead to a healthier life. University campuses are controlled access communities that fit the vision of China Manual 2020, to stop the spread of possible pandemics when designed with no through-traffic penetrations. For pandemic resistant university campuses, they need to be considered 15-minute communities that provide all the necessary amenities and services for their users without having to wander into the surrounding communities (Knight, Gehl, 2021). The purpose of this study is to understand University Campus adaptations after COVID-19 to encourage students to use their campus outdoors and create design and planning guidelines. A study sample of ten university campuses was selected: three across the globe and Seven national universities. The research starts with literature review of the topic and a critical analysis of campus improvement plans for the selected universities, especially those adopted after the pandemic. Comparative analysis of the university campuses covered their published improvement plans and the maps showing the proposed physical changes, ending with a summary of the different proposed university campus development guidelines. I.
The rapidly changing environmental, economic and demographic context of the globe impacted urban ... more The rapidly changing environmental, economic and demographic context of the globe impacted urban planning processes worldwide and made traditional comprehensive planning practices incapable of handling future uncertainties. Popper 2008's argument about the inability to predict the future, and the need to suggest actions for steering future urban development to deal with uncertainties, required a new approach to urban planning, urban foresight. The pedagogical shifts for urban planning from aesthetical and conceptual visions to negotiation and stakeholder participation till we reached system thinking and anticipation, created a base for urban foresight that is fused with multiple futures and sustainability (Roggema, 2016). UK foresight research is discussed as an example of government efforts to deal with the changing world uncertain conditions that is already more than 29 years since its first published report. UK city foresight is a good example of non-traditional approach to planning that uses both qualitative and quantitative methods. This article discusses three urban foresight examples from Mumbai, Singapore and Tokyo before it ends with an epilogue on urban foresight guidelines and main characteristics. I.
Industry plays an important role in the economic life of all developed nations, however, sometime... more Industry plays an important role in the economic life of all developed nations, however, sometimes industry might have bad effect on the environment, making it necessary to plan industrial areas so that they are economically sustainable. There are many sustainability indices that were developed after the turn of the century to achieve sustainable industrial areas such as (SIA) by (UNIDO) United Nation Development Organization. This research represents and analyzes successful experiments of two eco-industrial parks (EIP) one in Canada (Hinton) and the other in South Korea (Ulsan) which implement the (SIA) Sustainable Industrial Areas requirements to decrease the negative impacts of industry and create eco-industrial parks (EIP). in addition to the salient importance of the economic, social, and environmental aspects in planning industrial areas, management factors are more than necessary in planning any eco-industrial park as appears in Sustainable Industrial Area (SIA) framework. Th...
Public realm development in many cities around the world suffers from being under a dyadic design... more Public realm development in many cities around the world suffers from being under a dyadic design process that keeps the public as “users” and not as “participants” and that keeps formal design control over the public realm. In addition, this research considers another important factor that shapes Egypt’s public realm; the existence of informal user groups and informal public realm behavior as the city poor and the discouraged user groups adapt the public realm features to fit their needs. This research paper considers informality in the public realm of Egyptian cities after January 2011 as a protest against formal control and its dyadic image. The public revolution of January 2011 in Egypt was a cry for more democracy that touched on the main two features of public realm: it encouraged more democracy in the public realm design process and at the same time allowed more informal public realm behavior by almost all the user groups. This research paper analyzes the current situation of the public realm in Cairo and explores the theoretical base for a solid understanding of the user group behavior and their possible public realm code of conduct.
A global concern claims that activities and functions that once filled traditional public spaces ... more A global concern claims that activities and functions that once filled traditional public spaces are privatized being less and less oriented to the public. In Cairo’s new settlements, public spaces don’t seem to contribute to its public life. Each community’s most valuable assets are the ones they already have; thus, urbanisms advocate the role of retaining traditional street patterns, vistas, and landscape of a community’s distinct character. The research aim is to identify design attributes to be added to the literature in terms of designing public spaces for the specific cultural context of Cairo, Egypt, and its new suburban settlements. The methodology then follows a comparative analysis study to reach the desired objectives of buildings a community character approach. In an exploratory method, two case studies of public spaces in Cairo are chosen following a purposive selection most relevant to the study. The target is to choose two cases in proximity for users to be familiar w...
Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science
Informal settlement growth is a vital challenge for developing countries, which requires monitori... more Informal settlement growth is a vital challenge for developing countries, which requires monitoring and assessment by urban planners and city managers. Rural migration to urban areas leads to the unplanned expansion that grows within and beyond the city’s official boundaries. Although informal housing (IH) is growing fast, very little attention is oriented toward exploring tools and procedures for predicting its future expansion. Many studies have shown that informal housing is widespread and represents one of the most dominant features of urbanization in Egypt. Modern simulation and modeling technologies provide new methodologies to explore the complexity of urban growth. As a result, many planning models were developed and successfully used to simulate the spread of planned settlements in developed nations. However, the implementation of these models rarely achieves realistic simulation in the case of unplanned growth due to the developer’s field of study and the available resourc...
Tangier and Tokyo are two cities within completely different contexts. this research assumes that... more Tangier and Tokyo are two cities within completely different contexts. this research assumes that the same principles of urban aesthetics apply to both.
this paper is students work done under my supervision to demonstrate that Urban Aesthetics compri... more this paper is students work done under my supervision to demonstrate that Urban Aesthetics comprise more than the physical component, it has social, cultural, and other aspects.
this research was done by a Nigerian student from Abuja, the federal capital. objective was to st... more this research was done by a Nigerian student from Abuja, the federal capital. objective was to study the architectural style evolution of the capital over the last decades.
this is a research paper by two of my PhD students about urban aesthetics' course that I taught a... more this is a research paper by two of my PhD students about urban aesthetics' course that I taught at Cairo University 2014/2015. the main issue was what makes urbanization "aesthetically pleasing" ? why do we "feel" a difference between the urban profile of different cities? that research was a B+ research
Cities are living beings shaped more and more by projects rather than urban plans that define the... more Cities are living beings shaped more and more by projects rather than urban plans that define the overall distribution of activities, population, transportation networks and infrastructure systems. During the last two decades of the previous century, some world cities gained recognition within a newly emerging global and globalizing network of cities. Cities within such global networks gain more political, social and economic powers than those usually expected by the national urban development plans where such cities serve narrower national interests. Consequently, national development strategies and plans in most countries of the world started to acknowledge the capabilities and potentials of its global and globalizing cities. Cities within global networks became the drivers of national development and magnets for foreign direct investments that give them more status to be depositories of their countries' wealth and frontiers to the world. Cities became more important to the world economy than countries with national boundaries that contain them; cities within global networks attract more business than other cities that nurture local businesses. Consequently, globalizing cities and those within global cities' networks started to attract more development interest within their countries because of the expected higher return to national GDP than when invested in other locally connected cities. Income disparity amongst cities is to the ability of globalizing cities to attract mega projects that carry the direct interests of foreign investments into local urbanization. Mega Urban projects (large in value and magnitude; billions of USD) that fit the global investment requirements started to be associated with global cities as part of their response to global market forces, but not offered for locally-connected cities making a wider development gap between both city types. " Mega Urban projects " (MUP) term was used in the development literature for infrastructure and transportation projects before its use spread to all disciplines of urbanization and engineering. Social justice and equity are not the concern of this research paper; however, the researcher is assuming a philosophical stand that trickle down effects might still be possible under appropriate national urban management. This research paper discusses the characteristics of mega urban projects and their impacts on urban planning practices. It relies on real world examples of MUPs in Beijing and Dubai to demonstrate that during the last couple of decades they have been shaping our urban future as a clear consequence of globalization. This research paper sheds the light on a rarely discussed topic of urban planning that requires further research on the magnitude and future prospects of mega projects in globalizing cities. In times of economic recession in a specific city, understanding the impacts of MUPs can be of great value to understanding city's urban future when such mega
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Papers by Ahmed Ouf
environmental, demographic, and physical contexts stabilize. Planning as an evidence-based discipline suffers from data fluidity after any
unexpected contextual change making the comprehensive planning model unfit to the many uncertainties. The short-term objective for postdisaster is to save lives and restore basic community functions, it requires a segmented decision-making process that uses fragmented data, and
not necessarily involving all the stakeholders because of the time limitations. The first response stage to uncertain contextual occurrences,
especially in post disaster conditions, is at best incremental and short-term. To the contrary of that, long-term comprehensive plans require a
unified decision-making process involving all the stakeholders based on better data availability after the initial fast thinking stage. This paper’s
enquiry is about the appropriate planning processes for post-disaster contexts, with the goal of exploring the planning concepts, processes, and
data needs in uncertain planning conditions. Post-disaster planning visions will be explored so that they are not limited to recovery or bounce
back to the old plans, but rather consider new future visions to accommodate the changing contextual conditions. The paper discusses scenario
planning, incremental planning, muddling through and similar planning concepts for visionary futures. It discusses the creation of theoretical
frameworks for innovative community engagement in urban planning. The paper concludes with recommendations on planning for uncertainties
that consider the city as a nested system, where each system has its own objectives and processes for being resilient.
environmental, demographic, and physical contexts stabilize. Planning as an evidence-based discipline suffers from data fluidity after any
unexpected contextual change making the comprehensive planning model unfit to the many uncertainties. The short-term objective for postdisaster is to save lives and restore basic community functions, it requires a segmented decision-making process that uses fragmented data, and
not necessarily involving all the stakeholders because of the time limitations. The first response stage to uncertain contextual occurrences,
especially in post disaster conditions, is at best incremental and short-term. To the contrary of that, long-term comprehensive plans require a
unified decision-making process involving all the stakeholders based on better data availability after the initial fast thinking stage. This paper’s
enquiry is about the appropriate planning processes for post-disaster contexts, with the goal of exploring the planning concepts, processes, and
data needs in uncertain planning conditions. Post-disaster planning visions will be explored so that they are not limited to recovery or bounce
back to the old plans, but rather consider new future visions to accommodate the changing contextual conditions. The paper discusses scenario
planning, incremental planning, muddling through and similar planning concepts for visionary futures. It discusses the creation of theoretical
frameworks for innovative community engagement in urban planning. The paper concludes with recommendations on planning for uncertainties
that consider the city as a nested system, where each system has its own objectives and processes for being resilient.