From Donabate, Co. Dublin, I was educated at Trinity College and then Duke University (PhD, 1991). My work on the history of game theory culminated in my 2010 book with Cambridge U.P. Currently, I am writing an intellectual biography of 'conservative-radical' economist, E. F. Schumacher, author of the influential Small is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered (1973).
Winner of the J. Spengler Prize for Best Monograph of the History of Economics Society, 2011.
Dr... more Winner of the J. Spengler Prize for Best Monograph of the History of Economics Society, 2011.
Drawing on a wealth of new archival material, including personal correspondence and diaries, Robert Leonard tells the fascinating story of the creation of game theory by Hungarian Jewish mathematician John von Neumann and Austrian economist Oskar Morgenstern. Game theory first emerged amidst discussions of the psychology and mathematics of chess in Germany and fin-de-siècle Austro-Hungary. In the 1930's, on the cusp of anti-semitism and political upheaval, it was developed by von Neumann into an ambitious theory of social organization. It was shaped still further by its use in combat analysis in World War II and during the Cold War. Interweaving accounts of the period's economics, science, and mathematics, and drawing on the private lives of von Neumann and Morgenstern, Robert Leonard provides a detailed reconstruction of a complex historical drama.
Throughout the evolution of economic ideas, it has often been asserted that experimentation in ec... more Throughout the evolution of economic ideas, it has often been asserted that experimentation in economics is impossible. Yet, the historical record shows that the idea of “experimentation” has, in fact, been important in the field of economics, and has been interpreted and put to use in many ways. These range from the “thought experiment”, where counterfactuals are explored in the mind of the theorist, to social experiments, where alternative economic arrangements have been tried out historically, and laboratory experimentation, which is currently a burgeoning field of empirical research. This book provides testament to the great variety of ways in which experimentation has mattered in the creation of economic knowledge. The accessible essays contained within this volume will interest all those seeking to broaden their historical understanding of the discipline and will be essential reading for students who wish to acquire a greater knowledge of how economics has grown and developed
Religion was central to E. F. Schumacher's evolution from conventional Keynesian economist to het... more Religion was central to E. F. Schumacher's evolution from conventional Keynesian economist to heterodox critic of Modernity. We consider his engagement with Buddhism and Christianity, under the influence of Traditionalism, showing its transformative effect on his thinking about the economy and the environment.
Methodology and History of Economics. Reflections with and without Rules (eds. B. Caldwell et al), 2022
Until roughly 1950, the Anglo-German economist E. F. Schumacher (1911 – 1977) was a conventional ... more Until roughly 1950, the Anglo-German economist E. F. Schumacher (1911 – 1977) was a conventional Fabian economist, inspired by Keynes and thoroughly committed to modern economic growth and development. By 1970, however, he had rejected much of this, and, with his authorship of Small is Beautiful (1973), was about to become a symbolic figure in the counter-cultural and environmental movement of the Seventies. Drawing on both published and archival sources, this article traces that change in Schumacher. Specifically, we portray his changing attitude to economics and the economy as the consequence of a deeper transformation of the self, stimulated by his engagement with esoteric and religious influences, such as Gurdjieff-Ouspensky, Buddhism and Christianity. Our point of entry to this story a 1972 talk on the method of economics, given by the ‘new’ Schumacher at the invitation of his old wartime colleague and Fabian comrade, Joan Robinson.
In addition to being an accomplished mathematician and to being involved in the economic and phil... more In addition to being an accomplished mathematician and to being involved in the economic and philosophical circles of interwar Vienna, Karl Menger (1902-1985) had a lively interest in Modern Art. He appreciated the work of Hans Masereel, the Belgian graphic novelist; Peter Alma, the Dutchman associated with De Stijl; and the German Gerd Arntz, Otto Neurath's right-hand man and the artist behind the Isotype system of pictorial education. He particularly liked the work of De Stijl's Piet Mondrian, even making a pilgrimage to his studio in Paris in the late 1920's. Menger perceived connections between the shift towards abstraction in such artwork and the rise of abstraction in his own field of mathematics. He favoured the clarity evident in such images, but, as he was keen to point out, not necessarily their political connotations or mystical underpinnings. This paper traces Menger's involvement with art and aesthetics from his early days as a student in Vienna and the Netherlands to his arrival as an intellectual émigré in the American Midwest.
Winner of the C. Goodwin Best Article Award of the History of Economics Society, 2020.
Until aro... more Winner of the C. Goodwin Best Article Award of the History of Economics Society, 2020.
Until around 1950, the German émigré Ernst Friedrich Schumacher (1911–1977) was a relatively conventional economist, believing in progress based on economic growth and developments in science and technology. Then, as he turned forty, he went through a period of prolonged self-examination and spiritual quest, which, amongst other things, led him to become critical of Western modernity. Developing a great interest in Buddhist spirituality and culture, in 1955 he travelled to Burma, where he spent three months as a United Nations consultant. His encounter there with the encroachment of Western development upon a traditional society proved pivotal for him, confirming his skepticism about modernity and stimulating him to write a renegade essay, “Economics in a Buddhist Country.” This experience in Burma shaped his work thereafter, as contributor to debates on development both East and West, as promoter of intermediate technology, and as author of the prophetic, popular book of 1973 Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered.
The concept of the Cournot-Nash equilibrium is central to noncooperative game theory and the latt... more The concept of the Cournot-Nash equilibrium is central to noncooperative game theory and the latter's use in microeconomic theory. This paper considers the creation of this theoretical construct, examining the separate contributions of both Cournot and Nash, and showing how the two were ultimately joined together in the eyes of contemporary economic theorists. Rather than simply show how Cournot served as a precursor to Nash, we challenge the traditional approach, and emphasise the shifts in interpretation of their respective contributions. In so doing, we address some pertinent questions about the manner in which economic theorists view the evolution of their own discipline.
Winner of the J. Spengler Prize for Best Monograph of the History of Economics Society, 2011.
Dr... more Winner of the J. Spengler Prize for Best Monograph of the History of Economics Society, 2011.
Drawing on a wealth of new archival material, including personal correspondence and diaries, Robert Leonard tells the fascinating story of the creation of game theory by Hungarian Jewish mathematician John von Neumann and Austrian economist Oskar Morgenstern. Game theory first emerged amidst discussions of the psychology and mathematics of chess in Germany and fin-de-siècle Austro-Hungary. In the 1930's, on the cusp of anti-semitism and political upheaval, it was developed by von Neumann into an ambitious theory of social organization. It was shaped still further by its use in combat analysis in World War II and during the Cold War. Interweaving accounts of the period's economics, science, and mathematics, and drawing on the private lives of von Neumann and Morgenstern, Robert Leonard provides a detailed reconstruction of a complex historical drama.
Throughout the evolution of economic ideas, it has often been asserted that experimentation in ec... more Throughout the evolution of economic ideas, it has often been asserted that experimentation in economics is impossible. Yet, the historical record shows that the idea of “experimentation” has, in fact, been important in the field of economics, and has been interpreted and put to use in many ways. These range from the “thought experiment”, where counterfactuals are explored in the mind of the theorist, to social experiments, where alternative economic arrangements have been tried out historically, and laboratory experimentation, which is currently a burgeoning field of empirical research. This book provides testament to the great variety of ways in which experimentation has mattered in the creation of economic knowledge. The accessible essays contained within this volume will interest all those seeking to broaden their historical understanding of the discipline and will be essential reading for students who wish to acquire a greater knowledge of how economics has grown and developed
Religion was central to E. F. Schumacher's evolution from conventional Keynesian economist to het... more Religion was central to E. F. Schumacher's evolution from conventional Keynesian economist to heterodox critic of Modernity. We consider his engagement with Buddhism and Christianity, under the influence of Traditionalism, showing its transformative effect on his thinking about the economy and the environment.
Methodology and History of Economics. Reflections with and without Rules (eds. B. Caldwell et al), 2022
Until roughly 1950, the Anglo-German economist E. F. Schumacher (1911 – 1977) was a conventional ... more Until roughly 1950, the Anglo-German economist E. F. Schumacher (1911 – 1977) was a conventional Fabian economist, inspired by Keynes and thoroughly committed to modern economic growth and development. By 1970, however, he had rejected much of this, and, with his authorship of Small is Beautiful (1973), was about to become a symbolic figure in the counter-cultural and environmental movement of the Seventies. Drawing on both published and archival sources, this article traces that change in Schumacher. Specifically, we portray his changing attitude to economics and the economy as the consequence of a deeper transformation of the self, stimulated by his engagement with esoteric and religious influences, such as Gurdjieff-Ouspensky, Buddhism and Christianity. Our point of entry to this story a 1972 talk on the method of economics, given by the ‘new’ Schumacher at the invitation of his old wartime colleague and Fabian comrade, Joan Robinson.
In addition to being an accomplished mathematician and to being involved in the economic and phil... more In addition to being an accomplished mathematician and to being involved in the economic and philosophical circles of interwar Vienna, Karl Menger (1902-1985) had a lively interest in Modern Art. He appreciated the work of Hans Masereel, the Belgian graphic novelist; Peter Alma, the Dutchman associated with De Stijl; and the German Gerd Arntz, Otto Neurath's right-hand man and the artist behind the Isotype system of pictorial education. He particularly liked the work of De Stijl's Piet Mondrian, even making a pilgrimage to his studio in Paris in the late 1920's. Menger perceived connections between the shift towards abstraction in such artwork and the rise of abstraction in his own field of mathematics. He favoured the clarity evident in such images, but, as he was keen to point out, not necessarily their political connotations or mystical underpinnings. This paper traces Menger's involvement with art and aesthetics from his early days as a student in Vienna and the Netherlands to his arrival as an intellectual émigré in the American Midwest.
Winner of the C. Goodwin Best Article Award of the History of Economics Society, 2020.
Until aro... more Winner of the C. Goodwin Best Article Award of the History of Economics Society, 2020.
Until around 1950, the German émigré Ernst Friedrich Schumacher (1911–1977) was a relatively conventional economist, believing in progress based on economic growth and developments in science and technology. Then, as he turned forty, he went through a period of prolonged self-examination and spiritual quest, which, amongst other things, led him to become critical of Western modernity. Developing a great interest in Buddhist spirituality and culture, in 1955 he travelled to Burma, where he spent three months as a United Nations consultant. His encounter there with the encroachment of Western development upon a traditional society proved pivotal for him, confirming his skepticism about modernity and stimulating him to write a renegade essay, “Economics in a Buddhist Country.” This experience in Burma shaped his work thereafter, as contributor to debates on development both East and West, as promoter of intermediate technology, and as author of the prophetic, popular book of 1973 Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered.
The concept of the Cournot-Nash equilibrium is central to noncooperative game theory and the latt... more The concept of the Cournot-Nash equilibrium is central to noncooperative game theory and the latter's use in microeconomic theory. This paper considers the creation of this theoretical construct, examining the separate contributions of both Cournot and Nash, and showing how the two were ultimately joined together in the eyes of contemporary economic theorists. Rather than simply show how Cournot served as a precursor to Nash, we challenge the traditional approach, and emphasise the shifts in interpretation of their respective contributions. In so doing, we address some pertinent questions about the manner in which economic theorists view the evolution of their own discipline.
European Journal of the History of Economic Thought, 2024
Review of Frederik Albritton Jonsson and Carl Wennerlind (2023), Scarcity: A History from the Ori... more Review of Frederik Albritton Jonsson and Carl Wennerlind (2023), Scarcity: A History from the Origins of Capitalism to the Climate Crisis, Harvard U. P.
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Books by Robert Leonard
Drawing on a wealth of new archival material, including personal correspondence and diaries, Robert Leonard tells the fascinating story of the creation of game theory by Hungarian Jewish mathematician John von Neumann and Austrian economist Oskar Morgenstern. Game theory first emerged amidst discussions of the psychology and mathematics of chess in Germany and fin-de-siècle Austro-Hungary. In the 1930's, on the cusp of anti-semitism and political upheaval, it was developed by von Neumann into an ambitious theory of social organization. It was shaped still further by its use in combat analysis in World War II and during the Cold War. Interweaving accounts of the period's economics, science, and mathematics, and drawing on the private lives of von Neumann and Morgenstern, Robert Leonard provides a detailed reconstruction of a complex historical drama.
Papers by Robert Leonard
Until around 1950, the German émigré Ernst Friedrich Schumacher (1911–1977) was a relatively conventional economist, believing in progress based on economic growth and developments in science and technology. Then, as he turned forty, he went through a period of prolonged self-examination and spiritual quest, which, amongst other
things, led him to become critical of Western modernity. Developing a great interest in Buddhist spirituality and culture, in 1955 he travelled to Burma, where he spent three months as a United Nations consultant. His encounter there with the encroachment of Western development upon a traditional society proved pivotal for him, confirming his skepticism about modernity and stimulating him to write a renegade essay, “Economics in a Buddhist Country.” This experience in Burma shaped his work thereafter, as contributor to debates on development both East and West, as promoter of intermediate technology, and as author of the prophetic, popular book of 1973 Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered.
Book Reviews by Robert Leonard
Drawing on a wealth of new archival material, including personal correspondence and diaries, Robert Leonard tells the fascinating story of the creation of game theory by Hungarian Jewish mathematician John von Neumann and Austrian economist Oskar Morgenstern. Game theory first emerged amidst discussions of the psychology and mathematics of chess in Germany and fin-de-siècle Austro-Hungary. In the 1930's, on the cusp of anti-semitism and political upheaval, it was developed by von Neumann into an ambitious theory of social organization. It was shaped still further by its use in combat analysis in World War II and during the Cold War. Interweaving accounts of the period's economics, science, and mathematics, and drawing on the private lives of von Neumann and Morgenstern, Robert Leonard provides a detailed reconstruction of a complex historical drama.
Until around 1950, the German émigré Ernst Friedrich Schumacher (1911–1977) was a relatively conventional economist, believing in progress based on economic growth and developments in science and technology. Then, as he turned forty, he went through a period of prolonged self-examination and spiritual quest, which, amongst other
things, led him to become critical of Western modernity. Developing a great interest in Buddhist spirituality and culture, in 1955 he travelled to Burma, where he spent three months as a United Nations consultant. His encounter there with the encroachment of Western development upon a traditional society proved pivotal for him, confirming his skepticism about modernity and stimulating him to write a renegade essay, “Economics in a Buddhist Country.” This experience in Burma shaped his work thereafter, as contributor to debates on development both East and West, as promoter of intermediate technology, and as author of the prophetic, popular book of 1973 Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered.