This research was designed to explore the extent to which the physical body is integrated into in... more This research was designed to explore the extent to which the physical body is integrated into individuals' conceptualizations of self. We hypothesized that body-self integration would vary as a function of level of general self-esteem, specific self-evaluations for the body, and also mortality salience due to existential implications of the physical body's certainty of eventual death. In a neutral condition
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Apr 6, 2023
The “selfie” phenomenon shaped the past two decades, yet there is inconsistent evidence concernin... more The “selfie” phenomenon shaped the past two decades, yet there is inconsistent evidence concerning the relationship between selfie behaviors and self-evaluations. This meta-analysis investigates the relationship between selfie taking, editing, and posting behavior and general and appearance-specific self-evaluations. The results reveal that selfie taking and posting are related to positive appearance-specific self-evaluations. In contrast, selfie editing is related to negative self-evaluations both generally and specific to appearance. Gender and age did not moderate these relationships, but methodological factors did, suggesting these relationships depend on factors, such as how selfie behaviors are measured and study design. We interpret these findings through the lens of prominent social psychological theories and conclude with suggestions to guide future research.
In psychology, research derived from objectification theory provides evidence that the focus on w... more In psychology, research derived from objectification theory provides evidence that the focus on women's appearance leads them to adopt a third-person perspective, persistently monitoring their own appearance – that is, they self-objectify – and as a result suffer emotional consequences (e.g., shame) and behavioral inhibition (e.g., restrained eating, inhibited movement). In addition to this body of research, more recently researchers have begun to examine objectification of women from the perspective of others. This research demonstrates that when others focus on a woman's appearance, she is denied a basic sense of humanness; objectified women are denied cognitive and emotional experiences and perceived as similar to actual objects. Together this work provides empirical backing for the ideas espoused by feminist scholars and philosophical discourse on objectification. Keywords: Objectification; Gender Socialization; Psychology
Courtney, Goldenberg, & Boyd (2020) utilize the terror management health model (TMHM) to propose ... more Courtney, Goldenberg, & Boyd (2020) utilize the terror management health model (TMHM) to propose that, to the extent that COVID-19 is associated with mortality, both proximal (immediate) and distal (delayed/subtle) defenses in the form of health-related behavior can be instigated. Distal responses, which are activated in response to non-conscious (but still accessible) death-related thoughts, are contingent upon the cultural and ideological significance of the behavior, rather than how effectively the behavior addresses perceived risk. At this point, we argue that the individual decision to wear a mask in public in an attempt to reduce the spread of COVID-19 has become a behavior imbued with cultural significance, and thus serves as a distal defense against the mortality threat. This may especially be the case with certain political ideologies. Mask-wearing is, more and more, a polarizing political issue. We aim to investigate the degree to which political ideology moderates when an...
Behaviours recommended for reducing transmission of COVID‐19 – social distancing, wearing masks, ... more Behaviours recommended for reducing transmission of COVID‐19 – social distancing, wearing masks, and now, vaccination – are aimed at not only reducing one’s own risk, but risk to others. We posited that a collectivist mindset, versus individualistic, would facilitate intentions to engage in behaviours aimed at curtailing the spread of the virus when the awareness of mortality is activated. This hypothesis was informed by the terror management health model and tested in two studies. In each study, collective ‘we’ (vs. the individual ‘I’) was primed, in conjunction with mortality salience compared to a control condition. The results were generally consistent, with Study 1 showing that when collectivism, but not individualism, was primed, individuals responded to a COVID‐19‐based mortality reminder with a significant increase in health intentions, including social distancing and mask wearing. In Study 2, when mortality was salient, priming individualism led to reduced vaccination inten...
The novel coronavirus, COVID‐19, proliferates as a contagious psychological threat just like the ... more The novel coronavirus, COVID‐19, proliferates as a contagious psychological threat just like the physical disease itself. Due to the growing death toll and constant coverage this pandemic gets, it is likely to activate mortality awareness, to greater or lesser extents, depending on a variety of situational factors. Using terror management theory and the terror management health model, we outline reactions to the pandemic that consist of proximal defences aimed at reducing perceived vulnerability to (as well as denial of) the threat, and distal defences bound by ideological frameworks from which symbolic meaning can be derived. We provide predictions and recommendations for shifting reactions to this pandemic towards behaviours that decrease, rather than increase, the spread of the virus. We conclude by considering the benefits of shifting towards collective mindsets to more effectively combat COVID‐19 and to better prepare for the next inevitable pandemic.
Monstrously Mortal: Women’s Bodies, Existential Threat, and Women’s Health Risks From an existent... more Monstrously Mortal: Women’s Bodies, Existential Threat, and Women’s Health Risks From an existential perspective, and terror management theory in particular, fear of death, and the need to manage that fear, is a central force guiding much of human behavior. We use this as a starting place for our chapter, and explain how this perspective can inform both the condemnation and objectification of women’s bodies – both by others and women themselves – and consequent risks to women’s physical health. In particular, our framework sheds light on the avoidance of certain health behaviors that involve intimate confrontations with the physical body (e.g., breast exams and mammography) and also engagement in health risk behaviors aimed at attaining a culturally ideal body (e.g., dieting, tanning, smoking). Ironically, our perspective implies that existential mortality concerns can underlie a number of behaviors that ultimately endanger women’s health. In synthesizing views from existential philosophy, along with ..
This research was designed to explore the extent to which the physical body is integrated into in... more This research was designed to explore the extent to which the physical body is integrated into individuals' conceptualizations of self. We hypothesized that body-self integration would vary as a function of level of general self-esteem, specific self-evaluations for the body, and also mortality salience due to existential implications of the physical body's certainty of eventual death. In a neutral condition
Self‐objectification, the internalization of an observer’s appearance‐based perspective of one’s ... more Self‐objectification, the internalization of an observer’s appearance‐based perspective of one’s body, has been theorized and demonstrated to reduce body awareness among women. In this field study, we propose self‐objectification as the mechanism to explain the oft‐observed phenomenon where women wearing little clothing appear unbothered by cold weather, positing that self‐objectification obstructs women’s feelings of cold. We surveyed women outside nightclubs on cold nights, assessed self‐objectification, and asked participants to report how cold they felt. Anonymous photos were taken and coded for amount of skin exposure. We hypothesized that self‐objectification would moderate the relationship between clothing coverage and reports of feeling cold. Our hypothesis was supported: women low in self‐objectification showed a positive, intuitive, relationship between skin exposure and perceptions of coldness, but women more highly focused on their appearance did not feel colder when wea...
Discusses the maintenance of self-esteem. The authors address 2 issues, the functions of self-est... more Discusses the maintenance of self-esteem. The authors address 2 issues, the functions of self-esteem and why and how it is associated with arousal. Following terror management theory, the authors argue that people need self-esteem because it provides a vital buffer against anxiety; it follows that arousal would be heavily involved in self-esteem maintenance processes. The authors review research from a variety of domains to support this argument. It is concluded that self processes have clear biological correlates, and those correlates are, predictably, reflected in the physiology of emotio
Feminist scholars, philosophers, and more recently, social psychological researchers have argued ... more Feminist scholars, philosophers, and more recently, social psychological researchers have argued and provided evidence that women are objectified, often in a very literal manner. Terror management theory offers additional insight, suggesting there is an existential threat associated with men’s attraction to women’s natural bodies. When a woman’s body is objectified, however, it is devoid of this complication. In this chapter, we argue that existential concerns set the stage for men to find objectified depictions of women appealing. To examine this hypothesis, men and women rated the attractiveness of real women and men, or females and males that are literal objects—that is, mannequins—subsequent to being reminded of their mortality. As hypothesized, heterosexual men rated the female mannequin, but not the real woman (or either male target), as more attractive after being primed with mortality. The prime did not impact the ratings that heterosexual women gave to the targets. We discu...
Handbook of Self and Identity New York Guilford Press, 2003
The authors believe that by specifying how the defense motives emphasized by terror management th... more The authors believe that by specifying how the defense motives emphasized by terror management theory (TMT) and the acquisitive motives emphasized by self-determination theory (SDT) interact, a more comprehensive and well-rounded understanding of human behavior can be achieved. Although these 2 motive systems operate according to different principles, and sometimes orient the individual toward different goals, human behavior results from the dialectic interplay between them. To elucidate this interplay, the authors outline the conceptualization of the workings of these 2 systems, consider how each system can facilitate and interfere with the other, and discuss ways in which defensive needs can be served while allowing the individuals to optimize their creative potential and freedom
This research was designed to explore the extent to which the physical body is integrated into in... more This research was designed to explore the extent to which the physical body is integrated into individuals' conceptualizations of self. We hypothesized that body-self integration would vary as a function of level of general self-esteem, specific self-evaluations for the body, and also mortality salience due to existential implications of the physical body's certainty of eventual death. In a neutral condition
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Apr 6, 2023
The “selfie” phenomenon shaped the past two decades, yet there is inconsistent evidence concernin... more The “selfie” phenomenon shaped the past two decades, yet there is inconsistent evidence concerning the relationship between selfie behaviors and self-evaluations. This meta-analysis investigates the relationship between selfie taking, editing, and posting behavior and general and appearance-specific self-evaluations. The results reveal that selfie taking and posting are related to positive appearance-specific self-evaluations. In contrast, selfie editing is related to negative self-evaluations both generally and specific to appearance. Gender and age did not moderate these relationships, but methodological factors did, suggesting these relationships depend on factors, such as how selfie behaviors are measured and study design. We interpret these findings through the lens of prominent social psychological theories and conclude with suggestions to guide future research.
In psychology, research derived from objectification theory provides evidence that the focus on w... more In psychology, research derived from objectification theory provides evidence that the focus on women's appearance leads them to adopt a third-person perspective, persistently monitoring their own appearance – that is, they self-objectify – and as a result suffer emotional consequences (e.g., shame) and behavioral inhibition (e.g., restrained eating, inhibited movement). In addition to this body of research, more recently researchers have begun to examine objectification of women from the perspective of others. This research demonstrates that when others focus on a woman's appearance, she is denied a basic sense of humanness; objectified women are denied cognitive and emotional experiences and perceived as similar to actual objects. Together this work provides empirical backing for the ideas espoused by feminist scholars and philosophical discourse on objectification. Keywords: Objectification; Gender Socialization; Psychology
Courtney, Goldenberg, & Boyd (2020) utilize the terror management health model (TMHM) to propose ... more Courtney, Goldenberg, & Boyd (2020) utilize the terror management health model (TMHM) to propose that, to the extent that COVID-19 is associated with mortality, both proximal (immediate) and distal (delayed/subtle) defenses in the form of health-related behavior can be instigated. Distal responses, which are activated in response to non-conscious (but still accessible) death-related thoughts, are contingent upon the cultural and ideological significance of the behavior, rather than how effectively the behavior addresses perceived risk. At this point, we argue that the individual decision to wear a mask in public in an attempt to reduce the spread of COVID-19 has become a behavior imbued with cultural significance, and thus serves as a distal defense against the mortality threat. This may especially be the case with certain political ideologies. Mask-wearing is, more and more, a polarizing political issue. We aim to investigate the degree to which political ideology moderates when an...
Behaviours recommended for reducing transmission of COVID‐19 – social distancing, wearing masks, ... more Behaviours recommended for reducing transmission of COVID‐19 – social distancing, wearing masks, and now, vaccination – are aimed at not only reducing one’s own risk, but risk to others. We posited that a collectivist mindset, versus individualistic, would facilitate intentions to engage in behaviours aimed at curtailing the spread of the virus when the awareness of mortality is activated. This hypothesis was informed by the terror management health model and tested in two studies. In each study, collective ‘we’ (vs. the individual ‘I’) was primed, in conjunction with mortality salience compared to a control condition. The results were generally consistent, with Study 1 showing that when collectivism, but not individualism, was primed, individuals responded to a COVID‐19‐based mortality reminder with a significant increase in health intentions, including social distancing and mask wearing. In Study 2, when mortality was salient, priming individualism led to reduced vaccination inten...
The novel coronavirus, COVID‐19, proliferates as a contagious psychological threat just like the ... more The novel coronavirus, COVID‐19, proliferates as a contagious psychological threat just like the physical disease itself. Due to the growing death toll and constant coverage this pandemic gets, it is likely to activate mortality awareness, to greater or lesser extents, depending on a variety of situational factors. Using terror management theory and the terror management health model, we outline reactions to the pandemic that consist of proximal defences aimed at reducing perceived vulnerability to (as well as denial of) the threat, and distal defences bound by ideological frameworks from which symbolic meaning can be derived. We provide predictions and recommendations for shifting reactions to this pandemic towards behaviours that decrease, rather than increase, the spread of the virus. We conclude by considering the benefits of shifting towards collective mindsets to more effectively combat COVID‐19 and to better prepare for the next inevitable pandemic.
Monstrously Mortal: Women’s Bodies, Existential Threat, and Women’s Health Risks From an existent... more Monstrously Mortal: Women’s Bodies, Existential Threat, and Women’s Health Risks From an existential perspective, and terror management theory in particular, fear of death, and the need to manage that fear, is a central force guiding much of human behavior. We use this as a starting place for our chapter, and explain how this perspective can inform both the condemnation and objectification of women’s bodies – both by others and women themselves – and consequent risks to women’s physical health. In particular, our framework sheds light on the avoidance of certain health behaviors that involve intimate confrontations with the physical body (e.g., breast exams and mammography) and also engagement in health risk behaviors aimed at attaining a culturally ideal body (e.g., dieting, tanning, smoking). Ironically, our perspective implies that existential mortality concerns can underlie a number of behaviors that ultimately endanger women’s health. In synthesizing views from existential philosophy, along with ..
This research was designed to explore the extent to which the physical body is integrated into in... more This research was designed to explore the extent to which the physical body is integrated into individuals' conceptualizations of self. We hypothesized that body-self integration would vary as a function of level of general self-esteem, specific self-evaluations for the body, and also mortality salience due to existential implications of the physical body's certainty of eventual death. In a neutral condition
Self‐objectification, the internalization of an observer’s appearance‐based perspective of one’s ... more Self‐objectification, the internalization of an observer’s appearance‐based perspective of one’s body, has been theorized and demonstrated to reduce body awareness among women. In this field study, we propose self‐objectification as the mechanism to explain the oft‐observed phenomenon where women wearing little clothing appear unbothered by cold weather, positing that self‐objectification obstructs women’s feelings of cold. We surveyed women outside nightclubs on cold nights, assessed self‐objectification, and asked participants to report how cold they felt. Anonymous photos were taken and coded for amount of skin exposure. We hypothesized that self‐objectification would moderate the relationship between clothing coverage and reports of feeling cold. Our hypothesis was supported: women low in self‐objectification showed a positive, intuitive, relationship between skin exposure and perceptions of coldness, but women more highly focused on their appearance did not feel colder when wea...
Discusses the maintenance of self-esteem. The authors address 2 issues, the functions of self-est... more Discusses the maintenance of self-esteem. The authors address 2 issues, the functions of self-esteem and why and how it is associated with arousal. Following terror management theory, the authors argue that people need self-esteem because it provides a vital buffer against anxiety; it follows that arousal would be heavily involved in self-esteem maintenance processes. The authors review research from a variety of domains to support this argument. It is concluded that self processes have clear biological correlates, and those correlates are, predictably, reflected in the physiology of emotio
Feminist scholars, philosophers, and more recently, social psychological researchers have argued ... more Feminist scholars, philosophers, and more recently, social psychological researchers have argued and provided evidence that women are objectified, often in a very literal manner. Terror management theory offers additional insight, suggesting there is an existential threat associated with men’s attraction to women’s natural bodies. When a woman’s body is objectified, however, it is devoid of this complication. In this chapter, we argue that existential concerns set the stage for men to find objectified depictions of women appealing. To examine this hypothesis, men and women rated the attractiveness of real women and men, or females and males that are literal objects—that is, mannequins—subsequent to being reminded of their mortality. As hypothesized, heterosexual men rated the female mannequin, but not the real woman (or either male target), as more attractive after being primed with mortality. The prime did not impact the ratings that heterosexual women gave to the targets. We discu...
Handbook of Self and Identity New York Guilford Press, 2003
The authors believe that by specifying how the defense motives emphasized by terror management th... more The authors believe that by specifying how the defense motives emphasized by terror management theory (TMT) and the acquisitive motives emphasized by self-determination theory (SDT) interact, a more comprehensive and well-rounded understanding of human behavior can be achieved. Although these 2 motive systems operate according to different principles, and sometimes orient the individual toward different goals, human behavior results from the dialectic interplay between them. To elucidate this interplay, the authors outline the conceptualization of the workings of these 2 systems, consider how each system can facilitate and interfere with the other, and discuss ways in which defensive needs can be served while allowing the individuals to optimize their creative potential and freedom
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Papers by Jamie Goldenberg