Professor of STEM Education and Curriculum, leading the Research Centre Curriculum Studies (slo.nl/rccs). Research interests: design research, boundary crossing, mathematics education, statistics education, learning theories, translanguaging, inclusion and equity
Educational Studies in Mathematics (ESM) has reached a special point in its history. Some 50 year... more Educational Studies in Mathematics (ESM) has reached a special point in its history. Some 50 years ago, in 1968, it was founded by Hans Freudenthal, and now, January 2019, it offers its 100th volume. We celebrate these milestones in several ways.
Bakker, Arthur (2019). Design principles in design research: A commentary. In Angelika Bikner-Ahs... more Bakker, Arthur (2019). Design principles in design research: A commentary. In Angelika Bikner-Ahsbahs & Maria Peters (Eds.), Unterrichtsentwicklung macht Schule (pp. 177-192) (16 p.). Wiesbaden, Germany: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden
The Wiley Handbook of Vocational Education and Training, 2019
Vocational education and training (VET) is a heterogeneous field, which is organized in diverse w... more Vocational education and training (VET) is a heterogeneous field, which is organized in diverse ways in different countries. Part of VET is school‐based: Students are at school most of the time and do an internship at the end of their vocational education. Part of VET is work‐based: Employees work most of the time, but receive training to qualify better for their current or future work. Both school‐based education and work‐based training have been studied a lot, but far less is known about the transitions that students and employees make between school and work. Yet these transitions are crucial. If learners cannot connect what they learn in different settings, it is very likely that what they have learned in educational settings remains inert. What they have learned in an internship or regular work may not be enriched by what they gained in education or training. It is therefore crucial to think through what implications follow for curriculum and pedagogy in VET when we ask how to support VET learners to make such transitions and connections. Such transitions and making connections have been conceptualized in terms of boundary crossing.
In the context of this book, innovation is about achieving desirable goals in domain-specific edu... more In the context of this book, innovation is about achieving desirable goals in domain-specific education. The various contributions to the second part of the book provide knowledge about how to achieve something worthwhile in a particular domain, and all do so in the form of design principles as a result from design research. Such principles are popular in design research and other approaches to innovate educational practice, but education and educational research would benefit from further reflection on what they are and how they are grounded in research and practice. My commentary therefore reflects on design principles in design research. For the various chapters, I analyze whether the design principles as formulated are values, criteria, predictions, advice, or heuristics. I argue that design research would benefit from more clarity of the nature of design principles, and what counts as empirical support. Moreover, I reflect on how design principles could be communicated in a succinct form so that they can inspire others to use them wisely in educational practice.
Design Research in Education is a practical guide containing all the information required to begi... more Design Research in Education is a practical guide containing all the information required to begin a design-research project. Providing an accessible background to the methodological approaches used in design research as well as addressing all the potential issues that early career researchers will encounter, the book uniquely helps the early career researcher to gain a full overview of design research and the practical skills needed to get their project off the ground. Based on extensive experience, the book also contains multiple examples of design research from both undergraduate and postgraduate students, to demonstrate possible projects to the reader.
Hoyles, C., Noss, R., Kent, P., & Bakker, A. (2010). Improving mathematics at work: The need for ... more Hoyles, C., Noss, R., Kent, P., & Bakker, A. (2010). Improving mathematics at work: The need for techno-mathematical literacies. Routledge: London.
Bakker, A. (2004). Design research in statistics education: On symbolizing and computer tools. Ut... more Bakker, A. (2004). Design research in statistics education: On symbolizing and computer tools. Utrecht, the Netherlands: CD Beta Press.
An important issue in the design of vocational education is the positioning of the knowledge comp... more An important issue in the design of vocational education is the positioning of the knowledge component of occupations in the curriculum. The underlying question here is what knowledge contents students come across during their education in order to develop their personal knowledge base for professional performance. The knowledge contents of occupations are not unambiguous. In the literature, a distinction is made between different types of knowledge. The first type is codified knowledge that is related to disciplinary knowledge such as language and mathematics but also mechanics, physiology, nutrition, economy, et cetera. Occupational knowledge refers to the specific manifestations of this discipline knowledge. The second type of occupational knowledge refers to distributed and embodied knowledge that can be partly explicated in procedures.
The Wiley Handbook of Vocational Education and Training, 2019
Vocational education and training (VET) is a heterogeneous field, which is organized in diverse w... more Vocational education and training (VET) is a heterogeneous field, which is organized in diverse ways in different countries. Part of VET is school‐based: Students are at school most of the time and do an internship at the end of their vocational education. Part of VET is work‐based: Employees work most of the time, but receive training to qualify better for their current or future work. Both school‐based education and work‐based training have been studied a lot, but far less is known about the transitions that students and employees make between school and work. Yet these transitions are crucial. If learners cannot connect what they learn in different settings, it is very likely that what they have learned in educational settings remains inert. What they have learned in an internship or regular work may not be enriched by what they gained in education or training. It is therefore crucial to think through what implications follow for curriculum and pedagogy in VET when we ask how to support VET learners to make such transitions and connections. Such transitions and making connections have been conceptualized in terms of boundary crossing.
Techno-mathematical Literacies (TmL), which are defined as a combination of mathematical, workpla... more Techno-mathematical Literacies (TmL), which are defined as a combination of mathematical, workplace and ICT knowledge, and communicative skills, are acknowledged as important learning goals in STEM education. Still, much remains unknown about ways to address them in teaching and to assess their development. To investigate this, we designed and implemented an innovative course in applied mathematics with a focus on Techno-mathematical Literacies for 1st-year engineering students, and we set out to measure the learning effect of the course. Because measuring TmL is an uncharted terrain, we designed tests that could serve as pre- or posttests. To prevent a test learning effect, we aimed to design two different but equally difficult tests A and B. These were assigned randomly to 68 chemistry students, as a pretest, with the other one serving as posttest after the course. A significant development in TmL was found in the B-pre group, but not in the A-pre group. Therefore, as a follow-up ...
Leren en werken goed laten aansluiten? Een complex vraagstuk! Studenten en startende werknemers z... more Leren en werken goed laten aansluiten? Een complex vraagstuk! Studenten en startende werknemers zijn vaak niet optimaal voorbereid, opleiders weten niet goed wat er op de werkvloer speelt en praktijkbegeleiders hebben weinig zicht op wat stagiairs al op de opleiding hebben geleerd. Daarnaast zijn er vanuit Human Resources Development vragen over het Leven Lang Leren van hun werknemers op en buiten de werkplek zodat organisaties kunnen inspelen op actuele ontwikkelingen. Leren in een formele, schoolse context staat meestal op gespannen voet met leren op de werkplek. Vaak worden de verschillen tussen opleiding en beroepspraktijk als hinderlijk ervaren terwijl die verschillen juist ook leerzaam kunnen zijn. In Tussen opleiding en beroepspraktijk wordt aan de hand van een theoretisch kader over boundary crossing en vele praktijkvoorbeelden beschreven hoe het leerpotentieel op de grens tussen opleiding en de beroepspraktijk, tussen professionaliseringstrajecten en leren op het werk, kan worden aangeboord. De beschikbare wetenschappelijke en ervaringskennis op het gebied van boundary crossing is gebundeld en toegankelijk gemaakt voor opleiders van beroepsopleidingen (mbo en hbo) en professionaliseringstrajecten in organisaties. Tussen opleiding en beroepspraktijk biedt inzichten en inspiratie voor de innovatie van opleidings- en professionaliseringsactiviteiten, voor zelfstudie en ook voor het vormgeven van formele opleidingen. Dit boek is geschikt voor mbo- en hbo-docenten en studenten aan masteropleidingen zoals Leren en Innoveren, Onderwijskunde, Professioneel Meesterschap of Expertdocent Beroepsonderwijs. Bent u docent en wilt u het boek voorschrijven aan uw studenten van een van deze opleidingen, dan kunt u hier een docentexemplaar aanvragen. 'Tussen opleiding en beroepspraktijk' is daarnaast interessant voor managers, adviseurs, beleidsmedewerkers en HRD’ers in onderwijs of bedrijfsleven.
Introduction and research question Many researchers aim to improve science and mathematics educat... more Introduction and research question Many researchers aim to improve science and mathematics education by searching for methods that make scientific concepts and activities more meaningful to students. Over the past decades various approaches have been proposed and tested, ...
Educational Studies in Mathematics (ESM) has reached a special point in its history. Some 50 year... more Educational Studies in Mathematics (ESM) has reached a special point in its history. Some 50 years ago, in 1968, it was founded by Hans Freudenthal, and now, January 2019, it offers its 100th volume. We celebrate these milestones in several ways.
Bakker, Arthur (2019). Design principles in design research: A commentary. In Angelika Bikner-Ahs... more Bakker, Arthur (2019). Design principles in design research: A commentary. In Angelika Bikner-Ahsbahs & Maria Peters (Eds.), Unterrichtsentwicklung macht Schule (pp. 177-192) (16 p.). Wiesbaden, Germany: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden
The Wiley Handbook of Vocational Education and Training, 2019
Vocational education and training (VET) is a heterogeneous field, which is organized in diverse w... more Vocational education and training (VET) is a heterogeneous field, which is organized in diverse ways in different countries. Part of VET is school‐based: Students are at school most of the time and do an internship at the end of their vocational education. Part of VET is work‐based: Employees work most of the time, but receive training to qualify better for their current or future work. Both school‐based education and work‐based training have been studied a lot, but far less is known about the transitions that students and employees make between school and work. Yet these transitions are crucial. If learners cannot connect what they learn in different settings, it is very likely that what they have learned in educational settings remains inert. What they have learned in an internship or regular work may not be enriched by what they gained in education or training. It is therefore crucial to think through what implications follow for curriculum and pedagogy in VET when we ask how to support VET learners to make such transitions and connections. Such transitions and making connections have been conceptualized in terms of boundary crossing.
In the context of this book, innovation is about achieving desirable goals in domain-specific edu... more In the context of this book, innovation is about achieving desirable goals in domain-specific education. The various contributions to the second part of the book provide knowledge about how to achieve something worthwhile in a particular domain, and all do so in the form of design principles as a result from design research. Such principles are popular in design research and other approaches to innovate educational practice, but education and educational research would benefit from further reflection on what they are and how they are grounded in research and practice. My commentary therefore reflects on design principles in design research. For the various chapters, I analyze whether the design principles as formulated are values, criteria, predictions, advice, or heuristics. I argue that design research would benefit from more clarity of the nature of design principles, and what counts as empirical support. Moreover, I reflect on how design principles could be communicated in a succinct form so that they can inspire others to use them wisely in educational practice.
Design Research in Education is a practical guide containing all the information required to begi... more Design Research in Education is a practical guide containing all the information required to begin a design-research project. Providing an accessible background to the methodological approaches used in design research as well as addressing all the potential issues that early career researchers will encounter, the book uniquely helps the early career researcher to gain a full overview of design research and the practical skills needed to get their project off the ground. Based on extensive experience, the book also contains multiple examples of design research from both undergraduate and postgraduate students, to demonstrate possible projects to the reader.
Hoyles, C., Noss, R., Kent, P., & Bakker, A. (2010). Improving mathematics at work: The need for ... more Hoyles, C., Noss, R., Kent, P., & Bakker, A. (2010). Improving mathematics at work: The need for techno-mathematical literacies. Routledge: London.
Bakker, A. (2004). Design research in statistics education: On symbolizing and computer tools. Ut... more Bakker, A. (2004). Design research in statistics education: On symbolizing and computer tools. Utrecht, the Netherlands: CD Beta Press.
An important issue in the design of vocational education is the positioning of the knowledge comp... more An important issue in the design of vocational education is the positioning of the knowledge component of occupations in the curriculum. The underlying question here is what knowledge contents students come across during their education in order to develop their personal knowledge base for professional performance. The knowledge contents of occupations are not unambiguous. In the literature, a distinction is made between different types of knowledge. The first type is codified knowledge that is related to disciplinary knowledge such as language and mathematics but also mechanics, physiology, nutrition, economy, et cetera. Occupational knowledge refers to the specific manifestations of this discipline knowledge. The second type of occupational knowledge refers to distributed and embodied knowledge that can be partly explicated in procedures.
The Wiley Handbook of Vocational Education and Training, 2019
Vocational education and training (VET) is a heterogeneous field, which is organized in diverse w... more Vocational education and training (VET) is a heterogeneous field, which is organized in diverse ways in different countries. Part of VET is school‐based: Students are at school most of the time and do an internship at the end of their vocational education. Part of VET is work‐based: Employees work most of the time, but receive training to qualify better for their current or future work. Both school‐based education and work‐based training have been studied a lot, but far less is known about the transitions that students and employees make between school and work. Yet these transitions are crucial. If learners cannot connect what they learn in different settings, it is very likely that what they have learned in educational settings remains inert. What they have learned in an internship or regular work may not be enriched by what they gained in education or training. It is therefore crucial to think through what implications follow for curriculum and pedagogy in VET when we ask how to support VET learners to make such transitions and connections. Such transitions and making connections have been conceptualized in terms of boundary crossing.
Techno-mathematical Literacies (TmL), which are defined as a combination of mathematical, workpla... more Techno-mathematical Literacies (TmL), which are defined as a combination of mathematical, workplace and ICT knowledge, and communicative skills, are acknowledged as important learning goals in STEM education. Still, much remains unknown about ways to address them in teaching and to assess their development. To investigate this, we designed and implemented an innovative course in applied mathematics with a focus on Techno-mathematical Literacies for 1st-year engineering students, and we set out to measure the learning effect of the course. Because measuring TmL is an uncharted terrain, we designed tests that could serve as pre- or posttests. To prevent a test learning effect, we aimed to design two different but equally difficult tests A and B. These were assigned randomly to 68 chemistry students, as a pretest, with the other one serving as posttest after the course. A significant development in TmL was found in the B-pre group, but not in the A-pre group. Therefore, as a follow-up ...
Leren en werken goed laten aansluiten? Een complex vraagstuk! Studenten en startende werknemers z... more Leren en werken goed laten aansluiten? Een complex vraagstuk! Studenten en startende werknemers zijn vaak niet optimaal voorbereid, opleiders weten niet goed wat er op de werkvloer speelt en praktijkbegeleiders hebben weinig zicht op wat stagiairs al op de opleiding hebben geleerd. Daarnaast zijn er vanuit Human Resources Development vragen over het Leven Lang Leren van hun werknemers op en buiten de werkplek zodat organisaties kunnen inspelen op actuele ontwikkelingen. Leren in een formele, schoolse context staat meestal op gespannen voet met leren op de werkplek. Vaak worden de verschillen tussen opleiding en beroepspraktijk als hinderlijk ervaren terwijl die verschillen juist ook leerzaam kunnen zijn. In Tussen opleiding en beroepspraktijk wordt aan de hand van een theoretisch kader over boundary crossing en vele praktijkvoorbeelden beschreven hoe het leerpotentieel op de grens tussen opleiding en de beroepspraktijk, tussen professionaliseringstrajecten en leren op het werk, kan worden aangeboord. De beschikbare wetenschappelijke en ervaringskennis op het gebied van boundary crossing is gebundeld en toegankelijk gemaakt voor opleiders van beroepsopleidingen (mbo en hbo) en professionaliseringstrajecten in organisaties. Tussen opleiding en beroepspraktijk biedt inzichten en inspiratie voor de innovatie van opleidings- en professionaliseringsactiviteiten, voor zelfstudie en ook voor het vormgeven van formele opleidingen. Dit boek is geschikt voor mbo- en hbo-docenten en studenten aan masteropleidingen zoals Leren en Innoveren, Onderwijskunde, Professioneel Meesterschap of Expertdocent Beroepsonderwijs. Bent u docent en wilt u het boek voorschrijven aan uw studenten van een van deze opleidingen, dan kunt u hier een docentexemplaar aanvragen. 'Tussen opleiding en beroepspraktijk' is daarnaast interessant voor managers, adviseurs, beleidsmedewerkers en HRD’ers in onderwijs of bedrijfsleven.
Introduction and research question Many researchers aim to improve science and mathematics educat... more Introduction and research question Many researchers aim to improve science and mathematics education by searching for methods that make scientific concepts and activities more meaningful to students. Over the past decades various approaches have been proposed and tested, ...
The aim of our current collaboration has been to explore concepts for an emerging framework desig... more The aim of our current collaboration has been to explore concepts for an emerging framework designed to better understand the relationship between learners' inferential reasoning in statistics and their processes of argumentation embedded mostly in context. The concepts we will present grow out of our reading of philosophy, the literature in different fields on argumentation and inference, and our experiences over several years with a wide range of students and adults involved in drawing statistical inferences. This preparatory ...
Draijer, J., Bakker, A., Tromp, S., & Akkerman, S. F. (2017). Interesses en studiekeuze van j... more Draijer, J., Bakker, A., Tromp, S., & Akkerman, S. F. (2017). Interesses en studiekeuze van jongeren met betatalent. Onderzoek naar leerlingen van Junior College Utrecht en U-Talent Academie. Utrecht: Freudenthal Instituut.
There is increasing attention for interest as a powerful, complex, and integrative construct, ran... more There is increasing attention for interest as a powerful, complex, and integrative construct, ranging in appearance from entirely momentary states of interest to longer-term interest pursuits. Developmental models have shown how these situational interests can develop into individual interests over time. As such, these models have helped to integrate more or less separate research traditions and focus the attention of the field more on the developmental dynamics. This, however, also raises subsequent questions, one being how development can be understood in terms of interest structure. The developmental models seem to suggest that development occurs roughly along the line of six dimensions, which we summarize as the dimensions of historicity, value, agency, frequency, intensity, and mastery. Using an experience sampling method that was implemented in a smartphone application, we prompted 94 adolescents aged 13 to 16 (60% female) to rate each interest they experienced during two week...
Techno-mathematical Literacies (TmL), which are defined as a combination of mathematical, workpla... more Techno-mathematical Literacies (TmL), which are defined as a combination of mathematical, workplace and ICT knowledge, and communicative skills, are acknowledged as important learning goals in STEM education. Still, much remains unknown about ways to address them in teaching and to assess their development. To investigate this, we designed and implemented an innovative course in applied mathematics with a focus on Techno-mathematical Literacies for 1st-year engineering students, and we set out to measure the learning effect of the course. Because measuring TmL is an uncharted terrain, we designed tests that could serve as pre- or posttests. To prevent a test learning effect, we aimed to design two different but equally difficult tests A and B. These were assigned randomly to 68 chemistry students, as a pretest, with the other one serving as posttest after the course. A significant development in TmL was found in the B-pre group, but not in the A-pre group. Therefore, as a follow-up ...
The aim of this discussion group was to put contemporary philosophy to work (cf. Cobb, 2007). Inf... more The aim of this discussion group was to put contemporary philosophy to work (cf. Cobb, 2007). Inferentialism is an example of contemporary philosophy (Brandom, 2000) that increasingly receives interest in mathematics and statistics education. It can be considered an orienting framework that provides epistemological foundations for conceptualizing and analyzing knowledge, learning, communication, and reasoning in the fields of mathematics and statistics. Inferentialism avoids a represen-tationalist perspective on knowledge and learning by focusing on reasoning and inferences (Bakker & Derry, 2011). The Discussion Group (DG) brought together researchers who are interested in the role and use of inferentialism or other contemporary philosophies in mathematics and statistics education. It gave the attendants the opportunity to share perspectives, to question, to discuss, and to make joint efforts in answering the posed key issues. The DG format at ICME provided the opportunity to discuss the significance and the restrictions of the perspective of inferentialism and other contemporary philosophies on the learning and teaching of mathematics and statistics.
Design research is considered a valuable but demanding methodological framework that continues to... more Design research is considered a valuable but demanding methodological framework that continues to generate theoretical and methodological reflection. An important topic to address is that of argumentative grammar, the logic guiding a method and supporting warranted claims, because critics consider it a weak spot of design research. With reference to the history of logic, I challenge these critics' demand of an argumentative grammar that relies solely on structure rather than also on content. The purpose of this paper is to think through what argumentative grammars of design research could look like. Because the literature is so limited on this topic, I draw on interviews with experts in design research to evaluate and discuss my own attempt to formulate an argumentative grammar in relation to possible research questions. One conclusion is that design research requires multiple argumentative grammars depending on the design and the research focus.
To promote students' acquisition of language required for mathematical learning, the employment o... more To promote students' acquisition of language required for mathematical learning, the employment of language-supporting scaffolding strategies (Smit, 2013) has proven to be effective. So far, little is known about how this teaching approach can be upscaled in educational practice. This study investigates the features of a professional development programme focused on teachers' scaffolding of students' mathematical language. In design-based implementation research seven professional development sessions for two professional learning communities in different parts of the Netherlands (consisting of 5 and 10 teachers) were shaped and enacted by four researchers-educators. Over time, all participants (researchers, educator, and teachers) collaboratively identified both process and product features of the professional development programme. Besides insights into these features, this study also yielded professionalized language-oriented primary teachers and a course programme that these teachers and others can employ to further upscale the language-oriented approach in primary mathematics classrooms.
To promote students' acquisition of language required for mathematical learning, the employment o... more To promote students' acquisition of language required for mathematical learning, the employment of language-supporting scaffolding strategies (Smit, 2013) has proven to be effective. So far, little is known about how this teaching approach can be upscaled in educational practice. This study investigates the features of a professional development programme focused on teachers' scaffolding of students' mathematical language. In design-based implementation research seven professional development sessions for two professional learning communities in different parts of the Netherlands (consisting of 5 and 10 teachers) were shaped and enacted by four researchers-educators. Over time, all participants (researchers, educator, and teachers) collaboratively identified both process and product features of the professional development programme. Besides insights into these features, this study also yielded professionalized language-oriented primary teachers and a course programme that these teachers and others can employ to further upscale the language-oriented approach in primary mathematics classrooms.
76 volunteering students aged 9-14 participated in a design-based research study investigating re... more 76 volunteering students aged 9-14 participated in a design-based research study investigating relations between perception, action, and cognition in the context of evaluating an experimental activity for learning the mathematical topic of proportions. In individually administered task-based interviews, participants manipulated a touchscreen tablet, trying to solve a micro-choreography problem involving a " mystery " bimanual coordination. Interface interactions were logged, all screen actions and multimodal utterance were videotaped, and eye-gaze pathways were recorded. For data analysis, eye-tracking pathways were superimposed onto the video data, so we could see where the participants were looking as they moved the virtual objects on the screen. To our surprise, concurrent with improved performance new eye-gaze path patterns emerged that were either static or dynamical but included screen locations bearing no apparent stimuli. Verbal and gestural input suggests that these spontaneous patterns served the participants as " steering wheels " for enhancing their control of the environment. We submit that the process of students exploring, discovering, and articulating these " steering wheels " bears a striking correspondence to Piaget's hypothetical process of reflective abstraction: interiorization, coordination, encapsulation, and generalization. This study is perhaps the first to go beyond clinical data so as to corroborate a theoretical construct key to Piaget's genetic epistemology.
The combination of two methodological resources—natural-user interfaces (NUI) and multimodal lear... more The combination of two methodological resources—natural-user interfaces (NUI) and multimodal learning analytics (MMLA)—is creating opportunities for educational researchers to empirically evaluate seminal models for the hypothetical emergence of concepts from situated sensorimotor activity. 76 participants (9-14 yo) solved tablet-based non-symbolic manipulation tasks designed to foster grounded meanings for the mathematical concept of proportional equivalence. Data gathered in task-based semi-structured clinical interviews included action logging, eye-gaze tracking, and videography. Successful task performance coincided with spontaneous appearance of stable dynamical gaze-path patterns soon followed by multimodal articulation of strategy. Significantly, gaze patterns included uncued non-salient screen locations. We present cumulative results to argue that these 'attentional anchors' mediated participants' problem solving. We interpret the findings as enabling us to revisit, support, refine, and elaborate on central claims of Piaget's theory of genetic epistemology and in particular his insistence on the role of situated motor-action coordination in the process of reflective abstraction.
This review essay first discusses a book authored by the Networking TheoriesGroup and argues that... more This review essay first discusses a book authored by the Networking TheoriesGroup and argues that the strategies for networking of theories are very similar to the learningmechanisms identified in the literature on boundary crossing. I propose that these twotheoretical perspectives may be put into a fruitful dialogue.
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Books by Arthur Bakker
what they learn in different settings, it is very likely that what they have learned in educational settings remains inert. What they have learned in an internship or regular work may not be enriched by what they gained in education or training. It is therefore crucial to think through what implications follow for curriculum and pedagogy in VET when we ask how to support VET learners to make such transitions and connections. Such transitions and making connections have been conceptualized in terms of boundary crossing.
Papers by Arthur Bakker
what they learn in different settings, it is very likely that what they have learned in educational settings remains inert. What they have learned in an internship or regular work may not be enriched by what they gained in education or training. It is therefore crucial to think through what implications follow for curriculum and pedagogy in VET when we ask how to support VET learners to make such transitions and connections. Such transitions and making connections have been conceptualized in terms of boundary crossing.