I am an advocate for local democratic government and governance. After a decade working as a community organiser I have worked for local government organisations in New Zealand for more than 35 years, with a broad focus ranging from strengthening governance to local government finance. My Ph.D., which was finshed in 2011, looked at the topic of strengthenng local government and local government. I am also an occasional lecturer at the School of Government, Victoria University, Wellington.
Democracy is under pressure is under pressure in most parts of the world, with declining voter tu... more Democracy is under pressure is under pressure in most parts of the world, with declining voter turnout, increasing distrust in public institutions, and the rise of illiberal regimes. Solutions to this discontent range from improving electoral process to limiting electoral donations. In almost all cases solutions tend to focus on actions that states should consider, but what about sub-national government? This paper suggests that a critical factor in the future of democracy is the promotion of active citizenship and argues that this is a function for which local governments are perfectly placed to undertake.
This article examines international evidence for the benefits of decentralisation based on new in... more This article examines international evidence for the benefits of decentralisation based on new information published recently by the OECD. It finds benefits from decentralisation, but notes that whether these are realised or not is influenced by the nature of the multi-level governance framework. The applicability of decentralisation to New Zealand is also considered.
Following the acceptance in the early 1990s of "social capital" as a measurable factor in the ove... more Following the acceptance in the early 1990s of "social capital" as a measurable factor in the overall success or otherwise of a community, policy communities began to apply the concept in a variety of contexts. One such context has been the practice of local government and the degree to which participation in local democracy contributes to social capital formation, and, in turn, increases as social capital grows.
Structures and roles for enabling local authorities to maximise their contributions to community wellbeing.r , 2022
"Structures and roles for enabling local authorities to maximise their contributions to community... more "Structures and roles for enabling local authorities to maximise their contributions to community wellbeing and adapt to meet future challenges" is a background paper prepared for the Future for Local Government Panel. The Panel was set up by the New Zealand Labour government, in 2021, following its plan to reorganise the way in which 3 water services were to be delivered, to consider what the future role and function of local government should be.
Local government voters is a summary of the findings of a survey, undertaken by Local Government ... more Local government voters is a summary of the findings of a survey, undertaken by Local Government New Zealand, of those who voted or didn't vote in the 2022 local authority elections in New Zealand Aotearoa.
ELECTED MEMBERS’ CENSUS 2022 // The profile of people elected at the 2022 local government elections, 2023
Local Government New Zealand (LGNZ) undertakes a census of local politicians following the countr... more Local Government New Zealand (LGNZ) undertakes a census of local politicians following the country's triennial local elections. The census of those elected in 2022 shows that, compared to the past, local politicians are more likely to be younger, Māori, female, and have higher educational qualifications.,
While the recent local authority elections attracted their fair share of media headlines, the dom... more While the recent local authority elections attracted their fair share of media headlines, the dominant narrative, as in previous elections, was one of declining turnout and whether or not local government has a future. Little was heard about the nature of the role councils play in their towns, cities and regions, or about the future challenges facing communities and how candidates were planning to deal with them.
Editorial note: Local government in New Zealand exists within a fairly well-defined narrative. Ne... more Editorial note: Local government in New Zealand exists within a fairly well-defined narrative. New Zealand is the most centralised nation within the OECD. Central government is by far the dominant partner in the central-local relationship and recent innovations in local government have tended towards further centralisation, such as the amalgamation into Auckland’s Super-City. While there is, without doubt, some truth to this narrative, it is only part of the story and there is more that needs to be discussed in terms of local government and its role. This includes recognising the genuinely innovative approaches that can be found in just about every local authority in the country, often at the community level and frequently undertaken without any great public acclaim. More thought needs to be given to the legal and constitutional foundations of local government, along with the normative debate as to what the ideal balance between central and local should be. And more attention needs ...
71| 2009 IERA ConferenceBook of Proceedings POLITICISATION AND MANAGERIAL VALUES: RESPONSES FROM... more 71| 2009 IERA ConferenceBook of Proceedings POLITICISATION AND MANAGERIAL VALUES: RESPONSES FROM NEW ZEALAND COUNCILLORS Ali Haidar Monash University Mike Reid, Manager Governance Local government New Zealand Keri Spooner University of ...
Initiatives to reform systems of local government require a strategic approach that considers the... more Initiatives to reform systems of local government require a strategic approach that considers the relationship between functions, structures, and funding, while at the same time ensuring democratic responsiveness. The paper was prepared for New Zealand's Future for Local Government Review.
Volume 2, Number 2 2006 18 Introduction By July 2006 all 85 local authorities expect to have thei... more Volume 2, Number 2 2006 18 Introduction By July 2006 all 85 local authorities expect to have their 10-year Long Term Council Community Plans (LTCCPs) signed and sealed, and passing muster with an unqualified audit report. The new Local Government Act 2002 (LGA 2002) ...
It is not very often that the leader of a political party publicly admits his team got it wrong, ... more It is not very often that the leader of a political party publicly admits his team got it wrong, but that is exactly what David Cameron, the leader of the Conservative Party in the United Kingdom, has recently done. In his manifesto-like paper ‘The Permissive Society’ (2006), in which he outlines his thinking on a new social philosophy, Cameron discusses the apparently sorry state of local government and comments that ‘there is a renewed need for greater local fiscal autonomy and for strong civic institutions’. In discussing how this need arose he further notes, reflecting on the Conservatives’ last period in office, that ‘we Conservatives must accept our share of the blame’.
From Incrementalism to rationalism: a study of local government policy makingpolicy making in local government, 1995
Prepared as a research paper for a Masters of Public Policy in 1995, the paper reviews policy-ma... more Prepared as a research paper for a Masters of Public Policy in 1995, the paper reviews policy-making processes in a sample of NZ councils to determine the degree to which those processes reflect the influence of the incremental or rational/synoptic approach to policy-making.
Social Policy Practice and Processes in Aotearoa New Zealand, 2022
Although wellbeing is often seen as the primary domain of central government the contribution of ... more Although wellbeing is often seen as the primary domain of central government the contribution of local government and local institutions is often overlooked. This paper provides an overview of how local government and social policy in New Zealand over recent years.
Public Sector: the journal of Public Administration New Zealand, 2021
A more citizen-oriented form of government is necessary in order to address the challenges our so... more A more citizen-oriented form of government is necessary in order to address the challenges our societies are facing, one that enables communities to more effectively shape local policies and programmes. This paper asks whether or not the public service is ready to let go. An edited version was published in Public Sector, NZ's journal of public administration, April 2021.
Originally conceived as a way to engage citizens in dialogue about the future of their communitie... more Originally conceived as a way to engage citizens in dialogue about the future of their communities long-term planning in New Zealand local government has become a rigid compliance exercise that constrains meaningful engagement rather than facilitating it. Published in New Century Local Government, (eds) Sansom, G, and McKinlay, P, 2013, Commonwealth Secretariat, London.
Strategic planning is a management tool introduced during the recent period of public sector reform intended to improve the efficacy and efficiency of public organisations. Councils in New Zealand, like elsewhere, were quick and enthusiastic adopters and a range of innovative approaches was developed. Yet 20 years on and that innovation is at risk of being lost due to an increasing emphasis on accountability and compliance. 1 Long-term council planning is required to address multiple objectives, with the risk that 'strategy' will be crowded out. It is not clear whether the emphasis on accountability and financial planning allows sufficient space for innovative engagement with citizens about possible futures. While we treat strategic planning as a relatively new technique, one of a bundle of tools loosely termed 'New Public Management' (Rhodes 1997), it would be a mistake to assume that local government has never engaged in long-term planning. Since their creation councils have planned for, and invested in, the future development of infrastructure and amenities that growing settlements will require. Yet formal strategic planning is a recent phenomenon, appearing in New Zealand local government only after the comprehensive reform of the sector in 1988/9, which both modernised its processes and created larger and more competent units. 2 One legacy of reform was a much smaller number of local councils, and these larger authorities were willing and able to experiment with new and innovative approaches to organisational matters. Strategic planning (entirely discretionary) was one of those innovations, with almost all councils having produced some form of strategic plan by the mid-1990s. Strategic planning can be understood as the 'disciplined effort to produce fundamental decisions and actions that shape and guide what an organisation (or other entity) is, what it does, and why it does it' (Bryson 2004, p. 6). In the public sector strategic planning is commonplace, and sits among the tools that local governments employ to ensure they provide the appropriate services at the right quality level in order to meet the expectations of their publics. It is one of a suite of related techniques that include strategic management and strategic thinking. The terms are closely interrelated: while strategic management is concerned with developing a continuing commitment to the mission and vision of the organisation and ensuring a clear focus on the organisation's strategic agenda, strategic thinking is more concerned with synthesis, questioning conventional assumptions and seeking integration around broadly crafted visions (Local Futures 2006). Some form of requirement to undertake strategic planning in local government can be found in most national jurisdictions; however, the way this is done varies considerably, 1
Rewarding, interesting, and frustrating. How elected members feel about their time in local government, 2021
The quality of our local democracies ultimately depends upon the knowledge, skills, and commitmen... more The quality of our local democracies ultimately depends upon the knowledge, skills, and commitment of locally elected representatives. It is a role that is frequently taken for granted, poorly remunerated, and lacking support. This paper examines how elected members in New Zealand feel about their role and what could be done to address identified concerns.
Effective representative local democracy involves representing the interests of citizens as well ... more Effective representative local democracy involves representing the interests of citizens as well as being representative of them. This report on the diversity of local politicians in New Zealand shows proportionally more young people, Maori, and women were elected at the October 2019 local elections signalling, perhaps, a new style of local politics.
Democracy is under pressure is under pressure in most parts of the world, with declining voter tu... more Democracy is under pressure is under pressure in most parts of the world, with declining voter turnout, increasing distrust in public institutions, and the rise of illiberal regimes. Solutions to this discontent range from improving electoral process to limiting electoral donations. In almost all cases solutions tend to focus on actions that states should consider, but what about sub-national government? This paper suggests that a critical factor in the future of democracy is the promotion of active citizenship and argues that this is a function for which local governments are perfectly placed to undertake.
This article examines international evidence for the benefits of decentralisation based on new in... more This article examines international evidence for the benefits of decentralisation based on new information published recently by the OECD. It finds benefits from decentralisation, but notes that whether these are realised or not is influenced by the nature of the multi-level governance framework. The applicability of decentralisation to New Zealand is also considered.
Following the acceptance in the early 1990s of "social capital" as a measurable factor in the ove... more Following the acceptance in the early 1990s of "social capital" as a measurable factor in the overall success or otherwise of a community, policy communities began to apply the concept in a variety of contexts. One such context has been the practice of local government and the degree to which participation in local democracy contributes to social capital formation, and, in turn, increases as social capital grows.
Structures and roles for enabling local authorities to maximise their contributions to community wellbeing.r , 2022
"Structures and roles for enabling local authorities to maximise their contributions to community... more "Structures and roles for enabling local authorities to maximise their contributions to community wellbeing and adapt to meet future challenges" is a background paper prepared for the Future for Local Government Panel. The Panel was set up by the New Zealand Labour government, in 2021, following its plan to reorganise the way in which 3 water services were to be delivered, to consider what the future role and function of local government should be.
Local government voters is a summary of the findings of a survey, undertaken by Local Government ... more Local government voters is a summary of the findings of a survey, undertaken by Local Government New Zealand, of those who voted or didn't vote in the 2022 local authority elections in New Zealand Aotearoa.
ELECTED MEMBERS’ CENSUS 2022 // The profile of people elected at the 2022 local government elections, 2023
Local Government New Zealand (LGNZ) undertakes a census of local politicians following the countr... more Local Government New Zealand (LGNZ) undertakes a census of local politicians following the country's triennial local elections. The census of those elected in 2022 shows that, compared to the past, local politicians are more likely to be younger, Māori, female, and have higher educational qualifications.,
While the recent local authority elections attracted their fair share of media headlines, the dom... more While the recent local authority elections attracted their fair share of media headlines, the dominant narrative, as in previous elections, was one of declining turnout and whether or not local government has a future. Little was heard about the nature of the role councils play in their towns, cities and regions, or about the future challenges facing communities and how candidates were planning to deal with them.
Editorial note: Local government in New Zealand exists within a fairly well-defined narrative. Ne... more Editorial note: Local government in New Zealand exists within a fairly well-defined narrative. New Zealand is the most centralised nation within the OECD. Central government is by far the dominant partner in the central-local relationship and recent innovations in local government have tended towards further centralisation, such as the amalgamation into Auckland’s Super-City. While there is, without doubt, some truth to this narrative, it is only part of the story and there is more that needs to be discussed in terms of local government and its role. This includes recognising the genuinely innovative approaches that can be found in just about every local authority in the country, often at the community level and frequently undertaken without any great public acclaim. More thought needs to be given to the legal and constitutional foundations of local government, along with the normative debate as to what the ideal balance between central and local should be. And more attention needs ...
71| 2009 IERA ConferenceBook of Proceedings POLITICISATION AND MANAGERIAL VALUES: RESPONSES FROM... more 71| 2009 IERA ConferenceBook of Proceedings POLITICISATION AND MANAGERIAL VALUES: RESPONSES FROM NEW ZEALAND COUNCILLORS Ali Haidar Monash University Mike Reid, Manager Governance Local government New Zealand Keri Spooner University of ...
Initiatives to reform systems of local government require a strategic approach that considers the... more Initiatives to reform systems of local government require a strategic approach that considers the relationship between functions, structures, and funding, while at the same time ensuring democratic responsiveness. The paper was prepared for New Zealand's Future for Local Government Review.
Volume 2, Number 2 2006 18 Introduction By July 2006 all 85 local authorities expect to have thei... more Volume 2, Number 2 2006 18 Introduction By July 2006 all 85 local authorities expect to have their 10-year Long Term Council Community Plans (LTCCPs) signed and sealed, and passing muster with an unqualified audit report. The new Local Government Act 2002 (LGA 2002) ...
It is not very often that the leader of a political party publicly admits his team got it wrong, ... more It is not very often that the leader of a political party publicly admits his team got it wrong, but that is exactly what David Cameron, the leader of the Conservative Party in the United Kingdom, has recently done. In his manifesto-like paper ‘The Permissive Society’ (2006), in which he outlines his thinking on a new social philosophy, Cameron discusses the apparently sorry state of local government and comments that ‘there is a renewed need for greater local fiscal autonomy and for strong civic institutions’. In discussing how this need arose he further notes, reflecting on the Conservatives’ last period in office, that ‘we Conservatives must accept our share of the blame’.
From Incrementalism to rationalism: a study of local government policy makingpolicy making in local government, 1995
Prepared as a research paper for a Masters of Public Policy in 1995, the paper reviews policy-ma... more Prepared as a research paper for a Masters of Public Policy in 1995, the paper reviews policy-making processes in a sample of NZ councils to determine the degree to which those processes reflect the influence of the incremental or rational/synoptic approach to policy-making.
Social Policy Practice and Processes in Aotearoa New Zealand, 2022
Although wellbeing is often seen as the primary domain of central government the contribution of ... more Although wellbeing is often seen as the primary domain of central government the contribution of local government and local institutions is often overlooked. This paper provides an overview of how local government and social policy in New Zealand over recent years.
Public Sector: the journal of Public Administration New Zealand, 2021
A more citizen-oriented form of government is necessary in order to address the challenges our so... more A more citizen-oriented form of government is necessary in order to address the challenges our societies are facing, one that enables communities to more effectively shape local policies and programmes. This paper asks whether or not the public service is ready to let go. An edited version was published in Public Sector, NZ's journal of public administration, April 2021.
Originally conceived as a way to engage citizens in dialogue about the future of their communitie... more Originally conceived as a way to engage citizens in dialogue about the future of their communities long-term planning in New Zealand local government has become a rigid compliance exercise that constrains meaningful engagement rather than facilitating it. Published in New Century Local Government, (eds) Sansom, G, and McKinlay, P, 2013, Commonwealth Secretariat, London.
Strategic planning is a management tool introduced during the recent period of public sector reform intended to improve the efficacy and efficiency of public organisations. Councils in New Zealand, like elsewhere, were quick and enthusiastic adopters and a range of innovative approaches was developed. Yet 20 years on and that innovation is at risk of being lost due to an increasing emphasis on accountability and compliance. 1 Long-term council planning is required to address multiple objectives, with the risk that 'strategy' will be crowded out. It is not clear whether the emphasis on accountability and financial planning allows sufficient space for innovative engagement with citizens about possible futures. While we treat strategic planning as a relatively new technique, one of a bundle of tools loosely termed 'New Public Management' (Rhodes 1997), it would be a mistake to assume that local government has never engaged in long-term planning. Since their creation councils have planned for, and invested in, the future development of infrastructure and amenities that growing settlements will require. Yet formal strategic planning is a recent phenomenon, appearing in New Zealand local government only after the comprehensive reform of the sector in 1988/9, which both modernised its processes and created larger and more competent units. 2 One legacy of reform was a much smaller number of local councils, and these larger authorities were willing and able to experiment with new and innovative approaches to organisational matters. Strategic planning (entirely discretionary) was one of those innovations, with almost all councils having produced some form of strategic plan by the mid-1990s. Strategic planning can be understood as the 'disciplined effort to produce fundamental decisions and actions that shape and guide what an organisation (or other entity) is, what it does, and why it does it' (Bryson 2004, p. 6). In the public sector strategic planning is commonplace, and sits among the tools that local governments employ to ensure they provide the appropriate services at the right quality level in order to meet the expectations of their publics. It is one of a suite of related techniques that include strategic management and strategic thinking. The terms are closely interrelated: while strategic management is concerned with developing a continuing commitment to the mission and vision of the organisation and ensuring a clear focus on the organisation's strategic agenda, strategic thinking is more concerned with synthesis, questioning conventional assumptions and seeking integration around broadly crafted visions (Local Futures 2006). Some form of requirement to undertake strategic planning in local government can be found in most national jurisdictions; however, the way this is done varies considerably, 1
Rewarding, interesting, and frustrating. How elected members feel about their time in local government, 2021
The quality of our local democracies ultimately depends upon the knowledge, skills, and commitmen... more The quality of our local democracies ultimately depends upon the knowledge, skills, and commitment of locally elected representatives. It is a role that is frequently taken for granted, poorly remunerated, and lacking support. This paper examines how elected members in New Zealand feel about their role and what could be done to address identified concerns.
Effective representative local democracy involves representing the interests of citizens as well ... more Effective representative local democracy involves representing the interests of citizens as well as being representative of them. This report on the diversity of local politicians in New Zealand shows proportionally more young people, Maori, and women were elected at the October 2019 local elections signalling, perhaps, a new style of local politics.
Following the passage of the Local Government Amendment Act 1989, (LGA 1989), New Zealand local g... more Following the passage of the Local Government Amendment Act 1989, (LGA 1989), New Zealand local government was required to shift from cash to accrual accounting. The process was largely an administrative or technical one, managed by local chief financial officers. In contrast, the introduction of output accounting, rather than being prescribed by central government, occurred through voluntary adoption as the logical next step to accrual accounting. The lack of prescription meant that no formal guidelines or advice was developed to greater consistency. Variation in output accounting practice occurs at the level of output definition, the level of complexity, and the way in which they are costed. Issues also exist in the way in which councils approach the output/outcome dichotomy, which is central to the model. Not only does outcome specification vary, but so does the capacity of councils to make linkages between outputs and outcomes. While the technical aspects of accrual accounting and output reporting appear to have been managed successfully, most councils have yet to fully exploit the opportunities made available by more specific definition of outputs and more accurate costing.
Voter turnout, rightly or wrongly, is regarded by many as the critical measure of a government's ... more Voter turnout, rightly or wrongly, is regarded by many as the critical measure of a government's democratic legitimacy, but what does this mean for local government? Is it reasonable to expect turnout in local elections to be on a par with that in national elections?
The 2022 local elections in New Zealand will be the first elections since 2001 at which voters wi... more The 2022 local elections in New Zealand will be the first elections since 2001 at which voters will no longer be voting for district health boards, which are to be abolished in favour of a national health provider. The result will be a less complex voting process, with a shorter voting paper and fewer candidates. Speculations exists about the likely impact of these changes on voter turnout.
Despite the fact that New Zealand is experiencing an acute shortage of social housing successive ... more Despite the fact that New Zealand is experiencing an acute shortage of social housing successive central governments have largely ignored local government's role in social housing and continuing requests for assistance.
Councillors are somewhat critical to our system of local government and should their role change ... more Councillors are somewhat critical to our system of local government and should their role change to the degree that they can no longer meet the expectations of their voters we will have something of a problem. Just as concerning would be the prospect of towns and cities in which residents no longer had the right to elect their own councillors and mayors, what would that mean for effective local government?
What you wanted to know about the 2022 elections but were afraid to ask, 2022
A presentation that provides an overviews of the 2022 local authority elections in NZ, covering t... more A presentation that provides an overviews of the 2022 local authority elections in NZ, covering the candidates, voters and non-voters, turnout. perceptions of the election process, and a profile of those elected.
Engagement between Iwi Maori and local government operates within a complex environment of involv... more Engagement between Iwi Maori and local government operates within a complex environment of involving multiple expectations within multiple statutory frameworks. Not surprisingly different models of engagement have developed, some of which are more successful than others at achieving meaningful relationships and acknowledging the unique status of indigenous organisations.
The Theory and Practice of Local Government Reform, 2008
This chapter examines the structural reform of local government in New Zealand between 1989 and 2... more This chapter examines the structural reform of local government in New Zealand between 1989 and 2002 by analyzing practice through the lens of new conceptual models to evaluate the factors that determine whether structural change is voluntary or mandatory.
Reform has been an ongoing feature of local government in many parts of the world, particularly i... more Reform has been an ongoing feature of local government in many parts of the world, particularly in recent decades. While specific approaches have reflected the unique circumstances of each society common trends and objectives can be found, such as the desire to improve efficiency and strengthen democratic responsiveness. The way in which governments go about achieving these potentially opposing objectives varies. Some choose a consolidation option in the expectation that larger authorities will create economies of scale. Others choose the localist option in order to bring decision-making closer to citizens and encourage inter-council bench marking. Yet the frequency of reform suggests that finding the right mix of regulations and incentives to achieve efficient local services and a responsive democracy is still some time away, certainly if the New Zealand experience is typical.
Public sector reform, globalization and increasing demands by citizens have increased the need fo... more Public sector reform, globalization and increasing demands by citizens have increased the need for local governments to work with other organisations to address complex policy and management issues. These pressures have compelled local governments to innovate and venture into areas that were previously considered to be outside its remit, including a shift from a focus on 'government' to one of 'governance'.
Community boards are a form of sub-municipal elected body with responsibility for advocating for ... more Community boards are a form of sub-municipal elected body with responsibility for advocating for sub-local and neighbourhood issues. While established as part of the reorganisation of local government in 1989 their existence depends to a high degree of the grace and favour of their parent council. At least once every six years councils review their representation arrangements, including whether or not to have community boards. With many councils reviewing their democratic arrangements in 2021 the future of community boards has become more and more topical, with boards in many districts and cities having to make the case for their continued existence. Indeed, given the Government's Future for Local Government Review, some councils are suggesting that future reform will make community boards irrelevant. Yet quite the opposite is true. New Zealand does not need less local democracy, it actually need a lot more.
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Strategic planning is a management tool introduced during the recent period of public sector reform intended to improve the efficacy and efficiency of public organisations. Councils in New Zealand, like elsewhere, were quick and enthusiastic adopters and a range of innovative approaches was developed. Yet 20 years on and that innovation is at risk of being lost due to an increasing emphasis on accountability and compliance. 1 Long-term council planning is required to address multiple objectives, with the risk that 'strategy' will be crowded out. It is not clear whether the emphasis on accountability and financial planning allows sufficient space for innovative engagement with citizens about possible futures. While we treat strategic planning as a relatively new technique, one of a bundle of tools loosely termed 'New Public Management' (Rhodes 1997), it would be a mistake to assume that local government has never engaged in long-term planning. Since their creation councils have planned for, and invested in, the future development of infrastructure and amenities that growing settlements will require. Yet formal strategic planning is a recent phenomenon, appearing in New Zealand local government only after the comprehensive reform of the sector in 1988/9, which both modernised its processes and created larger and more competent units. 2 One legacy of reform was a much smaller number of local councils, and these larger authorities were willing and able to experiment with new and innovative approaches to organisational matters. Strategic planning (entirely discretionary) was one of those innovations, with almost all councils having produced some form of strategic plan by the mid-1990s. Strategic planning can be understood as the 'disciplined effort to produce fundamental decisions and actions that shape and guide what an organisation (or other entity) is, what it does, and why it does it' (Bryson 2004, p. 6). In the public sector strategic planning is commonplace, and sits among the tools that local governments employ to ensure they provide the appropriate services at the right quality level in order to meet the expectations of their publics. It is one of a suite of related techniques that include strategic management and strategic thinking. The terms are closely interrelated: while strategic management is concerned with developing a continuing commitment to the mission and vision of the organisation and ensuring a clear focus on the organisation's strategic agenda, strategic thinking is more concerned with synthesis, questioning conventional assumptions and seeking integration around broadly crafted visions (Local Futures 2006). Some form of requirement to undertake strategic planning in local government can be found in most national jurisdictions; however, the way this is done varies considerably, 1
Strategic planning is a management tool introduced during the recent period of public sector reform intended to improve the efficacy and efficiency of public organisations. Councils in New Zealand, like elsewhere, were quick and enthusiastic adopters and a range of innovative approaches was developed. Yet 20 years on and that innovation is at risk of being lost due to an increasing emphasis on accountability and compliance. 1 Long-term council planning is required to address multiple objectives, with the risk that 'strategy' will be crowded out. It is not clear whether the emphasis on accountability and financial planning allows sufficient space for innovative engagement with citizens about possible futures. While we treat strategic planning as a relatively new technique, one of a bundle of tools loosely termed 'New Public Management' (Rhodes 1997), it would be a mistake to assume that local government has never engaged in long-term planning. Since their creation councils have planned for, and invested in, the future development of infrastructure and amenities that growing settlements will require. Yet formal strategic planning is a recent phenomenon, appearing in New Zealand local government only after the comprehensive reform of the sector in 1988/9, which both modernised its processes and created larger and more competent units. 2 One legacy of reform was a much smaller number of local councils, and these larger authorities were willing and able to experiment with new and innovative approaches to organisational matters. Strategic planning (entirely discretionary) was one of those innovations, with almost all councils having produced some form of strategic plan by the mid-1990s. Strategic planning can be understood as the 'disciplined effort to produce fundamental decisions and actions that shape and guide what an organisation (or other entity) is, what it does, and why it does it' (Bryson 2004, p. 6). In the public sector strategic planning is commonplace, and sits among the tools that local governments employ to ensure they provide the appropriate services at the right quality level in order to meet the expectations of their publics. It is one of a suite of related techniques that include strategic management and strategic thinking. The terms are closely interrelated: while strategic management is concerned with developing a continuing commitment to the mission and vision of the organisation and ensuring a clear focus on the organisation's strategic agenda, strategic thinking is more concerned with synthesis, questioning conventional assumptions and seeking integration around broadly crafted visions (Local Futures 2006). Some form of requirement to undertake strategic planning in local government can be found in most national jurisdictions; however, the way this is done varies considerably, 1
recent decades. While specific approaches have reflected the unique circumstances of each society common trends and objectives can be found, such as the desire to improve efficiency and strengthen democratic responsiveness. The way in which governments go about achieving these potentially
opposing objectives varies. Some choose a consolidation option in the expectation that larger authorities will create economies of scale. Others choose the localist option in order to bring decision-making closer to citizens and encourage inter-council bench marking. Yet the frequency of reform suggests that finding the right mix of regulations and incentives to achieve efficient local services and a responsive
democracy is still some time away, certainly if the New Zealand experience is typical.