Papers by Stefanie Siebenhütter
Cogent Education, 2023
This study analyzes Chinese, Spanish, English, Thai, Japanese, Korean, French and German speakers... more This study analyzes Chinese, Spanish, English, Thai, Japanese, Korean, French and German speakers’ motivation to teach their first language as a foreign language (FL) online without being trained as a second language teacher (SLT) and compares them with professionally trained SLTs. The threshold for starting SLT without teacher certification in FLT has significantly decreased simultaneously with the increasing number of online platforms allowing untrained L1-speakers to teach it without the need for prior formal certification. Long-term implementation and SLT success in online teaching depend on motivation, contextual and personal variables, determining if professional teachers (PT) or untrained community tutors (CT) continue or stop their online SLT activities. To evaluate possible differences between PT and CT motivation and success quantitative data were collected (using a 22-item survey) from a sample of participants (N = 135) teaching their first language (L1=Chinese, Spanish, English, Thai, Japanese, Korean, French and German) as a FL online. Findings are discussed concerning CT and PT success, professional development and in-service training. Findings suggest that although initial difficulties untrained SLTs may face differ from early-career PT, they can succeed in online SLT being able to make a living from it and under circumstances become a competition for traditionally trained SLTs. This opens opportunities for individuals to participate in a field of labour they would have not had a chance otherwise.
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Gutenberg Open Science, 2023
The aim of this paper is to discuss the concept of identity and its relationship to language prof... more The aim of this paper is to discuss the concept of identity and its relationship to language proficiency. In particular, the question of an influence on an individual's identity through near-native L2 proficiency will be investigated. This includes the factor of age of language acquisition and the "Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)" also referred to as "sensitive period" or "age effects" in recent years. Furthermore, the development of deep emotional bonds to an L2 and the L2 community is discussed, leading to the concept of identity and its use in applied linguistics. The paper concludes that defining the concept of identity based solely on language is not fruitful. Rather, it leads to further terminological confusion, as does equating identity with social roles. This suggests for a concept of identity that is defined independently of the languages an individual is able to understand and speak, bearing in mind, that languages may influence an individual's self-concept as much as social roles and the living environment.
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Gutenberg Open Science, 2023
This empirical study examines the ways multilingualism influences the identity of minority indivi... more This empirical study examines the ways multilingualism influences the identity of minority individuals and minority groups. The motivations for their specific social behavior are rarely obvious to the multilingual speakers themselves, which made it necessary to scrutinize their behaviors and attitudes using a mixed-methods analysis (including sociolinguistic interviews, questionnaire surveys, and field observations) of the mostly unconscious processes of identity formation among multilingual Kui speakers in northeastern Thailand. The approach used, focusing on group behavior and analyzing extralinguistic sociocultural data in terms of social identity formation in a minority group, revealed specific rituals and practices. These findings add to the knowledge of overt multilingual language use in the context of multilingual Kui people and demonstrate how social psychology and sociology can be used to analyze the identities of multilingual minorities and show how multilingual language use does not produce multiple identities. The investigation, using theories of several social and linguistic approaches to understand identity construction, demonstrates how important the Thai national identity is and how strongly it influences the identity formation among the minority group.
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Ampersand, 2023
This paper visualizes why the identity of multilingual speakers cannot be described adequately wi... more This paper visualizes why the identity of multilingual speakers cannot be described adequately with the term "multilingual identity". Exemplarily, the multilingual profiles of multilingual speakers in Northeastern Thailand are explained showing that language may come without an identity signal. It appears that multilingualism is generally rather situational functional. Instead of equating identity with language, the research shows how the multilingual profile of individuals may influence their self-concept i.e., their identity. The paper also reviews other discipline's identity concepts and their applicability to linguistic research aiming to fill the research gap concerning the theoretical modelling of linguistic identity and the lack of a standardized examination method for linguistic identity. The aim of this paper is to describe theoretical aspects of the modelling of linguistic identity and to provide a standardized methodology that can be used to capture what was identified as a linguistic identity on the example of the Kui minority.
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This mixed methods research investigates Japanese native speakers' motivation, hopes, and experie... more This mixed methods research investigates Japanese native speakers' motivation, hopes, and experiences as online teachers of Japanese as a foreign language (JFL) during the COVID-19 restrictions in 2020 and thereafter. The data allow for deep qualitative analysis of native speakers and focus on the reasons for becoming a language teacher, circumstances forcing them to shift work and opportunity to continue or quit online teaching after the restrictions abate. Quantitative data (N = 51) and qualitative data from a sub-sample (N = 10) were collected from Japanese L1 speakers living in Japan, England, Canada, Italy, Germany and Spain. The main questions discussed are (1) the reasons for becoming an online JFL teacher (2) the motivation to continue with Japanese online teaching even when returning to a prior position was possible, (3) experiences, feelings, hopes and motivations while working as a JFL online teacher (4) and implications for future change in online FLT, and digital work. The findings suggest, that despite initial difficulties untrained JFL may face, they can succeed in their online teaching activities and thus become a competition for professionally trained JFL teachers, i.e., in the development of community teaching.
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Static spatial Relations in Vietnamese A case-study of Vietnamese and German-Vietnamese bilingual speakers, 2023
The aim of this paper is a semantic and typological case-study of static spatial reference in Vie... more The aim of this paper is a semantic and typological case-study of static spatial reference in Vietnamese. This includes reviewing already presented theories for the description of Vietnamese spatial language and the representation of the encoding of spatial relations in Vietnamese. Data from Vietnamese speakers (L1) grown up in Germany were analysed and the paper presents a rapid observation of selected Vietnamese static spatial relations. Methodologically, one widely known elicitation tool, the topological relations picture series (TRPS) for the study of topological relations were used. The analyzation allows reassuring that the expression of spatial concepts is not universal, but rather language-specific. This means that there is no semantic universality when encoding space. As a result, the paper visualizes how the encoding of specific spatial situations and especially the semantic scope differs considerably in a European language like German and the Southeastasian Vietnamese.
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u.a. Siebenhütter, Stefanie. 2022. Mehrsprachigkeit und Identität. Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovač.
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In some languages assertions about ‘somebody’ or ‘nobody’ are existential in a strong sense, i.e.... more In some languages assertions about ‘somebody’ or ‘nobody’ are existential in a strong sense, i.e. they need or prominently allow an explicit syntactic marker of existence (‘there is’, ‘exist’). This paper presents a state-of-the-art typology of existential indefinite constructions and finds the typological understanding to be inconclusive in many respects. The paper responds to this inconclusiveness with a study of the existential indefinite constructions in four mainland Southeast Asian languages, namely Thai, Lao, Vietnamese, and Khmer. These are languages in which existential indefinite constructions take pride of place, although the typological literature has not acknowledged this. The paper then sketches the implications of the study of the aforementioned languages for typology.
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The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia, 2021
In this chapter language convergence in an areal perspective has been explained, with a focus on ... more In this chapter language convergence in an areal perspective has been explained, with a focus on conceptual, lexical, and semantic convergence in the region of MSEA. The examples show that MSEA is a linguistic area where many languages, irrespective of their genetic kinship, exhibit the same concepts for the encoding of several concepts i. e., of basic domains such as space, time, and emotions. It was explained, how shared cultural categories may help defining linguistic areas via cultural representations. Areal linguistic research included major investigations in the last few decades. One of the future research needs, although not just in areal linguistics, is the more extensive and detailed documentation and study of minority languages as the study of undescribed small languages can give us new insights in the make-up of linguistic areas. There is (still) a rich variety of minority languages within a relatively small geographical area. In MSEA, as in other areas around the world, there is a need to fill in the gaps in language research by including the hundreds of little or completely unstudied minority languages into the fold of language research (Haspelmath 2009: 162). Only at a few places the distinct linguistic diversity of the MSEA area has been studied in detail. There is little knowledge about the majority of MSEA and its diversified languages. Among the major languages of MSEA, Vietnamese is high on the list of languages to be studied in further detail, as existing descriptions and analyses pertaining to these two languages do not meet all criteria needed for basic linguistic description and documentation. Although, overall there are more published grammars on minority languages than in the past, however, some of these have been published in SEA languages but not in English or other major world languages. These are, therefore, not easily accessible to researchers from around the world (personal communication: Alves 2016). Without high-quality material on the major languages of MSEA, further investigation of the numerous existing varieties and dialects is difficult. Another desiderate of – not only, but also areal linguistic – research are the multilingual speakers in the SEA area. Speakers of minority languages, who are often multilingual with more than three or four languages right from early childhood, are an example of the potential of creativity of the human cognition. Therefore, multilingualism is another worthwhile focus of future research in specific regions of MSEA.
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This empirical study examined the ways in which multilingualism influences the community identiti... more This empirical study examined the ways in which multilingualism influences the community identities of individuals and minority groups. The motivations for their specific social behaviors are rarely obvious to the multilingual speakers themselves, which made it necessary to scrutinize their behaviors and attitudes using a mixed-methods analysis (including sociolinguistic interviews, questionnaire surveys, and field observations) of the mostly unconscious processes of identity formation among multilingual Kui speakers in northeastern Thailand. The approach used, focusing on group behavior and analyzing extralinguistic sociocultural data in terms of social identity formation in a minority group, revealed specific rituals and practices. These findings add to the knowledge of overt multilingual language use in the context of multilingual Kui people and demonstrate how social psychology and sociology can be used to analyze the identities of multilingual minorities and show how multilingualism itself does not imply multiple identities. This investigation, using theories of multiple social and linguistic identities, demonstrates how important Thai national identity is and how strongly it influences identity formation in a minority group.
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Language practices and attitudes among young minority language speakers in Thailand, focusing on ... more Language practices and attitudes among young minority language speakers in Thailand, focusing on the Kui language, are examined. Sociolinguistic data obtained from three months of fieldwork in the northeastern provinces of Surin, Sisaket and Ubon Ratchathani and in Bangkok provide insights into the language competence, language attitudes and linguistic awareness of young Kui speakers. We found that young speakers use language differently in various settings. Males and females use minority and majority languages differently and with varying confidence. Internal and external motivations such as language prestige and identity condition may foretell the future of the Kui language in Thailand. The dynamics of minority language use and the preservation and transmission of threatened and shifting languages are highlighted. This study reveals the current speaking preferences of young Kui speakers and allows for predictions regarding their prospective short- and long-term language use.
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The aim of this chapter is to discuss the influences of sociocultural and historical factors, suc... more The aim of this chapter is to discuss the influences of sociocultural and historical factors, such as religion, on language and the development of linguistic areas. It is argued that the importance of sociocultural factors in areal linguistics is underresearched. This is the case especially for religion. This chapter discusses such sociocultural factors on the example of the linguistic area Mainland and Insular Southeast Asia (MSEA and ISEA). It is shown that early migration, as well as the cultural and linguistic heritage, brought to MSEA together with Buddhism, Hinduism, and Confucianism, needs to be considered. It is argued that extralinguistic factors, such as religion and politics, greatly influence conceptualization and consequently language usage. This can lead to linguistic areas, developed on the basis of, for example, religious practices. As a result, extralinguistic factors provide a rich field for future research in linguistic geography and areal studies, which holds the potential of a better understanding of the intertwined relation between language and nonlinguistic factors.
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This chapter describes a case study of spatial reference in Thai, Lao, Khmer, and Vietnamese with... more This chapter describes a case study of spatial reference in Thai, Lao, Khmer, and Vietnamese within the field of areal linguistics. As space is seen as one of the basic domains of conceptualization, spatial reference provides an exemplary approach for investigation at the conceptual-semantic level. It is widely agreed that Mainland Southeast Asia forms one of the prime examples of a linguistic area or Sprachbund. Traditionally, languages which show a significant amount of parallels on the morphological, phonetic, and structural level developed during long-term contacts even though they are belonging to different language families which form a distinct linguistic area. At this point, the conceptual-semantic level as a criterion for linguistic areas is underexplored in the literature. By identifying a significant number of parallels and conceptual borrowings of semantic value of static spatial reference, this chapter analyzes further opportunities for studying linguistic areas.
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This paper discusses the Vietnamese polyfunctional element được, which can be seen as belonging t... more This paper discusses the Vietnamese polyfunctional element được, which can be seen as belonging to a class of its own among the Vietnamese mood and modality markers. Of interest in this paper is the possibility that được represents one manifestation of a regional phenomenon, as similar elements can be seen in the surrounding Southeast Asian languages such as Lao, Zhuang, and Thai. This phenomenon, a type of split in modal functions from a typological perspective, has already been addressed in several studies. The focus lies on the interplay between sociocultural factors and linguistic functions and the broad array of meanings that được can convey. It is argued that the meaning of được can only be properly understood with sufficient cultural knowledge as shared by the language community. This means that the correct interpretation of được is always context-dependent – probably even more so than other polyfunctional elements. In linguistic research the analysis of typological data did not provide any new insights. Accordingly, this paper discusses the ongoing struggle in linguistic research to analyze multifunctional terms like được. This appraisal concludes that the multifunctional được will be a fruitful topic for future sociolin-guistic investigations to determine whether including sociocultural data can help to understand this areal phenomenon.
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This paper describes a case study of spatial reference in Thai, Lao, Khmer and Vietnamese within ... more This paper describes a case study of spatial reference in Thai, Lao, Khmer and Vietnamese within the field of areal linguistics. As space is seen as one of the basic domains of conceptualization, spatial reference provides an exemplary approach for investigation at the conceptual-semantic level. It is widely agreed that Mainland Southeast Asia forms one of the prime examples of a linguistic area or Sprachbund. Traditionally, languages which show a significant amount of parallels on the morphological, phonetic and structural level, developed during long term contacts even though belonging to different language families which form a distinct linguistic area. At this point the semantic-conceptual level as a criterion for linguistic areas is underexplored in the literature. By identifying a significant number of parallels and conceptual borrowings of semantic value of static spatial reference, this paper analyzes further opportunities for studying linguistic areas.
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Variation und Typologie, 2016
This paper examines a key characteristic of isolating languages in Southeast Asia and Africa: Tra... more This paper examines a key characteristic of isolating languages in Southeast Asia and Africa: Transcategoriality (categorial change). In these languages linguistic units emerge as generic ideas, which are either not categorized at all or are only weakly categorized, while their syntactic status is specified by the discourse. Variation on the categorial level results from an initial under-specification which can relate to an analytical and lexical strategy to express grammatical relations. In East and Southeast Asian languages, a strong tendency to the formation of grammatical markers defined by their high degree of indeterminacy can be observed. These markers are despite their missing obligatory categories usually divided into classical western biased categories. Using the Vietnamese polyfunctional TAM marker đã, the phenomenon is investigated both at the level of lexical semantics as well as at the level of sentence semantics. It can be shown that đã is not only a past-tense marker, and consequently should not be glossed as such. But rather as a polyfunctional element that takes on a role of importance in the categorial change in the Vietnamese language. Contrary to the current practice, a less biased approach to the description of Southeast Asian languages is proposed. As a result a new category system for isolating languages could be a possible approach since the commonly used categories (verb, nouns, etc.) tend to be problematic.
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Conference Presentations by Stefanie Siebenhütter
The aim of this sociolinguistic approach is to address the language awareness of multilingual spe... more The aim of this sociolinguistic approach is to address the language awareness of multilingual speakers in the contact situation of the political borderland Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. In this area numerous minority language varieties can be found in more or less active contact with each other and with the major national languages. Language contact in borderlands can be seen as special, as the political borders can be drawn exactly, but the languages spoken in the area do not change from one side of the line to the other abruptly. Little research was done on the sociolinguistics of the mostly multilingual speech communities with three to five active languages. Consciousness awareness can be seen as one area in order to define sociolinguistic cognition. The paper analyzes mutual influences of minority and national languages. Minority languages can be described as low prestige languages (LPL). The influences of the high prestige languages (HPL) are particularly relevant when it comes to differences in the social hierarchy of LPL and HPL. The aim of the paper is twofold: Firstly, it is asked in which contexts the minority language users switch to the HPL language and in which contexts they stay with their vernacular languages from the inside perspective, that is the speakers awareness of their language usage. Secondly, the outside perspective is used in order to identify the actual language behavior. As a result, it is argued that the choice of language that multilingual speakers make is not only made due to their language competence and preference, but also for the reason of social prestige in different contexts. The approach gives an overview of mutual influences for the little researched area of socio-cultural influence on language behavior and awareness and presents a broad field for future research.
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The semantic and conceptual level as criterion for linguistic areas is underexplored in literatur... more The semantic and conceptual level as criterion for linguistic areas is underexplored in literature. By identifying a significant number of parallels and conceptual borrowings of semantic and conceptual value of static spatial reference, this paper provides further prospects of approaching linguistic areas. This paper describes evidence from a case-study of spatial reference in Thai, Lao, Khmer and Vietnamese within the field of areal linguistics. As space is seen as one of the fundamental domains of conceptualization and categorization, spatial reference provides exemplary for the investigation of the conceptual-semantic level. It is furrther argued that the study of cultural words can bring additional insights within the framework of regional and areal studies as well as the study of semantic and conceptual transfer.
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While political borders can be drawn quite sharply the languages spoken in political border areas... more While political borders can be drawn quite sharply the languages spoken in political border areas do not differ from each other in the same clarity. Analyzing the political borderlands of Thailand, Laos and Cambodia this paper adds to the sociolinguistic study of multilingual speech communities exemplary. When focusing on the contact situation of Central Mainland Southeast Asia one might ask whether and to what extent the great variety of minority languages spoken in this area is influenced by the major national languages Thai, Lao and Khmer. By studying (1) Khmer, Lao and Thai comprehension abilities of Katuic minority language speakers and (2) the latter's awareness of their actual language usage as well as their shifting behavior during discourse. This paper argues that socio-cultural factors play an important role for the choice of either the native minority language or one of the majority languages within different discourse situations. As a result, it is argued that the choice of language that multilingual speakers make is not only made due to their language competence and preference but also for the reason of social prestige in different contexts.
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The aim of this paper is a comparative description of the representation of static spatial notion... more The aim of this paper is a comparative description of the representation of static spatial notions in the Mainland Southeast Asian (MSEA) languages Lao, Thai, Khmer, and Vietnamese on a semantic level. Despite strong genetic diversity, the area is already assumed to be an excellent example of a classical Sprachbund. Accordingly, the area developed especially through language contact. The parallels within spatial language discovered on the conceptual level indicate that the languages of MSEA form a linguistic area on a conceptual level as well. In Addition, the paper addresses the relation between linguistic and cognitive concepts. Crosslinguistically, languages seem to differ to a considerable extent concerning the application of spatial reference such as frames of reference and may prefer one of the three different options. The research question concerns at which level one of the frames of reference (intrinsic, relative and absolute) is determined: perceptual, conceptual or linguistic. Assuming that perception is selective, choosing the encoding of spatial information may be culturally conditioned. A focus of the paper lies on the speakers socio-cultural background and its impact on the choice of spatial language encoding. It is further asked whether the spatial domain is a useful are when exploring the framework of conceptual differences. The results are grounded in field-based data analysis of static spatial relations conducted with the Topological relations picture series (TRPS) and additional picture material, namely the Toy Series (TS) and focus on categories for evaluating spatial relationships. Since the MSEA languages show convergent behavior with regards to the choice of spatial reference alongside other linguistic expressions, these levels can act as further evidence defining the linguistic area MSEA from a socio-cultural and conceptual-semantic perspective. Using semantic maps the MSEA area can be confirmed at the level of spatial concepts that are based in part on conceptual borrowing. As a result, the large consensus observed among the languages studied may unveil socio-cultural influences on the choice of linguistic representations. It is argued that a crosslinguistic approach determining the choice of spatial language may add to the question to what extent socio-cultural impact on the semantic-conceptual level can be seen as evidence for the existence of linguistic areas. Both the method and structure of argumentation can provide a model for similar questions addressing the existence of linguistic areas as well as to other cognitive dimensions within the Southeast Asian area under consideration. Additionally the investigation can serve as a complement to empirical assumptions of a conceptual transfer hypothesis and serve as starting point for further research on the existence of linguistic areas based on conceptual-semantic transfer.
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Papers by Stefanie Siebenhütter
Conference Presentations by Stefanie Siebenhütter
For this purpose the conceptual side of static spatial relations of the Southeast Asian languages Thai, Lao, Vietnamese and Khmer will be analyzed. Methodologically, the study is based on the combination of elicitating methods such as interactive interviews and corpus research. The semantics of the central mainland languages Thai, Lao, Vietnamese and Khmer are compared by sampling, along with some control languages, particularly Indonesian, Chinese and Burmese as well as other Southeast Asian languages. The uncovered parallels of spatial language on the conceptual level in the four Southeast Asian languages indicate that Mainland Southeast Asia (MSEA) is a conceptual language area.
The data analysis shows remarkable parallels on the semantic level that can be confirmed by means of text data analysis. The MSEA area is provable at the level of spatial concepts that are based in part on a conceptual borrowing.
Based on the results of the study, with regard to the four studied languages and at the level of space relations the conceptual area Mainland Southeast Asia can therefore be confirmed as an ideal Sprachbund MSEA.
Keywords:
Southeast Asia, Thai, Lao, Vietnamese, Khmer, Indonesian, cognitive linguistics, areal linguistics, grammaticalization, grammar of space, spatial prepositions
For this purpose the conceptual side of static spatial relations of the Southeast Asian languages Thai, Lao, Vietnamese and Khmer will be analyzed. Methodologically, the study is based on the combination of elicitating methods such as interactive interviews and corpus research. The semantics of the central mainland languages Thai, Lao, Vietnamese and Khmer are compared by sampling, along with some control languages, particularly Indonesian, Chinese and Burmese as well as other Southeast Asian languages. The uncovered parallels of spatial language on the conceptual level in the four Southeast Asian languages indicate that Mainland Southeast Asia (MSEA) is a conceptual language area.
The data analysis shows remarkable parallels on the semantic level that can be confirmed by means of text data analysis. The MSEA area is provable at the level of spatial concepts that are based in part on a conceptual borrowing.
Based on the results of the study, with regard to the four studied languages and at the level of space relations the conceptual area Mainland Southeast Asia can therefore be confirmed as an ideal Sprachbund MSEA.
For this purpose the conceptual side of static spatial relations of the Southeast Asian languages Thai, Lao, Vietnamese and Khmer will be analyzed. Methodologically, the study is based on the combination of elicitating methods such as interactive interviews and corpus research. The semantics of the central mainland languages Thai, Lao, Vietnamese and Khmer are compared by sampling, along with some control languages, particularly Indonesian, Chinese and Burmese as well as other Southeast Asian languages. The uncovered parallels of spatial language on the conceptual level in the four Southeast Asian languages indicate that Mainland Southeast Asia (MSEA) is a conceptual language area.
The data analysis shows remarkable parallels on the semantic level that can be confirmed by means of text data analysis. The MSEA area is provable at the level of spatial concepts that are based in part on a conceptual borrowing.
Based on the results of the study, with regard to the four studied languages and at the level of space relations the conceptual area Mainland Southeast Asia can therefore be confirmed as an ideal Sprachbund MSEA.
Deutsch_Das Vietnamesische zählt noch immer zu den vergleichsweise wenig beschriebenen Sprachen Südostasiens. Obwohl zur Kodierung der Vorstellung Zeit in natürlichen Sprachen eine bereits unüberschaubare Menge an Literatur vorhanden ist, sind das Tempus-, Aspekt- und Modus-System (TAM) des Vietnamesischen eine intensive Bearbeitung wert. Obwohl sich Studien mit dem Vietnamesischen, und einige wenige explizit mit dem TAM-System befasst haben, liegt noch keine allgemein anerkannte und zufriedenstellende Beschreibung desselben vor. Das vorliegende Buch soll ein besseres Verständnis für eine bisher relativ wenig beachtete Sprache, für das Vietnamesische im Allgemeinen und insbesondere für das vietnamesische TAM-System bringen.
The author approaches the identity development of multilingual Kui from a socio-psychological perspective. In particular, the role of language in the process of identity construction is discussed. The study sheds light on the so-called linguistic identity of multilingual speakers to deduce the resulting developments in multilingual societies. Starting from the subjective perception of the individual (micro-level), possible effects on the societal macro-level are considered.Usually referred to as “linguistic identity(ies)” in linguistic works, the term “identity” is generally used without examining its usefulness for the linguistic context. It is true that the terms “identity” and “linguistic identity” are increasingly used in publications of recent years; however, a closer examination of the underlying definitions and a review of the fundamental fit of the combination “identity” and “language” is only found in rudimentary form. This book seeks to fill this gap using the example of the Kui minority, who live in the border region of Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia.With a comprehensive examination of the concept of a “linguistic identity”, the volume makes a contribution to the further development of typological linguistics that goes beyond a mere adoption of terminologies from other disciplines. This book thus contributes not only to research on multilingualism and minority languages but also to research on multilingual contact phenomena and questions of identity in typological linguistics.