According to current treatment guidelines for Complex PTSD (cPTSD), psychotherapy for adults with... more According to current treatment guidelines for Complex PTSD (cPTSD), psychotherapy for adults with cPTSD should start with a "stabilization phase." This phase, focusing on teaching self-regulation strategies, was designed to ensure that an individual would be better able to tolerate trauma-focused treatment. The purpose of this paper is to critically evaluate the research underlying these treatment guidelines for cPTSD, and to specifically address the question as to whether a phase-based approach is needed. As reviewed in this paper, the research supporting the need for phase-based treatment for individuals with cPTSD is methodologically limited. Further, there is no rigorous research to support the views that: (1) a phase-based approach is necessary for positive treatment outcomes for adults with cPTSD, (2) front-line trauma-focused treatments have unacceptable risks or that adults with cPTSD do not respond to them, and (3) adults with cPTSD profit significantly more from ...
Following the death of a loved one, a small group of grievers develop an abnormal grieving style,... more Following the death of a loved one, a small group of grievers develop an abnormal grieving style, termed complicated or prolonged grief. In the effort to establish complicated grief as a disorder in DSM and ICD, several attempts have been made over the past two decades to establish symptom criteria for this form of grieving. Complicated grief is different from depression and PTSD yet often comorbid with other psychological disorders. Meta-analyses of grief interventions show small to medium effect sizes, with only few studies yielding large effect sizes. In this article, an integrative cognitive behavioral treatment manual for complicated grief disorder (CG-CBT) of 25 individual sessions is described. Three treatment phases, each entailing several treatment strategies, allow patients to stabilize, explore, and confront the most painful aspects of the loss, and finally to integrate and transform their grief. Core aspects are cognitive restructuring and confrontation. Special attentio...
The aim of the present study was to assess the internal consistency and discriminant and converge... more The aim of the present study was to assess the internal consistency and discriminant and convergent validity of the Bosnian version of a self-report measure of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), the Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale (PTDS). The PTDS yields both a PTSD diagnosis according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th edition (DSM-IV) and a measure of symptom severity. 812 people living in Sarajevo or in Banja Luka in Bosnia-Herzegovina, of whom the majority had experienced a high number of traumatic war events, were administered the PTDS and other measures of trauma-related psychopathology. The psychometric properties of the instrument were assessed using Cronbach's alpha and principal components analysis, and its construct validity was assessed via Spearman correlation coefficients with the other instruments. The PTDS and its subscales demonstrated high internal consistency. The principal components revealed by an exploratory analysis a...
Background : The assessment of therapeutic adherence and competence is often neglected in psychot... more Background : The assessment of therapeutic adherence and competence is often neglected in psychotherapy research, particularly in children and adolescents; however, both variables are crucial for the interpretation of treatment effects. Objective : Our aim was to develop, adapt, and pilot two scales to assess therapeutic adherence and competence in a recent innovative program, Developmentally Adapted Cognitive Processing Therapy (D-CPT), for adolescents suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after childhood abuse. Method : Two independent raters assessed 30 randomly selected sessions involving 12 D-CPT patients (age 13-20 years, M age=16.75, 91.67% female) treated by 11 therapists within the pilot phase of a multicenter study. Results : Three experts confirmed the relevance and appropriateness of each item. All items and total scores for adherence (intraclass correlation coefficients [ICC]=0.76-1.00) and competence (ICC=0.78-0.98) yielded good to excellent inter-rater reliability. Cronbach's alpha was 0.59 for the adherence scale and 0.96 for the competence scale. Conclusions : The scales reliably assess adherence and competence in D-CPT for adolescent PTSD patients. The ratings can be helpful in the interpretation of treatment effects, the assessment of mediator variables, and the identification and training of therapeutic skills that are central to achieving good treatment outcomes. Both adherence and competence will be assessed as possible predictor variables for treatment success in future D-CPT trials.
Interpersonal traits may influence psychotherapy success. One way of conceptualizing such traits ... more Interpersonal traits may influence psychotherapy success. One way of conceptualizing such traits is the interpersonal circumplex model. In this study, we analyse interpersonal circumplex data, assessed with the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (Horowitz, Strauß, & Kordy, 1994) from a randomized study with 138 patients suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder after trauma in adulthood. The study compared cognitive processing therapy and dialogical exposure therapy, a Gestalt-based intervention. We divided the interpersonally heterogeneous sample according to the quadrants of the interpersonal circumplex. The division into quadrants yielded subgroups that did not differ in their general psychological distress, but the cold-submissive quadrant tended to exhibit higher posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity and interpersonal distress than the other three. There was also a trend for patients in different quadrants to be affected differently by the treatments. Correlation a...
We examined sudden, large, and stable shifts in symptoms from one therapy session to the next in ... more We examined sudden, large, and stable shifts in symptoms from one therapy session to the next in two treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Shifts in a positive direction (sudden gains) have so far been more frequently analyzed than those in a negative direction (sudden losses). We analyzed data from 102 outpatients suffering from PTSD who received either a cognitive-behavioral or a Gestalt-based intervention. Sudden gains, at 22.5%, were more frequent than sudden losses (3.9% of patients). Participants who had experienced sudden gains had lower PTSD scores at posttreatment, but not at the 6-month follow-up. As sudden losses were so rare, they were not analyzed statistically. Sudden gains accounted for 52% of overall treatment gains or 26% of overall change in a positive direction. Among very successful patients, those with sudden gains were overrepresented, but in absolute terms, there were as many patients without sudden gains in this group. There was no connection between sudden gains and type of intervention or depressive symptoms. Sudden gains and sudden losses occurred in our sample of PTSD patients, but in the light of current results, their clinical importance seems to be limited.
The research on psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) stems predominantly from a... more The research on psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) stems predominantly from a cognitive-behavioral orientation while other approaches are underrepresented. We evaluated dialogical exposure in trauma therapy (DET), a treatment for PTSD combining cognitive-behavioral elements with an interpersonal, gestalt-based framework. In this uncontrolled pilot trial, 25 PTSD patients were treated with DET in an outpatient setting and 21 completed therapy. There was a significant reduction in self-rated PTSD symptoms from pre- to posttreatment. Effect sizes were large in the completer sample and moderate to large in the intent-to-treat sample. General psychopathology also decreased significantly. The dropout rate was rather low at 16%. These results show that further research on DET as a treatment for PTSD is warranted.
Characteristics of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may be influenced by newly experienced tr... more Characteristics of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may be influenced by newly experienced traumata or confrontation with trauma-associated stimuli. Terms like reactivation or retraumatization are used either to describe slightly, temporary or severe and permanent increase in PTSD symptoms. Trigger, duration and intensity of a potential increase in symptoms have not been consistently defined yet. The purpose of this overview is to operationalize the term retraumatization on the background of empirical studies and to deduce a standardized definition. Furthermore implications for research and clinical practice are discussed.
According to current treatment guidelines for Complex PTSD (cPTSD), psychotherapy for adults with... more According to current treatment guidelines for Complex PTSD (cPTSD), psychotherapy for adults with cPTSD should start with a "stabilization phase." This phase, focusing on teaching self-regulation strategies, was designed to ensure that an individual would be better able to tolerate trauma-focused treatment. The purpose of this paper is to critically evaluate the research underlying these treatment guidelines for cPTSD, and to specifically address the question as to whether a phase-based approach is needed. As reviewed in this paper, the research supporting the need for phase-based treatment for individuals with cPTSD is methodologically limited. Further, there is no rigorous research to support the views that: (1) a phase-based approach is necessary for positive treatment outcomes for adults with cPTSD, (2) front-line trauma-focused treatments have unacceptable risks or that adults with cPTSD do not respond to them, and (3) adults with cPTSD profit significantly more from ...
Following the death of a loved one, a small group of grievers develop an abnormal grieving style,... more Following the death of a loved one, a small group of grievers develop an abnormal grieving style, termed complicated or prolonged grief. In the effort to establish complicated grief as a disorder in DSM and ICD, several attempts have been made over the past two decades to establish symptom criteria for this form of grieving. Complicated grief is different from depression and PTSD yet often comorbid with other psychological disorders. Meta-analyses of grief interventions show small to medium effect sizes, with only few studies yielding large effect sizes. In this article, an integrative cognitive behavioral treatment manual for complicated grief disorder (CG-CBT) of 25 individual sessions is described. Three treatment phases, each entailing several treatment strategies, allow patients to stabilize, explore, and confront the most painful aspects of the loss, and finally to integrate and transform their grief. Core aspects are cognitive restructuring and confrontation. Special attentio...
The aim of the present study was to assess the internal consistency and discriminant and converge... more The aim of the present study was to assess the internal consistency and discriminant and convergent validity of the Bosnian version of a self-report measure of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), the Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale (PTDS). The PTDS yields both a PTSD diagnosis according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th edition (DSM-IV) and a measure of symptom severity. 812 people living in Sarajevo or in Banja Luka in Bosnia-Herzegovina, of whom the majority had experienced a high number of traumatic war events, were administered the PTDS and other measures of trauma-related psychopathology. The psychometric properties of the instrument were assessed using Cronbach's alpha and principal components analysis, and its construct validity was assessed via Spearman correlation coefficients with the other instruments. The PTDS and its subscales demonstrated high internal consistency. The principal components revealed by an exploratory analysis a...
Background : The assessment of therapeutic adherence and competence is often neglected in psychot... more Background : The assessment of therapeutic adherence and competence is often neglected in psychotherapy research, particularly in children and adolescents; however, both variables are crucial for the interpretation of treatment effects. Objective : Our aim was to develop, adapt, and pilot two scales to assess therapeutic adherence and competence in a recent innovative program, Developmentally Adapted Cognitive Processing Therapy (D-CPT), for adolescents suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after childhood abuse. Method : Two independent raters assessed 30 randomly selected sessions involving 12 D-CPT patients (age 13-20 years, M age=16.75, 91.67% female) treated by 11 therapists within the pilot phase of a multicenter study. Results : Three experts confirmed the relevance and appropriateness of each item. All items and total scores for adherence (intraclass correlation coefficients [ICC]=0.76-1.00) and competence (ICC=0.78-0.98) yielded good to excellent inter-rater reliability. Cronbach's alpha was 0.59 for the adherence scale and 0.96 for the competence scale. Conclusions : The scales reliably assess adherence and competence in D-CPT for adolescent PTSD patients. The ratings can be helpful in the interpretation of treatment effects, the assessment of mediator variables, and the identification and training of therapeutic skills that are central to achieving good treatment outcomes. Both adherence and competence will be assessed as possible predictor variables for treatment success in future D-CPT trials.
Interpersonal traits may influence psychotherapy success. One way of conceptualizing such traits ... more Interpersonal traits may influence psychotherapy success. One way of conceptualizing such traits is the interpersonal circumplex model. In this study, we analyse interpersonal circumplex data, assessed with the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (Horowitz, Strauß, & Kordy, 1994) from a randomized study with 138 patients suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder after trauma in adulthood. The study compared cognitive processing therapy and dialogical exposure therapy, a Gestalt-based intervention. We divided the interpersonally heterogeneous sample according to the quadrants of the interpersonal circumplex. The division into quadrants yielded subgroups that did not differ in their general psychological distress, but the cold-submissive quadrant tended to exhibit higher posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity and interpersonal distress than the other three. There was also a trend for patients in different quadrants to be affected differently by the treatments. Correlation a...
We examined sudden, large, and stable shifts in symptoms from one therapy session to the next in ... more We examined sudden, large, and stable shifts in symptoms from one therapy session to the next in two treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Shifts in a positive direction (sudden gains) have so far been more frequently analyzed than those in a negative direction (sudden losses). We analyzed data from 102 outpatients suffering from PTSD who received either a cognitive-behavioral or a Gestalt-based intervention. Sudden gains, at 22.5%, were more frequent than sudden losses (3.9% of patients). Participants who had experienced sudden gains had lower PTSD scores at posttreatment, but not at the 6-month follow-up. As sudden losses were so rare, they were not analyzed statistically. Sudden gains accounted for 52% of overall treatment gains or 26% of overall change in a positive direction. Among very successful patients, those with sudden gains were overrepresented, but in absolute terms, there were as many patients without sudden gains in this group. There was no connection between sudden gains and type of intervention or depressive symptoms. Sudden gains and sudden losses occurred in our sample of PTSD patients, but in the light of current results, their clinical importance seems to be limited.
The research on psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) stems predominantly from a... more The research on psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) stems predominantly from a cognitive-behavioral orientation while other approaches are underrepresented. We evaluated dialogical exposure in trauma therapy (DET), a treatment for PTSD combining cognitive-behavioral elements with an interpersonal, gestalt-based framework. In this uncontrolled pilot trial, 25 PTSD patients were treated with DET in an outpatient setting and 21 completed therapy. There was a significant reduction in self-rated PTSD symptoms from pre- to posttreatment. Effect sizes were large in the completer sample and moderate to large in the intent-to-treat sample. General psychopathology also decreased significantly. The dropout rate was rather low at 16%. These results show that further research on DET as a treatment for PTSD is warranted.
Characteristics of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may be influenced by newly experienced tr... more Characteristics of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may be influenced by newly experienced traumata or confrontation with trauma-associated stimuli. Terms like reactivation or retraumatization are used either to describe slightly, temporary or severe and permanent increase in PTSD symptoms. Trigger, duration and intensity of a potential increase in symptoms have not been consistently defined yet. The purpose of this overview is to operationalize the term retraumatization on the background of empirical studies and to deduce a standardized definition. Furthermore implications for research and clinical practice are discussed.
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