The Ksáatriyas of Ancient Cambodia
Mr. U-tainWongsathit
Department of Oriental Languages,
Silpakorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
tainzgree@yahoo.com
Abstract
The Varnáa or Caste System, which is the division of classes of people in society according to
their duty, was introduced to ancient Cambodia since the early time. Ksáatriya is the caste of
governors and warriors, according to the Smráti texts. The duty of Ksáatriya, traditionally, is to
protect the people, to sacrifice and to bestow gifts. The Ksáatriya caste consists of kings,
members of the royal house, nobles and military personnel. The article aims to examine the
features of Ksáatriyas of Ancient Cambodia from epigraphic evidence. The study also shows
various endings employed to names of Ksáatriyas.
The Ksáatriyas of Ancient Cambodia
Manusmráti (1.31.) narrates the origin of Varnáa that the Lord Brahma, for the sake of
the prosperity of the worlds, caused the BraÆhmanáa, the Ksáatriya, the Vaißya, and the SuÆdra to
proceed from his mouth, his arms, his thighs, and his feet respectively. Ksáatriya is the caste of
governors and warriors. According to the Manusmráti (1.89.) the duty of Ksáatriya is to protect
the people, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study the Veda, and to abstain from
attaching himself to sensual pleasures. The imprint of Indian influence caused tremendous
impact to the social structure of ancient Cambodia. The Varnáa or Caste System, which is the
division of classes of people in society according to their duty, was introduced to ancient
Cambodia since the early time. However, since the lack of constant evidence of caste of the
two low Varnáas,Vaißya and SuÆdra, it seems that Varnáa system in Cambodia was partly in
practice and slightly different from original. Two high Varnáas, Ksáatriya and BraÆhmanáa, can
be considered as symbols of dignity. These Varnáas played a significant role in the history of
ancient Cambodia. The Ksáatriya caste consists of kings, members of the royal house, nobles
and military personnel. All ancient Cambodian kings claimed to descend from the two royal
dynasties, i.e. the SuÆryavamáßa and the Somavamáßa which is no doubt another name
Candravamáßa. This also shows Indian influence on the royal institute as according to Indian
mythology, there are two great royal dynasties which ruled the world, i.e. of which the first
great royal family of SuÆryavamáßa, or the Solar Dynasty, which was referred to after the Sun
god, SuÆrya, and the second great royal family was Candravamáßa, or the Lunar Dynasty,
which was referred to after the Moon god, Candra.
The Indian Influence Reflected in the Names of Kings
All kings of ancient Cambodia, moreover, have Sanskrit names which shows very
strong influence of India as Sanskrit is the sacred language of India. All ancient Cambodian
kings have the surname ‘varman’ at the end, but it does not mean that all individuals whose
names end with ‘varman’ are kings. The word ‘varman’ is a noun meaning ‘envelope,
defensive armour, a coat of mail, a bulwark, shelter, defence, protection’ (Williams, 1872:
926). The ending ‘varman’ is generally used to signify a Ksáatriya family. The Visánáu PuraÆnáa
mentions “(The termination) §arman is prescribed for a BraÆhmanáa; Varman belongs to a
Ksáatriya; (and) a name characterised by Gupta and DaÆsa is approved of in the case of
(respectively) a Vaisáya and a Sudra” (Sharma, 1978:16). This matches with the law laid down
by Manusmráti (2.31-32.) that let (the first part of) a BraÆhmanáa's name (denote something)
auspicious, a Ksáatriya's be connected with power, and a Vaisya's with wealth, but a Sudra's
(express something) contemptible, and the second part of a Brahmana's (name) shall be (a
word) implying happiness, of a Kshatriya's (a word) implying protection, of a Vaisya's (a
term) expressive of thriving, and of a Sudra's (an expression) denoting service.
The early Indian rulers bearing names ending with ‘varman’, from the epigraphic
evidence, are §ivaskandavarman of the early Pallava Dynasty of the 3rd Century A.D. (Sircar,
1939:165) and MayuÆrvarman I of the early Kadamba Dynasty who ruled during 325-360
A.D. (Gai, 1996: 7-27). §ivaskandavarman was originally the Brahmin of BhaÆrdvaÆja Gotra
and bore the title ‘Dharma MahaÆrajaÆdhiraja’ which was used before by KusáaÆnáa kings in
northern India (Sircar, 1939:165; Sastri, 2008:91). MayuÆrvarman, who has been regarded as
the real founder of the Kadamba Dynasty, referred in his record to his ancestor named
ViÆravarman. ViÆravarman was described as the best of Brahmins of MaÆnavya Gotra and had
the eldest son, Bandhusáenáa who was the Brahma-Ksáatriya, i.e. primarily a Brahmin by birth
and secondarily a Ksáatriya or warrior by profession (Gai, 1996:17-18). It was, however,
found that rulers with names ending in -varman from numerous dynasties were flourishing in
other parts of India, e.g. the Aulikaras of Mandasor, the §alanækaÆyanas of Venægi who began
their career from the 4th Century A.D., as well as the Ganægas of Kalinæganagara from the end
of the 5th Century A.D. and the Maukharis of GayaÆ in the 5th Century A.D. Most of the
Kalinæga dynasties of the 5th Century A.D., e.g. the MaÆtáharas and Pitrábhaktas, also had royal
names ending in ‘varman’ (Sircar, 1996:204). Meanwhile in Southeast Asia the appearance of
-varman ending names in inscriptions took place around the 5th-6th Centuries A.D., such as
Jayavarman of Funan, Bhadravarman of CampaÆ, MuÆlavarman of Borneo and Purnáavarman of
JavaÆ. The tradition of ending rulers’ names with the word ‘varman’ constantly succeeded in
the kingdoms of KambujaÆ and CampaÆ until the late 14th Century A.D.
From epigraphic evidence it is found that ancient Cambodian kings used three
different kinds of names, i.e. Pre-coronation names, Coronation names and Posthumous
names of which the last kind is very rare in India. There are five Pre-coronation names
mentioned in inscriptions, i.e. Citrasena, IÆßaÆnasena, Jayavardhana, Yaßovardhana and
§riÆndrakumaÆra. After the coronation ceremony those kings received new names ending with varman. The first king who bore a name ending in -varman is Jayavarman of Funan, in the 5th
Century A.D. After that -varman ending names were given to all Cambodian kings up to the
last king of the Angkor Empire. Generally, the first parts of Coronation names represented
mighty gods, such as §iva (Rudra, Bhava, IÆßaÆna), Indra (Mahendra, DharanáiÆndra, RaÆjendra),
SuÆrya (UdayaÆditya, TribhuvanaÆditya) or the auspicious words like victory (Jaya, JayaviÆra),
glory (Yaßas), and happiness (Harsáa). It is noteworthy that the god Visánáu, which according to
Indian tradition illustrates the character of protector the same as that of the king, was not
referred to in even a single name. This proves that the god §iva was more closely related to
the Khmer kingship than Visánáu, as many scholars have observed (Lavy, 2003:34). The god
Indra reflects the idea of kingship, as the lord of the earth, which matches with the Old
Khmer phase ‘Kamratenæ Phdai Karom’. The god AÆditya represents a metaphor of kingship as
the source of prosperity like the Sun. Auspicious words occurring in king’s names give the
idea that royalty is the origin of victory, glory and happiness of the people. After those kings
passed away, posthumous names were given to show the places where the kings attained. The
posthumous name was a special honour revered for the kings. The tradition started in the
reign of King Jayavarman I (657- circa 680 A.D.), whose posthumous name is §ivapura. The
posthumous names of Angkorian kings, except Jayavarman II, whose posthumous name was
Parameßvara, were made from the name of a god or ultimate goal, and the words ‘loka’ or
‘pada’. The posthumous names were generally found among the major kings. The only
exception is King PusákaraÆksáa whose posthumous name Indraloka is mentioned. The
posthumous names confirm the prominence of §aivism, as many as twelve names denote the
god §iva. Some scholars said that the custom of giving posthumous names came from
CampaÆ, because early examples were there. This suggestion, however, is very doubtful since
the first emergence of a posthumous name from CampaÆ, i.e. Rudraloka of King
PráthiviÆndravarman, occurred in the 8th Century A.D., which was a century later than King
Jayavarman I. It may alternatively be suggested that CampaÆ received this custom from
Cambodia.
Table 1: Names of Kings of Ancient Cambodia (the 1st - 14th Centuries A.D.)
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Pre-Coronation
Names
Citrasena
IÆßaÆnasena
Jayavardhana
Yaßovardhana
Coronation Names
Kaunádiá nya
Jayavarman of Funan
Rudravarman
§rutavarman
§resátáhavarman
Bhavavarman I
Mahendravarman
IÆßaÆnavarman I
Bhavavarman II
Jayavarman I
JayadeviÆ
Jayavarman II
Jayavarman III
Indravarman I
Yaßovarman I
Harsáavarman I
IÆßaÆnavarman II
Jayavarman IV
19
20
21
22
23
24
Harsáavarman II
RaÆjendravarman
Jayavarman V
UdayaÆdityavarman I
JayaviÆravarman
SuÆryavarman I
25
26
27
28
29
UdayaÆdityavarman II,
UdayaÆrkavarman
Harsáavarman III
Jayavarman VI
DharanáiÆndravarman I
SuÆryavarman II
30
31
32
33
34
DharanáiÆndravarman II
Yaßovarman II
TribhuvanaÆdityavarman
Jayavarman VII
Indravarman II
Posthumous Names
§ivapura
Parameßa, Parameßvara
Visánuá loka
IÆßvaraloka
Paramaßivaloka
Rudraloka
Paramarudraloka
Paramaßivapada,
§ivapada
Vrahmaloka
§ivaloka
ParamaviÆraloka
NirvaÆnáapada,
ParamanirvaÆnaá pada
SadaÆßivapada
Paramakaivalyapada
Paramanisákalapada
Paramavisánuá loka,
MahaÆvisánáuloka
MahaÆparamanirvaÆnáapaÆda
MahaÆparamasaugatapada
35
36
37
38
Jayavarman VIII
§riÆndravarman
§riÆndrajayavarman
JayavarmaÆdiparameßvara
Parameßvarapada
Brahmaksáatriya: the Special Feature of Ksáatriya of Ancient Cambodia
Another interesting point which shows the cultural influence from southern India is
the caste of Brahmaksáatriya. The tradition of claiming to descend from the Brahmin ancestor
of a king was prevalent among the ruling dynasties of southern India, such as Pallava and
Kadamba mentioned before. This custom prevailed in ancient Cambodia and CampaÆ, where
the kings alleged to descend from the great sages Kaunádáinya and Bhrágu, respectively. It is
noticed that the Ksáatriya caste of Cambodia was more flexible than that of India. The
intermarriage between Ksáatriya and Brahmin is regularly found since the early times. K.359,
of the 6th Century A.D., mentions that Brahmin Somaßraman married a sister of King
Bhavavarman I. In India, the marriage of Brahmin and Ksáatriya princess, though theoretically
possible, is very rare in practice. The only example, which is reported from Indian epigraphic
records, is Hastibhoja, a minister, whose ancestor is mentioned as a Brahmin who married a
Ksáatriya princess (Chatterji, 1928:38). The Ksáatriya of ancient Cambodia, on the other hand,
had wives from Brahmin families. King Jayavarman II is mentioned to have four Brahmin
queens, namely KambujalaksámiÆ, NrápendradeviÆ, BhaÆssvaÆminiÆ and Hyanæ PavitraÆ. King
RaÆjendravarman II also had two queens from Brahmin families, namely NarendradeviÆ and
PraÆnaá . This type of marriage was in practice until the last phase of the Angkor Empire, as
King
Jayavarman
JayamahaÆpradhaÆna,
VIII
and
married
King
CakravartiraÆjadeviÆ,
§riÆndravarman
married
a
daughter
SuÆryalaksámiÆ,
of
his
a
guru,
niece
of
MadhurendrasuÆri. The descendants of such weddings were either Ksáatriya or Brahmin. The
son of Somaßarman with the sister of King Bhavavarman I was a Ksáatriya, as the name
Hiranáyavarman denotes. Dharmavardhana, the son of King Jayavarman II with Queen
KambujalaksámiÆ, became a Ksáatriya. Narendravarman, the son of Brahmin Agastya and
Princess Yaßomati, enjoyed Ksáatriya status. The eminent Brahmin §ivasoma, the guru of
King Jayavarman III, was the grandson of minor King JayendraÆdhipativarman who was again
the maternal uncle of King Jayavarman II. The celebrated Brahmin YajñavaraÆha, Vrahá Guru,
or the great teacher of King Jayavarman V, is also mentioned in K.617 as a Brahmaksáatriya,
and as the grandson of King Harsáavarman I.
The Importance of –varman Ending
The -varman ending is very outstanding in the history of Cambodia. It seems that the
individuals who carried -varman ending names enjoyed semi-royal status and governed
particular regions. Only two names ending in -varman, Harivarman and Konægavarman, are
from the Pre-Angkorian Period. It is very clear that Konægavarman was in the royal family
probably a relative of King Bhavavarman II, as he claimed to descend from the line of
Kaunádiá nya and SomaÆ. Thus, it may be presumed that Harivarman was a relative of
IÆßaÆnavarman since the -varman ending name in the Pre-Angkorian Period was very
extraordinary. In the early times of the Angkor Empire, PunnaÆgavarman, a son of a minor
king of Chenla named Rudravarman, is mentioned to be the founder of the eminent Brahmin
family Saptadevakula. This is additional evidence of attribution of Brahmaksáatriya institution
in Cambodia as a Ksáatriya became the founder of a Brahmin family. Five -varman ending
names, IÆßvaravarman, Jayasinæhavarman, NaraÆdhipativarman, NarendraÆdhipativarman and
SatyaÆdhipativarman, are mentioned in inscriptions from the reign of Yaßovarman I,
presenting that names with -varman ending are more common to non-royal members in later
time and a strong point of military power of that king. The names, JayaviÆravarman and
Dvijendravarman, were given to high officials in the time of King Harsáavarman I and King
Jayavarman IV respectively. This shows the military centralization during these kings. Six
high officials with -varman ending are reported from the time of RaÆjendravarman II and
Jayavarman V. The increasing number of names with the -varman ending, up to twenty-three
in the reign of SuÆryavarman I, shows the influence of warrior class in society. This was due
to the war for power; adversaries continuously struggled for the throne of the Angkor Empire.
After conquering an enemy a king had to reward his military in different ways. Giving
honorific names was a kind of reward to lure soldiers to be loyal. Many soldiers, whose
names are referred to in the Oath Inscriptions of King SuÆryavarman I, had served the former
kings such as Jayavarman V, UdayaÆdityavarman I and JayaviÆravarman, who was the rival of
SuÆryavarman I. This shows the tolerance of the latter king. The honorific names, like
ViÆrendravarman and RaÆjapativarman, were hereditary. During this time the responsibility of
Ksáatriya caste expanded to secular service, as in the cases of ViÆravarman and
SamaraÆdhipativarman, who were appointed as the leader of §ivapaÆda PuÆrva and inspector of
§riÆßikhareßvara, respectively. SadaÆßiva changed the ending of honorific name from
Jayendrapanádiá ta into Jayendravarman to enjoy Ksáatriya status. From epigraphic evidence, it
is found that many military officials bearing -varman ending names were Sañjaks, the special
force that first appeared around the 10thCentury A.D. Nine Sañjaks were granted -varman
ending names by the grace of SuÆryavarman II, together with other four warriors appeared in
the procession scene at Angkor Vat. Six names with -varman ending from the reign of
Jayavarman VII show the significant role of warriors who brought back the glory of the
Angkor Empire. At that time, four Sañjaks who defended their master with bravery were
awarded with honorific names and titles, as narrated in K.227. From the Khmer epigraphs it
is clear that people who bore names ending in -varman acquired at least the title of ‘MrataÆñ
Khloñ’, ‘military chief’, or ‘Khloñ Vala’, ‘chief of soldiers’. And, it seems that individuals
who had names with -varman ending governed particular cities ending in -pura. The number
of -varman ending names in the reign of each king signify the importance of the Ksáatriya
Caste in particular periods. The kings who had numerous officials with names ending in varman, such as Yaßovarman I, RaÆjendravarman II, SuÆryavarman I, SuÆryavarman II and
Jayavarman VII, were very famous in military campaign. On the basis that the honorific
names were hereditary, it is likely that King JayaviÆravarman was a descendant of the
namesake who had enough power to construct Kravan Temple in the Angkor region during
the reign of King Harsáavarman I. This assumption also explains why he easily captured the
power in the Angkor capital and became king.
Other Endings of Ksáatriyas of Ancient Cambodia
Apart from the -varman ending, the Ksáatriyas of ancient Cambodia employed other
endings which are common for the Ksáatriyas in India. Endings, like: sena, vardhana, paÆla,
gupta, kumaÆra, vikrama and paraÆkrama, are still found in India today. There are twenty-three
endings given to the Ksáatriyas in ancient Cambodia. These endings can be divided into five
groups according to their meaning, i.e. protection (varman, paÆla, gupta, raksáa), god (aÆditya,
kumaÆra, deva), bravery and victory (viÆra, vikrama, sinæha, paraÆkrama, vijaya, kesari, ßuÆra),
battle (sena, yuddha, sanægraÆma, mathana) and auspiciousness (vardhana, vallabha, vikhyaÆta,
pura, kirti). It is interesting to note that princes used only seven endings, i.e. -varman
(Gunáavarman), -sena (Citrasena, IÆßaÆnasena), -vardhana (Jayavardhana, Yaßovardhana,
Dharmavardhana,
Vijayavardhana,
ViÆravardhana),
-aÆditya
(VikramaÆditya),
-yuddha
(IndraÆyuddha) and -kumaÆra (§riÆndrakumaÆra, SuÆryakumaÆra, NrápatiÆndrakumaÆra, ViÆrakumaÆra).
The -gupta and -aÆditya endings probably reflect the trace of Indian culture from the Gupta
Dynasty. The Gupta kings, moreover, had many epithets ending with -vikrama and -aÆditya,
such as Candragupta II who was also called Ajitavikrama and VikramaÆditya. The Pallava
King Narasimhavarman II also had many epithets endings in -vikrama, -sinæha, -kesariÆ, vallabha, -aÆditya, -viÆra, -kiÆrti and -vardhana, as mentioned in the Kanchipuram Inscription
(Mahalingam, 1988: 176-188). This shows that these endings were very well-known among
Ksáatriyas at the time. Nevertheless, the tradition of having many Biduras or epithets, which
was very popular in India, was not attested to in ancient Cambodia.
Another important ending of the Ksáatriyas is -aÆditya, which was usually given to
royal relatives or subordinate rulers. The term ‘AÆditya’ means ‘the Sun’, which echoes the
role of ruler as the source of prosperity. The earliest name with such ending is BalaÆditya, a
minor king of Aninditapura around the 6th Century A.D. Then, three kings, namely
DevaÆditya, IndraÆditya and DharmaÆditya, who ruled Bhavapura during the 7th- 8thCenturies
A.D. are known from inscriptions. It is interesting to note that DevaÆditya claimed to be the
brother of HiranáyadaÆma, the eminent Brahmin who performed the DevaraÆja ceremony for
King Jayavarman II. This is a credit of the practice of Brahmaksáatriya in Cambodia as
mentioned before. This practice is very uncommon in Indian customs that Brahmin and
Ksáatriya are brothers. In the last phase of the Chenla Period, NrápaÆditya is described in K.259
as the chief of merchants (vanáijaÆm-adhipahá) which is a very odd phrase for the Ksáatriya
Caste. Three more names, BhavaÆditya, CandraÆditya and BhuvanaÆditya, are mentioned in PreAngkorian inscriptions. The role of these officials was blended between Ksáatriya and
Brahmanáa features as CandraÆditya was called AÆcaÆrya or teacher. It may be reflected the
characteristics of Poñ, or regional governor in the Pre-Angkorian Period, as Poñ occasionally
played the role of religious leader. Moreover, BhuvanaÆditya is mentioned with the Khmer
title Poñ. In the early times of Angkor, the name of the legendary king of India,
VikramaÆditya, was given to a prince of King Jayavarman II. It is interesting to note that since
his name had the -aÆditya ending, not -vardhana, and his mother was not given any honorific
name, the status of VikramaÆditya was slightly lower than Jayavardhana who later became
King Jayavarman III. This is a good evidence of the hierarchy of endings. In the Angkorian
Period, six -aÆditya ending names were given to the members of the royal family, i.e.
BhavanaÆditya,
BhuvanaÆditya,
DharanáiÆndraÆditya,
NarendraÆditya,
KsáitiÆndraÆditya
and
MahiÆdraÆditya. Five other names ending in -aÆditya belong to high officials and subordinate
rulers of Angkorian kings up to the time of King Jayavarman VII. The last -aÆditya ending
name, BhuvanaÆditya, was given to SanaÆpati of King DharmaÆßoka who ruled a small
independent kingdom, which received Khmer influence, in the 12th Century A.D. This shows
the long practice of -aÆditya ending names. It is worthy to note that names, which signify the
Sun and the Moon, i.e. CandraÆditya and SomaÆditya, from North-eastern Thailand, can be
considered as a local tradition of that region. The study of -aÆditya ending names resolve the
doubt about the ascendancy as the major kings of NrápaÆditya and NarendraÆditya, because the
study proves that no major king of Angkor had coronation name ending in -aÆditya, and the
ending -aÆditya, which evidently was slightly lower than the ending -varman, was rather a sign
of the status of minor king or subordinate ruler. The study of -aÆditya ending names also
throws some light to the Angkor king, TribhuvanaÆdityavarman. It is plausible that
TribhuvanaÆditya is his formerly honorific name, showing the career of a subordinate ruler.
Then, after usurping the throne, he added the -varman ending to his name following the
pattern of names of major kings. This theory is proved by K.228, the Prasad Crung
Inscription of King Jayavarman VII, which mentions the name only TribhuvanaÆditya. The
names, like BalaÆditya and VikramaÆditya, which were previously given to the Gupta kings,
Narasimáhagupta and Candragupta II, give an idea about the cultural influence from the Gupta
Dynasty.
It is learnt that the names sometimes show the gradually increasing administrative
power of minor kings, as in the case of kings of §riÆcanaÆßa. Five names of the kings of
§riÆcanaÆßa, namely Bhagadatta, SundaraparaÆkrama, Sundaravarman, Narapatisinæhavarman and
Manægalavarman are mentioned in K.949. Vickery (1998:200), by considering the endings of
names of these kings, presumed that Bhagadatta was only the local governor, as the ending datta was common to Poñs, the dignitaries of the Pre-Angkorian Period. Then his son
SundaraparaÆkrama explicitly showed the increase in power as -paraÆkrama was the ending for
military chiefs. Finally, Sundaravarman, son of the latter, announced independence by using
the name with -varman ending which shows equal status with the king of Angkor.
The -vardhana ending made its first appearance in 685 A.D. in the reign of Queen
JayadeviÆ of Chenla Kingdom. The name Sukrátavardhana is very doubtful for position of the
bearer, as the name mentioned in Khmer text is not preceded by any denoting title. Then, in
the Angkorian Period, the-vardhana ending was employed by two princes who later became
kings of Angkor, i.e. Jayavardhana and Yaßovardhana. Three more princes were given names
with such ending, i.e. Dharmavardhana, Vijayavardhana and ViÆravardhana. Thus, it can be
presumed that the -vardhana ending was a special honour for princes. Even though no
specific information states that NrápatiÆndravardhana was a prince, the -vardhana ending shows
that he was a son of King Jayavarman VII, since in the time of Jayavarman VII the ending vardhana was the sign of princedom, as in the case of Vijayavardhana.
Names with -sena ending were employed by princes of the Pre-Angkorian Period, i.e.
Citrasena and IÆßaÆnasena. However, there are two more people carrying -sena ending names
from the Pre-Angkorian Period, i.e. Candrasena and VaraÆhasena. Two more such names are
mentioned in inscriptions during the reign of Yaßovarman I and SuÆryavarman I. Name with
the -sena ending has not been found in inscriptions after the reign of latter king. The
inscriptions show that the ending was not a sign of princedom like the -vardhana ending and
the ending lost its recognition after the 11th Century A.D.
Names ending in -viÆra occurred since the Pre-Angkorian Period, and were given to
subordinate ruler and Mantrin, i.e. CandraviÆra and SinæhaviÆra. Then, in the Angkorian Period,
a descendant of a Vaisánáavite family named Padyumna was given the honorific name NaraviÆra
in the reign of King Indravarman I. Then the name RaÆjendraviÆra was granted to the treasurer
of King Harsáavarman I, who ruled Angkor from 915-923 A.D. The name ViÆrendraviÆra shows
a high position in the army as the holder was appointed as CamuÆpati, or general, of King
Harsáavarman II (941-944 A.D.). As many as eighteen names ending in –viÆra are mentioned
in the Oath Inscriptions, dated 1011 A.D., of King SuÆryavarman I. It is interesting to note that
after the reign of King SuÆryavarman I there is no record of such name.
The -vikrama ending was initiated in Angkorian time, and Nrápendravikrama was the
first -vikrama ending name, which was from the reign of King Jayavarman II.
Nrápendravikrama, who had the original name ‘Pranáavaßarva’, from a Brahmin family,
received this name after serving in the military. Then, the same name was given to high
officials of King Jayavarman IV and SuÆryavarman I, showing its popularity. Two names,
Baktivikrama and Nrápabhaktivikrama, from the reign of RaÆjendravarman II, are very special.
The former had the title of ‘MrataÆñ Kurunæ’ showing both military and administrative
authority. The latter was also placed on two duties, i.e. in the army and treasury. Four names
ending in –vikrama are mentioned in the Oath Inscriptions of King SuÆryavarman I.
The -sinæha ending is traced back to the Funan Period. The first such name was
Brahmasinæha who was the brother of Brahmadatta. From the first part of two names, it may
be assumed that Brahmasinæha and Brahmadatta were named after their father, whose name
was not mentioned, but the name should start with the word ‘Brahma’. The name
Brahmasinæha shows the feature of a Brahmin and a warrior, which was characteristic of this
family. Another name, Ratnasinæha, was from the reign of Jayavarman I. RaÆjendrasinæha, who
was the close servant of King RaÆjendravarman II, seems to have had high position in the
military, as the first part of his name corresponds to the king’s name. Eight other names are
referred to in the Oath Inscriptions of King SuÆryavarman I. There is no record of -sinæha
ending name after the 11th Century A.D. This helps to date K.373, which Cœdès did not give
the date when he edited it.
Twelve names ending in –paraÆkrama are found in Angkorian inscriptions during the
10th - 11thCenturies A.D. only. Out of them, eleven are mentioned in two Oath Inscriptions,
K.292, and K.467, of King SuÆryavarman I. There is no record of names ending in -paraÆkrama
after the 11th Century A.D. The study shows that two high officials, RanáaparaÆkrama and
ViÆraparaÆkrama, were in service since the time of King RaÆjendravarman II and Jayavarman V.
Both names appeared again in the Oath Inscriptions along with others implicitly shows that
they were formerly on the side of JayaviÆravarman. After losing in battle, these officials took
an oath of loyalty to the new King SuÆryavarman I. The name DharanáiÆndraparaÆkrama, who
was a brother of ViÆravarman and ancestor of Nrápendravallabha, is good evidence of the
variety of Ksáatriya endings, i.e. -paraÆkrama, -varman, and -vallabha, as these three people
were from a Ksáatriya family. Another example is the name of ViÆraparaÆkrama who was a son
of Vindudeva, which proves that both endings, -deva and -paraÆkrama, belong to Ksáatriya.
The ending -vijaya, victory, was used only in the Angkorian Period. The first name
with such ending, Gunáavijaya, was given to military chiefs of early kings of Angkor,
Indravarman I and Yaßovarman I. Then, two names belong to a mantrin and a high official of
Harsáavarman II and RaÆjendravarman II, respectively. Four more names are from the reign of
King SuÆryavarman I. There is no name ending in -vijaya after the 11th Century A.D.
The -kesari ending, which is a synonym of Sinæha, was given to three high personnel
during the 9th- 11thCenturies A.D. The oldest name, Vijayakasari, which shows features of the
Ksáatriya caste, is very interesting. He was praised in the inscription as the best in AÆyurveda
and Dhanurveda, showing the subjects that warriors had to learn at the time. Two other
names are mentioned in an Oath Inscription, K.292, of King SuÆryavarman I. The –ßura
ending is found only in the Oath Inscriptions of King SuÆryavarman I. Two names,
Drádhá abhaktißuÆra and NrápabhaktißuÆra, are mentioned as the governors of districts.
The –yuddha ending was introduced in the reign of King Jayavarman II, the founder
of the Angkor Empire, as the first name ending in -yuddha was given to Prince IndraÆyuddha.
It is noteworthy that this ending is lower than -vardhana in hierarchy, as Prince IndraÆyuddha
did not ascend the throne and his descendant, HarivaÆha, served the later king without any
special honorific name. SatyaÆyuddha was a son of the important priest PrathiviÆnarendra who
performed KalyaÆnáasiddhi ceremony for King Jayavarman II. SatyaÆyuddha served as the chief
of the elephant hunting force of King Jayavarman III, and later became the general of the
central army of Indravarman I. This shows that a position in the elephant force was very
important in ancient times, and the profession of elephant trainer was reserved for Brahmin
families. This tradition can be traced back to the old practice in Thailand that the chief of
elephant trainers was given the honorific name of Brahmanáa VráddhipaÆsa. The name
VikramaÆyuddha occurred twice in different periods, i.e. the 9th and the 11th Centuries A.D.
The name was given to the VyaÆpaÆra of King Yaßovarman I and to a military chief of King
SuÆryavarman I. The most popular name is Narendrayuddha, which is found eight times in
K.292 alone. These eight namesakes governed different districts. Two more names are
mentioned in K.467, dated 1011 A.D. After that time, there are no names ending in -yuddha.
Three names ending in –sanægraÆma are mentioned in inscriptions during the 10th 11thCenturiesA.D. UnaÆdbhutasanægraÆma is mentioned with the title ‘MrataÆñ Kurunæ’, or the
ruling chief, which was very rare. Another official who had this title was Bhaktivikrama from
the 10th Century A.D. According to Vickery (1998: 196-197), this title denotes a MrataÆñ who
was the ruler of a place, and MrataÆñ Kurunæ was superior to MrataÆñ Khloñ. The remaining two
such names are from the Oath Inscriptions.
The remarkable -mathana ending is found in the Angkorian Period starting from the
reign of Indravarman I. Ripumathana, a son of the eminent Brahmin PrathiviÆnarendra, seems
to have served King Indravarman I in considerable position probably in the army as his name
denotes. Thus, it is no wonder that his son Loñ NaraÆy became SenaÆpati of the same king.
Ripumathana’s brother SatyaÆyuddha was appointed on a significant post of King Jayavarman
III and Indravarman I. It is interesting to note that two sons of Brahmin have served in the
military and received names with military endings,-yuddha and -mathana. Names ending in mathana became prominent in the reign of RaÆjendravarman II and his son Jayavarman V, as
seven such names are referred to in the inscriptions of those kings. The remarkable one is
KaviÆndraÆrimathana, the favourite architect of King RaÆjendravarman II and the founder of
§augataÆßrama. Two officials, NrápendraÆrimathana and ViÆrendraÆrimathana, had long terms in
their careers as they served from the reign of Jayavarman V to that of SuÆryavarman I. Four
names are from the time of King SuÆryavarman I. There is no mention of names ending in mathana after that.
The oldest name ending in -vallabha is found in the Pre-Angkorian Period from the
time of King Jayavarman Ibis, i.e. Parameßvaravallabha. Generally, names ending in -vallabha
provide the meaning of the favourite of king, i.e. a loyal warrior. This ending was employed
to military personnel in the rank of MrataÆñ, chief or commandant. Two sons of the Vaisánáava
Brahmin Govinda received honorific names with this ending, i.e. Jayendravallabha and
Nrápendravallabha, and served three kings of early Angkor. The -vallabha ending became
prominent during the reign of King RaÆjendravarman II and Jayavarman V, as six names are
mentioned. The remarkable one is Mahendravallabha, who was also called Phalapriya. He
served for around 42 years. The name Vikramavallabha occurred along with other names
with other warrior endings, i.e. Vikramavijaya, NrápendraviÆra, and Jayayuddha, showing the
group of warrior endings. Four names are mentioned in inscriptions of King SuÆryavarman I.
It is interesting to note that DharanáiÆndravallabha, a high official of King JayaviÆravarman, did
not appear in any inscriptions of SuÆryavarman I. This implies that King SuÆryavarman I did
not accept all officials of his enemy. The last name ending in -vallabha is Dvijendravallabha,
who made a donation in 1067 A.D. Even though there is no record such ending after the 11th
Century A.D., in modern-day Thailand, the name RaÆjavallabha is given to the special military
force responsible for the royal family. This shows the continuity of the term vallabha in sense
of warrior in Southeast Asia.
Ten names ending in –vikhyaÆta are mentioned in inscriptions during the 7th 11thCenturies A.D. The oldest name, MahaÆnukrátavikhyaÆta, is referred to in K.765, of the 7th
Century A.D. The ending became popular in the 10th Century A.D., as seven names are
mentioned, of which four were in the court of King RaÆjendravarman II. Two officials with
the names, NrápendravikhyaÆta, and NrápavikhyaÆta, were appointed as superintendents in the
palace of the said kings. ViÆrendravikhyaÆta, the uncle of KaviÆndraÆrimathana, is said to have
been a favourite servant of King Harsáavarman II. This shows that the not only officials in the
army, but also the interior officials were awarded with this ending. Two military chiefs with
such names are from the time of SuÆryavarman I.
The –kumaÆra ending, which was given to fourteen individuals, had very long tradition
since the 7th - 13thCenturies A.D. In the Pre-Angkorian Period, all seven names were given to
Poñs, the dignitaries. The term –kumaÆra during this time seems to denote the god Skanda. In
the Angkorian Period, the name VisánáukumaÆra was given to a brother of celebrated Brahmin
YajñavaraÆha in the reign of King Jayavarman V. As it is known, YajñavaraÆha was the
grandson of King Harsáavarman I; thus, it is clear that VisánáukumaÆra was also a grandson of
the king. This is the first time that the ending -kumaÆra was used in the sense of prince. In the
time of King Jayavarman VII, the ending signified the real meaning of prince, and was the
sign of princedom, as in the case of the -vardhana ending. Six names ending in –kumaÆra are
mentioned, of which three were clearly princes of King Jayavarman VII. The remaining three
names, even though without any appellatives, can be assumed to belong to princes on the
basis that they installed particular gods after their names, and this ending was not common to
other officials. Thus, the study of names reveals four more princes of King Jayavarman VII,
which is reasonable as that king had a long life.
Three other endings which provide the sense of protection are found in the names of
ancient Cambodian officials viz. -paÆla, -gupta, and -raksáa. In India, names ending in -paÆla
were very common to the Ksáatriya Caste, particularly kings from the PaÆla Dynasty. In ancient
Cambodia, this ending was initially given to dignitaries in the Pre-Angkorian Period, like Poñ
and MrataÆñ. Thus, it may be presumed that the -paÆla ending in early period was a sign of
dignity. Then, in the Angkorian Period, the ending was granted to moderate ranking officials
whose titles were ‘Chloñ’. This is clear evidence of the devaluation of names, which also
happened to the title ‘MrataÆñ’. In the Pre-Angkorian Period, the title MrataÆñ was very high,
as it was given to princes. Then, in the Angkorian times, the title became common to several
officials. The ending -paÆla is not found after the reign of Jayavarman III.
Names with the -gupta ending in India were very common for kings of Gupta
Dynasty. In ancient Cambodia, the -gupta ending was given to important officials, such as
SaÆmantaraÆja and Poñ in the Pre-Angkorian Period. It was an indication of dignity. Many Poñs
and important officials with -gupta ending names played significant roles in religious
activities, such as making huge donations and establishing AÆßramas. Then, in the Angkorian
times, the name §ivagupta was given to a dignitary who took charge of religious affairs by
the order of King Jayavarman VI, in K.391, dated 1082 A.D. Names ending in –raksáa were
only found in inscriptions of the Pre-Angkorian Period. These four -raksáa ending names were
given to devout individuals who were engaged in religious donations. It may be concluded
that these three endings,-paÆla, -gupta, -raksáa, were common in the Pre-Angkorian Period and
denoted the religious devotion.
The -kirti ending was generally given to high officials, particularly Poñs. Nine names
ending in –kirti were only found in the Pre-Angkorian Period. In the Pre-Angkorian Period,
when the authority was not centralised, these Poñs played important roles as the landlords
and religious supporters, or donors, as mentioned in inscriptions. Seven names appeared in
dated inscriptions from the reign of IÆßaÆnavarman I to JayadeviÆ. Thus, two more names,
§aÆntikiÆrti and BhavakiÆrti, can be dated to these reigns. There is no record of name ending in kirti after the 7th Century A.D.
One of the very old endings, -deva was very popular in the Pre-Angkorian Period, as
nine names are mentioned in inscriptions from that period, of which seven names were given
to Poñs. Names ending in -deva, however, in early times, were given to significant
individuals, such as, Dharmadeva and Sinæhadeva, two ministers of Kings Bhavavarman I and
Mahendravarman, respectively. These two ministers were brothers from a family which
served the court since the reign of Rudravarman of Funan. After that the names were given to
Poñs. The name Anæßadeva proves that not only the Chenla Kingdom, but the independent
Kingdom of §riÆcanaÆßa, which was influenced by Khmer culture, also employed this ending.
This also shows the hierarchy of endings that -deva was lower than -praraÆkrama. Names like
Anæßadeva, Dharmadeva and §ivadeva, actually, did not follow the rule described in MaÆnava
GráhyasuÆtra (I.18, 1-2) that using gods’ names as names of individuals was forbidden. This is
evidence that the tradition of naming in ancient Cambodia was very diverse by local
practices. The last name ending in -deva was SaÆmadeva, from the reign of King SuÆryavarman
I. There are no such names after that. It is interesting to note that these four endings, -paÆla, gupta, -raksáa, -kirti, and -deva were very popular in the Pre-Angkorian Period, thus the said
endings are very useful for dating inscriptions where such names appear. A good example is
Gurudeva who is referred to as an ancestor by SenaÆpati SanægraÆma in K.449, dated 1069 A.D.
On the basis of ending, he plausibly lived in the Pre-Angkorian times.
The study of Sanskrit names of governors also illustrates the indigenous feature which
is added to the method of naming. It is found that many individuals were given names after
places. Evidence is shown with names ending in -pura. It is shown in inscriptions that -pura
ending names were very ancient, since the 7th Century A.D., and individuals who bore such
names had governed the namesake cities. The assumption is proved by MrataÆñ Kloñ
Jyesátáhapura, who was called in Sanskrit ‘JyesátáhapurasvaÆmiÆ’, which provides the meaning of
lord of Jyesátáhapura. Names ending in –pura are frequently found in the 10th Century A.D., and
as many as five names are mentioned from the reign of IÆßaÆnavarman II to Jayavarman V. The
custom was practiced in the reign of SuÆryavarman I, but faded out of usage after that. An
interesting case is the governor of §resátáhapura who had special epithet ‘VaraÆßraya’, showing
the importance of the city as the cradle of the royal line of ancient Cambodia. Nowadays, in
Thailand and Cambodia the tradition of addressing notable people after the place under their
authority is considered as a means of honour and is still practiced in informal occasions, e.g.
villagers call an abbot after his temple, like the father of Sanækea Temple. It is worthy to note
that not only people, but also gods were named after places. It is found in inscriptions that a
huge amount of names ending in -pura preceded by the Khmer phase ‘Vrahá KamrataÆñ Añ’, or
‘Vrahá Kamratenæ Jagat’, denoting ‘the god of somewhere’, e.g. the god of Linægapura, the god
of §ambhupura, the god of Acalitapura, etc. The tradition of calling the sacred objects after
place-names is still practiced by the Buddhists in Thailand and Cambodia.
It is valuable to note that out of these endings, as many as 14 endings, namely -sena, viÆra, -vikrama, -sinæha, -paraÆkrama, -vijaya, -kesariÆ, -ßuÆra, -yuddha, -sanægraÆma, -mathana, vallabha, -vikhyaÆta, and -pura, make the last appearance in the reign of King SuÆryavarman I,
or not later than the 11th Century A.D. This is a very useful tool to apply as a method of
dating inscriptions where such names appeared. It also illustrates the political overview that
King SuÆryavarman I, after conquering the long war against his rival JayaviÆravarman,
centralized military power from the warlords throughout his empire in order to prevent a
revolt. This policy was quite successful as his reign, which lasted long for almost 50 years,
lacking in civil unrest. This explains that why the three rebels led by warriors in the reign of
his successor UdayaÆdityavarman II were not successful. The irregular change of monarchs
after the 11th Century A.D. mainly came from minor rulers, and descendants who had varman or -aÆditya ending names. The important dynasty which supplied the kings of Angkor
after the 11th Century A.D. was the MahiÆdharapura Dynasty. It is clear that the founder
Hiranáyavarman was a feudatory ruler of a province around the north-eastern region of
Thailand. King SuÆryavarman II, who took power away from predecessor, was a son of
KsáitiÆndraÆditya. Another usurper was TribhuvanaÆdityavarman who, on the basis of the ending,
was a local ruler with -aÆditya ending.
Very few inscriptions of these Ksáatriya provide genealogies. In the Pre-Angkorian
Period, only K.53 gives the list of members of a family, namely Brahmadatta, Brahmasinæha,
Dharmadeva, Sinæhadeva, SinæhaviÆra, and Sinæhadatta. It is worthy to note that four people had
names with endings denoting the Ksáatriya caste, i.e. -sinæha, -deva, and -viÆra. It is clear that all
individuals mentioned above served in secular functions. In the Angkorian Period, most high
officials’ families traced their service back to the time of Jayavarman II. There is no mention
of the family lines from the Pre-Angkorian times. A remarkable one is PrathiviÆnarendra, an
eminent Brahmin, whose two sons, SatyaÆyuddha and Ripumathana, served in secular
positions. The Vaisánáavite Brahmin Govinda, who served King Jayavarman II, had two sons,
Jayendravallabha and Nrápendravallabha, who also served three kings of early Angkor.
Another local aspect of Sanskrit names in ancient Cambodia is that the father and son
had the same name. This kind of naming is considered as taboo by Indian texts. Evidence in
this case is the names of King Jayavarman II and Jayavarman III. Another instance is the
name NrápendraÆdhipativarman. In India, naming a grandson after his grandfather was
acceptable, as in the case of Candragupta I and Candragupta II.
Conclusion in Table
Table 2: Number of Names of Ksáatriya found in Inscriptions
No.
Category
Number
1
Names ending in -varman
58
2
Names of Sañjak
24
3
Names ending in -aÆditya
13
4
Names ending in -vardhana
5
5
Names ending in -sena
3
6
Names ending in -viÆra
21
7
Names ending in -vikrama
6
8
Names ending in -sinæha
12
9
Names ending in -paraÆkrama
11
10
Names ending in -vijaya
7
11
Names ending in -kesari
3
12
Names ending in -ßuÆra
2
13
Names ending in -yuddha
6
14
Names ending in -sanægraÆma
3
15
Names ending in -mathana
10
16
Names ending in -vallabha
13
17
Names ending in -vikhyaÆta
10
18
Names ending in -kumaÆra
14
19
Names ending in -paÆla
6
20
Names ending in -gupta
8
21
Names ending in -raksáa
4
22
Names ending in -kiÆrti
9
23
Names ending in -deva
12
24
Names ending in -pura
10
Total
270
The table shows the dominance of the -varman ending names among the Ksáatriyas’
names. Surprisingly some Ksáatriyas are mentioned in the inscriptions with their original
names, which are one-word names, e.g. SenaÆpati SanægraÆma. Sañjaks were a very important
force during the reigns of King SuÆryavarman II and Jayavarman VII. Names ending in -viÆra
occur in the inscriptions from the Pre-Angkorian Period to the time of King SuÆryavarman I
only. The ending -kumaÆra had long span of usage since the 7th-13th Centuries A.D. Half of
such names belong to Poñs in the Pre-Angkorian Period. The second half of names ending in
-kumaÆra were given to princes of King Jayavarman VII. Some Ksáatriyas had names ending in
-aÆditya, which were also given to minor kings. Three endings: -vallabha, -sinæha, and -deva,
were given to several Ksáatriyas. Five endings: -paraÆkrama, -mathana, -vikhyaÆta, -pura and kirti, are found in the same frequency. Moderate Ksáatriyas had names ending in -gupta, vijaya, -vikrama, -yuddha, and -paÆla. The -vardhana ending was generally given to the
princes in Angkorian times. Five endings: -raksáa, -sena, -kesari, -sanægraÆma, and -ßura, are not
frequently referred to in inscriptions. Generally the content in the first parts of these names
denote gods, kings, bravery and auspiciousness.
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