The Ksáatriyas of Ancient Cambodia Mr. U-tainWongsathit Department of Oriental Languages, Silpakorn University, Bangkok, Thailand tainzgree@yahoo.com Abstract The Varnáa or Caste System, which is the division of classes of people in society according to their duty, was introduced to ancient Cambodia since the early time. Ksáatriya is the caste of governors and warriors, according to the Smráti texts. The duty of Ksáatriya, traditionally, is to protect the people, to sacrifice and to bestow gifts. The Ksáatriya caste consists of kings, members of the royal house, nobles and military personnel. The article aims to examine the features of Ksáatriyas of Ancient Cambodia from epigraphic evidence. The study also shows various endings employed to names of Ksáatriyas. The Ksáatriyas of Ancient Cambodia Manusmráti (1.31.) narrates the origin of Varnáa that the Lord Brahma, for the sake of the prosperity of the worlds, caused the BraÆhmanáa, the Ksáatriya, the Vaißya, and the SuÆdra to proceed from his mouth, his arms, his thighs, and his feet respectively. Ksáatriya is the caste of governors and warriors. According to the Manusmráti (1.89.) the duty of Ksáatriya is to protect the people, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study the Veda, and to abstain from attaching himself to sensual pleasures. The imprint of Indian influence caused tremendous impact to the social structure of ancient Cambodia. The Varnáa or Caste System, which is the division of classes of people in society according to their duty, was introduced to ancient Cambodia since the early time. However, since the lack of constant evidence of caste of the two low Varnáas,Vaißya and SuÆdra, it seems that Varnáa system in Cambodia was partly in practice and slightly different from original. Two high Varnáas, Ksáatriya and BraÆhmanáa, can be considered as symbols of dignity. These Varnáas played a significant role in the history of ancient Cambodia. The Ksáatriya caste consists of kings, members of the royal house, nobles and military personnel. All ancient Cambodian kings claimed to descend from the two royal dynasties, i.e. the SuÆryavamáßa and the Somavamáßa which is no doubt another name Candravamáßa. This also shows Indian influence on the royal institute as according to Indian mythology, there are two great royal dynasties which ruled the world, i.e. of which the first great royal family of SuÆryavamáßa, or the Solar Dynasty, which was referred to after the Sun god, SuÆrya, and the second great royal family was Candravamáßa, or the Lunar Dynasty, which was referred to after the Moon god, Candra. The Indian Influence Reflected in the Names of Kings All kings of ancient Cambodia, moreover, have Sanskrit names which shows very strong influence of India as Sanskrit is the sacred language of India. All ancient Cambodian kings have the surname ‘varman’ at the end, but it does not mean that all individuals whose names end with ‘varman’ are kings. The word ‘varman’ is a noun meaning ‘envelope, defensive armour, a coat of mail, a bulwark, shelter, defence, protection’ (Williams, 1872: 926). The ending ‘varman’ is generally used to signify a Ksáatriya family. The Visánáu PuraÆnáa mentions “(The termination) §arman is prescribed for a BraÆhmanáa; Varman belongs to a Ksáatriya; (and) a name characterised by Gupta and DaÆsa is approved of in the case of (respectively) a Vaisáya and a Sudra” (Sharma, 1978:16). This matches with the law laid down by Manusmráti (2.31-32.) that let (the first part of) a BraÆhmanáa's name (denote something) auspicious, a Ksáatriya's be connected with power, and a Vaisya's with wealth, but a Sudra's (express something) contemptible, and the second part of a Brahmana's (name) shall be (a word) implying happiness, of a Kshatriya's (a word) implying protection, of a Vaisya's (a term) expressive of thriving, and of a Sudra's (an expression) denoting service. The early Indian rulers bearing names ending with ‘varman’, from the epigraphic evidence, are §ivaskandavarman of the early Pallava Dynasty of the 3rd Century A.D. (Sircar, 1939:165) and MayuÆrvarman I of the early Kadamba Dynasty who ruled during 325-360 A.D. (Gai, 1996: 7-27). §ivaskandavarman was originally the Brahmin of BhaÆrdvaÆja Gotra and bore the title ‘Dharma MahaÆrajaÆdhiraja’ which was used before by KusáaÆnáa kings in northern India (Sircar, 1939:165; Sastri, 2008:91). MayuÆrvarman, who has been regarded as the real founder of the Kadamba Dynasty, referred in his record to his ancestor named ViÆravarman. ViÆravarman was described as the best of Brahmins of MaÆnavya Gotra and had the eldest son, Bandhusáenáa who was the Brahma-Ksáatriya, i.e. primarily a Brahmin by birth and secondarily a Ksáatriya or warrior by profession (Gai, 1996:17-18). It was, however, found that rulers with names ending in -varman from numerous dynasties were flourishing in other parts of India, e.g. the Aulikaras of Mandasor, the §alanækaÆyanas of Venægi who began their career from the 4th Century A.D., as well as the Ganægas of Kalinæganagara from the end of the 5th Century A.D. and the Maukharis of GayaÆ in the 5th Century A.D. Most of the Kalinæga dynasties of the 5th Century A.D., e.g. the MaÆtáharas and Pitrábhaktas, also had royal names ending in ‘varman’ (Sircar, 1996:204). Meanwhile in Southeast Asia the appearance of -varman ending names in inscriptions took place around the 5th-6th Centuries A.D., such as Jayavarman of Funan, Bhadravarman of CampaÆ, MuÆlavarman of Borneo and Purnáavarman of JavaÆ. The tradition of ending rulers’ names with the word ‘varman’ constantly succeeded in the kingdoms of KambujaÆ and CampaÆ until the late 14th Century A.D. From epigraphic evidence it is found that ancient Cambodian kings used three different kinds of names, i.e. Pre-coronation names, Coronation names and Posthumous names of which the last kind is very rare in India. There are five Pre-coronation names mentioned in inscriptions, i.e. Citrasena, IÆßaÆnasena, Jayavardhana, Yaßovardhana and §riÆndrakumaÆra. After the coronation ceremony those kings received new names ending with varman. The first king who bore a name ending in -varman is Jayavarman of Funan, in the 5th Century A.D. After that -varman ending names were given to all Cambodian kings up to the last king of the Angkor Empire. Generally, the first parts of Coronation names represented mighty gods, such as §iva (Rudra, Bhava, IÆßaÆna), Indra (Mahendra, DharanáiÆndra, RaÆjendra), SuÆrya (UdayaÆditya, TribhuvanaÆditya) or the auspicious words like victory (Jaya, JayaviÆra), glory (Yaßas), and happiness (Harsáa). It is noteworthy that the god Visánáu, which according to Indian tradition illustrates the character of protector the same as that of the king, was not referred to in even a single name. This proves that the god §iva was more closely related to the Khmer kingship than Visánáu, as many scholars have observed (Lavy, 2003:34). The god Indra reflects the idea of kingship, as the lord of the earth, which matches with the Old Khmer phase ‘Kamratenæ Phdai Karom’. The god AÆditya represents a metaphor of kingship as the source of prosperity like the Sun. Auspicious words occurring in king’s names give the idea that royalty is the origin of victory, glory and happiness of the people. After those kings passed away, posthumous names were given to show the places where the kings attained. The posthumous name was a special honour revered for the kings. The tradition started in the reign of King Jayavarman I (657- circa 680 A.D.), whose posthumous name is §ivapura. The posthumous names of Angkorian kings, except Jayavarman II, whose posthumous name was Parameßvara, were made from the name of a god or ultimate goal, and the words ‘loka’ or ‘pada’. The posthumous names were generally found among the major kings. The only exception is King PusákaraÆksáa whose posthumous name Indraloka is mentioned. The posthumous names confirm the prominence of §aivism, as many as twelve names denote the god §iva. Some scholars said that the custom of giving posthumous names came from CampaÆ, because early examples were there. This suggestion, however, is very doubtful since the first emergence of a posthumous name from CampaÆ, i.e. Rudraloka of King PráthiviÆndravarman, occurred in the 8th Century A.D., which was a century later than King Jayavarman I. It may alternatively be suggested that CampaÆ received this custom from Cambodia. Table 1: Names of Kings of Ancient Cambodia (the 1st - 14th Centuries A.D.) No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Pre-Coronation Names Citrasena IÆßaÆnasena Jayavardhana Yaßovardhana Coronation Names Kaunádiá nya Jayavarman of Funan Rudravarman §rutavarman §resátáhavarman Bhavavarman I Mahendravarman IÆßaÆnavarman I Bhavavarman II Jayavarman I JayadeviÆ Jayavarman II Jayavarman III Indravarman I Yaßovarman I Harsáavarman I IÆßaÆnavarman II Jayavarman IV 19 20 21 22 23 24 Harsáavarman II RaÆjendravarman Jayavarman V UdayaÆdityavarman I JayaviÆravarman SuÆryavarman I 25 26 27 28 29 UdayaÆdityavarman II, UdayaÆrkavarman Harsáavarman III Jayavarman VI DharanáiÆndravarman I SuÆryavarman II 30 31 32 33 34 DharanáiÆndravarman II Yaßovarman II TribhuvanaÆdityavarman Jayavarman VII Indravarman II Posthumous Names §ivapura Parameßa, Parameßvara Visánuá loka IÆßvaraloka Paramaßivaloka Rudraloka Paramarudraloka Paramaßivapada, §ivapada Vrahmaloka §ivaloka ParamaviÆraloka NirvaÆnáapada, ParamanirvaÆnaá pada SadaÆßivapada Paramakaivalyapada Paramanisákalapada Paramavisánuá loka, MahaÆvisánáuloka MahaÆparamanirvaÆnáapaÆda MahaÆparamasaugatapada 35 36 37 38 Jayavarman VIII §riÆndravarman §riÆndrajayavarman JayavarmaÆdiparameßvara Parameßvarapada Brahmaksáatriya: the Special Feature of Ksáatriya of Ancient Cambodia Another interesting point which shows the cultural influence from southern India is the caste of Brahmaksáatriya. The tradition of claiming to descend from the Brahmin ancestor of a king was prevalent among the ruling dynasties of southern India, such as Pallava and Kadamba mentioned before. This custom prevailed in ancient Cambodia and CampaÆ, where the kings alleged to descend from the great sages Kaunádáinya and Bhrágu, respectively. It is noticed that the Ksáatriya caste of Cambodia was more flexible than that of India. The intermarriage between Ksáatriya and Brahmin is regularly found since the early times. K.359, of the 6th Century A.D., mentions that Brahmin Somaßraman married a sister of King Bhavavarman I. In India, the marriage of Brahmin and Ksáatriya princess, though theoretically possible, is very rare in practice. The only example, which is reported from Indian epigraphic records, is Hastibhoja, a minister, whose ancestor is mentioned as a Brahmin who married a Ksáatriya princess (Chatterji, 1928:38). The Ksáatriya of ancient Cambodia, on the other hand, had wives from Brahmin families. King Jayavarman II is mentioned to have four Brahmin queens, namely KambujalaksámiÆ, NrápendradeviÆ, BhaÆssvaÆminiÆ and Hyanæ PavitraÆ. King RaÆjendravarman II also had two queens from Brahmin families, namely NarendradeviÆ and PraÆnaá . This type of marriage was in practice until the last phase of the Angkor Empire, as King Jayavarman JayamahaÆpradhaÆna, VIII and married King CakravartiraÆjadeviÆ, §riÆndravarman married a daughter SuÆryalaksámiÆ, of his a guru, niece of MadhurendrasuÆri. The descendants of such weddings were either Ksáatriya or Brahmin. The son of Somaßarman with the sister of King Bhavavarman I was a Ksáatriya, as the name Hiranáyavarman denotes. Dharmavardhana, the son of King Jayavarman II with Queen KambujalaksámiÆ, became a Ksáatriya. Narendravarman, the son of Brahmin Agastya and Princess Yaßomati, enjoyed Ksáatriya status. The eminent Brahmin §ivasoma, the guru of King Jayavarman III, was the grandson of minor King JayendraÆdhipativarman who was again the maternal uncle of King Jayavarman II. The celebrated Brahmin YajñavaraÆha, Vrahá Guru, or the great teacher of King Jayavarman V, is also mentioned in K.617 as a Brahmaksáatriya, and as the grandson of King Harsáavarman I. The Importance of –varman Ending The -varman ending is very outstanding in the history of Cambodia. It seems that the individuals who carried -varman ending names enjoyed semi-royal status and governed particular regions. Only two names ending in -varman, Harivarman and Konægavarman, are from the Pre-Angkorian Period. It is very clear that Konægavarman was in the royal family probably a relative of King Bhavavarman II, as he claimed to descend from the line of Kaunádiá nya and SomaÆ. Thus, it may be presumed that Harivarman was a relative of IÆßaÆnavarman since the -varman ending name in the Pre-Angkorian Period was very extraordinary. In the early times of the Angkor Empire, PunnaÆgavarman, a son of a minor king of Chenla named Rudravarman, is mentioned to be the founder of the eminent Brahmin family Saptadevakula. This is additional evidence of attribution of Brahmaksáatriya institution in Cambodia as a Ksáatriya became the founder of a Brahmin family. Five -varman ending names, IÆßvaravarman, Jayasinæhavarman, NaraÆdhipativarman, NarendraÆdhipativarman and SatyaÆdhipativarman, are mentioned in inscriptions from the reign of Yaßovarman I, presenting that names with -varman ending are more common to non-royal members in later time and a strong point of military power of that king. The names, JayaviÆravarman and Dvijendravarman, were given to high officials in the time of King Harsáavarman I and King Jayavarman IV respectively. This shows the military centralization during these kings. Six high officials with -varman ending are reported from the time of RaÆjendravarman II and Jayavarman V. The increasing number of names with the -varman ending, up to twenty-three in the reign of SuÆryavarman I, shows the influence of warrior class in society. This was due to the war for power; adversaries continuously struggled for the throne of the Angkor Empire. After conquering an enemy a king had to reward his military in different ways. Giving honorific names was a kind of reward to lure soldiers to be loyal. Many soldiers, whose names are referred to in the Oath Inscriptions of King SuÆryavarman I, had served the former kings such as Jayavarman V, UdayaÆdityavarman I and JayaviÆravarman, who was the rival of SuÆryavarman I. This shows the tolerance of the latter king. The honorific names, like ViÆrendravarman and RaÆjapativarman, were hereditary. During this time the responsibility of Ksáatriya caste expanded to secular service, as in the cases of ViÆravarman and SamaraÆdhipativarman, who were appointed as the leader of §ivapaÆda PuÆrva and inspector of §riÆßikhareßvara, respectively. SadaÆßiva changed the ending of honorific name from Jayendrapanádiá ta into Jayendravarman to enjoy Ksáatriya status. From epigraphic evidence, it is found that many military officials bearing -varman ending names were Sañjaks, the special force that first appeared around the 10thCentury A.D. Nine Sañjaks were granted -varman ending names by the grace of SuÆryavarman II, together with other four warriors appeared in the procession scene at Angkor Vat. Six names with -varman ending from the reign of Jayavarman VII show the significant role of warriors who brought back the glory of the Angkor Empire. At that time, four Sañjaks who defended their master with bravery were awarded with honorific names and titles, as narrated in K.227. From the Khmer epigraphs it is clear that people who bore names ending in -varman acquired at least the title of ‘MrataÆñ Khloñ’, ‘military chief’, or ‘Khloñ Vala’, ‘chief of soldiers’. And, it seems that individuals who had names with -varman ending governed particular cities ending in -pura. The number of -varman ending names in the reign of each king signify the importance of the Ksáatriya Caste in particular periods. The kings who had numerous officials with names ending in varman, such as Yaßovarman I, RaÆjendravarman II, SuÆryavarman I, SuÆryavarman II and Jayavarman VII, were very famous in military campaign. On the basis that the honorific names were hereditary, it is likely that King JayaviÆravarman was a descendant of the namesake who had enough power to construct Kravan Temple in the Angkor region during the reign of King Harsáavarman I. This assumption also explains why he easily captured the power in the Angkor capital and became king. Other Endings of Ksáatriyas of Ancient Cambodia Apart from the -varman ending, the Ksáatriyas of ancient Cambodia employed other endings which are common for the Ksáatriyas in India. Endings, like: sena, vardhana, paÆla, gupta, kumaÆra, vikrama and paraÆkrama, are still found in India today. There are twenty-three endings given to the Ksáatriyas in ancient Cambodia. These endings can be divided into five groups according to their meaning, i.e. protection (varman, paÆla, gupta, raksáa), god (aÆditya, kumaÆra, deva), bravery and victory (viÆra, vikrama, sinæha, paraÆkrama, vijaya, kesari, ßuÆra), battle (sena, yuddha, sanægraÆma, mathana) and auspiciousness (vardhana, vallabha, vikhyaÆta, pura, kirti). It is interesting to note that princes used only seven endings, i.e. -varman (Gunáavarman), -sena (Citrasena, IÆßaÆnasena), -vardhana (Jayavardhana, Yaßovardhana, Dharmavardhana, Vijayavardhana, ViÆravardhana), -aÆditya (VikramaÆditya), -yuddha (IndraÆyuddha) and -kumaÆra (§riÆndrakumaÆra, SuÆryakumaÆra, NrápatiÆndrakumaÆra, ViÆrakumaÆra). The -gupta and -aÆditya endings probably reflect the trace of Indian culture from the Gupta Dynasty. The Gupta kings, moreover, had many epithets ending with -vikrama and -aÆditya, such as Candragupta II who was also called Ajitavikrama and VikramaÆditya. The Pallava King Narasimhavarman II also had many epithets endings in -vikrama, -sinæha, -kesariÆ, vallabha, -aÆditya, -viÆra, -kiÆrti and -vardhana, as mentioned in the Kanchipuram Inscription (Mahalingam, 1988: 176-188). This shows that these endings were very well-known among Ksáatriyas at the time. Nevertheless, the tradition of having many Biduras or epithets, which was very popular in India, was not attested to in ancient Cambodia. Another important ending of the Ksáatriyas is -aÆditya, which was usually given to royal relatives or subordinate rulers. The term ‘AÆditya’ means ‘the Sun’, which echoes the role of ruler as the source of prosperity. The earliest name with such ending is BalaÆditya, a minor king of Aninditapura around the 6th Century A.D. Then, three kings, namely DevaÆditya, IndraÆditya and DharmaÆditya, who ruled Bhavapura during the 7th- 8thCenturies A.D. are known from inscriptions. It is interesting to note that DevaÆditya claimed to be the brother of HiranáyadaÆma, the eminent Brahmin who performed the DevaraÆja ceremony for King Jayavarman II. This is a credit of the practice of Brahmaksáatriya in Cambodia as mentioned before. This practice is very uncommon in Indian customs that Brahmin and Ksáatriya are brothers. In the last phase of the Chenla Period, NrápaÆditya is described in K.259 as the chief of merchants (vanáijaÆm-adhipahá) which is a very odd phrase for the Ksáatriya Caste. Three more names, BhavaÆditya, CandraÆditya and BhuvanaÆditya, are mentioned in PreAngkorian inscriptions. The role of these officials was blended between Ksáatriya and Brahmanáa features as CandraÆditya was called AÆcaÆrya or teacher. It may be reflected the characteristics of Poñ, or regional governor in the Pre-Angkorian Period, as Poñ occasionally played the role of religious leader. Moreover, BhuvanaÆditya is mentioned with the Khmer title Poñ. In the early times of Angkor, the name of the legendary king of India, VikramaÆditya, was given to a prince of King Jayavarman II. It is interesting to note that since his name had the -aÆditya ending, not -vardhana, and his mother was not given any honorific name, the status of VikramaÆditya was slightly lower than Jayavardhana who later became King Jayavarman III. This is a good evidence of the hierarchy of endings. In the Angkorian Period, six -aÆditya ending names were given to the members of the royal family, i.e. BhavanaÆditya, BhuvanaÆditya, DharanáiÆndraÆditya, NarendraÆditya, KsáitiÆndraÆditya and MahiÆdraÆditya. Five other names ending in -aÆditya belong to high officials and subordinate rulers of Angkorian kings up to the time of King Jayavarman VII. The last -aÆditya ending name, BhuvanaÆditya, was given to SanaÆpati of King DharmaÆßoka who ruled a small independent kingdom, which received Khmer influence, in the 12th Century A.D. This shows the long practice of -aÆditya ending names. It is worthy to note that names, which signify the Sun and the Moon, i.e. CandraÆditya and SomaÆditya, from North-eastern Thailand, can be considered as a local tradition of that region. The study of -aÆditya ending names resolve the doubt about the ascendancy as the major kings of NrápaÆditya and NarendraÆditya, because the study proves that no major king of Angkor had coronation name ending in -aÆditya, and the ending -aÆditya, which evidently was slightly lower than the ending -varman, was rather a sign of the status of minor king or subordinate ruler. The study of -aÆditya ending names also throws some light to the Angkor king, TribhuvanaÆdityavarman. It is plausible that TribhuvanaÆditya is his formerly honorific name, showing the career of a subordinate ruler. Then, after usurping the throne, he added the -varman ending to his name following the pattern of names of major kings. This theory is proved by K.228, the Prasad Crung Inscription of King Jayavarman VII, which mentions the name only TribhuvanaÆditya. The names, like BalaÆditya and VikramaÆditya, which were previously given to the Gupta kings, Narasimáhagupta and Candragupta II, give an idea about the cultural influence from the Gupta Dynasty. It is learnt that the names sometimes show the gradually increasing administrative power of minor kings, as in the case of kings of §riÆcanaÆßa. Five names of the kings of §riÆcanaÆßa, namely Bhagadatta, SundaraparaÆkrama, Sundaravarman, Narapatisinæhavarman and Manægalavarman are mentioned in K.949. Vickery (1998:200), by considering the endings of names of these kings, presumed that Bhagadatta was only the local governor, as the ending datta was common to Poñs, the dignitaries of the Pre-Angkorian Period. Then his son SundaraparaÆkrama explicitly showed the increase in power as -paraÆkrama was the ending for military chiefs. Finally, Sundaravarman, son of the latter, announced independence by using the name with -varman ending which shows equal status with the king of Angkor. The -vardhana ending made its first appearance in 685 A.D. in the reign of Queen JayadeviÆ of Chenla Kingdom. The name Sukrátavardhana is very doubtful for position of the bearer, as the name mentioned in Khmer text is not preceded by any denoting title. Then, in the Angkorian Period, the-vardhana ending was employed by two princes who later became kings of Angkor, i.e. Jayavardhana and Yaßovardhana. Three more princes were given names with such ending, i.e. Dharmavardhana, Vijayavardhana and ViÆravardhana. Thus, it can be presumed that the -vardhana ending was a special honour for princes. Even though no specific information states that NrápatiÆndravardhana was a prince, the -vardhana ending shows that he was a son of King Jayavarman VII, since in the time of Jayavarman VII the ending vardhana was the sign of princedom, as in the case of Vijayavardhana. Names with -sena ending were employed by princes of the Pre-Angkorian Period, i.e. Citrasena and IÆßaÆnasena. However, there are two more people carrying -sena ending names from the Pre-Angkorian Period, i.e. Candrasena and VaraÆhasena. Two more such names are mentioned in inscriptions during the reign of Yaßovarman I and SuÆryavarman I. Name with the -sena ending has not been found in inscriptions after the reign of latter king. The inscriptions show that the ending was not a sign of princedom like the -vardhana ending and the ending lost its recognition after the 11th Century A.D. Names ending in -viÆra occurred since the Pre-Angkorian Period, and were given to subordinate ruler and Mantrin, i.e. CandraviÆra and SinæhaviÆra. Then, in the Angkorian Period, a descendant of a Vaisánáavite family named Padyumna was given the honorific name NaraviÆra in the reign of King Indravarman I. Then the name RaÆjendraviÆra was granted to the treasurer of King Harsáavarman I, who ruled Angkor from 915-923 A.D. The name ViÆrendraviÆra shows a high position in the army as the holder was appointed as CamuÆpati, or general, of King Harsáavarman II (941-944 A.D.). As many as eighteen names ending in –viÆra are mentioned in the Oath Inscriptions, dated 1011 A.D., of King SuÆryavarman I. It is interesting to note that after the reign of King SuÆryavarman I there is no record of such name. The -vikrama ending was initiated in Angkorian time, and Nrápendravikrama was the first -vikrama ending name, which was from the reign of King Jayavarman II. Nrápendravikrama, who had the original name ‘Pranáavaßarva’, from a Brahmin family, received this name after serving in the military. Then, the same name was given to high officials of King Jayavarman IV and SuÆryavarman I, showing its popularity. Two names, Baktivikrama and Nrápabhaktivikrama, from the reign of RaÆjendravarman II, are very special. The former had the title of ‘MrataÆñ Kurunæ’ showing both military and administrative authority. The latter was also placed on two duties, i.e. in the army and treasury. Four names ending in –vikrama are mentioned in the Oath Inscriptions of King SuÆryavarman I. The -sinæha ending is traced back to the Funan Period. The first such name was Brahmasinæha who was the brother of Brahmadatta. From the first part of two names, it may be assumed that Brahmasinæha and Brahmadatta were named after their father, whose name was not mentioned, but the name should start with the word ‘Brahma’. The name Brahmasinæha shows the feature of a Brahmin and a warrior, which was characteristic of this family. Another name, Ratnasinæha, was from the reign of Jayavarman I. RaÆjendrasinæha, who was the close servant of King RaÆjendravarman II, seems to have had high position in the military, as the first part of his name corresponds to the king’s name. Eight other names are referred to in the Oath Inscriptions of King SuÆryavarman I. There is no record of -sinæha ending name after the 11th Century A.D. This helps to date K.373, which Cœdès did not give the date when he edited it. Twelve names ending in –paraÆkrama are found in Angkorian inscriptions during the 10th - 11thCenturies A.D. only. Out of them, eleven are mentioned in two Oath Inscriptions, K.292, and K.467, of King SuÆryavarman I. There is no record of names ending in -paraÆkrama after the 11th Century A.D. The study shows that two high officials, RanáaparaÆkrama and ViÆraparaÆkrama, were in service since the time of King RaÆjendravarman II and Jayavarman V. Both names appeared again in the Oath Inscriptions along with others implicitly shows that they were formerly on the side of JayaviÆravarman. After losing in battle, these officials took an oath of loyalty to the new King SuÆryavarman I. The name DharanáiÆndraparaÆkrama, who was a brother of ViÆravarman and ancestor of Nrápendravallabha, is good evidence of the variety of Ksáatriya endings, i.e. -paraÆkrama, -varman, and -vallabha, as these three people were from a Ksáatriya family. Another example is the name of ViÆraparaÆkrama who was a son of Vindudeva, which proves that both endings, -deva and -paraÆkrama, belong to Ksáatriya. The ending -vijaya, victory, was used only in the Angkorian Period. The first name with such ending, Gunáavijaya, was given to military chiefs of early kings of Angkor, Indravarman I and Yaßovarman I. Then, two names belong to a mantrin and a high official of Harsáavarman II and RaÆjendravarman II, respectively. Four more names are from the reign of King SuÆryavarman I. There is no name ending in -vijaya after the 11th Century A.D. The -kesari ending, which is a synonym of Sinæha, was given to three high personnel during the 9th- 11thCenturies A.D. The oldest name, Vijayakasari, which shows features of the Ksáatriya caste, is very interesting. He was praised in the inscription as the best in AÆyurveda and Dhanurveda, showing the subjects that warriors had to learn at the time. Two other names are mentioned in an Oath Inscription, K.292, of King SuÆryavarman I. The –ßura ending is found only in the Oath Inscriptions of King SuÆryavarman I. Two names, Drádhá abhaktißuÆra and NrápabhaktißuÆra, are mentioned as the governors of districts. The –yuddha ending was introduced in the reign of King Jayavarman II, the founder of the Angkor Empire, as the first name ending in -yuddha was given to Prince IndraÆyuddha. It is noteworthy that this ending is lower than -vardhana in hierarchy, as Prince IndraÆyuddha did not ascend the throne and his descendant, HarivaÆha, served the later king without any special honorific name. SatyaÆyuddha was a son of the important priest PrathiviÆnarendra who performed KalyaÆnáasiddhi ceremony for King Jayavarman II. SatyaÆyuddha served as the chief of the elephant hunting force of King Jayavarman III, and later became the general of the central army of Indravarman I. This shows that a position in the elephant force was very important in ancient times, and the profession of elephant trainer was reserved for Brahmin families. This tradition can be traced back to the old practice in Thailand that the chief of elephant trainers was given the honorific name of Brahmanáa VráddhipaÆsa. The name VikramaÆyuddha occurred twice in different periods, i.e. the 9th and the 11th Centuries A.D. The name was given to the VyaÆpaÆra of King Yaßovarman I and to a military chief of King SuÆryavarman I. The most popular name is Narendrayuddha, which is found eight times in K.292 alone. These eight namesakes governed different districts. Two more names are mentioned in K.467, dated 1011 A.D. After that time, there are no names ending in -yuddha. Three names ending in –sanægraÆma are mentioned in inscriptions during the 10th 11thCenturiesA.D. UnaÆdbhutasanægraÆma is mentioned with the title ‘MrataÆñ Kurunæ’, or the ruling chief, which was very rare. Another official who had this title was Bhaktivikrama from the 10th Century A.D. According to Vickery (1998: 196-197), this title denotes a MrataÆñ who was the ruler of a place, and MrataÆñ Kurunæ was superior to MrataÆñ Khloñ. The remaining two such names are from the Oath Inscriptions. The remarkable -mathana ending is found in the Angkorian Period starting from the reign of Indravarman I. Ripumathana, a son of the eminent Brahmin PrathiviÆnarendra, seems to have served King Indravarman I in considerable position probably in the army as his name denotes. Thus, it is no wonder that his son Loñ NaraÆy became SenaÆpati of the same king. Ripumathana’s brother SatyaÆyuddha was appointed on a significant post of King Jayavarman III and Indravarman I. It is interesting to note that two sons of Brahmin have served in the military and received names with military endings,-yuddha and -mathana. Names ending in mathana became prominent in the reign of RaÆjendravarman II and his son Jayavarman V, as seven such names are referred to in the inscriptions of those kings. The remarkable one is KaviÆndraÆrimathana, the favourite architect of King RaÆjendravarman II and the founder of §augataÆßrama. Two officials, NrápendraÆrimathana and ViÆrendraÆrimathana, had long terms in their careers as they served from the reign of Jayavarman V to that of SuÆryavarman I. Four names are from the time of King SuÆryavarman I. There is no mention of names ending in mathana after that. The oldest name ending in -vallabha is found in the Pre-Angkorian Period from the time of King Jayavarman Ibis, i.e. Parameßvaravallabha. Generally, names ending in -vallabha provide the meaning of the favourite of king, i.e. a loyal warrior. This ending was employed to military personnel in the rank of MrataÆñ, chief or commandant. Two sons of the Vaisánáava Brahmin Govinda received honorific names with this ending, i.e. Jayendravallabha and Nrápendravallabha, and served three kings of early Angkor. The -vallabha ending became prominent during the reign of King RaÆjendravarman II and Jayavarman V, as six names are mentioned. The remarkable one is Mahendravallabha, who was also called Phalapriya. He served for around 42 years. The name Vikramavallabha occurred along with other names with other warrior endings, i.e. Vikramavijaya, NrápendraviÆra, and Jayayuddha, showing the group of warrior endings. Four names are mentioned in inscriptions of King SuÆryavarman I. It is interesting to note that DharanáiÆndravallabha, a high official of King JayaviÆravarman, did not appear in any inscriptions of SuÆryavarman I. This implies that King SuÆryavarman I did not accept all officials of his enemy. The last name ending in -vallabha is Dvijendravallabha, who made a donation in 1067 A.D. Even though there is no record such ending after the 11th Century A.D., in modern-day Thailand, the name RaÆjavallabha is given to the special military force responsible for the royal family. This shows the continuity of the term vallabha in sense of warrior in Southeast Asia. Ten names ending in –vikhyaÆta are mentioned in inscriptions during the 7th 11thCenturies A.D. The oldest name, MahaÆnukrátavikhyaÆta, is referred to in K.765, of the 7th Century A.D. The ending became popular in the 10th Century A.D., as seven names are mentioned, of which four were in the court of King RaÆjendravarman II. Two officials with the names, NrápendravikhyaÆta, and NrápavikhyaÆta, were appointed as superintendents in the palace of the said kings. ViÆrendravikhyaÆta, the uncle of KaviÆndraÆrimathana, is said to have been a favourite servant of King Harsáavarman II. This shows that the not only officials in the army, but also the interior officials were awarded with this ending. Two military chiefs with such names are from the time of SuÆryavarman I. The –kumaÆra ending, which was given to fourteen individuals, had very long tradition since the 7th - 13thCenturies A.D. In the Pre-Angkorian Period, all seven names were given to Poñs, the dignitaries. The term –kumaÆra during this time seems to denote the god Skanda. In the Angkorian Period, the name VisánáukumaÆra was given to a brother of celebrated Brahmin YajñavaraÆha in the reign of King Jayavarman V. As it is known, YajñavaraÆha was the grandson of King Harsáavarman I; thus, it is clear that VisánáukumaÆra was also a grandson of the king. This is the first time that the ending -kumaÆra was used in the sense of prince. In the time of King Jayavarman VII, the ending signified the real meaning of prince, and was the sign of princedom, as in the case of the -vardhana ending. Six names ending in –kumaÆra are mentioned, of which three were clearly princes of King Jayavarman VII. The remaining three names, even though without any appellatives, can be assumed to belong to princes on the basis that they installed particular gods after their names, and this ending was not common to other officials. Thus, the study of names reveals four more princes of King Jayavarman VII, which is reasonable as that king had a long life. Three other endings which provide the sense of protection are found in the names of ancient Cambodian officials viz. -paÆla, -gupta, and -raksáa. In India, names ending in -paÆla were very common to the Ksáatriya Caste, particularly kings from the PaÆla Dynasty. In ancient Cambodia, this ending was initially given to dignitaries in the Pre-Angkorian Period, like Poñ and MrataÆñ. Thus, it may be presumed that the -paÆla ending in early period was a sign of dignity. Then, in the Angkorian Period, the ending was granted to moderate ranking officials whose titles were ‘Chloñ’. This is clear evidence of the devaluation of names, which also happened to the title ‘MrataÆñ’. In the Pre-Angkorian Period, the title MrataÆñ was very high, as it was given to princes. Then, in the Angkorian times, the title became common to several officials. The ending -paÆla is not found after the reign of Jayavarman III. Names with the -gupta ending in India were very common for kings of Gupta Dynasty. In ancient Cambodia, the -gupta ending was given to important officials, such as SaÆmantaraÆja and Poñ in the Pre-Angkorian Period. It was an indication of dignity. Many Poñs and important officials with -gupta ending names played significant roles in religious activities, such as making huge donations and establishing AÆßramas. Then, in the Angkorian times, the name §ivagupta was given to a dignitary who took charge of religious affairs by the order of King Jayavarman VI, in K.391, dated 1082 A.D. Names ending in –raksáa were only found in inscriptions of the Pre-Angkorian Period. These four -raksáa ending names were given to devout individuals who were engaged in religious donations. It may be concluded that these three endings,-paÆla, -gupta, -raksáa, were common in the Pre-Angkorian Period and denoted the religious devotion. The -kirti ending was generally given to high officials, particularly Poñs. Nine names ending in –kirti were only found in the Pre-Angkorian Period. In the Pre-Angkorian Period, when the authority was not centralised, these Poñs played important roles as the landlords and religious supporters, or donors, as mentioned in inscriptions. Seven names appeared in dated inscriptions from the reign of IÆßaÆnavarman I to JayadeviÆ. Thus, two more names, §aÆntikiÆrti and BhavakiÆrti, can be dated to these reigns. There is no record of name ending in kirti after the 7th Century A.D. One of the very old endings, -deva was very popular in the Pre-Angkorian Period, as nine names are mentioned in inscriptions from that period, of which seven names were given to Poñs. Names ending in -deva, however, in early times, were given to significant individuals, such as, Dharmadeva and Sinæhadeva, two ministers of Kings Bhavavarman I and Mahendravarman, respectively. These two ministers were brothers from a family which served the court since the reign of Rudravarman of Funan. After that the names were given to Poñs. The name Anæßadeva proves that not only the Chenla Kingdom, but the independent Kingdom of §riÆcanaÆßa, which was influenced by Khmer culture, also employed this ending. This also shows the hierarchy of endings that -deva was lower than -praraÆkrama. Names like Anæßadeva, Dharmadeva and §ivadeva, actually, did not follow the rule described in MaÆnava GráhyasuÆtra (I.18, 1-2) that using gods’ names as names of individuals was forbidden. This is evidence that the tradition of naming in ancient Cambodia was very diverse by local practices. The last name ending in -deva was SaÆmadeva, from the reign of King SuÆryavarman I. There are no such names after that. It is interesting to note that these four endings, -paÆla, gupta, -raksáa, -kirti, and -deva were very popular in the Pre-Angkorian Period, thus the said endings are very useful for dating inscriptions where such names appear. A good example is Gurudeva who is referred to as an ancestor by SenaÆpati SanægraÆma in K.449, dated 1069 A.D. On the basis of ending, he plausibly lived in the Pre-Angkorian times. The study of Sanskrit names of governors also illustrates the indigenous feature which is added to the method of naming. It is found that many individuals were given names after places. Evidence is shown with names ending in -pura. It is shown in inscriptions that -pura ending names were very ancient, since the 7th Century A.D., and individuals who bore such names had governed the namesake cities. The assumption is proved by MrataÆñ Kloñ Jyesátáhapura, who was called in Sanskrit ‘JyesátáhapurasvaÆmiÆ’, which provides the meaning of lord of Jyesátáhapura. Names ending in –pura are frequently found in the 10th Century A.D., and as many as five names are mentioned from the reign of IÆßaÆnavarman II to Jayavarman V. The custom was practiced in the reign of SuÆryavarman I, but faded out of usage after that. An interesting case is the governor of §resátáhapura who had special epithet ‘VaraÆßraya’, showing the importance of the city as the cradle of the royal line of ancient Cambodia. Nowadays, in Thailand and Cambodia the tradition of addressing notable people after the place under their authority is considered as a means of honour and is still practiced in informal occasions, e.g. villagers call an abbot after his temple, like the father of Sanækea Temple. It is worthy to note that not only people, but also gods were named after places. It is found in inscriptions that a huge amount of names ending in -pura preceded by the Khmer phase ‘Vrahá KamrataÆñ Añ’, or ‘Vrahá Kamratenæ Jagat’, denoting ‘the god of somewhere’, e.g. the god of Linægapura, the god of §ambhupura, the god of Acalitapura, etc. The tradition of calling the sacred objects after place-names is still practiced by the Buddhists in Thailand and Cambodia. It is valuable to note that out of these endings, as many as 14 endings, namely -sena, viÆra, -vikrama, -sinæha, -paraÆkrama, -vijaya, -kesariÆ, -ßuÆra, -yuddha, -sanægraÆma, -mathana, vallabha, -vikhyaÆta, and -pura, make the last appearance in the reign of King SuÆryavarman I, or not later than the 11th Century A.D. This is a very useful tool to apply as a method of dating inscriptions where such names appeared. It also illustrates the political overview that King SuÆryavarman I, after conquering the long war against his rival JayaviÆravarman, centralized military power from the warlords throughout his empire in order to prevent a revolt. This policy was quite successful as his reign, which lasted long for almost 50 years, lacking in civil unrest. This explains that why the three rebels led by warriors in the reign of his successor UdayaÆdityavarman II were not successful. The irregular change of monarchs after the 11th Century A.D. mainly came from minor rulers, and descendants who had varman or -aÆditya ending names. The important dynasty which supplied the kings of Angkor after the 11th Century A.D. was the MahiÆdharapura Dynasty. It is clear that the founder Hiranáyavarman was a feudatory ruler of a province around the north-eastern region of Thailand. King SuÆryavarman II, who took power away from predecessor, was a son of KsáitiÆndraÆditya. Another usurper was TribhuvanaÆdityavarman who, on the basis of the ending, was a local ruler with -aÆditya ending. Very few inscriptions of these Ksáatriya provide genealogies. In the Pre-Angkorian Period, only K.53 gives the list of members of a family, namely Brahmadatta, Brahmasinæha, Dharmadeva, Sinæhadeva, SinæhaviÆra, and Sinæhadatta. It is worthy to note that four people had names with endings denoting the Ksáatriya caste, i.e. -sinæha, -deva, and -viÆra. It is clear that all individuals mentioned above served in secular functions. In the Angkorian Period, most high officials’ families traced their service back to the time of Jayavarman II. There is no mention of the family lines from the Pre-Angkorian times. A remarkable one is PrathiviÆnarendra, an eminent Brahmin, whose two sons, SatyaÆyuddha and Ripumathana, served in secular positions. The Vaisánáavite Brahmin Govinda, who served King Jayavarman II, had two sons, Jayendravallabha and Nrápendravallabha, who also served three kings of early Angkor. Another local aspect of Sanskrit names in ancient Cambodia is that the father and son had the same name. This kind of naming is considered as taboo by Indian texts. Evidence in this case is the names of King Jayavarman II and Jayavarman III. Another instance is the name NrápendraÆdhipativarman. In India, naming a grandson after his grandfather was acceptable, as in the case of Candragupta I and Candragupta II. Conclusion in Table Table 2: Number of Names of Ksáatriya found in Inscriptions No. Category Number 1 Names ending in -varman 58 2 Names of Sañjak 24 3 Names ending in -aÆditya 13 4 Names ending in -vardhana 5 5 Names ending in -sena 3 6 Names ending in -viÆra 21 7 Names ending in -vikrama 6 8 Names ending in -sinæha 12 9 Names ending in -paraÆkrama 11 10 Names ending in -vijaya 7 11 Names ending in -kesari 3 12 Names ending in -ßuÆra 2 13 Names ending in -yuddha 6 14 Names ending in -sanægraÆma 3 15 Names ending in -mathana 10 16 Names ending in -vallabha 13 17 Names ending in -vikhyaÆta 10 18 Names ending in -kumaÆra 14 19 Names ending in -paÆla 6 20 Names ending in -gupta 8 21 Names ending in -raksáa 4 22 Names ending in -kiÆrti 9 23 Names ending in -deva 12 24 Names ending in -pura 10 Total 270 The table shows the dominance of the -varman ending names among the Ksáatriyas’ names. Surprisingly some Ksáatriyas are mentioned in the inscriptions with their original names, which are one-word names, e.g. SenaÆpati SanægraÆma. Sañjaks were a very important force during the reigns of King SuÆryavarman II and Jayavarman VII. Names ending in -viÆra occur in the inscriptions from the Pre-Angkorian Period to the time of King SuÆryavarman I only. The ending -kumaÆra had long span of usage since the 7th-13th Centuries A.D. Half of such names belong to Poñs in the Pre-Angkorian Period. The second half of names ending in -kumaÆra were given to princes of King Jayavarman VII. Some Ksáatriyas had names ending in -aÆditya, which were also given to minor kings. Three endings: -vallabha, -sinæha, and -deva, were given to several Ksáatriyas. Five endings: -paraÆkrama, -mathana, -vikhyaÆta, -pura and kirti, are found in the same frequency. Moderate Ksáatriyas had names ending in -gupta, vijaya, -vikrama, -yuddha, and -paÆla. 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