MORTUARY VARIABILITY IN EARLY IRON AGE CRETAN BURIALS
Melissa Suzanne Eaby
A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the
Department of Classics.
Chapel Hill
2007
Approved by:
Donald C. Haggis
Carla M. Antonaccio
Jodi Magness
G. Kenneth Sams
Nicola Terrenato
© 2007
Melissa Suzanne Eaby
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ii
ABSTRACT
MELISSA SUZANNE EABY: Mortuary Variability in Early Iron Age Cretan Burials
(Under the direction of Donald C. Haggis)
The Early Iron Age (c. 1200-700 B.C.) on Crete is a period of transition, comprising
the years after the final collapse of the palatial system in Late Minoan IIIB up to the
development of the polis, or city-state, by or during the Archaic period. Over the course of
this period, significant changes occurred in settlement patterns, settlement forms, ritual
contexts, and most strikingly, in burial practices. Early Iron Age burial practices varied
extensively throughout the island, not only from region to region, but also often at a single
site; for example, at least 12 distinct tomb types existed on Crete during this time, and both
inhumation and cremation were used, as well as single and multiple burial. As part of this
study, over 1200 tombs found in the vicinity of 122 modern villages or towns have been
catalogued. An examination of the burial methods, architecture, assemblages, dates, and
spatial contexts of these tombs and cemeteries provides significant new evidence regarding
the extent of cultural diversity present on the island during this period. The funerary
evidence clearly indicates that Crete was characterized by extensive regionalism during the
Early Iron Age; seven distinct mortuary regions, as well as four transitional or ‘border’
zones, are identified from the funerary material. In addition, a regional examination of the
burial practices provides new evidence regarding the changes in political organization and
social structure which occurred on the island over the course of the period.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research for this project was funded by the University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill (International Center Pre-doctoral Travel Grant, Off-Campus Dissertation
Fellowship), Fulbright Graduate Student Award, and the Archaeological Institute of America
(Olivia James Traveling Fellowship), and it was carried out primarily at the American School
of Classical Studies at Athens and the INSTAP Study Center for East Crete.
Many people have helped me to complete the dissertation. I would like to thank
Geraldine Gesell, Leslie Day, Krzysztof Nowicki, Maria Liston, Metaxia Tsipopoulou, Eleni
Nodarou, Ioannis Papadatos, and Thomas Brogan for taking the time to answer my questions
and talking with me about their material. Donald Haggis and Margaret Mook have been
especially supportive and encouraging over the years, offering much needed advice, as well
as permission to use the Azoria tomb material. Thanks to Carla Antonaccio, Jodi Magness,
Kenneth Sams, and Nicola Terrenato for reading the dissertation. Yuki Furuya is responsible
for most of the maps and was invaluable in fixing certain computer ‘issues.’
I would also like to thank the staff of the INSTAP center, especially Eleanor, Doug,
Kathy, Etienne, and Michel, as well as friends Gloria Park Hunt and Sheri Pak, for their
moral support, and my family for always being there, supporting me no matter what I do, and
for putting up with all my crazy traveling. Finally, this work is dedicated to Vangelis
Phiorakis who not only provided the inspiration for the topic but also allowed me to drag him
all over the island in search of old tombs.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ..............................................................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................ix
ABBREVIATIONS .........................................................................................................xviii
Chapter
I.
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................1
II.
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY .............................................................5
Location ........................................................................................................ 5
Chronology ................................................................................................... 7
Brief history of the Early Iron Age on Crete ..............................................10
Brief history of research on EIA Cretan burials ......................................... 12
Nature of the evidence ................................................................................ 13
History of scholarship for mortuary studies in general ............................... 15
Methodology ...............................................................................................19
III.
CATALOGUE OF SITES ..........................................................................23
Lasithi Nomos ............................................................................................. 23
Herakleion Nomos ...................................................................................... 95
Rethymnon Nomos ................................................................................... 173
Chania Nomos ...........................................................................................187
IV.
ANALYSIS BY TOMB TYPE .................................................................197
v
Tholos tombs ............................................................................................. 197
Natural caves, rock shelters, and rock hollows ......................................... 264
Chamber tombs .........................................................................................273
Pits, shaft graves, and pit caves ................................................................305
Pithos burials, pseudotholoi, and intramural burials .................................318
Cist graves and burial enclosures ..............................................................324
Tombs of other types ................................................................................ 332
Tombs of unknown type and possible burials ........................................... 333
V.
SYNTHESIS AND DISCUSSION ...........................................................337
Lasithi ....................................................................................................... 338
Far Eastern ................................................................................................ 340
West Siteia Mountains .............................................................................. 345
Mirabello and Ierapetra Isthmus ............................................................... 349
Conclusion for East Crete ......................................................................... 353
Central ...................................................................................................... 355
Far Western ............................................................................................... 364
West-Central ............................................................................................. 367
Overall conclusion .................................................................................... 369
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................372
FIGURES ..............................................................................................................412
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1.
Tholoi – chamber shape, size, height ............................................................ 206
2.
Tholoi – stomion, dromos, construction ....................................................... 213
3.
Tholoi – enclosure, roofing, floor, above/below ground .............................. 221
4.
Tholoi – burial information ........................................................................... 226
5.
Tholoi – date, orientation, location relative to settlement ............................ 236
6.
Possible EIA tholos tombs ............................................................................239
7.
Pre-EIA tholoi with possible EIA burials .....................................................240
8.
Offerings, funerary ritual, etc. associated with EIA tholoi ........................... 242
9.
BA tholoi with possible EIA cult activity...................................................... 243
10. Grave goods from tholos tombs .................................................................... 253
11. Cave burials – tomb information .................................................................. 265
12. Grave goods from cave burials ..................................................................... 268
13. Rock shelters – tomb information ................................................................. 269
14. Grave goods from rock shelters .................................................................... 270
15. Natural rock hollows ..................................................................................... 272
16. Chamber tombs – shape/size, dromos, other ................................................ 280
17. Chamber tombs – offerings, evidence of burial ritual, etc............................. 282
18. Chamber tombs – burial information ............................................................ 284
19. Chamber tombs – location, orientation, relation to settlement ..................... 289
20. Bronze Age chamber tombs with possible EIA burials ................................ 292
vii
21.
Possible EIA chamber tombs ....................................................................... 293
22. Grave goods from chamber tombs ................................................................ 298
23. Pit graves – burial information ..................................................................... 308
24. Pit graves – date, location relative to settlement ........................................... 310
25. Pits with possible EIA burials or offerings ................................................... 311
26. Possible shaft graves ..................................................................................... 313
27. Pit caves ........................................................................................................314
28. Grave goods from pits, shafts, and pit caves ................................................ 316
29. Possible pithos/urn cemeteries ...................................................................... 320
30. Pseudotholos tombs ......................................................................................321
31. Tombs of unknown type with pithos burials/cremation urns......................... 322
32. Intramural burials .......................................................................................... 324
33. Possible cist graves .......................................................................................325
34. Burial enclosures ...........................................................................................327
35. Grave goods from cists and burial enclosures .............................................. 330
36. Tombs of other types and burials without structure ......................................333
37. Tombs of unknown type and possible tombs ................................................ 334
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1.
Map of Aegean with study area ...................................................................412
2.
Districts of Crete ..........................................................................................412
3.
Early Iron Age chronology ..........................................................................413
4.
Map of burial sites ....................................................................................... 414
5.
Section and plan of Papoura tholos .............................................................. 415
6.
View of Papoura tholos ................................................................................ 415
7.
View of Papoura tholos (wall of masonry enclosure) .................................. 416
8.
Map of Karphi ..............................................................................................416
9.
Plan of Ta Mnimata cemetery at Karphi ...................................................... 417
10.
Plan of Karphi tombs ................................................................................... 418
11.
Plan of Karphi tombs ................................................................................... 418
12.
View of Karphi tomb M.17 ..........................................................................418
13.
Interior of Karphi tomb M.17 ...................................................................... 419
14.
View of Karphi tomb M.16 ..........................................................................419
15.
View of Karphi tomb M.8 and enclosure ..................................................... 420
16.
View of Karphi tomb M.A and enclosure ....................................................420
17.
Plan of Adrianos tholos tomb ...................................................................... 421
18.
Map of Anavlochos ......................................................................................421
19.
Drawing of Anavlochos tholos on hill B2 ...................................................422
20.
Plan of Anavlochos burial enclosures on hill B1 ......................................... 422
ix
21.
Plan of Dreros cemetery ............................................................................... 423
22.
Plan of Dreros tomb 8 ..................................................................................423
23.
View of Dreros tomb 11 ..............................................................................423
24.
View of Dreros tomb 11 (?) .........................................................................424
25.
Plan of Kritsa tomb A ..................................................................................424
26.
Section of Kritsa tomb A ............................................................................. 424
27.
View of Kritsa tomb A .................................................................................425
28.
Plan of Kritsa tomb B ..................................................................................425
29.
Section of Kritsa tomb B .............................................................................. 425
30.
Map of Vrokastro .........................................................................................426
31.
Plan of Vrokastro tholos tomb I (Karakovilia) ............................................ 426
32.
Plan of Vrokastro burial enclosure 3 (Karakovilia) ..................................... 427
33.
View of Vrokastro tholos I (Karakovilia – VK2) ........................................ 427
34.
Plan of possible burial enclosure 7 at Vrokastro Kopranes ......................... 427
35.
View of tholos tomb at Zenia ....................................................................... 428
36.
Plan of Chalasmenos tholos tomb ................................................................ 428
37.
View of Chalasmenos tholos .......................................................................429
38.
Map of Kavousi area ....................................................................................429
39.
Plan and section of Kavousi Aloni tomb I ...................................................430
40.
View of Kavousi Aloni tomb I ..................................................................... 430
41.
View of Kavousi Aloni tomb IV ..................................................................431
42.
Map of Kavousi Aloni and Plai tou Kastrou ................................................ 431
43.
View of Kavousi Azoria tholos .................................................................... 432
x
44.
Interior of Azoria tholos ...............................................................................432
45.
Plan and section of Kavousi Skouriasmenos tholos .................................... 433
46.
Interior of Skouriasmenos tholos ................................................................. 433
47.
Interior stomion of Skouriasmenos tholos ................................................... 433
48.
View of Kavousi Skouriasmenos tholos ...................................................... 434
49.
Map of Kavousi Vronda ...............................................................................434
50.
View of Kavousi Vronda tholos IV .............................................................435
51.
Interior of Vronda tholos IV ........................................................................435
52.
Exterior of Vronda tholos V ........................................................................436
53.
View of Vronda tholos II .............................................................................436
54.
View of Vronda tholos III ............................................................................437
55.
Plan of Vronda with location of burial enclosures ....................................... 437
56.
Plan of Vronda building J with burial enclosures ........................................438
57.
View of Vronda building J ...........................................................................438
58.
Plan of Meseleroi Petrou Phramenou burials ............................................... 439
59.
View of Meseleroi burial 7 ..........................................................................439
60.
View of Meseleroi burial 3 ..........................................................................439
61.
View of Schoinokapsala tholos .................................................................... 440
62.
Plan of Vasiliki Kamaraki tholos ................................................................. 440
63.
View of Kamaraki tholos .............................................................................440
64.
View of Adromyloi tholos ...........................................................................441
65.
Plan of Ag. Georgios chamber tombs .......................................................... 441
66.
View of Ag. Georgios chamber tomb .......................................................... 441
xi
67.
Plan of Ag. Spyridon cave ...........................................................................442
68.
View of interior stomion of Chamaizi tomb V ............................................ 442
69.
Plan of Itanos north necropolis .................................................................... 443
70.
Keel-vaulted tomb (“Isopata type”) at Krya ................................................ 443
71.
Pseudotholos from Krya (in Ag. Nikolaos Museum) .................................. 444
72.
Plan of Mouliana tomb A .............................................................................444
73.
Section of Mouliana tomb A ........................................................................444
74.
View of Mouliana tomb A ........................................................................... 445
75.
Interior of Mouliana A .................................................................................445
76.
View of Mouliana tomb B ........................................................................... 445
77.
Map of Orino ................................................................................................446
78.
Map of Pefkoi ..............................................................................................446
79.
Plans of Pefkoi tholoi 1-2 ............................................................................447
80.
Plans of Pefkoi tholoi 3-5 ............................................................................447
81.
View of Pefkoi tomb 10 (?) .........................................................................447
82.
View of Pefkoi tholos tomb .........................................................................447
83.
Tholos tomb at Pefkoi .................................................................................. 448
84.
Map of Praisos area ...................................................................................... 448
85.
Map of Praisos .............................................................................................449
86.
Plan/section of Praisos A .............................................................................449
87.
Plan and section of Praisos Photoula tholos ................................................ 449
88.
View of Praisos Photoula tholos ..................................................................450
89.
Plan of Praisos C ..........................................................................................450
xii
90.
Plan of Praisos Skales Cave .........................................................................450
91.
View of Skopi tholos ................................................................................... 451
92.
Plan and section of Sphakia tholos .............................................................. 451
93.
Map of Gortyn ..............................................................................................452
94.
Exterior view of Gortyn tholos .................................................................... 452
95.
Interior view of Gortyn tholos ..................................................................... 453
96.
Kourtes tholos (#1) ......................................................................................453
97.
Kourtes tholos (#2) ......................................................................................453
98.
Plan and section of Kourtes tholos (large type?) .........................................453
99.
Plan of eastern sector of phase II necropolis at Prinias ............................... 454
100. Section and plan of grave F at Prinias .........................................................454
101. Plan of Prinias tomb D .................................................................................455
102. Interior of Prinias D .....................................................................................455
103. View of Prinias tomb AN ............................................................................ 455
104. View of Prinias AQ ......................................................................................455
105. Plan of enclosure, tumulus, and pit graves (K, 207, 232) at Prinias ............ 456
106. View of Prinias burial enclosures ................................................................ 456
107. Section of Prinias tomb BA .........................................................................457
108. View of Prinias K .........................................................................................457
109. View of Prinias tomb W ..............................................................................457
110. View of Rotasi 1958 tholos ..........................................................................457
111. Plan/section of Rotasi 1994 .........................................................................457
112. Plan and section of Ag. Paraskies tholos ..................................................... 458
xiii
113. Plan of Arkades necropolis ..........................................................................458
114. Plan of Arkades tomb B ...............................................................................459
115. Plan of Arkades M .......................................................................................459
116. Plan and section of Arkades tomb R ............................................................ 459
117. View of paved roof of Arkades tomb R ....................................................... 460
118. Types of Arkades pithos burials ..................................................................460
119. Map of Erganos area .................................................................................... 461
120. Plan of Erganos tholos ................................................................................. 461
121. View of Erganos tomb 3 .............................................................................. 462
122. View of Erganos tomb 4 .............................................................................. 462
123. View of Erganos tomb 5 .............................................................................. 462
124. Plan of Kounavoi cemetery and section of tholos 10 .................................. 463
125. View of Kounavoi T.10 ...............................................................................463
126. View of Kounavoi pit ...................................................................................463
127. Plan of Krasi tholos B .................................................................................. 464
128. View of Krasi tholos B ................................................................................464
129. Plan of Panagia cemetery ............................................................................. 465
130. Section of Panagia tholos ............................................................................. 465
131. View of Panagia tholos ................................................................................ 465
132. Plan of Stamnioi pithos burials .................................................................... 466
133. View of Stamnioi pithos ..............................................................................466
134. Plan and section of Kamares tholos ............................................................. 466
135. Map of Phaistos area .................................................................................... 467
xiv
136. Plan and section of Phaistos Ag. Ioannis tholos ..........................................467
137. View of Phaistos Kalyviani tomb ................................................................468
138. Plan of Phaistos Liliana tomb D .................................................................. 468
139. Stone burial urn from Archanes Phythies .................................................... 468
140. Map of Archanes and Juktas area ................................................................ 469
141. Plan of Herakleion Atsalenio tomb A .......................................................... 469
142. View of Atsalenio tomb A ...........................................................................469
143. Map of Knossos area .................................................................................... 470
144. Plan of Knossos Ambelakia tomb ................................................................ 470
145. Plan of Knossos North Cemetery ................................................................. 471
146. Plan of TFT tomb at Knossos Fortetsa (NC) ................................................ 471
147. Plan of tomb VII at Knossos Fortetsa ..........................................................471
148. Plan of Knossos North Cemetery T.283 ...................................................... 472
149. Plan of Knossos Teke tholos and chamber tombs ....................................... 472
150. Plan of KNC pit T.280 .................................................................................472
151. Plan of KNC pit cave T.200-202 ................................................................. 472
152. Plan of KNC shaft grave T.153 .................................................................... 473
153. Stone ash urn from Juktas Kato Lakkos ...................................................... 473
154. View of Atsipades burials ............................................................................473
155. Plan of Orne tholos ......................................................................................474
156. Interior view of Orne tholos .........................................................................474
157. View of Pantanassa tholos ...........................................................................474
158. Plan and section of Pantanassa tholos .......................................................... 475
xv
159. Plan of Eleutherna necropolis ...................................................................... 475
160. View of Eleutherna chamber tomb (A1K1) .................................................476
161. Plan of Eleutherna chamber tomb ................................................................ 476
162. Reconstruction of earth tumulus of pyre A (tomb ΛΛ) at Eleutherna ......... 476
163. Reconstruction of cover of earth pyre A (tomb ΛΛ) at Eleutherna ............. 476
164. View of entrance of Astrikas tomb 2 ........................................................... 476
165. Map of Gavalomouri and Vouves tombs ..................................................... 477
166. Plan of Gavalomouri tomb II ....................................................................... 477
167. View of Gavalomouri T.II ........................................................................... 478
168. View of Gavalomouri T.IV ..........................................................................478
169. View of Vouves tomb II .............................................................................. 478
170. Plan of Vouves tomb II ................................................................................ 479
171. View of Chania pithos burial from Park of Peace and Friendship .............. 479
172. Relative frequency of EIA Cretan tomb types .............................................480
173. Relative frequency of EIA tomb types ......................................................... 480
174. Map of sites with tholos tombs ....................................................................481
175. Map of sites with small tholos tombs .......................................................... 482
176. Map of sites with large tholos tombs ........................................................... 483
177. Percentage of square/rectangular chambers for tholos tombs ...................... 484
178. Date of construction of tholos tombs by site ............................................... 484
179. Map of sites with caves and rock shelters ....................................................485
180. Map of sites with chamber tombs ................................................................ 486
181. Map of sites with pit graves .........................................................................487
xvi
182. Map of sites with pithos burials (cemeteries and other) ............................. 488
183. Map of sites with cists and burial enclosures ............................................... 489
184. Map of potential burial regions .................................................................... 490
xvii
ABBREVIATIONS
References
AA
AAA
Archäologischer Anzeiger
λχαδκζκΰδεΪ θΪζ ε α ι γβθυθ
Aegaeum
Annales d’archéologie égéenne de l’Université de Liège
AJA
American Journal of Archaeology. The Journal of the Archaeological Institute
of America
AM
Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts. Athenische Abteilung
AR
Archaeological Reports
ArchDelt
λχαδκζκΰδεσθ
ζ έκθ
ArchEph
λχαδκζκΰδεά φβη λέμ
ASAtene
Annuario della Scuola archeologica di Atene e delle Missioni italiane in
Oriente
BCH
Bulletin de correspondance hellénique
BSA
Annual of the British School at Athens
CretChron
Κλβ δεΪ χλκθδεΪ. Κ έη θα εαδ η ζΫ αδ βμ ελβ δεάμ δ κλέαμ
EEKS
π βλέμ
αδλ έαμ Κλβ δευθ πκυ υθ
Ergon
Σκ Έλΰκθ βμ λχαδκζκΰδεάμ
αδλ έαμ
Hesperia
Hesperia. Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens
JdI
Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts
JHS
Journal of Hellenic Studies
JNES
Journal of Near Eastern Studies
MonAnt
Monumenti antichi
xviii
OpArch
Opuscula αrchaeologica
Prakt
Πλαε δεΪ βμ θ γάθαδμ λχαδκζκΰδεάμ
RE
Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopädie der εlassischen Altertumswissenschaft
SMEA
Studi micenei ed egeo-anatolici
Time Periods
A
Archaic
BA
Bronze Age
C
Classical
DA
Dark Age
EIA
Early Iron Age
EM
Early Minoan
EO
Early Orientalizing
G
Geometric
H
Hellenistic
LG
Late Geometric
LM
Late Minoan
MM
Middle Minoan
O
Orientalizing
PG
Protogeometric
PGB
Protogeometric B
SM
Subminoan
xix
αδλ έαμ
Other
KNC
Knossos North Cemetery
KS
Knossos Survey
VK
Vrokastro
xx
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
“In few periods of antiquity does archaeology lean so heavily on the evidence of
graves as in the early Iron Age of Greece.” Thus wrote Snodgrass in his seminal work on the
Dark Age,1 and this statement accurately sums up the nature of the evidence available at the
time both for his work and that of Desborough and Coldstream.2 While this statement is
becoming less and less true, as new studies on settlement patterns, cult practice, and cultural
identity are published, the fact remains that for many areas of Early Iron Age Greece the
amount of funerary material still far exceeds that recovered from settlements or cult areas.3 It
is fortunate, however, that cemeteries – often better preserved and represented than
settlements – can offer a wealth of information about the ways that societies perceived
themselves and articulated their social and political identity within their culture.4 It is
surprising, therefore, that while studies of Bronze Age mortuary practices in the Aegean have
recently been published,5 such a comprehensive investigation has not yet been undertaken for
the Early Iron Age.6
1
Snodgrass 1971, 140.
2
Desborough 1952, 1964, 1972b; Coldstream 1968, 1977.
3
E.g., Nowicki 2000; Borgna 2002, for Early Iron Age settlement patterns on Crete; Prent 2003, 2005, for EIA
cult practice; Wallace 2003, for cultural identity on EIA Crete.
4
5
Morris 1987, 1992; Whitley 1991.
E.g., Branigan 1970, 1993, 1998, for Crete; Cavanagh and Mee 1998, for the Greek mainland and Aegean;
Georgoulaki 1996, for Crete; Keswani 2004, for Cyprus; Preston 2004, for LM II-IIIB Crete.
The Early Iron Age (c. 1200-700 B.C.) and Archaic periods in the Greek Aegean
represent important phases of cultural change, witnessing the emergence of the first Greek
city-states. This cultural transformation is exhibited in changes in settlement patterns,
settlement forms, ritual contexts, and most strikingly, in burial practices. Early Iron Age
burial practices varied extensively throughout Greece, not only from region to region, but
also often at a single site.7 For example, both inhumation and cremation were practiced
during this period, frequently occurring together in the same tomb, and individual tomb types
were used to contain both single and multiple burials. This kind of mortuary variability is
especially apparent on the island of Crete, where for example, numerous tomb types existed
in the EIA, including the chamber tomb, tholos tomb, pseudotholos tomb, pit grave, pit cave,
shaft grave, cist grave, burial enclosure, burial in natural caves and rock shelters, pithos and
larnax burials, intramural burial, mounds/pyres, and cremation under a cairn of stones.8 The
potential cultural diversity of Crete in the Early Iron Age, as well as the recent intensity of
archaeological research on the island, thus suggests the usefulness of Crete as a target for
study. 9
A considerable number of Early Iron Age burials have been identified on the island
over the course of the last one hundred years. As part of this dissertation, I have catalogued
over 1200 tombs found in the vicinity of approximately 122 modern villages or towns. An
6
Lemos (2002) does include an overview of Protogeometric burials throughout Greece, excluding Crete, but the
focus of the work is not on mortuary practices. Also, Pini’s study (1968) of Minoan graves contains LM IIIC
and some PG (and later) burials, though the focus is on the Bronze Age material.
7
Morris (1997) includes a discussion of the end of the Early Iron Age as part of an overview of the Archaic
period. It is significant to note that Archaic Greece is also characterized by regional diversity in settlements,
burials, and sanctuaries.
8
Cf. Snodgrass 1971, 142.
9
See for example, Coldstream and Catling 1996, for Knossos; Gesell et al. 1990, 1991, 1995, for Kavousi
Vronda; Stampolidis 1993a, 1994a, for Eleutherna.
2
examination of the burial methods, architecture, assemblages, and spatial contexts of these
tombs and cemeteries provides significant new evidence regarding the extent of cultural
diversity present on the island during this period. One of the many goals of my investigation
was to search for and explain regional patterns in the funerary material, as well as changes
that occur across the island over the course of the Early Iron Age. Previous studies, for
example, have divided the island into two large regional groups (west/central and east) on the
basis of pottery styles.10 This basic division has been maintained in recent investigations of
EIA settlement patterns and cult dedications and is also visible in the funerary material;11 one
aim of this project was thus to pull this material together and place it into a discussion –
previously dominated by ceramic, settlement, and cult studies. In addition to the two basic
regional groupings which have been previously identified, an analysis of mortuary variability
reveals more complex, intra-regional and local cultural groupings, thus supplementing the
findings of recent surveys.12 Another research goal was to explore the relationship between
the catalogued tombs and cemeteries and their associated settlements; in other words, how
did the cemeteries associated with EIA “refuge settlements” compare with those of small
villages and habitations located in less defensible areas, as well as with those of larger towns,
especially those which later become poleis (city states)? A final objective was to examine
what the burial information revealed about the changes in settlement systems, as well as the
developments in socio-political organization and complexity which are generally assumed to
have occurred throughout the island during this period.
10
Desborough 1972; Coldstream 1968, 1977.
11
Borgna 2003; Prent 2003, 2005.
12
Cf. Hayden 2004, for Vrokastro; Haggis 1992, 1993, 1996, for Kavousi. These recent surveys have, for
example, revealed local variations in settlement patterns with clusters of sites.
3
Chapter divisions
This dissertation thus involves the compilation of Early Iron Age Cretan burial sites,
examining burial methods, architecture, assemblages, and spatial contexts, toward an
understanding of the socio-political and cultural meanings suggested by mortuary variability
within the individual cemeteries and regions of the island. The chapters of this study are
organized as follows: Chapter Two presents background material for the analyses and
discussions found in Chapters Four and Five; it contains sections on geography/location,
chronology, the Early Iron Age on Crete, the history of research for Early Iron Age burials on
Crete and for mortuary studies in general, the nature of the evidence, and methodology.
Chapter Three includes the full catalogue of sites, providing the basic summary information
for the tombs, burial information, grave goods, and the associated settlements (where
known), along with bibliography. Chapter Four contains definitions and brief histories of the
various tomb types. The focus of this section, however, is on the basic analysis of the tombs
by type; tombs are examined by architectural features, location relative to the settlement,
method of interment, grave goods, date, etc. Charts with all of the published information
regarding these features are included within the text of this chapter, while associated maps,
graphs, plans, and photographs are grouped together after the Bibliography. Finally, Chapter
Five comprises an overall conclusion and discussion of the material analyzed in Chapter
Four. Seven distinct mortuary regions and four transitional zones are defined; these regional
burial patterns are then related to the settlement patterns previously identified for those areas.
In addition, whenever possible, comments on social-political organization, social
stratification, and cultural identity are presented within the sections where evidence for their
identification is most clearly revealed.
4
CHAPTER 2
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
This chapter presents background information for the study conducted in Chapters
Four and Five; it contains sections on geography and location, chronology, the Early Iron
Age on Crete, the history of research for Early Iron Age burials on Crete and for mortuary
studies in general, the nature of the evidence, and methodology.
Location
The island of Crete is approximately 250 km east-west by 12-60 km north-south (fig.
1), and it is divided into three broad regions on the basis of geography: east (from the east
coast to the Lasithi/Dikti mountains), central (between Psiloritis/Mt. Ida and the Lasithi
mountains), and west (west of Psiloritis to the coast, including the area of the White Mts./
Lefka Ora).13 The modern administrative provinces (nomoi – Lasithi, Herakleion,
Rethymnon and Chania) were established roughly along these geographical divisions (fig. 2).
Following Kanta, the catalogue presented in Chapter Three is organized by nomos and
subdivided by eparchia (administrative district);14 the conclusions (Chapter Five) are also
presented roughly according to these basic nomos divisions. Scholars such as Pendlebury,
Sjögren, and Nowicki have similarly divided the island into separate geographical areas for
13
14
Nowicki 2000, 19-27; Rackham and Moody 1996, 12-32; Pendlebury 1939, 1-16.
Kanta 1980. Lasithi Nomos is comprised of Lasithi, Mirabello, Ierapetra, and Siteia Eparchias; Herakleion
Nomos contains Kainourion, Malevyzion, Monophatsion, Pediada, Pyrgiotissa, and Viannos Eparchias;
Rethymnon Nomos consists of Agios Vasilios, Amari, Mylopotamos, and Rethymnon Eparchias; Chania
Nomos consists of Apokoronas, Kissamos, Kydonia, Selino (no EIA tombs), and Sphakia (no EIA tombs)
Eparchias.
study;15 in fact, Sjögren states that the formation, appearance, and existence of various sites
(and site patterns) can be more easily understood by dividing the island into geographic
study-areas.16
The advantages of focusing a study on a single, small island have been laid out
previously by Cherry, Renfrew, and others.17 According to Cherry et al., “islands have
clearly defined and relatively unchanging boundaries that delimit a natural area which can be
expected to behave to some extent as a unified cultural unit.”18 For this reason, islands are
frequently distinguished from the mainland or even other islands in archaeological studies.
The differences between Early Iron Age Crete and the rest of Greece, for example, have
often been noted. This is well-illustrated by the fact that Lemos excluded Crete from her
recent study of Protogeometric Greece, considering the island to require a separate study as a
result of its unique character during this period.19 D’Agata as well acknowledges that EIA
Crete comprises “a single cultural entity,” as opposed to the mainland, though one that shows
a pattern of profound regionalism, if not localism.20 Furthermore, island-wide cultural traits,
15
Pendlebury (1939), for example, identified four cultural-regions (north, south, east, and west). Nowicki
(2000) divides his sites into 15 sub-regions (east Siteia plateau, west Siteia mountains, Ierapetra isthmus,
eastern Lasithi, southern Lasithi, northern Lasithi, northern Mirabello, central Crete, Mesara and its northern
border, Asterousia, Mylopotamos, Rethymnon isthmus, Sfakia, Chania, Kissamos). Sjögren (2001) discusses
regional site patterns in three broad divisions, each with subdivisions: central Crete (northern, Pediada,
southern), western (westernmost and western-central), and eastern (Lasithi, Mirabello, easternmost).
16
Sjögren 2001, 7.
17
Renfrew and Wagstaff 1982, 1-8; Cherry et al. 1991, 9-10. While Crete may not necessarily be considered a
“small” island, as it is the largest in the Aegean, the advantages laid out by these authors still apply to its study,
due to the fact that it is an island and can thus be considered a relatively “closed” system.
18
Cherry et al. 1991, 9.
19
Lemos 2002, 1.
20
D’Agata 1999a, 182-183. See also Whitley 1991, 345, for diversity in the Early Iron Age in general. He
states that “regional diversity in material culture is moreover the hallmark of the Greek Dark Ages. Every
region differed in its pottery style, burial customs, depositional practices and settlement patterns ... [these
features] are the material manifestation of distinct regional cultures.”
6
distinguishing Crete from the mainland and elsewhere in the Aegean, have long been
identified, not only for much of the Bronze Age but also for the Archaic-Classical periods.21
Chronology
This study focuses on the Early Iron Age of Crete (fig. 3). Unfortunately, few agree
on the definition of pottery phases that constitute this period or on the absolute dates, and
there is little consensus on the chronological parameters comprising the “Early Iron Age.”
Even the use of the term “Early Iron Age” has in the past been controversial, partially due to
the rarity of iron early in the period; uncertainties also exist regarding the date of its
introduction to the island and the beginning of local manufacture.22 The seminal texts of
Snodgrass and Desborough refer to this period as the Greek “Dark Age(s),”23 and many
authors continue to employ this term.24 While the designation “Dark Ages” has been
criticized for its potentially negative connotations, Nowicki, following Coulson, defends its
use on the basis that it allows us to bypass all problems with divisions of pottery styles and
absolute chronological and regional differences.25 Regardless, the majority of scholars now
seem to prefer to call this period the Early Iron Age;26 in fact, the designation of this period
21
See for example, Morris 1997, 12, 58-68, for the Archaic period; Perlman 1992, for the Classical period.
Regional variation in burials, settlement patterns, ceramics, and cult practices also occurs across the island
during these periods. See also Pendlebury 1939; Hutchinson 1962; Willetts 1977; Krzyszkowska and Nixon
1983; Preziosi 1983; Gesell 1985b; Marinatos 1993; Fitton 2002, for general Minoan studies.
22
Dickinson 2006, 1-9.
23
Snodgrass 1971; Desborough 1972b.
24
See for example, Coldstream 1991, 1994; Whitley 1991; D’Agata 1999a; Thomas and Conant 1999. See also
Morris 2000, 77-106, for definition of the Dark Age; Dickinson 2006, 1-23, for recent summary of the
chronology and terminology of this period.
25
Coulson 1990a; Nowicki 2000, 15-16. Nowicki does, however, point out that the term “Dark Age” is often
used inconsistently, its beginning referring either to the end of the Mycenaean or Minoan world or to the
introduction of the Protogeometric pottery style, and that it must be discussed in different ways for different
locations within Greece. See Papadopoulos 1993, 194-197; 1996, 254-255, for criticism of the term “dark age.”
See also Dickinson 2006, 1-9, for further discussion of the use of this designation.
7
no longer appears to be an issue, as some scholars now employ both terms indiscriminately
or else have switched to the use of Early Iron Age rather than Dark Age.27 For this reason, I
have chosen to designate the period thusly throughout this work.
Disagreement also exists as to which pottery phases comprise the Early Iron Age.
Nowicki, on the one hand, considers this period on Crete to include very late LM IIIB-early
Geometric.28 He thus believes that the changes in settlement patterns and political
organization which define the period began occurring at an earlier period than previously
thought; in addition, Nowicki considers the period after EG and its associated developments
to belong more properly with the later Early Archaic period. Many other scholars, however,
have traditionally defined the period as SM-LG/EO, considering LM IIIB-C to belong to the
Bronze Age by definition and Orientalizing or Archaic features to begin after the end of the
Geometric period.29 For my purposes, the Early Iron Age will include the Late Minoan IIIC
(LM IIIC), Subminoan (SM), Protogeometric (PG), Geometric (G), and Early Orientalizing
(EO) periods. The decision to include LM IIIC and EO was made in the hopes that a better
understanding of the changes in funerary material would be reached through examining the
transitional phases at both the beginning and end of the period.
The absolute chronologies for this period are even less certain. One of the difficulties
in assigning exact dates to certain phases is the fact that while many of the same terms for
26
E.g., Hood and Boardman 1961; Mook 1993; Prokopiou 1994; Stampolidis 2001; Tegou 2001; Tsipopoulou
2005.
27
E.g., Haggis 1993; Snodgrass 1987, 170-210; Whitley 1991, 2001.
28
Nowicki 2000, 16-17, 223-247, for additional bibliography and arguments in favor of dating the EIA from
LM IIIB-EG.
29
E.g., Whitley 2001; Tsipopoulou 2005. Brock (1957) considered the period to consist of SM-LO, though
SM-LG/EO appears to be the most commonly used range of pottery phases. See also Mook (1993, 24-29) for
summary of chronology and additional bibliography.
8
pottery styles are used both on Crete and in the mainland, these phases are not understood to
indicate exactly the same chronological periods in absolute terms; in fact, certain pottery
styles appear much later on the island than on the mainland. Dates for the Early Iron Age
range from 1020-630 B.C. (Brock), 1150-after 715 B.C. (Snodgrass), 1200-800 B.C.
(Nowicki), and 1100-700 B.C. (Whitley), varying partially on the basis of which ceramic
phases are considered to constitute the period.30 I will here consider the period (LM IIICEO) to include roughly 1200-700 B.C. As absolute dates are only rarely known, they will in
general not be employed here, and especially not for subdividing pottery phases.
Additional difficulties exist with the chronology of Early Iron Age Crete. Pottery
from across the island cannot be considered chronologically as a single homogeneous unit,
and correlates between the regions do not always exist.31 In eastern Crete, for example, the
precise relative sequence of pottery phases within the period are only now being worked
out.32 In the past, the majority of east Cretan pottery was dated on the basis of stylistic
parallels with central Cretan, primarily Knossian, material; this is “not a reliable guide, since
internal development and external contacts were dissimilar in the two regions, and a much
more conservative ceramic tradition existed in the east.”33 Specifically, Mook and
Tsipopoulou agree that in the east, for the most part, what is essentially PG-style pottery
predominates until the arrival of Knossian-style LG, with little evidence of PGB, EG and
30
Brock 1957; Snodgrass 1971, 134-135; Nowicki 2000; Whitley 1991. But cf. Whitley 2000, where the period
is dated to 1000-700 B.C. See Whitley 2001, 60-74; Dickinson 2006, 20-23, for bibliography and summary of
issues of chronology and dating of the EIA. See also Warren and Hankey 1989, 72-92, for discussion of the
absolute chronology of Late Minoan IA to Subminoan.
31
Sjögren 2001, 8.
32
Mook 1993, for Kavousi Kastro; Tsipopoulou 2005, for much of eastern Crete.
33
Mook 1993, 28.
9
MG.34 An additional problem remains, however, as to the differentiation, or even existence
of Subminoan as a separate phase or style of pottery; some scholars continue to use the term,
while others attribute the material to either LM IIIC late or to PG.35
Finally, much of the known pottery from EIA Crete comes from burials, rather than
stratified settlement deposits. It is notoriously difficult to date tomb assemblages, and even
more difficult to determine the date of a tomb’s construction. Tombs were often used for
multiple burials, sometimes over several phases, and heirlooms were potentially deposited as
grave goods. Furthermore, many tombs were robbed, or partially cleared out for subsequent
burials, and the latest material from a tomb can be the result of later offerings of nonfunerary use, rather than representing the final phase of burial. In this catalogue and analysis,
the dates for tomb assemblages are derived primarily from the original excavation reports,
and more recent analyses when available, rather than an individual study of the assemblages
from all tombs, which is beyond the scope of this work. Whenever possible, precise dates or
phases are used, though the vast majority of burial sites can only be broadly dated. The
conclusions presented in Chapters Four and Five must, therefore, be viewed within this
context.
Brief history of the Early Iron Age on Crete
The Early Iron Age is a period of transition, comprising the years after the final
collapse of the palatial system in LM IIIB up to the development of the city-state before or
34
Mook (1993, 28-29) prefers to use the term Subprotogeometric to refer to the period between PG and LG, as
observed at Kavousi Kastro. See also Tsipopoulou (2005, 555-558), for a good summary of the ceramic phases
of EIA in the east.
35
Mook (1993, 169-170) for example, terms the period LM IIIC-PG Transitional, as she was not able to
identify any stratigraphic deposits of solely “SM” from Kavousi Kastro; this chronological phase would thus be
transitional, containing both LM IIIC and PG pottery. Tsipopoulou (2005, 555-556), on the other hand, argues
for continuing use of the term SM, as she identifies a distinct phase of pottery from the sites which she has
examined.
10
during the Archaic period. A dramatic shift in settlement types took place on the island
during this period; at the beginning of LM IIIB many settlements were abandoned, as a result
of the collapse of the previous political structure.36 A shift then occurred from the “previous
(apparently hierarchically organized) system of nucleated settlements on coastal plains and
other low-lying, flat, and fertile areas, to elevated, dispersed locations, mostly in the foothills
of mountain ranges or on high rocky hills above the sea.”37 These new settlements were
often positioned at very inaccessible locations,38 and they appear to have been economically
self-sufficient.39 Sites at these locations will be referred to here as “defensible” settlements
following Nowicki 2000, rather than “refuge” settlements, in order to avoid any specific
connotations as to the nature of their founding. This pattern of small defensible sites existed
throughout much of the island from LM IIIC until PG, when a second widespread change
occurred: many sites were abandoned, and those which continued, as well as newly founded
sites, rapidly expanded their borders.40 This general process of nucleation continued in the
Geometric and Archaic periods, and these changes appear to have been primarily related to
developments in political structure and new economic priorities.41 Early Iron Age settlement
patterns across the island will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter Five.
36
Nowicki 1990, 1994, 2000, 228-247.
37
Wallace 2003, 256-262. See also Borgna 2003.
38
Nowicki 1994, 1996a, 2000; Kanta 2001b. See Borgna 2003, for use of the term ‘refuge settlement.’ Haggis
1993, 1996, for environmental explanation for the move to upland settlements. See also Hayden 2003, 137-166;
Wallace 2003, 257; Prent 2005, 104-126, 213-243.
39
Wallace 1997-2000, 85-91; 2003, 257; Prent 2003, 81-82; Borgna 2003, 173. See Haggis 1992, 1993, 1996,
for site cluster model of Kavousi area in which the nucleated hamlets within the cluster would have been
economically interdependent. See also Hayden 2004, 146, for Vrokastro; Nowicki 1994, for Pefkoi.
40
Wallace 2003, 257-262. By the end of LM IIIC in central Crete, however, some sites were already increasing
in size and few-no abandonments appear to have occurred in this region, unlike in the east and west (Nowicki
2000, 235-247).
11
Those changes which occurred, beginning in PG or earlier, put in place the
foundation for the later system of poleis or city-states.42 Regardless of the exact date or
location of the origin of the polis, many scholars would now agree that the city-state existed,
at least in an early form at certain locations, by the end of the 8th century B.C.43 It is beyond
the scope of my thesis, however, to examine the various arguments as to how a polis is
defined and when it first appeared. Rather, in this study I will use the term polis to refer to
sites which were later designated as such by ancient authors, inscriptions, common opinion,
etc;44 these sites were also large in size showing increased nucleation and population,
continued in existence at least throughout the Archaic period, and showed discernable
changes from earlier in the Early Iron Age in both the organization of the settlement and its
architecture.
Brief history of research on EIA Cretan burials
While the basic list of Cretan sites containing Early Iron Age tombs can be found, for
the most part, within the works of previous authors, this dissertation provides the first
complete catalogue of the burial information, as well as the first comprehensive study of the
burials. Coldstream, Desborough, and Pendlebury give simple lists of the EIA burials known
41
In addition, the PG-A sites tended to be well-located, with access to large arable land and political territory
(Wallace 2003, 258-259).
42
Nowicki 2000, 247; Prent 2003, 82.
43
E.g., Whitley, Prent, and Thorne (1999, 252-253) who consider the basic form of the city to have been
established at Praisos by LG. See also Coldstream 1991; Morris 1991, 26-30, Whitley 1991, for Knossos;
Haggis et al. 2004, 2006, for Azoria. Sjögren 2001, 1-3, 132-154; Mitchel and Rhodes 1997; Sakellariou 1989;
Flensted-Jensen et al. 2000; Prent 2005, 218-226, for studies on the identification and definition of the citystate.
44
Sjögren (2001, 16-19, 57-58, 140, 146), for example, identifies Arkades, Gortyn, Dreros, Eleutherna, Eltynia
(Kounavoi?), Knossos, Lyttos (Lyktos), Lykastos, Milatos, Phaistos, Rhytion (Rotasi?), Itanos, Kydonia
(Chania), Praisos, Sybrita, Aptera, Oleros, Larisa (?); Prinias (Rizenia?), Pantanassa (Vene or Phalanna?) as
eventually becoming poleis.
12
at the time of their studies.45 References to Late Minoan IIIC burials are frequently found in
Kanta’s study of the LM III period on Crete and from the Geometric period in Sjögren’s
recent work;46 furthermore, Löwe has compiled a basic catalogue of LM burials that includes
LM IIIC (and some PG), and many tombs appear in Syriopoulos’ catalogue of EIA sites of
all types.47 Pini, meanwhile, continues to be the primary source and the only real study of
LM-PG burials on Crete,48 though Tsipopoulou has more recently catalogued and conducted
a basic study of the Early Iron Age burials, examining the pottery in particular, from the
eastern part of the island, excluding the area of the Lasithi Mountains and burials from the
LM IIIC period.49
Nature of the evidence
Over 1200 tombs have been identified in the vicinity of approximately 122 modern
villages, at over 200 locations. While the majority of these tombs have been at least partially
excavated, burials from many sites are merely inferred on the basis of survey information or
chance finds brought to local museums. In addition, although the publications listed above
are useful in determining the location of Early Iron Age cemeteries and tombs on the island,
they do not provide the specific information necessary for conducting a mortuary variability
study, for the most part merely noting the existence of burials at a certain location or giving
only basic summaries of the site information. Preliminary and final publications, of which
45
Pendlebury 1939; Desborough 1952, 1964, 1972b; Coldstream 1977.
46
Kanta 1980; Sjögren 2001.
47
Syriopoulos 1983; Löwe (1996) essentially provides an update to Pini (1968) but with no real analysis of the
burials.
48
Pini 1968.
49
Tsipopoulou 1984, 1987b, 2005.
13
few exist, for individual sites provide the bulk of known information for these tombs and thus
supply the majority of the data used for the analyses in Chapter Four.
Unfortunately, most of the EIA Cretan tombs were excavated and published long ago,
in many cases over a hundred years ago, and the standards for recording and publishing tomb
data are not consistent with those currently used. In addition, in only a few cases have
cemeteries or tombs been completely published; the best published site by far is the Knossos
North Cemetery, while Karphi, Vrokastro, and Kavousi Vronda are among the better
documented locations with relatively large cemeteries.50 Some individual tombs have also
been fully studied, such as Ag. Georgios Papoura, Vasilike Kamaraki, Ag. Paraskies, and
Pantanassa, while at sites like Arkades, the finds have been well published but the actual
tomb and burial information provided is minimal.51 Although several sites with large
cemeteries (Prinias, for example) remain unpublished, several new publications are
forthcoming (Kavousi Vronda, Kritsa, Krya, Karphi, Kounavoi) which should be of great
assistance in future studies.
Additional difficulties presented by the nature of the published material include the
fact that specific tomb information, such as measurements, construction, and type, is often
not recorded; chamber tombs, pit graves, and pithos burials, in particular, tend to be poorly
published, likely due to their lack of built architecture. Frequently, only the most significant
types of grave goods are listed, but with no other information. Furthermore, in many cases,
old excavations, and even many recent ones, do not report specific data on the sex, age, etc.
of the individuals buried; some publications do not even indicate the method of burial
50
Coldstream and Catling 1996, for Knossos North Cemetery; Pendlebury 1937-1938, for Karphi; Hall 1914,
for Vrokastro; Gesell et al. 1983, 1988, 1991, 1995, for Kavousi Vronda.
51
Watrous 1980, for Ag. Georgios Papoura; Tsipopoulou et al. 2003, for Vasilike Kamaraki; Levi 1945, for Ag.
Paraskies; Tegou 2001, for Pantanassa; Levi 1927-1929, for Arkades.
14
(cremation or inhumation), though old excavation reports often mention the number of skulls
found. Also, the majority of Early Iron Age burials appear to have been robbed, and often
destroyed, to some degree. Any potential conclusions must, therefore, be considered with the
nature of the evidence in mind.
Despite all of these problems with the data, however, sufficient information does exist
to conduct an overall study of mortuary practices on the island during the Early Iron Age.
Preliminary reports, even very old ones, often do provide significant amounts of information
regarding the burials. In fact, on the basis of the available evidence, I have been able to
create a database of all published tomb and site features; this has further allowed me to
observe clear overall trends in the mortuary behavior on the island during the Early Iron Age,
as well as to identify regional patterns amongst the funerary material and to make tentative
comments regarding the nature of the changing social structure in the period.
History of scholarship for mortuary studies in general
Much literature has been written on various approaches and theories to mortuary
studies. Among others, McHugh and Keswani provide excellent reviews of the history of
scholarship for mortuary studies in general, covering between them both theoretical and
quantitative approaches.52 Two basic approaches to the study of burials currently exist: the
processual approach of Saxe, Binford, and to some degree Tainter, versus the more
ideological, post-processual approach of Hodder, Parker-Pearson, Shanks and Tilley, et al.
As these theories have been thoroughly analyzed elsewhere, only a brief summary of the
history of research will be presented here; it is not deemed necessary to provide one more
justification of the potential of mortuary data for studying social organization. As
Papadimitriou states, “despite considerable differences in approach, all recent studies adhere
52
McHugh 1999, 1-18; Keswani 2004, 6-21. See also Parker Pearson 1999.
15
to the basic notion that mortuary practices reflect in one or another way social
relationships.”53
Saxe’s dissertation is generally viewed as “the starting point of the new, social
analytical approach to mortuary practice.”54 Both Saxe and Binford attempted to define
cross-cultural ‘laws’ about burial practice, using ethnographic descriptions to identify a direct
relationship between variations in mortuary treatment and social organization or status
distinctions.55 Saxe, for example, organized his ideas into eight hypotheses; among these is
number five, which concluded that the degree of social complexity can be correlated with the
degree of redundancy of components from the mortuary domain, in other words, the more
similar the attributes of burial practice, the less complex and more egalitarian the society.56
Following Saxe, Binford also considered a more complex society to be illustrated by a more
structurally complex mortuary domain. He theorized that the form of the mortuary ritual was
determined by the dimensions of the ‘social persona,’ stating that “status was usually
symbolized by symbolic artifacts and quantity of grave goods, sex was usually differentiated
by the types of goods, and sub-group affiliation by location and orientation of the grave.”57
Finally, Tainter developed the ‘energy expenditure’ model, which states that the rank of an
individual should be reflected in the amount of energy expended in constructing the tomb,
53
Papadimitriou 2001, 5-6.
54
Saxe 1970; McHugh 1999, 4.
55
Binford 1971, 1972. See also Whitley 1991, 23-34; Parker Pearson 1999, 27-32, for a good summary of the
works of Saxe, Binford, and Tainter.
56
Saxe 1970. Thus, conversely, in a more complex society, individuals of lesser importance or status will have
fewer social identities and thus fewer distinct burial characteristics. See also McHugh 1999, 4-6.
57
Binford (1972, 232) defines ‘social persona’ as “a composite of the social identities maintained in life and
recognized as appropriate for consideration at death.” See also, McHugh 1999, 7-8; Parker Pearson 1999, 2829.
16
with higher rank thus indicated by larger size and elaborateness of the burial structure, as
well as complexity of body treatment, duration of accompanying rituals, and nature of grave
offerings.58
The theories of Saxe, Binford, Tainter, and other processualists have been criticized
in the more recent, post-processual studies. Post-processual scholars have emphasized the
importance of cultural context, criticizing previous works for focusing too heavily on crosscultural rules and ethnographic examples and for ignoring the fact that certain funerary
rituals or ceremonies may not be evident or recoverable in the archaeological record. Their
studies instead concentrate on historical contexts for the explanation of mortuary practice,
and they emphasize the importance of ideological processes in burial.59 While Saxe and
others tended to view burial as an exact, faithful representation of social organization and
hierarchy within the living society, post-processual scholars have argued that burial practice
has the potential for “distorting, obscuring, hiding or inverting particular forms of social
relationships.”60 Scholars such as Morris, Shanks, and Tilley have emphasized the fact that
“burial provides an ideal opportunity to make political dominance seem legitimate and
‘natural’ through ancestral association, as though it had always been the case.”61
Furthermore, post-processual theories consider that although burial is not automatically a
58
Tainter (1975, 1978) also considered that distinctions in grave goods only rarely provided an accurate
estimate of social rank. See also Watson 1994, for determining ranking from mortuary material.
59
McHugh 1999, 1-2, 7-11. See Papadimitriou 2001, 5-10, for summary of these issues, as well as additional
bibliography for studies conducted by other scholars with relation to Middle and Late Bronze Age Greek
burials. See also O’Shea 1984, 1-22, for synopsis and critique of various theories on mortuary study.
60
Hodder 1982, 152; Keswani 2004, 8. See also, Pader 1982; Parker Pearson 1982; Shanks and Tilley 1982;
Morris 1987; 1992; Voutsaki 1998.
61
McHugh 1999, 1; Morris 1992, 6; Shanks and Tilley 1982. Morris (1987, 39) also proposes a distinction
between social structure and social organization (social organization=day-to-day relationships of community,
the way things really are versus social structure=idealized set of relationships).
17
context for status display, or even a focus for competition, it may become so at certain times,
such as when instability exists in the status system.62
McHugh, however, has also identified potential problems with the ideological
interpretations of burial practices.63 He states that a hidden ideology or agenda of status
manipulation does not necessarily exist in the funerary material, and that burial could, in
some cases, actually be a reasonably accurate representation of social structure.
Furthermore, McHugh indicates the difficulty in distinguishing from the archaeological
record features that may indicate ‘ideological manipulation’ versus other processes that may
leave the same remains; there may also be bias in that the archaeological remains do not
include a representative sample of the population.64 Finally, there is a need to study all social
dimensions symbolized in burial, rather than focusing specifically on elite ‘ideologies’ as
most post-processual scholars have previously done.
Although the theories of both schools of thought have been justifiably criticized,
important tools for research can be found in the works of scholars from both sides. As a
result of their studies, burials are now being seen as part of the dynamic processes that
created and modified social structure through time. While it does not provide the only source
of information for inferring social structure, mortuary practice can be considered the best
62
McHugh (1999, 13) summarizes the post-processual approaches to burial practice: 1. “Status differences may
be ideologically hidden in burial,” making the society appear more egalitarian than it really is. 2. “Status
differences may be over-emphasized or exaggerated in burial,” especially when competition exists between
individuals. 3. “Burial is not automatically an important arena for status display. Other contexts may be
used…burial may not be important in general, or to specific groups of individuals within the society.” 4.
“Economical aspects of society may have an important relationship with burial practice, particularly regarding
the circulation of goods.”
63
McHugh 1999, 16-17.
64
McHugh 1999, 16-17.
18
source of such information.65 The burial information cannot be viewed in isolation, however;
the best studies combine funerary evidence with settlement or cult data, etc. In addition,
there is a recent trend for increasing emphasis on regional explanations for mortuary
practices;66 “this kind of approach really gets behind the different ‘meanings’ and
significance of burial practice, at an increasingly sophisticated level of understanding.”67
Finally, McHugh recommends that in future studies of mortuary material, the archaeologist
should first be concerned with directly examining the burial data and uncovering patterns that
might exist, as well as their potential meanings.68 Only afterwards should judgments be
made regarding the accuracy of these patterns in terms of social structure.
Methodology
As no complete compilation of Early Iron Age Cretan burials currently exists, this
dissertation serves to present this catalogue. The information in the site catalogue (Chapter
Three) is derived primarily from published material, both preliminary and final publications
from surveys and excavations, rather than individual fieldwork. Nearly all of the tombs with
known locations and visible remains were, however, visited in order to observe their
architectural features and position within the landscape; these sites were thus examined in
65
McHugh 1999, 1-2.
66
Morris 1992; Anderson Beck 1995; Smith 2002; Keswani 2004; Preston 2004.
67
McHugh 1999, 2.
68
McHugh (1999, 18) further argues for focusing on the four main social dimensions that structure burial – age,
gender, vertical divisions, and horizontal divisions. Important factors to consider are tomb (location,
positioning, size, structure, orientation), body (inhumation vs. cremation, position or treatment of body),
artifacts, and ritual/ceremony. In addition, Keswani (2004, 9) states that “in societies with relatively stable
social hierarchies and highly structured mortuary practice, the archaeological record should afford a
distinctively patterned or tiered representation of status hierarchy in the living society, with strong correlations
between the different elements of mortuary variability (locational, architectural, ritual, artifactural), but in
societies characterized by a high degree of social competition, these correlations may be less apparent,
reflecting the fluctuating hierarchical relations between groups. Here the distribution of wealth and status
symbols may also be characterized by continuous variation rather than by stepped or discrete status positions.”
19
order to better understand the variations in tomb type and construction, as well as to evaluate
the relationships between the burial areas and settlements. As part of this investigation, I was
able to create a database and tables with all of the known Early Iron Age tomb information
from the island; through the aid of these tables, I was then able to analyze the sites on the
basis of tomb type, date, burial information, grave goods, and settlement type (Chapter Four).
My original plan was to conduct a full mortuary variability study, using a
combination of techniques for multivariate statistical analysis (a form of cluster analysis –
CLUSTAN and correspondence analysis – WINBASP/MVSP).69 These techniques are
frequently used in archaeology, primarily to reduce a large body of data, including tomb and
grave good information, into a form which may reveal useful patterns and structure;
furthermore, these methods have recently been successfully employed by classical
archaeologists in conducting both local and regional mortuary investigations.70 These forms
of statistical analysis are most effective, however, when used on a single, large, wellexcavated, and minimally robbed, cemetery or when investigating tombs or grave goods of a
particular type.71 Unfortunately, the nature of the data from the Early Iron Age Cretan
burials (i.e., poor publishing and inconsistent recording, high degree of tomb robbing,
presence often of only a single tomb from a site) made such a study unfeasible. Any results
obtained through statistical analysis under these conditions would have been unreliable,
containing a high degree of possible error, unprofitable, and perhaps not even legitimate,
69
McHugh 1999, 63-84, for a summary of multivariate approaches as well as additional bibliography. See also
Shennan 1988; Baxter 1994; Jensen and Nielsen 1997.
70
E.g., Cavanagh 1987; Morris 1987, 1992; Whitley 1991.
71
Coldstream and Catling 1996, 653-666, for cluster analysis of chamber tombs in the Knossos North
Cemetery. See also Cavanagh 1987, for cluster analysis of Mycenaean chamber tombs; Whitley 1991, for
cluster analysis of pottery styles from burials.
20
considering the fragmentary nature of the data. For these reasons, statistical analysis was not
conducted as part of this study.
Although I was unable to use true statistical analysis, enough information was
obtained from the site reports to identify clear patterns in the mortuary data; for example, I
was able to identify seven distinct burial regions on the island, as well as distinguish two
different types of tholos tomb.72 Following McHugh’s recommendations, my plan of
research was thus first to analyze the burial data with a focus on identifying regional and
local patterns or general trends within the funerary material; only then did I attempt to place
these patterns within the context of the transitional period of the Early Iron Age and interpret
their possible meaning (Chapter Five).73 Also, by studying the burials in combination with
the known settlement information, I have attempted to avoid any potential misinterpretations
made by looking only at the burials in isolation.
Due to the nature of the evidence, however, only limited observations were able to be
made, on the basis of mortuary evidence, regarding the socio-political organization and social
structure of Crete in the Early Iron Age. Whenever possible, a combination of the processual
and post-processual methodologies was used in interpreting the funerary material, as both
have theories relevant to EIA burials. The basic theorem of Saxe and Binford that the greater
the similarity of burial attributes, the less complex and more egalitarian the society, for
example, seems to be applicable to many Cretan sites, as in the Lasithi plateau area, at the
beginning of the Early Iron Age (see Chapter Five).74 In addition, Binford’s idea that status
72
See Cavanagh and Mee 1998, for exellent analysis of EH-LH graves on the mainland without the use of
statistical analysis. See also Keswani 2004, for BA Cyprus.
73
McHugh 1999, 18. See also supra n. 66.
74
Saxe 1970; Binford 1971, 1972. Cf. Keswani 2004, 19, where in some cases, a high degree of social
competition may be reflected in a greater similarity of wealth and status symbols.
21
may be inferred from the quantity of grave goods and presence of symbolic artifacts, may be
applicable, though with less certainty, to certain sites in the later part of the EIA.75 On the
other hand, the post-processual theory that in periods of change, instability in a status system
may be reflected in burials by attempts to legitimize political domination by ancestral
association, and that graves could have potentially become focuses for competition or status
display, may be especially relevant at specific Cretan sites in the later part of the EIA; this
practice can potentially be seen, for example, in the use of the large tholos tomb (see Chapter
Five).76 I have thus used a combination of methodologies for interpreting the funerary
material with the ultimate goal of identifying any possible connections between mortuary
behavior and changing social structures during the Early Iron Age on Crete.
The focus of this study is therefore on analyzing the mortuary remains themselves
and searching for patterns or general trends within the data; topics such as determining
potential ethnicities, the origin of cremation, origin of the tholos tomb, evidence of the
Dorian invasion, trade in the Early Iron Age Aegean, etc. are beyond the scope of this
dissertation. In addition, due to the nature of the evidence, observations about mortuary
variability can only be placed within the broad social-political and economic context of the
period; a determination of ranking, hierarchies, or specific social status levels at individual
sites is thus also beyond the scope of this study.
75
Binford 1971, 1972.
76
Shanks and Tilley 1982.
22
CHAPTER 3
CATALOGUE OF SITES
The sites of this catalogue are arranged according to region: I. Lasithi, II. Herakleion,
III. Rethymnon, and IV. Chania. Each region is also subdivided into districts or eparchias
(fig. 2). Every site is assigned a number which corresponds to that used on the map of sites
(fig. 4). In most cases, sites are referred to by the name of the closest modern village.
Whenever a site is better known by another name (Karphi, for example), that designation is
used, with the nearest modern village listed in parentheses. Each catalogue entry describes
the location, associated settlement, and basic funerary information from the site (number of
tombs, type of tombs, grave goods, etc.), and references are listed below the entry; associated
figures (photographs, plans, maps) are found after the Bibliography. Whenever burials were
found at multiple locations in the vicinity of a single, modern village, the entry is subdivided
into those different areas.
I. LASITHI NOMOS
LASITHI EPARCHIA
1. Agios Georgios Papoura (Kera) (figs. 5-7) – A large EIA (primarily PG and G, but also
LM IIIC late, O and A) settlement or town is located on the summit (now largely destroyed
by a telecom installation) and south and east slopes of Papoura ridge; the site is located ~1
km northwest of the modern village of Pinakiano, ~1 km south of Kera, and ~1 km southwest
of Karphi. Watrous tentatively identified this site with ancient Dattala, and it appears to have
been two-three times the size of Karphi. A cemetery lies immediately to the east of the
settlement, near the Armos saddle, at Tou Stephani o Lakkos. In 1896, Evans identified a
“Mycenaean” tomb at this location; this may be the same robbed tholos tomb which was
excavated in 1937 by Pendlebury and Money-Coutts. Although only one tomb was
excavated, others are believed to exist in the vicinity.
The plan and construction of the excavated tomb resemble those found at Karphi – an
inner vaulted chamber, in this case circular and with a diameter of over 2 m, surrounded by a
rectangular mass of rubble masonry, and a short dromos. In the Karphi tombs, the masonry
surrounds only the chamber, whereas here, possibly a later addition to the tomb, a mass of
rubble also encloses the dromos and the exterior lintel slab of the stomion, though at lower
level. This extra masonry thus created an open semicircular space at the area of the lintel,
which according to Watrous may have served a similar function as the relieving triangle
often observed in Mycenaean tholoi on the mainland. The whole tomb thus would have had
the appearance of a low stone tumulus with rectangular base.
Pendlebury believed the tomb was used ca. 900-700 B.C., though only MG (1st half
8th c.) pottery was securely identified by Watrous among the remaining finds in the
Herakleion Museum. Pini, however, notes that this tomb type is common in PG, and it seems
likely that the tomb had more than a single period of use. Human bones were found in the
dromos and chamber of the tomb, suggesting multiple inhumation burials, though the exact
number of burials is not recorded. Finds of note from the tomb include a stirrup jar,
mentioned by Pendlebury though not currently in the museum, jug, three cups, an iron double
axe, bronze bowl, and anthropomorphic terracotta figurine. Also, an animal figurine was
24
found on the surface near the tomb, possibly an offering, as has been suggested for the
similar figurines found at Karphi.
This cemetery was likely associated with the nearby settlement at Papoura, which
both Watrous and Pendlebury believed to be the successor to Karphi, though occupation of
Papoura appears to have begun before the end of occupation at Karphi. In addition, Papoura
ridge is situated between two major routes, one the northern entrance to the Lasithi plain, and
the other one of the main access routes to central Crete, via the Selli pass.
Ref: Taramelli 1899, 408-409; Pendlebury et al. 1935-1936, 10 #2a; Pendlebury 1936-1937,
199; Young 1937, 140-141; Pendlebury 1939, 319, 324; Pini 1968, 86 #37; Snodgrass 1971,
208; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 60; Coldstream 1977, 276; Watrous 1980, 271-275; 1982, 2021, 39-40 #4; Tsipopoulou 1984; 1987b, 254; Belli 1991, 442; Nowicki 2000, 167-170;
Brown 2001, 318
2. Kaminaki – In his survey of the Lasithi Plain, Watrous identified a probable cemetery at
Pigadistria (#65), located west of modern Kaminaki and directly west of the church of Ag.
Konstantinos and Helena, on terraced fields at the western edge of the plain. Although no
actual Early Iron Age tombs were found, fragments of Geometric pithoi, as well as a larnax
and many limestone slabs, were identified from the survey, likely from disturbed tombs. In
addition, burial pits for LM III larnakes were found at Koutsounari below and west of the
church at Ag. Paraskevi.
The cemetery at Pigadistria probably belonged to the small LM III and G settlements
found less than 500 meters to the southeast at Ag. Paraskevi (#61). The LM III settlement
site is located east-southeast of the village on the terraced slope above the church of Ag.
Paraskevi, and the EIA (G-A?) site is immediately southeast of the church. In addition, the
settlements are located by the entrance to the Chloros Valley to the south.
Ref: Watrous 1982, 59-60 #61, 61 #65; Sjögren 2001, 276 (E117)
25
3. Karphi (Kera) (figs. 8-16) – Two groups of small tholos tombs have been excavated at
the site, at Ta Mnimata and at Astividero.
A. Ta Mnimata – At Ta Mnimata, near Vitzelovrysis spring [not all tombs are near
the spring as they are scattered over Ta Mnimata, but reports often identify the tombs with
this spring], below the summit and LM IIIC-SM settlement of Karphi, and west/north-west of
Megali Koprana, 17 tholos tombs were excavated by Pendlebury and Money-Coutts in 19371939. One of these tombs, possibly M. 1, was previously excavated by Evans in 1896. More
recently, several additional tholos tombs (mostly unpublished) have been found and looted
by illegal excavators, one (Tomb A) of which was investigated by the Greek Archaeological
Service in 1989. Tombs at Ta Mnimata have been identified over an area of at least 300 m
north to south and 100 m east to west, and the cemetery probably extended further to the
south and west. Nowicki notes that the tholoi of this group are typically located between 80200 m from the settlement, though one of the new illegally excavated tombs is ~300 m away.
The tombs in this cemetery were often placed in pairs (M.1-2; 5-6; 7-8; 16-17), some
of which were separated or joined by retaining walls. Of special note is isolated Tomb 4,
which is larger in the size of its enclosure and constructed of larger and better-shaped stones
than most of the other examples; it also has a circular chamber with long dromos.
Furthermore, at the southeast corner of the tomb’s exterior was uncovered a walled-in and
paved area, which contained human bones, and much pottery was found scattered outside of
the tomb. Additional finds from this tomb included three terracotta cows, two fragments of
iron, and a fibula possibly imported from Italy or Sicily. In addition, Tomb 8 is the largest
and best built of the cemetery, with square-built masonry and a roughly round chamber, and
it shows signs of later activity outside the tomb (black earth, as well as possible offerings:
26
two iron needles, two female terracotta statuettes, a clay ox, and a terracotta stand). Finds
from inside this tomb include a fenestrated stand or altar and a conch shell.
B. Astividero – On the other (east) side of Koprana ridge, on the slopes of Astividero,
Pendlebury and Money-Coutts also excavated four tholos tombs of the same type as at Ta
Mnimata. Recent illegal activity has revealed additional tombs in this area as well, including
two square-chambered tholoi (#5-6) found in 1983 to the south and west of the previously
excavated group, one (#5) of which contained a larnax and gold and bronze beads, and one
well-preserved tomb (#7) with larnax discovered in 1990 on the upper slope. According to
Nowicki, the tombs in this area are placed at a distance of up to 350 m from the settlement,
and in one instance (A. 2-3) two tombs were also joined or separated by a retaining wall.
C. Chalasa – Pendlebury mentioned the possibility of a third cemetery on the
northern scree, on the slopes of Chalasa, directly north of Karphi, though tholoi have not yet
been recorded, or at least not yet published, from this area.
Overall – With minor variations, the tombs all conform to the same general type – a
small, vaulted tomb with rectangular, square, or circular chamber (ca. 1-2 m in diameter)
surrounded by a square or rectangular mass of masonry, which often runs into the hillside.
Most of the tombs were wholly or at least partially free-standing. A few tombs had a small
dromos, and the tombs were oriented in any direction, placed perpendicular, sometimes
parallel, to the slope of the hill. Tombs were placed alone, in pairs, and in possible groups,
with grouped tombs often in rows, though the tholoi were scattered throughout the area of the
site. Multiple inhumation burials were typical, with up to five bodies per tomb; in most cases
the doorways were too small for the insertion of bodies and sometimes even smaller than the
stones used to block them. It is now thought, partially as a result of the new tombs
27
discovered through illegal activity, that the total number of tholoi at Karphi is several dozen
or even more, thus making it likely that this tomb type was common for all families from the
settlement.
The Karphi tombs date to LM IIIC–PG, primarily mid-late IIIC and SM; according to
Day, the Astividero tombs appear to date solely to LM IIIC. During and after PG, the
descendants or former inhabitants of Karphi may have begun to bury their dead at the Agios
Georgios Papoura cemetery. In addition, Pendlebury notes that numerous small animal
figurines, likely bull or sheep, and vases were found during excavation in the area around
many (at least 13) of the tholoi; these items may have been offerings to ancestors made
during the later Geometric and Archaic periods by inhabitants of Papoura. Animal figurines,
especially cows, were also found inside several of the Ta Mnimata tombs. Although many of
the tombs in both cemeteries were robbed, finds of note still include a duck vase, stirrup jars,
pyxides, tripods, a lattice-work stand/altar, a collar of bronze discs sewn onto some material,
a silver ring, bone needle, conch shell, and steatite spindle whorls. Finds are currently in the
Herakleion and Neapolis Museums, and a new publication of tombs from the area, including
a relatively wealthy tomb dug in 2004, is forthcoming by Apostolakou and Kanta.
Ref: Frothingham 1896, 455; Pendlebury et al. 1935-1936, 10 #3b; 1937-1938, 100-111;
Young 1937, 142; 1938, 233-234; Pendlebury 1939, 306, 312, 314; Robertson 1939, 205;
Desborough 1952, 251-252, 325; Seiradaki 1960; Desborough 1964, 173-175; Pini 1968, 93
#36; Snodgrass 1971, 165, 209; Desborough 1972a, 253; 1972b, 120, 372; Leekley and
Noyes 1975, 70; Davaras 1976b, 163; Watrous 1981, 641; 1982, 21; Davaras 1983;
Syriopoulos 1983, 385-387 C; Nowicki 1987, 235, 246-247; 1988, 194; Apostolakou 1989,
463-464; Belli 1991, 442; French 1991, 71; Cadogan 1992a, 118; Nowicki 1996b, 45;
Tomlinson 1996, 46; Jones 2000, 261; Nowicki 2000, 158-159, 163-164, 240; Brown 2001,
337; Whitley 2001, 78; Day 2006, personal communication
4. Lagou – The site of Kephali is located at the north edge of the Lasithi plain, on the south
slope of a low ridge adjacent to and possibly under the modern village of Lagou. Surface
28
finds including the base of a Geometric burial pithos and a PG conical cup and miniature
pithos led Watrous to identify this site as likely containing an Early Iron Age cemetery,
though no actual burials were found. The associated settlement has not been identified,
though it may have been on the summit of the same ridge; an O and A habitation site has
been identified at Kolonna, ~200 m east of the village.
Ref: Sakellarakis and Alexiou 1966, 409; Watrous 1982, 41 #7-8; Sjögren 2001, 237 (E11),
275-276 (E113)
5. Mesa Lasithi – A potential EIA burial site(s) has been noted to the west of the modern
village of Mesa Lasithi, which is positioned at the current entrance to Lasithi from the east
(from Ag. Nikolaos). In 1936, Pendlebury observed larnax burials which were found during
road works, though they have not been published. The 1935-36 report states that Geometric
larnax burials were found five minutes above the village of Nikiphordo and that LM III
sherds were found at Vlikystra five minutes further from the village. The 1939 publication,
however, states that a group of SM larnax burials was uncovered at Vlikystra, but it makes no
mention of Nikiphordo. It is therefore possible that larnax burials were found at both
locations, though it seems more likely that the reports refer to the same larnax burials.
Watrous identifies the west edge of Nikiphordo (under the modern road) as the findspot, and
perhaps the precise location was confused due to the proximity of the two sites.
Kanta considers SM the probable date for these burials. Watrous, on the other hand,
tentatively dates the burials to LM IIIC, and he believes that this cemetery may have
belonged to the LM settlement at Armi (~200 m to the west), which is located to the north of
the village, immediately west of the kalderimi from Mesa Lasithi. This settlement may also
29
have continued into the Early Iron Age, however, as Pendlebury observed SM and PG sherds
in the vicinity of Armi.
Ref: Pendlebury et al. 1935-1936, 11 #5a and 5b; 1937-1938, 2 #5e; Pendlebury 1939, 314;
Pini 1968, 86 #35; Kanta 1980, 122; Watrous 1982, 46-47 #27
6. Plati – At Ta Skalia (the area north of Meliskipos), just north of the village of Plati in the
lower part of the valley, an LM III–SM tholos tomb was excavated by Dawkins in 1914. He
had heard rumors of many tombs in this area but was only able to find this one. The tomb is
a true tholos, with a roughly circular chamber ~1.7 m in diameter and a short, non-functional
dromos which leads up to a face of natural rock, rather than to an opening. It is unusual in
that it is “pipe-shaped,” with the entrance or dromos located on the side/corner of the tomb,
rather than in the center. Scattered bones were found on the floor, which was paved with
stone slabs, and a larnax with inhumation was found in a large pit below the floor. Only one
plain jug was found with the body in the larnax, and it has not been published.
The excavator dated the tomb to late LM III, with the burial on the floor representing
a later phase re-use, possibly SM. Watrous considers the larnax and tholos, due to its
resemblance to the Karphi tombs, to date to LM IIIC. Pendlebury identified the larnax as
LM III/SM, while Pini suggested LM IIIB2a-C. Kanta considers the architecture possibly to
date to LM IIIB or C, but leaves the date of the tomb open due to the difficulty in dating the
larnax. Belli comments on the doubtful nature of the date of the tomb but dates it as likely
LM IIIB, noting its resemblance to Late Bronze Age Cypriot tombs, especially those at
Enkomi, as well as the LM IIIB tholos at Smari (Livaditsa). LM IIIB/C may be the best date
for the burial in the larnax, though it remains uncertain whether or not the main chamber
contained evidence of later LM IIIC or SM activity.
30
An MM I-LM III and Orientalizing/Archaic settlement (Plati) was identified through
survey on both Epano and Kato Kephala hills directly northeast of the village, and the tomb
was likely associated with this site. The MM I-LM I cemetery was located at Meliskipos,
which is 200 m west of the ancient settlement, and the LM III tomb was to the north of that,
though its exact location is unknown.
Ref: Dawkins 1913-1914, 13-15; Pendlebury et al. 1935-1936, 12 #11b; Pendlebury 1939,
263; Platon 1945-1947, 70; Pini 1968, 90 #39; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 66; Kanta 1980,
121-122; Watrous 1982, 19, 62-64 #69-70; Belli 1991, 444; 1996; 1997, 252; Brown 2001,
354
MIRABELLO EPARCHIA
7. Adrianos (formerly Arkoudas) (fig. 17) – Tholos tombs have been identified at two
areas in the vicinity of Adrianos.
A. Xeropotamos Kolomati – Faure noted a PG necropolis with tholoi at Kolomati, on
the far side of the Xeropotamos River, to the southeast of the Early Iron Age settlement on
the rocky knoll of Fortetsa (~600 m east of the modern village). No other information about
these tombs has been published.
B. Ta Mnimata – In addition, Nowicki states that a large LM IIIC tholos tomb with
rectangular chamber (c. 2.1 x 2.6 m) and dromos is visible on the slope of Ta Mnimata, ~500
m south of Fortetsa. The tomb is covered with a mass of masonry similar to that observed in
the Karphi tombs. The locals’ name for the area suggests that other tombs exist in the
vicinity. These tombs were also likely associated with the defensible settlement at Fortetsa,
which Nowicki dates only to LM IIIC, though Faure claims to have observed SM-PG sherds
at the site.
Ref: Faure 1963, 499; Nowicki 1993, 99; 2000, 117-119; Tsipopoulou 2005, 39
31
8. Agios Nikolaos – Platon reports that in 1958 on the west side of Sopata Hill at Agios
Nikolaos, a rock-cut PG chamber tomb with an inhumation was excavated. A stirrup jar is
recorded as accompanying the burial. Pini and Leekley and Noyes both refer to this tomb as
being in Agios Nikolaos, but Platon is actually referring to a chamber tomb dug near Knossos
on a hill south of Isopata in the vicinity of the church of Ag. Nikolaos (see entry under
Knossos). No EIA burials have yet been identified from Agios Nikolaos (Lasithi).
Ref: Platon 1958, 477; Hood 1959, 21; Pini 1968, 76 #29; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 55
9. Anavlochos (Vrachasi) (figs. 18-20) – Early Iron Age tombs have been found at Lami,
Kalaritis, and Kako Plai in the vicinity of Anavlochos, which is the long ridge directly to the
north (~1 km) of Vrachasi. All of the tombs likely belonged to the EIA settlement at
Anavlochos, and finds from the sites are currently in the Herakleion Museum and possibly
the Istanbul Museum.
A. Kako Plai – According to Pendlebury, Geometric pithos burials were found on
terraces at this location on the northern slope, just below the western peak of the LM IIIC-A
town or settlement at Anavlochos. Other Geometric pottery and terracottas were found in the
vicinity, but no other evidence of burials from this location has been published.
B. Lami – Many robbed and destroyed tombs came to light during construction of the
Neapolis–Mirabello (Milatos to Agios Nikolaos) road in 1928 and 1930. Lami is located on
the north side of the mountain range, <500 m to the north of Kako Plai, ~500 m from the
western summit, and ~800 m north of the ancient settlement. Evans noted tholoi here in
1896, and in 1929-30 Demargne and the French School investigated robbed and partially
destroyed SM/PG-G tombs on three separate small hills beside this road, two on the south
32
side and one on the north. These tombs are also said to be near the old kalderimi from
Milatos to Neapolis.
On the north side of the road (on hill #2), Demargne excavated one small tholos tomb
with circular chamber (~1 m diameter) and without dromos, and he noted the presence of
other similar tombs, one of which had a rectangular chamber, on this same hill. These other
tholoi appear to have been nearly completely destroyed. Cremation was assumed when no
bones were found, though there is no definite evidence to support this. According to
Tsipopoulou, the tholoi appear to date primarily to SM-LPG.
The second hill (#1) (referred to in some reports as Lami, though in others as
Kalaritis), located across the road and to the southwest of the first hill, contained a series of
seven small, rock-cut “funerary enclosures” crowded together. They seem to have had
roughly circular and rectangular plans, though the excavators mention that the amount of
rubble on the hill made the plans difficult to determine, and only one remained unrobbed
(Tomb α). In addition, Tsipopoulou compares these tombs to those found at Dreros, as they
consisted partly of small shafts cut into the rock. As no bones were found, cremation was
also assumed for these tombs, possibly with one burial per tomb. The unrobbed tomb was
circular with a diameter of ~1.20 m, and it contained a krater (possibly Cycladic), two cups,
two amphoriskoi/krateriskoi, a small pithos, and oinochoe. The pottery from these tombs
dates PGB-LG; two jugs and a stirrup jar found in one tomb may date slightly earlier,
however.
It is not specified whether the tombs from the third hill (#3), located to the northwest
of the second, were tholoi as on the first hill, funerary enclosures as on the second, or of
another type, and no further information about these tombs has been published.
33
C. Merminga – Evans drew Geometric vases from this site, identified by Pendlebury
as to the north of Anavlochos. According to Pendlebury, some of the LG vases published by
Droop (labeled as vases found on the road from Neapolis to Mirabello) came from here, and
Coldstream observed PG-LG vases in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum which were said
to have come from the same region, including two oinochoai similar to ones that Evans drew.
Brown notes that Merminga and Lami may refer to the same area, and if so, the vases likely
come from some of the looted tombs.
Ref: Droop 1905-1906, 37-39; Béquignon 1929, 528; Payne 1930, 252; Demargne 1931,
368-379; Marinatos 1931-1932, 5-11; Pendlebury et al. 1937-1938, 111; Pendlebury 1939,
315, 326; Desborough 1952, 260, 326; Coldstream 1968, 417; Pini 1968, 93 #34; Snodgrass
1971, 169, 210; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 71; Coldstream 1977, 279; Kanta 1980, 128;
Tsipopoulou 1984; 1987b, 254; Hayden 1988, 16 and n. 47; Belli 1991, 444; Nowicki 2000,
171-173; Brown 2001, 313; Sjögren 2001, 277 (E121); Tsipopoulou 2005, 40-42
10. Dreros (figs. 21-24) – An unrobbed cemetery is located ~200 m north of the acropolis
and ~200 m northeast of the agora of the ancient (LM IIIC-A) town/settlement of Dreros
(north of the village Nikithiano) at the northeastern foot of Ag. Antonios hill and ~100 m to
the east of Ag. Georgios chapel. This hill is significant as it controlled communication along
the Neapolis Valley between the bay of Mirabello and Mallia. The cemetery had an area of
~900 m², though it may have been as large as 1200m². The graves were placed inside a
rectangular circuit wall, though on the east and south only a simple line of stones was used,
due to the sides of the mountain. This wall shows an early attempt at organization of the
cemetery (apparently dating to LG-EO), not commonly observed elsewhere in the EIA, and
furthermore, traces of paving were found inside the cemetery.
25 tombs were excavated by van Effenterre and Demargne of the French School in
1937. The earliest tomb from the cemetery (T.1) was a probable tholos (SM, possibly with
34
some LM IIIC) with a rectangular chamber (2.10 x 1.75 m), the walls of which were
constructed with large limestone blocks. This tomb contained three inhumations and 12
vases. The majority of the burials (23) were cist graves/bone enclosures (apparently G, but
primarily LG-EO) with cremations. These tombs consisted of rectangular trenches (with
average dimensions of 2.10 x 1.20 m), fairly regular in plan, with well-built, cut stone slabs
for walls, and typically with paved floors. In some (9) tombs, the burials were placed in
pithoi and urns, while in others (11, possibly later in date), the cremations were merely
placed in the trenches, which were also often the site of the pyre. The graves were
sometimes reused, though typically they did not contain a large number of offerings and
usually had only one or two burials; Tomb 18 held an adult cremation burial and an inhumed
infant. In addition, one grave (T.3) contained an urned infant placed in a hollow in the rock.
Approximately 20 tombs are grouped to one side of the enclosure, though smaller
groups or clusters of 2-3 tombs may be present. In addition, the SM tomb seems to have
determined the arrangement and orientation of the other tombs, which are typically placed
parallel or perpendicular to it. Outside of the enclosure wall, a deposit of G vases (Depot R)
may represent a funerary chapel or place for votive offerings. Furthermore, Tsipopoulou
suggests that this cemetery could not have supported the entire settlement and may have been
used by one clan or tribe, rather than one family.
The finds are currently in the museums in Herakleion, Neapolis, Agios Nikolaos, and
possibly Istanbul, and artifacts of note include four or five stirrup jars, a bronze cauldron,
three fibulae (one Attic and one Attic/Boeotian), iron spits, stone and glass/blue paste beads,
and a Minoan stone pyxis. A possibly Attic, Dipylon style, krater fragment was also
35
recovered from the cemetery. In addition, sheep/goat and pig bones were found in one tomb
and dog bones in another, possibly connected with the burial ritual.
Ref: Lemerle 1936, 487; Demargne and van Effenterre 1937, 5-6; van Effenterre 1948, 1522, 59-66; Desborough 1952, 260-262; 1964, 184-185; Coldstream 1968, 417; Pini 1968, 88
#32; Snodgrass 1971, 169, 210; Desborough 1972b, 117, 235, 372; Leekley and Noyes 1975,
56; Coldstream 1977, 277; Kanta 1980, 133; Syriopoulos 1983, 151 #91, 533 XLII, 884
CXXXVI; Tsipopoulou 1984; 1987b, 256; Belli 1991, 444; van Effenterre 1992, 89; Jones
2000, 260; Nowicki 2000, 173; Tsipopoulou 2005, 53-64
11. Kastri (Neapolis/Vrachasi) – Kastri is a mountain located ~3 km southwest of Neapolis
and ~3 km south-southeast of Vrachasi. An LM IIIC-SM/PG settlement was identified
through survey on the summit of this hill, and on the south slope a group of mandras
(shepherd’s huts) were identified, ~20 m south of which is a likely tholos tomb (~180 m from
the summit). This structure is circular and approximately 2 meters in diameter. Additional
tholoi and a probable cemetery were tentatively identified by Nowicki to the southwest of
this tholos, further down the south slope, south of the lakkos and south-southwest of the
vineyard. Although these tombs have not yet been excavated, a date contemporary with the
settlement or slightly later seems probable.
Ref: Nowicki 1995, 69; 2000, 110-112; Tsipopoulou 2005, 40
12. Kritsa (figs. 25-29) – Early Iron Age burials have been identified from two locations in
the vicinity of the modern village.
A. Lakkoi – In 1953, Platon excavated two tholos tombs from an apparently much
larger cemetery at the place Lakkoi, which is located ~1 km to the east/northeast of the
village. These same two tombs were cleaned in 1996 and 1997 by Tsipopoulou and
Vagnetti. The tholoi had trapezoidal chambers (2.2 x 2.0 m and 1.45 x 1.34 m), small
doorways, and square or rectangular masonry enclosures. Tomb A was unusual in that its
36
lined dromos declined slightly from the surface to the chamber, was stepped, and was located
near the corner of the northeast side, rather than in the center, as seen in the LM III tombs at
Plati and Smari Leivaditsa. Belli also compares the Kritsa tomb with those found at Enkomi,
noting its skilled, careful construction and monumentality, which included a double
megalithic lintel. Inside the dromos of Tomb A were found a jug/pitcher and numerous small
cups, likely for libations to the deceased; finds from the tomb chamber included vases,
bronze pins and fibulae, iron tools, beads, a large flask and cylindrical vase (pyxis). No
human remains were recovered from this tomb, though the pyxis may have been used as a
cinerary urn.
The other excavated tomb (B) was smaller and unrobbed with a non-functional
dromos or small stomion, and it contained two inhumations with a few vases, an iron knife,
and fibula. Bones and a bronze fibula were also found during cleaning just outside the tomb.
Tsipopoulou considers nearly all of the small vases, if not also the pithos and pyxis to date
solely to SM, though there may also have been LM IIIC late and PG.
In 1993, ~150 meters to the southwest of Platon’s tholos tombs and apparently
belonging to the same cemetery, Tsipopoulou excavated a poorly preserved, robbed, rock-cut
chamber tomb (C) with long dromos (>7 m), dating to LM IIIB-C and possibly including the
transition between LM IIIC and SM. It contained two bath-tub larnakes with inhumations,
one large burial pithos, many vases, and bronze instruments and jewelry. An empty
cylindrical pyxis was also found in one of the larnakes, possibly from a cremation (cf.
Praisos Photoula).
B. Katharo – Platon had previously (1951) excavated two small LM IIIA2-C chamber
tombs, possibly without dromoi (cf. Mochlos), found during the construction of the road
37
from Kritsa to Katharos (northwest of the modern village). These tombs are no longer
preserved, but Tomb 1 was LM IIIA2-B/C, with finds of note including three larnakes,
imported IIIB pottery from Chania and the mainland, an incense burner, two stone vases, and
a bronze knife. T. 2, the smaller of the two tombs, dated to LM IIIC and contained an
inhumation in a basin, two pyxides (one with a cremated youth and bones from a formerly
inhumed adult, the other with an adult male and child cremation), seven stirrup jars, two jugs,
a deep bowl, and a possible potter’s wheel, which may perhaps indicate the craft of one of
the deceased.
Overall – These cemeteries could be associated with the large LM IIIC-PG settlement
at Kritsa Kastello, the hill located directly to the west of the modern village. The Katharo
tombs are less than a kilometer distant from the settlement, though those at Lakkoi are
somewhat far away (~2 km); Tsipopoulou and Vagnetti have suggested that a number of
small settlements may have been scattered on various hills around Lakkoi and above the
modern village. The finds from the Kritsa tombs are now in the Herakleion, Ag. Nikolaos,
and Ashmolean Museums, and a full publication of the tombs is forthcoming in a new
monograph (Incunabula Graeca, second volume in series).
Ref: Platon 1951, 444-445; Cook 1952, 111-112; Deshayes 1952, 242; Alexiou 1953, 485;
Cook and Boardman 1954, 168; Courbin 1954, 155; Desborough 1964, 268; Popham 1967,
350; Pini 1968, 86 #28.1-4; Popham 1969, 303-304; Tzedakis 1969, 400; Snodgrass 1971,
210; Desborough 1972b, 235, 372; Davaras 1973b, 159-162; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 60;
Kanta 1980, 134-139; Tsipopoulou 1984; 1987b, 257; Tsipopoulou and Vagnetti 1996a;
1996b, 659; 1997a; 1997b; Nowicki 2000, 120-123; Belli 2001; Tsipopoulou and Little 2001;
Blackman 2002, 111; Belli 2003, 329-330; Tsipopoulou 2005, 65; Tsipopoulou et al. 2005;
Belli 2006; Tsipopoulou and Vagnetti 2006
13. Milatos – Evans stated that in 1895 he secured evidence of Geometric tombs at Milatos.
From one tomb, called a chamber by Pendlebury, he published a flask/bottle with a plastic
38
snake attachment around the opening (possibly early 7th c. BC) and mentioned purchasing
other vessels of “a late Cretan Geometrical class” from the site, possibly from the same
grave. Coldstream dates an oinochoe to MG which he states came from a tomb at Milatos,
though it is unclear if it is from the same tomb as those vases mentioned by Evans. No
further information is published from these tombs, and the number and type remain
unknown. The tombs appear to have been located in the plain near the sea to the north of the
acropolis Kastellos (~1.8 km northeast of the modern town), and they may belong to the DA
settlement there (the acropolis was settled from LM IIIC–H). There appear to have been LM
III tombs in this area as well.
Five LM IIIA-C chamber tombs with larnakes were also investigated at Agios
Phanourios located ~200 m to the southwest of the village. All of the tombs appear to have
been built in LM IIIA or B, though Tomb 2 contained IIIC material and T. 3-4 had IIIB/C.
The ground plan (2.68 x 1.80 m) of Tomb 2 appears to have been enlarged at some point, and
one of the larnakes was placed in this area. It is possible that this may represent an LM IIIC
early burial, though it remains uncertain, as the burials have not been fully published. The
LM IIIC evidence from these tombs consists of three or more vases, primarily stirrup jars.
The Agios Phanourios tombs may have been associated with the LM IIIA2-C settlement
located lower down the slope of Kastellos (~300 m to the west of the EIA site). Finds from
the site are in the Herakleion, Agios Nikolaos, and Ashmolean Museums.
Ref: Mariani 1895, 246-247; Orsi 1889-1892, 208-209; Hogarth and Bosanquet 1899, 321;
Evans 1906, 93-103; Xanthoudides 1920-1921, 154-157; Levi 1927-1929c, 569; Pendlebury
1939, 324; Kirsten 1940; Furumark 1944, 222-224; Boardman 1961, 99-100 (#461);
Desborough 1964, 169; Evans 1964c, 46 n. 4, 164; Popham 1967, 349; Coldstream 1968,
243; 416; Snodgrass 1971, 209; Furumark 1972, 105-107; Kanta 1980, 125-128; Syriopoulos
1983, 103 #205, 287 #311, 881 CXXIX; Nowicki 2000, 170-171; Belli 2003, 329-330;
Tsipopoulou 2005, 67
39
14. Olous (Elounda) – At Stous Traphous on a low knoll by the sea and Sto Trachili, on
promontories south of Poros Isthmus, Bosanquet and van Effenterre excavated over 50 LM
IIIA/B-SM graves, now destroyed, and an additional tomb was excavated by Davaras in 1972
at Pyrgos above Elounda Schisma. Of these graves, 26 were in larnakes, most with
inhumations, and 26, most with cremations (three with inhumed children), were placed in
pithoi. Both larnakes and pithoi were placed in hollows of the bedrock or sometimes in earth
cavities. The pithoi were typically placed on their sides with the mouth oriented to the
northeast. Davaras’ tomb is a pithos burial with cremation, possibly SM. In the
neighborhood of the Elounda Bay Hotel, two broken pithoi, LM or SM, were found in 1973,
likely from additional burials. Three more robbed graves were discovered in 1996, but the
date of these is unknown.
While the majority of the graves definitely date earlier than the Early Iron Age, some
of the pithoi with cremations may have been LM IIIC and/or SM. The excavators believed
the cremations were possibly PG due to the shape of the pithoi, though they admitted that the
grave goods were more appropriate for LM IIIB with no iron found among the goods.
Davaras dates many, if not all, the cremations to LM IIIC-SM. Snodgrass states that the
burials could conceivably extend down into the 9th century, but no later. Kanta, on the other
hand, recently discovered material from the excavation in the Neapolis Museum and has
revised the chronology to LM IIIA1-B (cremations LM IIIA2-B), stating that the pithoi were
for the most part incorrectly dated. She further believes that there is no evidence from the
poorly preserved finds for use after LM IIIB. The difficulty in dating the burials derives
from the fact that these pithos burials contained few to no grave goods, often only a pitcher.
40
The poor preservation of artifacts, due to the proximity of the sea, was noted by the
excavators, but Davaras’ tomb, which he dated to SM, contained 10 vases and a LM IA
cylinder seal. The SM dating of this tomb, if accurate, makes it likely that a few other tombs
from the main cemetery also dated to this period, though the dating of the cemetery remains
problematic. In addition, the latest tombs appear to have been located on the periphery of the
earlier tombs, as evidenced by the 1972 burial, thus possibly also supporting the existence of
some post-IIIB tombs. Finds of note from the pithos burials include two bronze razors, two
stone vases, a bronze axe, and a stone spindle whorl.
An LM IIIC-A (and through Byzantine) settlement/city has been identified on the
summit of Oxa Hill (~3 km to the southwest), though no definitely associated burials have
yet been identified. According to Nowicki, the LM III cemetery was likely associated with
this settlement’s predecessor, which was located on the coast. Pendlebury also mentions LM
III-PG foundations at Agia Triada and Lagou. Finds from Olous are currently in the
Neapolis and Ag. Nikolaos Museums.
Ref: Pendlebury 1939, 385; van Effenterre 1948, 1-13, 50-59; Desborough 1952, 260, 327;
1964, 188-189; Pini 1968, 78 #30; Snodgrass 1971, 168, 210; Desborough 1972b, 372;
Davaras 1973a, 586-588; 1973b, 163-164; 1973-1974, 932; 1974, 46-47; Leekley and Noyes
1975, 64; Catling 1979a, 41; Kanta 1980, 129-132; Syriopoulos 1983, 151-152 #92, 214
#198, 533 XLIII, 579 XXXVIII; Apostolakou 1989, 463; van Effenterre 1992, 218;
Tomlinson 1996, 47; Nowicki 2000, 173-174; Kanta 2001a
15. Vrachasi – In the Herakleion Museum are fragments of SM/PG vases from the area of
Vrachasi, which apparently came from a robbed tomb. No further information is known
about this tomb, however.
Ref: Pendlebury 1939, 316; Tsipopoulou 1987b, 254; 2005, 39
41
16. Vrokastro (Istron) (figs. 30-34) – Tombs have been found at Amigdali, Chavga,
Karakovilia, Kopranes, Mazikhortia, and within the upper settlement of Vrokastro. These
graves were excavated by Hall in 1912-13 and many were re-identified during the recent
Vrokastro Regional Survey Project.
A. Amigdali – Hall excavated one SM-PG tholos tomb with rectangular chamber
(1.80 x 1.55 m), dromos, and cremations (Tomb IV), ~0.7 km southwest of the Vrokastro
summit and also southwest of Mazikhortia. This tholos is typical of those from the site,
which are all of the same basic form – stone-lined, corbel-vaulted chambers (rectangular,
square, circular, or oval) with foundations cut into the earth, and often with a short dromos.
Finds from this tholos include a triple vase, stirrup jars, a perforated steatite disk with incised
animals, and a Minoan sealstone.
In addition, one separate pithos burial with an inhumed adult, a cup and two
perforated steatite fragments was found in the vicinity of the tholos tomb. Furthermore, a
possible Geometric bone enclosure (VK 12) was observed in this area during recent survey
work.
B. Chavga – Two pithos burials were found placed in a single circular pit at this
location on the hillside just to the east of the Vrokastro summit. One pithos, placed on its
side, contained an inhumed child, while the other, at a lower level, was inverted, held in
place by large stones, and contained an inhumed adult and stirrup jar. The exact location of
these burials is unknown and was not discovered during the recent survey of the region. Late
LM IIIC/SM may be the date of these burials (Furumark dated them to LM IIIB:2c).
C. Karakovilia (VK 2; 3; and possibly 11 and 14) – On the ridge just south (~200 m)
of the summit were found one large (~3 x 2 m) rectangular tholos (Tomb I) and five bone
42
enclosures (BE I-V). At least six burials (five adult cremations and one child inhumation)
were placed in the tholos, which also contained numerous grave goods, including over 33
vases, 25 iron weapons, a bronze tripod support (Cypriot?), gold ring, 6 faience seals, some
with pseudo-hieroglyphs, and 250 mostly faience beads. This tomb is larger (~3 x 2 m), of
more regular construction, and richer than the other tholoi at the site, and it likely dates to
SM-PG. Tomb I also contained a circular stone, possibly an offering table, placed opposite
the dromos, near which most of the vases and bones were found, and the tomb further had a
rectangular depression in the northeast corner, which may have been used for libations.
The bone enclosures, typical for the site, are constructed of a series of small and
irregularly shaped rooms (in this case with one, three, or four chambers) of shallow depth,
separated from each other by low walls of one-three courses. The Karakovilia enclosures are
located to the southeast of the tholos, and they contained cremations, sometimes in jars, and
grave goods, including iron weapons, bronze and iron fibulae (three Attic/Boeotian?), a
Minoan sealstone, glass and faience beads, and bronze tweezers. Some of the enclosures also
appear to have contained the funerary pyres. In addition, a one-room structure, which
contained a clay tripod and krater, was discovered adjacent to the bone enclosures, and just
outside this building were found terracotta figurines of humans, ducks, and horses. The
building’s construction is unusual for the site; it is built from cut-stone blocks, including
carefully dressed limestone jambs, and it may have been in some way associated with a
burial cult.
Also, several inhumations with Geometric sherds and a jug were found under an
overhanging ledge of rock which runs along the southern edge of the Karakovilia slope.
Furthermore, to the west and south of the tholos and bone enclosures were observed piles of
43
stones and ceramics (Vrokastro Survey site VK 11), which may represent other tombs, and to
the southeast of this area at VK 14 was identified another possible bone enclosure.
D. Kopranes (KP 7 and possibly 6) – Three tholoi (Tombs V-VII) and six bone
enclosures (BE VII-XII) were excavated at this location on the western slope of the
Vrokastro summit. Tombs VI and VII contained only inhumations, but Tomb V contained
both inhumations and cremations. These tholoi were of the same type as those found
elsewhere at the site, though they appear to be the earliest, beginning in late LM IIIC and
continuing into PG. The bone enclosures were located near the tholoi, possibly indicating a
connection between them, and they were comprised of one, two, three, or five compartments,
also of irregular shapes and arrangements, placed at various levels due to the unevenness of
the soil, though with an average depth of 0.60 m. KP7 (possibly BE VII) was composed of
poorly built walls, one or two courses high, and with average room size of 4 x 5 m. One
enclosure room contained a pithos on its side with an inhumed child, though the other burials
were cremations. Finds of note from the Kopranes tombs include obsidian chips, bronze
earrings, one possibly Attic fibula, bronze and iron saws, an iron knife with bronze rivets
(Cypriot?), faience beads, bird vases, and stirrup jars.
E. Mazichortia (VK3; 4; 9; 10) – Southwest of the summit, northeast of Amigdali,
and west of Karakovilia were additional burials. These included two tholoi (Tombs II and
III) and one burial enclosure (BE VI), excavated by Hall. Recently bulldozed and surveyed
site VK3 may have contained another unexplored tomb (with large fallen lintel block), and
one new enclosure may also have been identified in this area. Tholos Tomb II is noteworthy
in that it apparently contained 24 inhumations, the skulls of which were arranged in rows
around the outside of the tomb; Tomb III contained seven inhumations and possibly one
44
cremation. Both tholoi also had pebbled floors, as had Tomb I at Karakovilia. Tomb III
dated PG-EG and Tomb II dated SM and LG-EO. The bone enclosure was located near
Tomb II and was comprised of four irregularly placed chambers, one of which contained an
inhumed child in a pithos. It also had the earliest pottery of the Vrokastro enclosures with
PGB. The finds from these tombs were comparable to those found in the other tombs at the
site.
F. Poros (Istron) – Two small LM IIIC-SM tholos tombs, possibly chamber tombs,
were excavated in 1991 at this location on the land of K. Arnaoutaki. Both tombs apparently
contained a single burial in a pithos; tomb #1 also had six vases and bronze jewelry and iron
knives, while tomb #2 had eight vases and a stone bead. Nearby on the land of N.
Kavousanou another robbed and much destroyed tomb was found in 1994. The 1994 tholos
contained a few sherds, which included a skyphos, cup, and birdvase, stone, faience, and
bone beads, fragments of bronze plate, and bronze earrings. It is unclear from the brief
report whether or not this tomb is the one which the Vrokastro Survey publication refers to as
having been recently excavated (with IIIC larnax) in the pass between Kato Arniko and
Kopranes (KP 5). Tsipopoulou does note, however, that the tombs are very near Kopranes.
Kato Arniko (KA 1/3) is located to the west of Kopranes and appears to have had a small
settlement in LM IIIC to which this burial may have belonged.
G. Vrokastro Summit – In the upper settlement, burials of children were found below
the floors of two houses. In the northeast corner of Room 12, a pithos with an inhumed child
was placed below the level of the floor and covered with a flat stone. The southwest corner
of Room 26 also contained a child burial in a jar. In addition, ~100 meters from the houses
at the point where the face of the hill falls away, the bones of a child were found placed in an
45
inverted bowl inside a cave-like recess. Hall dates these burials to the Geometric period,
though SM is also a possible date.
H. Survey Site APh 12.2 – Approximately 500 m east of the summit on the south end
of a long ridge in the Phanourios hills, on the upper eastern slopes of the Chavga ravine, a
possible bone enclosure (APh 12.2) with small rooms of poorly built rubble walls (~1-1.50 m
per side) was identified by the Vrokastro Survey Project. Early Iron Age pottery (storage
vessels and fine ware) was also found in the vicinity.
Overall – Many of the tombs from the site appear to have been robbed, at least to
some degree, and numerous additional, unexcavated burials appear to exist in the area. The
tholos tombs appear to have come into use at the end of LM IIIC/SM and some may have
continued until the 9th/8th century or even later, while the bone enclosures began in the 9th
and 8th centuries, continuing at least until EO. In addition, the vessels recovered from the
tombs often included sets of cups and bowls or kraters, suggesting ritual toasting or funerary
banquets at the tombs. Finds from the tombs are currently in the Herakleion and the
University of Pennsylvania Museums.
The majority of the tombs likely belonged to the LM IIIC–LG/EO settlements (upper
and lower) on the Vrokastro summit. Some tombs, however, may have belonged to smaller
settlements or habitations in the vicinity; in fact, according to Hayden, house walls are
frequently found adjacent to the tombs, especially on Karakovilia, Mazikhortia, Amigdali,
and Kopranes. The burial enclosure found at APh 12.2, for example, could have been
associated with the nearby habitation site (APh 3), located ~300 m further east, while the
tombs on the lower west slope of Kopranes could have belonged to the settlement at the base
of Kopranes (KP 9). In addition, the more outlying tombs, such as Mazikhortia and
46
Amigdali were possibly constructed near dwellings. Hayden further suggests that the
widespread distribution of the tholos tombs may indicate that the population in the PG period
was scattered in small settlements and farms over the neighboring hills and basins and that
some of the tombs may have been located in areas cultivated by family or kinship groups.
Ref: Hasluck 1912, 388-389; Hall 1914, 81-84, 106, 112, 118-176; Levi 1927-1929c, 551558, 576-577; Lorimer 1933, 164; Pendlebury et al. 1937-1938, 111; Pendlebury 1939, 307,
313, 315-316, 326; Furumark 1944, 227-230; Levi 1945, 19; Desborough 1952, 262-267,
327; 1964, 186-187; Coldstream 1968, 417; Pini 1968, 81 #27.1-10; Snodgrass 1971, 168169, 210; Desborough 1972a, 252; 1972b, 117, 235, 372; Davaras 1973b, 164; Leekley and
Noyes 1975, 58; Coldstream 1977, 102, 276; Kanta 1980, 133; Hayden 1983, 369 n. 7;
Tsipopoulou 1984; 1987b, 254-255; Belli 1991, 441-442; Hayden 1991, 110-111; 1992, 286;
Hayden et al. 1992, 348-349; Apostolakou 1994a; Blackman 2000, 141; Hayden 2000, 137143; Jones 2000, 267-268; Nowicki 2000, 107-109; Hayden 2003, 1-13; 2004a, 137-160;
2004b; 2005, CD pages 20-21, 76-80, 184-188, 192-195; Tsipopoulou 2005, 42-52, 64-65
17. Zenia (fig. 35) – Tombs were located to the northeast and southwest of Zenia, a small
village on the way from Neapolis to Lasithi. One probable tholos was identified ~150 m
northeast of the church of Ag. Ioannis and ~600 m northeast of the LM IIIC (and possibly
SM) settlement at Zenia Kastrokephala, which is located ~400 meters south of the modern
village in the rocky hills. Also, a small, partly destroyed LM IIIB-C (or SM) tomb with
circular chamber (1.9-2.0 m) and two burial phases was excavated in 1998 by the Greek
Archaeological Service in the escarpment of the main road to Lasithi on the western edge of
the village, ~400 m northwest of the EIA settlement. This tomb originally had monolithic
jambs and a lintel and it contained at least six inhumations (possibly as many as nine), a few
vases, four steatite conical buttons, possibly faience beads, three bronze rings, and a steatite
seal. In addition, Nowicki reports hearing of another tholos found many years ago
somewhere in the vineyards to the north of Kastrokephala, though no remains exist. Nowicki
47
states that the settlement site appears to have been one of the Lasithi sites, like Karphi, which
was abandoned before the beginning of the Protogeometric period.
Ref: Nowicki 1993, 98; Eliopoulos 1998b, 93 n. 15; 1998c; Papazoe 1998, 146; Touchais
1999, 818; Blackman 2000, 147; Nowicki 2000, 114-116; Tsipopoulou 2005, 64; Whitley
2005, 106
IERAPETRA EPARCHIA
18. Agios Ioannis Katalimata – Nowicki identified a large, primarily LM IIIC defensible
settlement on the summit of Katalimata (Kastrokakkos), ~3 km from Ag. Ioannis and 3 km
from Kato Chorio. This may have been the main defensible settlement in the area between
Kato Chorio, Ierapetra, Koutsounari, and Ag. Ioannis. Nowicki further observed a nearly
destroyed, round stone construction on the eastern slope of Katalimata (~50 m below it) near
a large lakkos (~15 minutes from the summit); this may represent the remains of a tholos
tomb associated with the settlement.
Ref: Nowicki 2000, 82-84; Tsipopoulou 2005, 69
19. Braimiana – Small SM/PG built tholoi were found at Braimiana, one of which was
excavated in 1932 by Marinatos. Some past sources mistakenly identified these tholoi as
being at Vainia, though Braimiana seems to be correct, with Kanta citing the location of the
tombs as on the road to Kalamafka, ~4 km from Ierapetra. The associated settlement is
unknown, though an LM IIIC (and PG?) settlement has been identified ~1.2 km northeast of
the village of Vainia (4 km northeast of Ierapetra) at Stavromenos.
Ref: Karo 1932, 176; Payne 1932, 255; Pendlebury et al. 1937-1938, 111; Pendlebury 1939,
315; Pini 1968, 77 #25; Snodgrass 1971, 210; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 57; Kanta 1980, 161;
Tsipopoulou 1987b, 257; Nowicki 2000, 86-89; Tsipopoulou 2005, 72
48
20. Chalasmenos (Monastiraki) (figs. 36-37) – Located ~500 m northeast of the modern
village of Monastiraki is the LM IIIC (primarily middle) settlement of Chalasmenos, though
recent evidence indicates that at least one ‘megaron’ in the main building complex in area B
may also have been used in the Late Geometric period. In 1992 when the road to the site was
bulldozed, the remains of an apparently undisturbed small tholos (Tomb A) with round
chamber (~1.60 m diameter) and no dromos were found ~200 meters southwest of the
settlement, on the steep slope. A total of five inhumations were found together with 27
vases, mostly cups and stirrup jars, two steatite spindle whorls, and some bronze sheathing,
with all or nearly all vases dating to late LM IIIC.
Also, in 1994, the remains of a possible PG tholos were discovered, having been built
into the south wall of Room 5 in Area B and slightly cut into the floor, after the abandonment
of the settlement. The upper fill of that room contained many PG sherds, including cups and
skyphoi, which likely came from this tholos, though the possible tomb itself contained only
very fragmentary bone, a few sherds, including a PG stirrup jar, and a bronze ring.
In addition, Nowicki mentions reports of other tholoi which have been illegally
excavated nearby, down the west and south slopes of the site; at least seven, possibly up to
ten, tholoi may have been discovered in these areas. No tombs, however, were uncovered by
a magnetometer survey of the site. The Chalasmenos tombs all appear to have been
associated in some way with the settlement, though many of the burials appear to post-date
the site, as at Kavousi Vronda.
Ref: Coulson and Tsipopoulou 1994, 86-88; Tsipopoulou and Coulson 1994-1996, 372-378;
Blackman 1997, 113; Rehak and Younger 1998, 168; Coulson 1999; Nowicki 2000, 91;
Tsipopoulou and Coulson 2000, 104, 111; Tsipopoulou and Nowicki 2003, 562-563, 566;
Tsipopoulou 2004, 106
49
21. Episkopi – LM III chamber tombs have been identified at various locations in the
vicinity of the modern village, and there is evidence for the existence of an extensive
cemetery from that period. In 1906, Seager investigated LM IIIA and B tombs, from which
came 60 vases. Xanthoudides excavated an LM IIIB tomb ~100 m north of the village in
1919. In addition, Platon later dug two chamber tombs in the area, one of which contained 3
larnakes and over 50 vases, including IIIB imports from Chania and the mainland. Two IIIC
stirrup jars and one possibly SM jug comprise the later finds from Platon’s tombs. The
associated settlement has not yet been found; according to Nowicki, the closest identified
settlement is on Profitis Ilias hill (Kato Chorio), though this site was probably founded after
the cemetery went out of use. Finds from the tombs are in the Herakleion and Ierapetra
Museums.
Ref: Seager 1907, 111; Xanthoudides 1920-1921, 157-162; Platon 1941, 273; Walter 1942,
198; Amandry 1947-1948, 441; Furumark 1972, 106; Kanta 1980, 146-160; Nowicki 2000,
89-90; Tsipopoulou 2005, 73
22. Kalamafka – Dunbabin reports that a tholos tomb of uncertain date was found in 1942,
though its exact location was not recorded; the two remaining vases from the excavation date
to LM IIIB, according to Kanta and Pini. An additional tholos tomb, which contained a
bronze spear head and vases, dating to LM III or SM, was found in 2005 approximately 3 km
south of Kalamafka; further information about this tomb has not yet been published, though a
second, empty tholos tomb (SM) was reportedly found three years ago in the neighborhood
of Mesokastella (~2 km southwest of Kalamafka and ~1.5 km north of Anatoli).
Recent survey work has uncovered LM IIIC, PG, and G (as well as A-R) sherds,
though no IIIB, in the area of the large ancient settlement which is located on a steep slope of
Kastello, the mountain rising above the south edge of the modern village. Nowicki has,
50
however, also identified another settlement (PG-A) at Mesokastella, with which the recently
excavated tholos tombs may have been associated.
Ref: Pendlebury 1939, 296, 326; Dunbabin 1947, 191; Platon 1947, 632; Pini 1968, 81 #26;
Kanta 1980, 161; Nowicki 1993, 99-100; 2000, 127-129; Katrotzanaki 2005, 9
23. Kavousi (figs. 38-57) – EIA tombs have been excavated at Aloni, Azoria,
Chondrovolakes, Kastro, Plai tou Kastrou, Skouriasmenos, and Vronda in the vicinity of the
modern village of Kavousi. Finds from these tombs are in the Herakleion, Ierapetra,
Ashmolean, University of Pennsylvania Museums, and the INSTAP-SCEC storerooms, and
full publications of the Vronda and Azoria tombs are forthcoming.
A. Aloni – Four tholos tombs with rectangular chambers, most with short dromoi,
were excavated in 1901 by Wheeler, Boyd’s assistant, at Aloni (now called Skala). Three of
the four (I, II, IV) were identified and cleaned in 1981 as part of the Kavousi Survey, and
Haggis believes that the fourth tomb (III) is likely located 8 meters southeast of Tomb IV.
The three cleaned tombs were roughly placed in a line, ~75 meters apart from each other.
Located on the lower southwest slope of Kastro, ~175-300 m south of the EIA (LM IIIC –O)
settlement, and just off the old kalderimi leading from Kastro to Vronda, these tholoi were
likely used by the inhabitants of Kastro. The tholoi, at least Tomb I, are built of more
densely packed stones laid in more courses than those found at Vronda, and on the whole the
Aloni tholoi are also larger. These tholoi are, however, representative of those found in the
area of Kavousi, which average in size roughly 2 meters in diameter and height, with
rectangular, square, circular or oval vaulted chambers, and often with short dromoi.
Inhumation seems to have been the practice in the Aloni tombs, with some of the
skulls placed in bronze bowls. In addition, Tomb I may have been surrounded by an
51
enclosure wall, and this tomb is the second largest of all the Kavousi tombs. Finds of note
from these tombs include a bronze fibula in the shape of a horse, which may show contact
with Italy/Sicily, and a strainer with anthropomorphic handles, which indicates contact with
Cyprus, 2 bronze bowls, 22 spindle whorls, a gold ring, larnax fragments, and a stirrup jar.
The date of these tombs appears to be SM-LG (and possibly also LM IIIC), though only four
of the finds recorded in Boyd’s notebooks have been published, thus making the exact dating
of the tombs difficult.
B. Azoria – Excavation in 2006 revealed a single, small (1.42 x 0.90 m) LM IIIC/
SM-PG tholos tomb with an ellipsoidal chamber and stomion built of monolithic jambs and
lintel. Unusually, this tomb had apparently been left in place and blocked off in the corner of
a Late Archaic (possibly industrial/domestic) room; the capstone of the tomb was even built
into the LA wall. Remaining finds in the tholos included two-three inhumations (pending
further study), as well as five small vases, two conical stone beads, and a bronze ring. This
tomb was probably associated with the LM IIIC settlement located further up the (Azoria)
hill; in addition, other tholoi likely existed in its vicinity, but were either destroyed by LA
activity or remain to be uncovered.
C. Chondrovolakes – Boyd found four “shaft graves,” probably with cremations, at
this site, which is located ~300 m northeast of Vronda and ~700 m southwest of the summit
of Azoria. These tombs were placed close together and averaged in size 2.60 x 0.70 m
Tsipopoulou believes that these tombs may have been a form of grave enclosure, and that the
burned earth found inside them may have come from burning the bodies at the burial site, as
seen in many of the Vronda cists. The Chondrovolakes graves likely date primarily to EO,
though it seems that some Geometric material was also found. The majority of the finds
52
from these tombs, which included eight vessels, have not been published. A ProtoCorinthian
lekythos/aryballos is the only vessel which can be securely attributed to these tombs, though
a pyxis lid published by Tsipopoulou from the Herakleion Museum probably also belongs to
one of the burials.
Haggis’ survey identified LG and EO pottery in the area of Chondrovolakes, though
the specific location of the graves has not been found. According to Haggis, the general
location of the site makes it a likely burial place for the (LM IIIC-A) settlement at Azoria or
possibly that at Panagia Skali (LM IIIC, G-A), which is located ~300-400 meters east of
Chondrovolakes on the ridge immediately above and east of the church at the base of the
north slope of Kastro.
D. Kavousi – A Geometric cremation burial in a pithos with no burial offerings was
found in 1999, though the exact location was not reported. This burial, however, appears to
have been found during the bulldozing of a new road/path, immediately to the right of the
signed turn-off to Vronda, at Kako Mouri. This location is roughly equidistant from Azoria
and Vronda.
E. Kastro – According to Liston, evidence of additional burials (primarily LG-EO)
was found along the West Slope of the peak of Kastro in a row of rooms and domestic dump
deposits. These burials were not recognized during the course of excavation but were
identified from water sieving ashy soil. There appears to be evidence of up to seven
individuals from this area. Cremated remains of at least three adults and two sub-adults were
found, along with fragments of vessels. These all appear to come from secondary deposits,
and the majority of the bones were found in rock cavities, such as the cremated individual
found in the northeast corner of Room 32. It is unclear how many of these represent actual
53
burials, though according to Haggis one LG/EO amphora with cremated remains of an adult
was found at the bottom of a deep layer of fill, well above the LG/EO floor in Room 35
(Building L). Human fetal/infant bones were also found at two locations in domestic dumps,
including Room 29. A few scattered pieces of cremated bone were also found in the wall
collapse of Bldg. A (Room 5/45) on the East Slope. No further information about these
burials has yet been published.
F. Plai tou Kastrou – Located ~100 m to the east of the easternmost burial at Aloni
and ~150 m south of Kastro was one large tholos tomb with square/rectangular chamber.
Although this tomb was never formally excavated and was later destroyed to build terraces,
Evans managed to acquire numerous finds from it, which had been removed in 1895 by the
villager who discovered it. Previously there had been some confusion in the scholarship as to
whether there was one tomb at this location or two, but the new discovery of Boyd’s diary
confirms that only one tomb was found. Boyd later excavated on this same terrace and on
the three below, searching for other tholoi but she found none.
The finds acquired by Evans from the tomb included 117 vases, most of which have
not been published, though photographs and drawings of many of the objects do exist in the
Ashmolean archives. Pottery from the tomb shows Cypriot connections, as did some of the
finds from the Aloni tholoi. Finds of note, in addition to the pottery, include four iron
firedogs (Cypriot?) in the shape of warships (according to Boardman an extremely rare
object in EIA Greek burials, though common in Italy), a bronze bowl (Cypriot?), many
bronze weapons and tools, a small bronze wheel with seven spokes, and an iron double axe.
Two skulls were also recovered from the tomb, though it is likely that more burials were
originally present. This tholos was probably used by inhabitants of Kastro and it shows signs
54
of use from SM-EO (and possibly also LM IIIC). In addition, terracotta animal figurines and
sherds were found in the vicinity (~40 m northeast of the tomb) on a rocky ledge, possibly
from a shrine which may or may not have been associated with the tomb.
G. Skouriasmenos (“Rusty Ridge”) – Approximately 1 km southeast of the Kastro
settlement was found the largest and best preserved tholos from the Kavousi area. This tomb
was a true tholos, round from the bottom, with a diameter of 2.90 meters, a dromos, and an
impressive façade built of roughly rectangular stones with monolithic lintel. When Boyd
investigated the tomb in 1900, it had already been looted and a farmer had built his house
over it, though several finds still remained, including bronze plate with relief decoration of
helmeted men between lions, sphinxes and griffins, gold leaf, a gold button, glass beads, iron
weapons, and seven vases, one of which was decorated on one side with a man in a chariot
and on the other with three female mourners. In addition, several animal bones, including a
boar’s tusk, were found in the tomb. The remaining finds date primarily to LG and EO.
H. Vronda – Ten mostly plundered tholos tombs have been found to the north and
northwest of the EIA settlement. Boyd excavated eight tombs (I-VIII) in 1900-1 and the
landowner excavated another (Tomb IX) in 1951 at Xerambela, ~150 m down the slope to
the north of the other tholoi. In 1981 and 1989-90, the Kavousi Project re-located and
cleaned eight of these tholoi and found an additional one (Tomb X) also to the north of the
Boyd’s tholoi. The Vronda tholoi have circular, oval, rectangular, and square chambers,
which have an average diameter of slightly less than 2 meters, and their height also averages
2 meters. The tombs typically have elaborately built facades with monolithic lintels and
doorways that were entered from a pit dug in the earth, rather than a true dromos, which only
Tomb I and X have. The tholoi contained primarily multiple inhumations, though at least
55
one tomb shows evidence of possible cremations. Finds of note include a stone lid fragment,
possibly an heirloom, stone and terracotta spindle whorls, stirrup jars, and bird vases.
Tombs IV-VII and Tombs I-III and VIII may have been grouped in two clusters, both
located only ~10-50 meters from the settlement, while Tombs X and IX were isolated. Tomb
X contained a pit with stones, loose earth, and animal skeletons (dogs, a fox, and donkey),
which had been dug under the floor and extended under the south wall. This may present
evidence of a pre-burial sacrifice, if it was dug before the tomb, though the date of the pit is
uncertain and this is not a typical EIA practice. In addition, large flat slabs of stone were
placed in the area in front of the stomia of Tombs I, II, IV, V, and X and fragments of cups,
skyphoi, kraters, and kalathoi were found above these, likely indicating libations to the dead
at the time of burial or at an anniversary ritual. Furthermore, piles of stones were found
above the stomia of several tombs, perhaps marking the tombs for later ceremonial or
funerary use. The tholoi may have been constructed after the settlement at Vronda was
abandoned, the occupation of which was primarily late LM IIIC, and they appear to have
been in use from SM-EPG, PGB, and EG-MG; unusually, Tomb V may have been used only
in the Geometric period. The tholoi may also have been used by single families, as the
excavations recovered nearly as many tholos tombs as houses, probably living at nearby
Kastro, after having moved there from Vronda, or possibly at Azoria.
In the Late Geometric period, ‘cist’ graves were built in and around nearly all of the
LM IIIC buildings of the settlement, and some of them appear to have been placed in
clusters. Kanta considers these tombs to have been stone-lined shaft graves which were
misinterpreted as cist graves. The most common type is a large, rectangular stone-lined
‘cist,’ roughly 2 x 1 m, of which at least twenty examples were found. In some cases, walls
56
of the earlier houses were used as part of the construction with the other sides of the cist built
from single rows of limestone blocks or bedrock boulders, while in others the tomb was built
in the center of the room digging into the rubble from collapsed walls and rarely, building
one or two good walls. Most of the burials contained multiple cremations, as many as eight
in one case (G.28), and the graves were often the site of the pyres. In addition, a few of the
tombs contained burials in a pithos or amphora. In several cases (at least seven), rather than
creating a cist, the burial was placed under a cairn of stone, in the corner of the room, the
doorway, or a cleft in the rock; these are secondary burials, for which the cremation took
place elsewhere. Several inhumations also existed, most of which represent either a later
phase of a tomb which contained earlier cremations, infant burials, though evidence of infant
cremation was also found at the site, or burials placed outside but near cists, such as G.24, a
child who apparently died of Histiocytosis. According to the excavators, the placement of
uncremated individuals outside of cists may indicate that these individuals were associated
with the family buried in the tomb but were not placed inside due to pollution from disease or
some other reason. A total of 111 individuals (12 children) have been identified from the
Vronda burials, including both the tholoi and cists. The pyres/graves were also sometimes
marked by piles of stone placed on top, presumably to identify them for future use or
ceremony. In addition, some of the graves may have been marked by pithoi or amphorae;
beside Graves 3 and 9, for example, was a small paved area with a pot stand.
In some graves, goods were placed inside the tomb on a bedrock shelf. Nearly all of
the graves contained cups, often in large numbers, and skyphoi, aryballoi, lekythoi,
oinochoai, amphorae, and bowls/kraters also commonly occur. The large number of cups
and skyphoi suggest possible drinking rituals/libations at the time of burial, having been
57
thrown into the grave after the cremation, for they were not as badly burned as the aryballoi,
which were likely placed on the pyre with the body. Finds of note from these tombs include
terracotta beads, bronze fibulae and pins, iron pins, many iron weapons and tools, three
obsidian blades, and an ivory bead. Grave 6 may provide an example of a specialized toolkit, possibly for metal-working, containing an axe, chisel, hammer, tongs, two files, and a
razor, among other items. The burials richest in metal seem to be concentrated on the
summit of the hill, especially the northeast side (Bldgs. J and K), though many graves were
relatively wealthy. It is perhaps noteworthy that the two examples of later inhumations
placed above cremations inside a cist are accompanied by few goods, only two skyphoi and a
skyphos and pin, respectively. While the grave goods were generally numerous, few luxury
items occur, though there is evidence of imported pottery from Knossos and Cyprus (or in
imitation of Cypriot style). In addition, many of the child burials, including one inhumed
infant inside a pithos placed on its side within an enclosure, seem to have contained rabbit
bones. Also, sheep and goat bones were often present in adult burials, possibly placed on the
pyre as an offering for the deceased or as part of a funerary meal.
The excavators tentatively conclude that the cists represent family burials and that the
clusters of graves in different areas of the site suggest larger groupings by birth, status, class,
or some other factor, as different levels of wealth in goods are evident. The excavators
question whether or not these tombs are similar to the “bone enclosures” found at Vrokastro,
which also date primarily to the LG period, and these tombs will be referred to as bone
enclosures in Chapters Four and Five. In addition, Building H appears to have been
constructed together with Tomb 6, perhaps as a part of the enclosure. The Vronda cist
burials date primarily to LG-EO, though there is also some evidence for MG, the time when
58
the tholoi went out of use. The cist burials may be associated with the settlement at nearby
Kastro, for which the tholos tombs at Aloni, Skouriasmenos, and Plai tou Kastrou continued
in use during this period, or possibly with the settlement at Azoria or Panagia Skali. It is also
possible that the cemetery at Chondrovolakes began in EO at the time when the Vronda cists
were abandoned.
Ref: Hogarth and Bosanquet 1899, 321; Bosanquet 1900, 171-172; Boyd 1901, 137-154;
1904, 15-18; Levi 1927-1929c, 562-567, 579-609; Pendlebury et al. 1937-1938, 111;
Pendlebury 1939, 315, 343; Levi 1945, 19-20; Desborough 1952, 267, 327; Coldstream
1968, 258-261, 417; Pini 1968, 80 #21.2,4, 82 #19.1; Boardman 1971; Snodgrass 1971, 169,
210; Desborough 1972a, 252-254; 1972b, 117, 235, 372; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 59;
Gesell et al. 1983, 394-412; Day 1984, 21-22; Tsipopoulou 1984; Gesell 1985a; Day et al.
1986; Tsipopoulou 1987a, 263-265; 1987b, 257-259; Catling 1988, 72; Gesell et al. 1988;
Catling 1989, 105; Coulson 1990; French 1990, 73; Gesell 1990; Gesell et al. 1990; Belli
1991, 441; French 1991, 72; Gesell et al.1991; French 1992, 64; Gesell et al. 1992, 122;
Haggis 1992, 185, 188-195; Liston 1993; Coulson and Tsipopoulou 1994, 65; Day 1995;
Gesell et al.1995; Tomlinson 1996, 46; Coulson et al. 1997; Blackman 1999, 120; Pangalos
1999, 161; Gesell et al. 2000, 77-83; Nowicki 2000, 97-100; Touchais et al. 2000, 990;
Blackman 2001, 134; Brown 2001, 339-342; Kanta 2001b, 18; Apostolakou 2002, 341-342;
Whitley 2003, 85; Haggis 2005, personal communication; Liston 2005, personal
communication; Mook 2005, personal communication; Tsipopoulou 2005, 73-121
24. Meseleroi (figs. 58-60) – EIA burials have been identified at two or three locations in
the vicinity of Meseleroi.
A. Petrou Phrameno – At this location in the mountains ~200 m southwest of the
village, farmers found a partially destroyed cemetery with LG pithos burials. 13 have been
excavated thus far by the Greek Archaeological Service, in 1992 and 1994. The jars were
typically placed on their sides in rock-cut ellipsoidal pits and held in place with stones; in one
example, two jars, with the mouth of one placed inside the other, were found in the same
tomb. In addition, one pithos had a stone plaka instead of a base. The pits and pithoi were
also covered with stone plakas, making a few of the burials somewhat similar in appearance
to the “pseudotholoi” identified at Krya. The Meseleroi pithoi usually contained
59
inhumations, with the skulls of the deceased typically placed towards the bottom; in one
example, a pithos contained three burials. There was no definite evidence for cremation,
though in three pithoi no bone was found. Few finds were recovered from the burials; most
commonly one or two vases accompanied the deceased, and one pair of tweezers, a bronze
pin and an iron pin were the only non-ceramic finds. In addition to the pithoi, one large cist
grave, lined with plakas, was found among the tombs; its date, however, is unknown as only
bones were recovered.
B. Profitis Ilias – A cemetery site (PI4) was identified as part of the Vrokastro
Survey Project, primarily in 1988 and 1990. This site is located ~700 m northeast of the
modern village, and it contained some evidence of LG-O and H, though primarily A-C.
Hayden states that eight different loci found on or near the ridge may represent tomb groups.
These include two small possible tholos tombs (loci 1 and 4) with rubble walls, a possible
rock shelter burial (A-C), a cist tomb, and a group of small built compartments or rooms
(locus 5 = possible bone enclosures). The possible tholoi and bone enclosures could date as
early as the Geometric period, though no conclusive evidence exists for this period. In the
Archaic period this cemetery appears to have had an enclosure wall, which extended from the
cist grave. The Early Iron Age evidence consists of fragments of LG burial pithoi, identified
by the survey, of the same type and decoration as those found in the cemetery at Petrou
Phrameno.
Overall – A possible EIA-A habitation site, OL4, was identified ~500 m northwest of
Meseleroi (~600 m southwest of PI4 and ~500 m northwest of Petrou Phrameno), and a
larger O-H habitation site was identified at OL1A (~200 m southwest of PI4). The Early
Iron Age burials may have belonged to the former. Evidence of PG and G habitation has also
60
been observed from Schinavria (SK 11), which is possibly the site of Archaic Oleros, located
~1.5 km east of Meseleroi, though this site is probably too far away for the cemeteries to
have been associated with it.
Ref: Apostolakou 1992, 604-605; Hayden et al. 1992, 344; Apostolakou 1994b, 749-750;
Hayden 1995, 104-105, 124; Blackman 1998, 119; Touchais 1998, 953; 1999, 818;
Blackman 2000, 143; Sjögren 2001, 255 (E57); Hayden, personal communication, 2004;
2005, CD p. 121-123; Tsipopoulou 2005, 123
25. Parsa – Parsa is located southeast of Lasithi and approximately 3 km southwest of the
village Malles. Faure identified a deep cave ~20 minutes southwest of the village, inside of
which were found a number of ancient bones, some of children, together with fragments of
pottery, Geometric and earlier. No other information about the burials from this cave has
been recorded.
Ref: Faure 1956, 100 #4
26. Schoinokapsala (fig. 61) – A small robbed tholos tomb was discovered at Xenotaphoi,
though the exact findspot is unknown; the date was not given, though it was probably LM or
SM. Remaining finds include stirrup jars, pitchers, and cups, though they have not yet been
published. The name of the site indicates the likelihood of other burials in the area. It is
possible that this tomb was associated with a small LM IIIC-PG settlement (Ag. Ioannis
Psychro) identified by Nowicki along the road from Ag. Ioannis to Schoinokapsala (~3 km
east of Ag. Ioannis, between the churches of Ag. Georgios and Ag. Panagia).
Ref: Apostolakou 1986, 234; French 1993, 79; Nowicki 2000, 81-82
27. Vasiliki (figs. 62-63) – Two tholos tombs have been excavated in the vicinity of the
modern village of Vasiliki.
61
A. Kamaraki – In 1990 at Kamaraki in the plain, ~25 m to the east side of the road to
Ierapetra near the crossroads to the modern village of Vasiliki (~300 m E-NE of the EM site),
a small unrobbed (early) LM IIIC-PG tholos with roughly circular chamber (~2.5 m
diameter) and a very short dromos was excavated by Tsipopoulou and Zographake. Only the
south half of the chamber was paved, possibly to hold the first burial, and the tomb contained
the remains of seven inhumations (five adults and two children). Finds from the tomb
include 25 vases (kalathoi, amphoriskoi, stirrup jars, juglets, etc.), three clay beads, bronze
fibulae, two bronze pendants, and a lead bead. In addition, some of the SM vases do not
have good parallels among the Cretan material, but are more appropriate to the Mainland
repertoire, and the bronze shield ring and three of the fibulae may have been imported from
Athens. Finds from this tomb are in the Agios Nikolaos Museum.
Tsipopoulou originally suggested that this tomb was connected with the primarily LM
IIIC settlement at Chalasmenos (~3 km to the east), though Eliopoulos believes that it was
associated with the nearby LM IIIC-PG settlement at Vasiliki Kephala (~3 km to the west).
Both sites are probably too far away, though, and perhaps there is an unknown settlement of
this time period in the plain with which the tomb is associated. The recent Gournia Survey,
however, did not find any sites of this period in the plain, and therefore the associated
settlement remains uncertain. Perhaps the tomb marked the boundary between the territories
of Chalasmenos and Kephala or else was placed on the land of the deceased. In addition, I
was informed by a local that other, similar tombs (possibly one-three) were uncovered in this
area in ~1971/72, but I have been unable to confirm this.
B. Kephala – In a vineyard at the location of Agios Theodoros on the south slope
Kephala Hill, Seager excavated one disturbed tholos tomb in 1906. The exact location of the
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tomb is unknown, as it is no longer preserved. Seager describes the tomb as carefully built, 2
m in diameter, with a 3 m long dromos. The tomb contained a larnax, several vases (a stirrup
jar, two kalathoi, and a flask), a gold pendant, three carnelian beads, and a bronze dagger,
probably dating to LM IIIC, though possibly also to SM. Human and dog bones were also
found on the chamber floor. No other information is known about this tomb, which was most
likely associated with the LM IIIC (and possibly PG) settlement on the summit of Kephala
Hill.
Ref: Seager 1907, 113, 129-131; Pendlebury 1939, 243; Furumark 1944, 222-224;
Desborough 1964, 176-177; Furumark 1972, 106-107; Pelon 1976, 261-262; Kanta 1980,
146; Tsipopoulou 1984, 232 n. 2; French 1991, 71; Pariente 1991, 941; Tsipopoulou 1997,
484 n. 16; Eliopoulos 1998a, 301 and n. 4; Rehak and Younger 1998, 166 n. 514; 168;
Nowicki 2000, 106; Watrous et al. 2000, 477; Borgna 2003, 165 n. 49; Tsipopoulou et al.
2003; Tsipopoulou 2005, 71-72
SITEIA EPARCHIA
28. Achladia – In 1939 at Platyschino on the west slope of Khalepa Hill, Platon excavated a
large, looted LM III tholos tomb built of cyclopean masonry, which had the unusual feature
of a second door blocked by two walls opposite the entrance, possibly an unfinished lateral
chamber. In addition, a possible system for wooden poles against the entrance was identified
during a recent re-investigation of the tomb, perhaps a means of locking it from the outside.
The excavator recorded that the tomb contained three larnakes and that SM pots and a stone
lamp were found on the floor, though the finds, which had been stored in the Siteia
collection, were destroyed during the war. Kanta considers the tomb only to have had one
phase of use, LM IIIA2-B, while Pini dated the tomb to LM IIIB-SM. Tsipopoulou and
Vagnetti did not identify any SM pottery in their recent study of Platon’s drawings, though
they did identify an LG oinochoe and cup. They suggest that this LG pottery was likely from
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a ritual libation to honor the dead after a later re-opening of the tomb, possibly to collect
some valuable material, rather than representing a late burial or example of hero cult. The
LM settlement associated with the original use of the tholos was located to the northwest,
also at Platyschino, though EIA habitation has not yet been identified from the area.
Ref: Robertson 1939, 206; Walter 1940, 304; Alexiou 1952, 476; Platon 1952, 643-646; de
Santerre 1953, 239; Pini 1968, 75 #5; Kanta 1980, 178; Papadakis 1983, 13; Tsipopoulou and
Vagnetti 1995, 11, 115-128; Belli 1997, 251; Tsipopoulou 2005, 219
29. Adromyloi (Lithines) (fig. 64) – Two or three necropoleis with EIA tombs were
excavated in the area of Adromyloi (~1.5 km north-northwest of Lithines). Unfortunately,
the exact location and plans of these sites have not been published and their relationship to
one another is unclear. Some finds from the tombs are in the Herakleion and Siteia
Museums.
A. Agios Antonios – In a flat zone near the church and cave of Ag. Antonios (~3 km
northwest of Lithines and ~500 m northwest of the church of Ag. Marina), Platon excavated
a group of robbed burials in 1953. The tombs were small tholoi with square, rectangular, and
circular inner chambers and rectangular and square stone outer enclosures, similar to those
found at Karphi and Kritsa, and of the same type as those found in greater number at nearby
Ag. Apostoloi. These tholoi were referred to as the “graves of the poor” by the villagers, as
only a few small vases, primarily oil jars, were found inside them, probably dating to PG and
G. They were given this name to distinguish them from the “tombs of the lords,” looted
chamber tombs, probably Classical or Hellenistic, which were found nearby and included
gold items. The EIA burials are likely associated with the extensive LM IIIC-A settlement
(Anginara) on the ridge above and to the north of the church and cemetery, and they may (?)
have been located ~700 meters from those at Ag. Apostoloi.
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B. Agios Apostoloi (between Sykia-Adromyloi) – North of the village of Adromyloi
toward Sykia apparently somewhere near the church of Ag. Apostoloi, Platon excavated in
1953-1954 a mostly looted LM IIIC-PG (and lasting until EO, according to Tsipopoulou)
cemetery of rectangular, built tholos tombs with small dromoi. 14 or 15 tholoi were placed
in a group around a low hill, while 3 single tombs were found higher up on three separate
neighboring hills. According to Brown, the grouped tholoi may have been located in the area
now known as Chondrovolaki, while at least one of the isolated tombs may come from the
area of Christo to the northwest of Chondrovolaki. The cemetery does not appear to have
been completely excavated. Only one tomb was unrobbed (of the group of 15) and it
contained approximately 180 vases, 2 gold rings, 3 Minoan seal stones (one with pseudohieroglyphs), iron tools and weapons, bronze fibulae and pins. In addition, one of the
isolated tombs (B) contained a larnax and 50 vases.
C. Kandemi Kephali – Finds from a Geometric tomb in the area of Kandemi Kephali
were brought to the (Siteia?) museum in 1960. These included a baby feeder, two spearheads
and bronze fibulae. No further information about this tomb has been published. Platon had
previously in 1954 dug a horseshoe-shaped LM III (late B-early C) chamber tomb in this
area, reportedly ~500 meters northeast of the Church of Agia Marina. This tomb contained a
larnax with five skeletons, a pithos, eight-ten vases, a gold ring, sealstone, spindle whorls,
and other jewelry. The IIIC vases include a stirrup jar, duck vase, and a feeding bottle.
There was also a LM IIIB-C settlement to the northeast, with which the tomb is likely
associated.
D. Tomb 1902 – The exact location of this tomb is unknown, possibly at Kandemi
Kephali or Anginara. 101 PGB-EO vases were reported from this tomb which was excavated
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by villagers in 1902, though only 49 can now be accounted for. Some of the vases were
published by Droop, including many cups, bowls, amphorae, and oinochoai. One vase of
note is in the form of a nude seated woman with a hydria on her head. No other information
about this tomb is known.
E. Mousadenas – In the vicinity of Adromyloi at the place Mousadenas on the land
of G. Koutsantonaki was found a small Geometric tomb (2.3 x 1.5 m) with short dromos,
possibly a chamber tomb or tholos with rectangular chamber; the type is unclear from the
brief report, which implies that it was a cist tomb with dromos. Finds include sherds, iron
weapons, and a bronze fibula. The Mousadenas tomb may have been associated with the
other tombs of the same date from this area.
Ref: Bosanquet 1901-1902, 249; Droop 1905-1906, 43-47; Levi 1927-1929c, 575;
Pendlebury 1939, 325; Alexiou 1953b, 489-490; Platon 1953a, 296-297; Cook and
Boardman 1954, 168; Platon 1954a, 365-367; 1954b, 511-512; BCH 79 1955, 307; Hood
1955, 18; Platon 1960b, 261-262; Desborough 1964, 268; Coldstream 1968, 258; 417; Pini
1968, 75 #16.1-2; Snodgrass 1971, 210; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 54; Coldstream 1977, 276;
Kanta 1980, 185-186; Papadakis 1983, 56; Syriopoulos 1983, 219 #216, 666 CX;
Tsipopoulou 1984; Papadakis 1985, 302-303; Tsipopoulou 1987b, 260; Belli 1991, 441;
Pariente 1992, 937; French 1993, 73; Tsipopoulou 1995, 182; Nowicki 2000, 218; Brown
2001, 307-308; Tsipopoulou 2005, 199-218
30. Agios Georgios (formerly Tourtouloi) (figs. 65-66) – Early Iron Age burials have been
found at two locations near the village, on Mandalia Hill and at Ammoudoplaka.
A. Mandalia – Plundered Late Minoan and Geometric graves were found on
Mandalia Hill (~1-1.5 km east/southeast of the village) by Davaras. These tombs were
roughly circular and rectangular, rock-cut chamber tombs with dromoi, supposedly arranged
in groups and belonging to an extensive cemetery. The Geometric examples were of the
same type as the LM III ones. The one published Geometric example was excavated by
Davaras somewhere on the top of the hill at Mandalia Kephala in 1964, though it is called a
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small tholos by Tsipopoulou; this tomb had a rectangular chamber, ~1 x 1 m, and contained
only one LG burial, 14-16 vases, mostly cups, pitchers, and amphorae, and two bronze
fibulae. According to Tsipopoulou, approximately 15 EIA chamber tombs have been
excavated and they were used from SM-LG/EO. The plans, contents, as well as number and
manner of burial, from the Mandalia tombs have not yet been published, nor has the
identification of all tombs as chambers yet been confirmed.
B. Ammoudoplaka – Another possible cemetery was identified at this location to the
east/northeast of the modern village, and just southeast of Volakas, where nine LM III
circular chamber tombs with dromoi were excavated (two bath-tub larnakes from these tombs
could date to early LM IIIC). In 1965, Sakellarakis excavated a plundered LM III chamber
tomb and two EO tholoi somewhere at Ammoudoplaka. The two tholoi (A and B) had
trapezoidal chambers (A-2.2 x 2.46 x 2 x 1.97 m; B-1.7 x 1.3 x 1.5 x ? m) and were located
~25 meters apart. Tomb B was smaller, partly destroyed, and contained only a lamp and a
fragment of another vessel. Tomb A, on the other hand, held at least five burials, a terracotta
female statuette, oinochoai, cooking vessels, iron and bronze weapons, bronze fibulae, pins,
and a ring, a lead amulet, stone axe, clay and glass beads, and two oyster shells. According
to a local, an additional tholos was recently found in the vicinity of these two tombs.
C. Other – 11 LG-EO vases from a plundered tomb were given to the Herakleion
Museum in 1918, though it is unknown from which of these two cemeteries they were taken.
In addition, Tsipopoulou has recently published ~200 vases from the site, though most of
them come from looted tombs. These vases date from LM-LG, though primarily 8th century,
and consist mainly of pithoi, amphorae, hydriae, oinochoai, aryballoi (one from the
Peloponnesos), pitchers, jugs, cups, skyphoi, and pyxides. Tsipopoulou further notes that a
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large percentage of the ceramics from the site are handmade and representative of a
traditional Eteocretan type. Finds from Tourtouloi are in the Agios Nikolaos, Herakleion,
and Siteia Museums, and the location of an associated settlement is unknown.
Ref: Xanthoudides 1918a, 13; Levi 1945, 20; Alexiou and Davaras 1964, 442; Alexiou 1965,
283; Sakellarakis and Alexiou 1966, 407, 414-418; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 69; Kanta
1980, 178-179; Papadakis 1983, 21; Syriopoulos 1983, 292 #342; 887 CL; Tsipopoulou
1984; 1987a, 266-267, 276; 1987b, 259; Belli 1991, 441; Tsipopoulou 1991, 138-139, 141;
1992; Tsipopoulou and Vagnetti 1997b; Jones 2000, 250; Tsipopoulou 2005, 126-193
31. Agia Photia – Remains of an extensive EM I-II cemetery have been uncovered near the
shore at the locations Patima and Glyphada. The cemetery appears originally to have held
over 300 tombs; a total of 263 tombs were excavated in 1971 and 1984, and at least 50 more
are estimated to have been previously robbed and destroyed. The cemetery contained some
oval pits cut in the bedrock, but it consisted primarily of primitive chamber tombs
(ellipsoidal or roughly round) with small doorways, blocked by upright slabs, and
antechambers, which were often paved. As many as three EM graves appear to have been reused for burial in LM III (T. 198; 211; 231), and LM IIIB-C remains have been found
through survey on a hill above the modern village and in a few areas of the plain, with which
these burials may have been associated. In addition, Tsipopoulou reports that two LG vases,
an askos and a jug, were found placed above one of the graves from the cemetery; the recent
publication of the tombs, however, makes no mention of these vases. The EIA vases have
been interpreted as possible later offerings to the deceased, as seen at Mochlos and Achladia.
Finds from the site are in the Ag. Nikolaos and Siteia Museums.
Ref: Davaras 1971b; Catling 1972, 24; Davaras 1972a, 648-650; Tsipopoulou 1989;
Tsipopoulou and Vagnetti 1995, 126; Sjögren 2001, 270-271 (E94); Davaras and Betancourt
2004
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32. Agios Spyridon (fig. 67) – Burials have been found at two locations in the vicinity of
the modern village.
A. Kalathiana/Petrota – Located ~2 km north-northwest of the village of Ag.
Spyridon, east of Ag. Georgios and west of Praisos, is a small ellipsoidal funerary cave/rock
shelter (called Kalathiana or Petrota), which was excavated in 1985 by Tsipopoulou. The
cave has two entrances, one of which was deliberately blocked with boulders and the other
with a large fallen stone. The cave appears to have been unlooted, though some goods were
found outside the cave due to rodent activity. The burials were inhumations, though the
exact number is unknown as the bones were poorly preserved. The cave was first used for
burial in LM IIIA2 (seven vases), and shows signs of additional activity in SM-PG (four
vases and a bronze fibula), PGB-EG (two vases), LG (eleven vases and a triton shell), and
LG-EO (six vases). The excavator noted the lack of bronze and iron weapons and jewelry
among the finds, though small bones of a bird were found in a tripod, possibly an offering to
the deceased. This isolated tomb was perhaps used by one family, as it was secluded and
easy to access, and it could have been located near the fields of that family. The tomb is
~900 meters west of the burials at Skales Cave, which itself is ~500 m west of the 2nd
Acropolis of Praisos; Kalathiana Cave could thus possibly be associated with Praisos or an
unknown smaller settlement in the vicinity. The finds from the site are currently in the Siteia
Museum.
B. Kanene – At this location on the slopes of a low hill near Agios Nikolaos (in
between Ag. Spyridon and Praisos) in 1950-51 Platon recovered finds from several destroyed
LM IIIB tombs. The finds included fragments of larnakes, stirrup jars, one of which was
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IIIC, and a bronze knife. These tombs may also have been associated with a settlement in the
Praisos area.
Ref: Cook 1952, 111; Deshayes 1952, 242; Platon 1960, 302; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 59;
Kanta 1980, 197-198; Tsipopoulou 1983, 78-104; 1984; ελσπκζδμ 11.4.85; Catling 1986,
94; Tsipopoulou 1987b, 259-260; French 1991, 76; Pariente 1991, 939; Tsipopoulou 1995,
180, 186; Whitley et al. 1999, 252; Tsipopoulou 2005, 193-194
33. Agios Stephanos (formerly Gras) – In 1954, 17 PGB-LG vases were found in a rock
shelter “Stephanouli” at Ag. Stephanos, which is located ~2.5 km west of Pefkoi. Reports
seem to indicate that there was one inhumation, though the exact number of burials is
unclear, and it is unknown if any other finds were recovered from the cave. This cave may
be associated with the PG and G settlement found on the summit of Kastello, the hill directly
to the north of the village. Stephanouli may be to the northeast of that settlement, though its
exact location is not recorded. Finds from the site are in the Ag. Nikolaos Museum.
Ref: Platon 1954a, 368; 1954b, 512; BCH 1955, 307; Faure 1962, 40; Desborough 1964,
268; Faure 1964, 67; Pini 1968, 76 #17; Papadakis 1983, 22; Syriopoulos 1983, 219 #218;
Tsipopoulou 1984; 1987b, 260; Nowicki 2000, 71-72; Tsipopoulou 2005, 194-199
34. Chamaizi (fig. 68) – Small robbed tholoi were found at the locations of Liopetro and
Phatsi.
A. Liopetro – In the Agios Nikolaos Museum are finds from one small tholos tomb
which was excavated by villagers and destroyed in 1961. This tholos was located in the
valley ~500 meters west of the Phatsi group and ~700 meters southeast of Liopetro. Iron
weapons and 14 vases, dating to LM IIIC-PGB and early LG, were recovered from the tomb.
No further information about this tomb is known.
B. Phatsi – In 1971 at Phatsi which is located between Chamaizi and the sea, ~1 km
south-southeast of the Venetian fortress of Liopetro, Davaras found a group of five recently
70
pillaged and partially destroyed small, square/rectangular tholos tombs with inhumations,
dating to SM-PGB. Many finds remained from Tomb V, which is located immediately next
to the agricultural road, however, and it measured 2.10 x 2.10 m and had an elaborate façade
with monolithic lintel and door jambs. 90 vases remained from the five tombs, including
stirrup jars, duck/bird vases, bowls with cut-out decoration, an SPG imported Euboean
lekythos, and a Bronze Age (probably EC III) vase. LG cups, a bowl, and oinochoai were
also identified from the tombs. Other finds include a bronze dagger with ivory handle, two
Minoan sealstones, and clay, glass and rock crystal beads. Finds from these tombs are also in
the Agios Nikolaos Museum. The Phatsi tombs, as well as the one from Liopetro, probably
belong to the LM IIIC-O settlement on the summit of Liopetro; the tholoi from Drongara (see
entry under Skopi) are also likely associated with this settlement.
Ref: Davaras 1971a, 199; 1972a, 650; 1972b, 44-45; Desborough 1972a, 253; Catling 1978,
67; Kanta 1980, 176; Papadakis 1983, 36; Syriopoulos 1983a, 152 #93, 215 #199, 533 XLIV,
663 XCVII; Tsipopoulou 1984; 1987b, 267; Belli 1991, 441; Nowicki 1995a, 69-70;
Tsipopoulou 1995, 185; 1997; Nowicki 2000, 101-102; Tsipopoulou 2005, 317-322
35. Chandras (or Voila) – In 1984, Tsipopoulou found fragments of a burial pithos,
probably LM IIIC, during construction of a dirt road at Chandras-Voila. This may have been
related to the nearby LM IIIC-PG settlement at Kastri, the hill located just to the east of Voila
(~500 m northeast of Chandras), though its exact findspot was not recorded but probably
west of the settlement. No other vases were recovered, and the fragments of the pithos are in
the Siteia Museum. The presence of the nearby settlement makes it likely that other EIA
burials exist in the area.
Ref: Tsipopoulou and Vagnetti 1992, 186; Tsipopoulou 1995, 186; Nowicki 2000, 60-61;
Tsipopoulou 2005, 323
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36. Itanos (modern Erimoupolis) (fig. 69) – At this site in the 1950s the French School
excavated a largely plundered ancient necropolis, which was used intensively from the
Geometric until the end of the Hellenistic Period. These excavations recovered only sherds
from the earliest phase of use; at most, a few oval hollows can be attributed to this period,
probably LG. Explorations in 1996, however, revealed one definite G grave (SP9), an oval
pit cut into the rock, located beside a possible archaic temenos wall. Only sherds, primarily
cups and skyphoi, were recovered from this grave, however. Additional (Late) Geometric
graves have recently been excavated at the site (in 2003), though they have not yet been
published. The necropolis is located north of the west acropolis (the center of the Greek and
Roman town) and ~250 meters northwest of the EIA habitation area of the east acropolis.
Ref: BCH 1951, 193; Cook 1951, 251; Deshayes 1951, 201-209; Leekley and Noyes 1975,
58; Greco et al. 1996, 944; 1997, 817-818; Viviers 1997, 1053; Blackman 1998, 118; 2000,
141; Sophianou and Saliaka 2006
37. Karydi – Faure identified a large cave (Katophygi) on the plateau of Platyvolos at
Limniolakkos (~2.8 km northeast of the modern village) with LM III, SM, and G sherds,
together with many human and animal bones. This cave may have been used as both a burial
site and place of refuge, though EIA burial activity has not been confirmed.
Ref: Faure 1963, 497-498; 1964, 69; Kanta 1980, 197; Papadakis 1983, 47; Tsipopoulou
2005, 227
38. Koutsouras – Faure identified the remains of LM III, SM, and PG tombs and a harbor
installation at the locations of Kypourou, Lenika, and Spiliaridia. The number, type, finds,
and exact dates of the tombs are unknown. It is also unclear at which of the three locations
the tombs were found. According to Haggis, there were LM III burials in the plain at
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Kypourou near the olive factory and also up the stream on the way to Stavrochori, just past
Tsikalaria. No further information about these sites has been published.
Ref: Faure 1962, 40; Tsipopoulou 1995, 184; Haggis 2005, personal communication
39. Krya (figs. 70-71) – Approximately 30 tombs have been excavated in a pillaged LM
IIIC-PG (with some Geometric) cemetery at Tsachali/Orthe Petra. This site is located ~1.5
km east of the modern village, on the lower slopes of the hill which holds the Venetian castle
of Monte Forte (Monferrate) on its peak, and it extends into the tsachali/sand quarry to the
northeast of that hill. Most of the tombs were excavated from 1972-1978 by Davaras. The
tombs are primarily of two types. The first (10 examples) is the common type of small tholos
with rectangular or square plan on the exterior, rectangular, square, trapezoidal, or circular
inner chamber, averaging 1-1.5 meters per side, and often with a very short dromos. The
second type is a pseudotholos (13 examples), which consists of a pithos laid on its side with
rough stones closely built over it, typically forming an ellipsoidal tomb; at least two
comparable tombs have been found at Eleutherna. The mouths of the pithoi were usually
covered with stone plakas, and the floors were paved, sometimes with great care. One of the
pithoi from this tomb type had a spout at the bottom, and another burial was placed inside a
krater, rather than a pithos. Two tombs were combinations of the two main types, with a
pithos and paved floor inside a tholos. Primarily inhumations were found in these tombs
(cremations were somewhat rare), typically with only one burial per pseudotholos, though
with up to four burials in some of the tholoi. In addition, few grave goods remained, though
recovered finds include a small gold embossed ox head earring (likely a Cypriot import),
bronze fibulae and pins, and ceramic vessels, including feeding bottles, jugs, skyphoi, and
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stirrup jars. The pseudotholoi often contained no additional vases; in addition, tombs 6, 26,
and 27 held a greater number of vessels than the other tombs.
Approximately 120 meters to the northwest of the main group of tombs at the peak of
a small hill, a large tholos with rectangular chamber (2 x 1.1 m), no dromos, and keel-vaulted
roof was found; this is the only tomb from the site which has been well-published, referred to
as resembling the Royal Tomb at Isopata, the Tomb at Damania, T. Rho at Mycenae Grave
Circle B, and the tombs at Ugarit. It was much disturbed, however, containing only four
skulls and other bones, and fragments of pottery with “geometric decoration”, bronze, and
iron. The date of the tomb is still debated; it may date as early as LM IIIB/C or as late as the
middle of the 8th century B.C. Similar keel-vaulted tholoi have been investigated at Panagia
(LM IIIC-PG), Orne, and possibly Kritsa Tomb A.
Also, excavations in 1995 revealed one large, unlooted tholos (T.28) with rectangular
chamber (2.5 x 2 m), which contained numerous finds, including a bird vase, stirrup jars, a
clay fish, a bronze pendant, and a stone axe. In addition, in front of the entrance to this tomb,
a fragment of a poros limestone pyramidal shaped object, incised with Geometric motifs, was
found; this may have been placed on top of the tholos, serving as a cippus, or aniconic burial
marker. The published account of this tomb gives conflicting information as to its location: it
is said to be ~90 m south of Orthe Petra and yet also ~40 m northeast of the Isopata type
tomb. Regardless, it appears to have been somewhat isolated. Another robbed and destroyed
tholos was recently found ~1.5 km from the main tombs, next to the local road, though its
date is not given.
Furthermore, one grave (T.15) from the cemetery was not of either of the two main
types, but it was a small, square stone-lined pit (cist) without a top. Another grave (T.26)
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was comprised of a large natural hollow at the base of a raised piece of bedrock, the bottom
of which was carefully closed with stones and earth. The north side of this grave contained a
built wall, and the entrance on the east was blocked with stones. The chamber contained 11
vases, 2 bronze rings, and 6 skulls, one of which showed evidence of trauma to the back of
the head. Another robbed tomb (T.25), a typical chamber tomb of elliptical shape, was found
~80 meters southeast of the Isopata type, but its date was not given.
Some of the tombs from the site are likely placed in clusters, which include both
tholoi and pseudotholoi grouped together, though a plan of the site has not yet been
published. Also, according to Kanta, the diversity of tomb type found at the site may
indicate the presence of a mixed population. In addition, the main cemetery was apparently
marked by a large menhir, from which it takes its name (Orthe Petra), analogous to that
found at Eleutherna. An extensive LM IIIC-PG and possibly G defensible settlement existed
on Monteferrate Hill (Ag. Georgios) to which the burials presumably belonged. More burials
are assumed to exist in this area, and the cemetery possibly extended further into the area of
the quarry and service road. Finds from the site are in the Agios Nikolaos Museum, and a
full publication of the site is forthcoming by Davaras and Kanta.
Ref: Davaras 1972a, 646-647; 1973-1974, 931-932; 1976a, 381-382; 1978, 390-392; 1981,
27; Catling 1982, 57; Papadakis 1983, 53-54; Davaras 1984, 298; Tsipopoulou 1984; Catling
1985, 64; 1986, 94; Tsipopoulou 1987b, 261-262; Eliopoulos 1995, 750-751; Tsipopoulou
1995, 186; Nowicki 2000, 63-64; Blackman 2001, 135; Kanta and Davaras 2004; Kanta 2005
40. Lastros – To the east of the modern village at Langades, Faure identified an LM IIIB
and SM burial cave, which he believed belonged to the settlement at Papourikaras, the small
hill above and immediately to the southeast of Langades. No other information has been
published about this cave. Two LM IIIB chamber tombs were also excavated at this location,
75
and additional chamber tombs of the same date were identified somewhere to the southwest
of the village. Furthermore, Nowicki observed a small LM IIIC/PG settlement or hamlet at
Vigla, the hill directly to the north of the village; Vigla is located ~2 km northwest of
Langades, and thus an association between this site and the possible SM burial remains
uncertain.
Ref: Faure 1962, 41; Kanta 1980, 174; Papadakis 1985, 54; Tsipopoulou 1995, 184; Nowicki
2000, 219-220
41. Makriyialos – Burials in pithoi with relief decoration were found near the shore, a little
west of Katovigli. These probably date to EO, though it is unclear if any earlier material was
found, and the number of burials is unknown. An associated settlement has not yet been
identified, and no further information is known about the site.
Ref: Platon 1959, 391; Tsipopoulou 1984; 1987b, 262; 2005, 229
42. Mesa Mouliana (figs. 72-76) – Tholos tombs have been identified at two locations in
the vicinity of the modern village.
A. Sellades (Sellia) – Two tholos tombs were excavated in 1903 by Xanthoudides at
Sellades, located in a saddle between two hillsides ~500 m north-northwest of Mesa
Mouliana. The tombs are located side by side, approximately 50 meters from the Siteia-Ag.
Nikolaos highway, on the west side of the road to Kalavros. In addition, in 1996 both tombs
were cleaned and their dromoi were fully exposed. Tomb A contained both inhumations and
cremations and appears to have been used in LM IIIC, and possibly reused in SM/PG. The
contents of Tomb A had been removed by a peasant before Xanthoudides’ arrival, but he
reported that it held many inhumations on the floor, as well as cremations in a large krater
and possibly also in a large pyxis. This tomb had a rectangular chamber (2.4 x 1.8 m),
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dromos, and a 0.9 meter deep pit behind the door filled with black earth, which may have
been used for offerings or libations. Finds include a bell krater (decorated with a huntsman
pursuing two agrimia on one side and a helmeted rider with spear and shield on the reverse),
two bronze handles with bull protomes, three bronze phialai and a bronze pitcher, bronze and
iron weapons, a bone disc, and two gold rings. The evidence for reuse of the tomb centers
primarily on the date of the bell krater, which has been given as LM IIIC, PG, and G; most
scholars currently, however, appear to date the tomb solely to LM IIIC, though some of the
pottery may indicate an SM presence in the tomb.
Tomb B was located approximately five meters to the south of T.A, and it was of
similar size and shape, but nearly a meter shorter in height. This tomb contained one
inhumation in a larnax and another on the floor, which was covered with sand and pebbles,
and finds included four stirrup jars, three bronze discs (possible shield bosses), bronze
weapons, a gold ring, a gold face mask, two pieces of ivory, and a piece of iron. Tomb B
seems to be slightly earlier than Tomb A, and it likely dates to LM IIIB/C-IIIC. Platon
reported in 1959 that traces of additional tombs had been identified nearby.
B. Vourlia – At Vourlia (northeast of Sellades), Xanthoudides also cleared one LM
IIIB tomb, which contained a gold ring, from a group of several previously destroyed tholos
tombs. These tombs were said to be similar to those found at Sellades. No further
information about these tombs has been published, though the excavator mentioned the likely
existence of other tombs in the area.
Overall – “Mycenaean” walls were noted at Gouves, between Sellades and Vourlia,
and a similarly dated wall was also observed to the west of the tombs at the acropolis
Pyrgos/Ellinkon. The tombs could have been associated with one of these possible
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settlements. Nowicki, on the other hand, has recently suggested that the Sellades tombs
might be associated with the LM IIIC settlement at Kastello (Myrsini), which is located ~2
km to the southwest, or at least with the cluster of settlements to which it belonged. Finds
from the site are currently in the Herakleion Museum.
Ref: Xanthoudides 1904, 21-52; Fowler 1905, 111-112; Lorimer 1933, 165-166; Pendlebury
et al. 1937-1938, 111; Pendlebury 1939, 308-309; 315; Furumark 1944, 222-229;
Desborough 1952, 269-270, 327; Platon 1959, 389; Desborough 1964, 177, 188; Pini 1968,
88 #10.1 and 11; Snodgrass 1971, 168, 210; Desborough 1972b, 372; Furumark 1972, 106107; Davaras 1973b, 163; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 63; Kanta 1980, 175; Papadakis 1983,
65-66; Syriopoulos 1983, 107-108 #212, 152 #95, 217 #207, 388 CII; Tsipopoulou 1995,
180; Papadakis 1997, 1044; Borgna 2003, 165 n. 49; Cameron 2003, 263; Nowicki 2004,
276-278
43. Mochlos – At least 30 rock-cut chamber tombs, which contained one or two burials
each, have been excavated thus far in an LM IIIA-B cemetery located on a hill behind the
modern village at the southern edge. One of the tombs (T. 27), which is located at the
northern end of the cemetery, appears to have been reopened in EO. The tomb consisted of
an oval chamber (0.9 x 1.45 m) and short dromos. Only one kylix and a burial pithos
remained from the original period of use (LM IIIA2). The EIA visitors apparently removed
the skeletal remains, grave goods, upper part of the pithos and its schist cover slab; they then
filled the rest of the pithos with earth, placed two offerings (an alabastron and small hydria)
beside it, and closed the tomb. The pithos cover slab was then positioned upright in the
dromos near the entrance with a section of pithos, each accompanied by a single EIA vessel
(a skyphos and aryballos), placed on either side. Finally, an irregular stone platform/altar (1
x 0.55-0.8 x 0.5 m) was constructed on top. Soles has interpreted this activity as ancestor
worship, rather than mere offerings or a later burial, suggesting that the bones of the
deceased were taken elsewhere, not necessarily on Crete, possibly to claim ownership of land
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or to create a hero cult, which would provide “some community with a sense of identity and
security.” Mochlos was not inhabited during the early 7th c. B.C. and an associated
settlement for the EIA activity has not been identified.
Ref: French 1994, 81; Soles 1994, 755; Huber and Varalis 1995, 1019; Tomlinson 1995, 68;
Soles 2001; Smith 2002, 151
44. Myrsini – 12 LM IIIA–C tombs (10 chambers and 2 pits) were excavated in 1959 by
Platon on the west and south slopes of Aspropilia Hill (the summit of which holds the chapel
of Panagia Analipsis), which is ~15 minutes north-northwest of the modern village and near
the sea. Six ( , , Γ, Ι, Ι , Ι ) of these tombs contained definite LM IIIC evidence. Only
the pottery from these tombs has been fully studied, however, by Smith in his recent
dissertation. Tombs A and B were both chamber tombs (LM IIIA-C), and their finds
included 55 vases, 4 triton shells, Nave type swords, and a whetstone, of which 6 stirrup jars,
a kalathos, and a deep bowl were definitely IIIC. Tomb Γ was a small pit (LM IIIB-C) which
held a possible infant burial in a pithos and eight vases, of which two stirrup jars were IIIC.
Tombs I, IA, and IB were located to the south of the other tombs, possibly in a group. Tomb
I was a simple pit with two burials and an LM IIIC stirrup jar and kalathos. Tombs IA and
IB were both chamber tombs, the stomia of which were blocked by walls. Tomb IA (LM
IIIB-C) contained one larnax, 13 pots, of which 2 stirrup jars were IIIC, and a triton shell,
while Tomb IB (LM IIIA-C) had one larnax with two burials, a pithos, and 20 other vases, of
which 2 stirrup jars were also IIIC. In addition to the six tombs which had definite evidence
for LM IIIC, some tombs, such as Tomb Σ, contained LM IIIB/C pottery. The LM IIIC
evidence from these tombs thus comes primarily from stirrup jars, and these seem to date
primarily to the early part of the period. Platon also mentions the presence of a cremation
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from a IIIC grave at the site, which he compares with Mouliana and Praisos (Photoula),
though he provides no other information about this burial. An associated settlement has not
yet been identified, though Platon believed that Minoan buildings existed to the south of the
hill.
On the south side of Aspropilia Hill were found remains of additional tombs,
apparently Geometric and probably chambers, with ceramics, including two large kraters, a
bronze vessel, and iron weapons and tools. No further information has been published from
these EIA tombs. An LM IIIC-Geometric (and A?) settlement or town existed ~2 km northnortheast of Myrsini by the coast on the Kastello/Ellinika Hill, especially the summit and
southern slopes. The Early Iron Age burials were thus likely associated with this settlement,
being located ~700 m to the southwest of it. Finds from the site are in the Agios Nikolaos
and Siteia Museums.
Ref: Platon 1959, 372-373; Daux 1960, 819-821; Platon 1960, 305; Pini 1968, 88 #12;
Leekley and Noyes 1975, 63; Kanta 1980, 163-173; Syriopoulos 1983, 107 #211, 290 #330,
885 CXLII; Tsipopoulou 1995, 182; Nowicki 2000, 103-104; Smith 2002, 155-162
45. Orino (or Oreino/Orno) (fig. 77) – In 1898, Evans recorded traces of tombs and walls
at Skaphe, which is located directly west of (~150 m) and below the LM IIIC-SM defensible
settlement at Epano Ellinika (0.8–1 km southwest of the modern village). Pendlebury gave
these tombs an uncertain date, but probably Minoan, though their proximity to the settlement
makes an association and an EIA date seem more likely. Nowicki found no sign of these
tombs in his recent investigations, though he notes that the area is much destroyed. He was,
however, informed of a possible tholos, ~100-200 meters north of Ellinika, which was
uncovered and completely destroyed 20-30 years ago. In addition, Nowicki found larnax and
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vase fragments from a plundered rock shelter, which was used for an LM IIIB-early IIIC
burial, on the scree of Kopsa, ~400 meters west of Ellinika.
Another DA settlement (LM IIIC-SM/PG) existed on the summit of Kastri, located
~600 m east of Orino and ~1.2 km northeast of Epano Ellinika. While no cemetery or
isolated tombs have been found in its vicinity thus far, Nowicki expects tholoi to be found on
the slopes below. In addition, in one area directly to the north of and below the citadel (Area
C) Nowicki notes a large number of sherds, possibly from isolated houses or an eroded and
plundered cemetery.
Ref: Pendlebury 1939, 299, 385; Papadakis 1983, 67; Nowicki 1990, 167-170; Tsipopoulou
1995, 187; Nowicki 2000, 73-79; Brown 2001, 349; Tsipopoulou 2005, 229-230
46. Palaikastro – In 1905, Dawkins examined two caves with inhumations, one at Plaka,
located to the southeast of Palaikastro between Pefsofa and Cape Plaka, and the other to the
south of it, overlooking a precipitous gorge opening on the sea. The first cave contained two
stone “blossom” bowls, a lentoid gemstone, and a bronze ring, and it appears to date to LM
II. The other cave contained only a cup and a “very late burial,” which Faure dates to LM
III-SM. No other information about the latter cave has been published. Nowicki mentions
an LM IIIB late-IIIC early settlement on the rocky hill of Kastri to the northeast of
Palaikastro and a small LM IIIC settlement at Plakalona, the small kampos behind and south
of Roussolakkos; both of these sites, however, are probably too far away for the burial cave
to have been associated with them.
Ref: Dawkins 1905-1906, 1-2; Faure 1964, 66, 73; Nowicki 2000, 50-54
47. Pefkoi (figs. 78-83) – North of Pefkoi at Kastellopoulo was an LM IIIC/SM settlement.
A cemetery (#15), likely associated with this settlement, appears to be located to the west,
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across a small, dry stream bed, as indicated by scattered DA pottery found all over the slope
of the hill. Two stone tholoi (#9) with square chambers, similar to those found at Karphi,
were identified by Nowicki on a small lakkos ~300 meters southwest of Kastellopoulo.
Unfortunately, the tombs were poorly preserved and no material was found in their vicinity,
as they were likely robbed long ago. An LM IIIC/PG tripod leg, however, was found ~30
meters from Tomb 2 and may thus reflect the date of the tomb. These two tholoi may have
been built as a pair, as they are placed approximately three meters apart. In addition,
Nowicki was informed of the presence of larnax burials in a small lakkos east of
Kastellopoulo, as well as graves in rock shelters slightly further east, though these have not
been confirmed.
Another poorly preserved and robbed tholos (#10) was found ~250 meters further
southwest at Glikis Prinos, and it appears to have been slightly larger than the other two.
This tomb still contained a few small fragments of bone and some sherds, and it is located in
between the settlement at Kastellopoulo and the LM IIIC-G settlement at Mega Chalavro. It
is somewhat closer to Mega Chalavro (~250-300 m), however, and thus it may have been
associated with this site. According to Nowicki, a piece of molten iron was found near this
tomb, which may suggest that this outskirt of the valley functioned not only as an area for
tombs, but also as a peripheral industrial center.
It is not certain which tombs belonged to which settlement. Nowicki states that the
entire area around Glikis Prinos may have been a traditional burial ground used by
inhabitants from the whole district, which also included an LM IIIC-G settlement at
Stavromenos, ~800 m south of Kastellopoulo and ~300 m southeast of Mega Chalavro.
Other graves may have been located closer to the individual settlements, however; for
82
example, two stone constructions (#6), possibly tholoi, were recorded ~100 meters to
northeast of Mega Chalavro, and piles of stone to the north and south may indicate the
location of additional other graves.
Ref: Nowicki 1991, 142; 1992, 116-118; 1994, 264-266; 2000, 64-71; Tsipopoulou 2005,
232-233
48. Piskokephalo – Evidence of EIA burial activity exists in two nearby caves, at Berati and
Kephala. Unfortunately, the relationships between the Piskokephalo tombs and the location
of their associated settlement(s) are unknown. Finds from the caves are in the Herakleion
Museum.
A. Berati – At Berati to the southwest of the village, in 1952 during the opening of
the Ierapetra-Siteia road, burials were found and excavated by Platon in a cave comprised of
many deep hollows. The cave was used at the end of LM IIIC, PG, and G. According to
Tsipopoulou, it was also used until EO, but the finds from this period remain un-mended in
the museum. This cave is reported to have contained both inhumations and cremations.
Inside was found an LM III box-shaped larnax which had been re-used for a PG burial, with
the original occupant having been taken out and placed on the floor beside the larnax. A
pithos with a spout at the bottom (also seen at Krya) and a tub/basin were also used to
contain burials. Approximately 40 vases, including stirrup jars, and a small Geometric
terracotta fish were among the finds recovered from the cave, though they have not been
published.
B. Kephala – Platon excavated another burial cave at Langoupha/Kephala to the
southeast of Piskokephalo in 1953. The entrance to the cave was built-up with jambs, one of
which appears to have been taken from a Minoan building, and a threshold was formed with
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two plakas. More than 10 inhumations, together with 80 intact vases, primarily pitchers,
small kraters, and cups, were recovered. Some inhumations were on the floor; one skyphos
contained the bones of an infant; two pits, one in the center of the cave covered with a plaka
and the other at the entrace, also contained burials. According to Tsipopoulou, the cave was
used in LPG, PGB, and LG.
C. Other – In 1965, a bath-tub larnax was found by chance in the area of
Piskokephalo and brought to the Herakleion Museum. Kanta has dated this larnax to late LM
IIIB or early IIIC, while Tsipopoulou and Vagnetti would prefer a date of early IIIC. The
location and type of the associated tomb are unknown.
Ref: Alexiou 1952, 476; Platon 1952, 639-642; Alexiou 1953b, 485; Cook 1953, 128; Platon
1953a, 292-293; de Santerre 1953, 239; Cook and Boardman 1954, 168; Courbin 1954, 154155; Desborough 1964, 187, 268; Faure 1964, 67; Coldstream 1968, 258, 417; Pini 1968, 90
#7; Snodgrass 1971, 210; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 65-66; Coldstream 1977, 102, 277;
Kanta 1980, 177; Papadakis 1983, 77-79; Syriopoulos 1983, 216 #203, 290 #329, 664 C, 885
CXLI; Tsipopoulou 1984; 1987b, 262; 1991, 139; 1995, 180; Tsipopoulou and Vagnetti
1997b; Tsipopoulou 2005, 233-235; 2006
49. Praisos (figs. 84-90) – Numerous Early Iron Age tombs have been found in the area
around Praisos.
A. Kapsalos (Site 23) – A looted cave with possible burial was found during the
recent Praisos Survey on the upper northeast flank of Kapsalos Hill, ~1 km southeast of the
3rd Acropolis of ancient Praisos. A stone-built bench was placed against the northwest wall
of this cave, and fragments of G pithoi and two other LG/EO jars, together with some bone
fragments, were collected from the site. A large pyxis which was previously noted from the
site may have been used as a cinerary urn.
In addition, Platon in 1960 excavated two robbed LM chamber tombs on Kapsalos,
one of which was on top of the hill, and he noted the presence of other similar tombs nearby.
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Furthermore, several LM IIIA-C vases were brought to the Herakleion Museum in 1957 from
Kapsalos, possibly from these tombs.
B. Kato Kephali Spetsoti – Plundered tholos tombs were found at this site, northeast
of Photoula and ~750 m southeast of the Third Acropolis, one of which (reported by Platon)
was apparently LM IIIC and contained an iron knife. Four examples, previously excavated
or looted, were noted by the Praisos Survey, on both the east and west sides of the hill. The
date of these tombs is unknown, though Site 31, a tholos on the east end of the ridge, likely
dates to LM IIIC-G. Piles of limestone boulders in the vicinity may imply the existence of
other tombs in the area.
C. Kephala – A bulldozed small tholos tomb was observed in Tract 32 at the north
foot of Kephala Hill, which is south of Xygi Mandra and southeast of Kapsalos, by the
Praisos Survey. It likely dates to LM III-G.
D. Mavrikia – At Kamini nearby, ~2 km east of Vavelloi (Nea Praisos), Davaras
excavated a small Geometric tholos tomb in 1978 by the agricultural road. 46 LG vases, 2
iron daggers, 5 spears, and a stone amulet (a fragment of a Minoan stone vase) were
recovered, along with inhumations, the number of which was not recorded. The chamber
was square/rectangular (1.35 x 1.25 m) with almost rounded corners, and the tomb did not
contain a dromos. The Praisos Survey and Davaras’ original report both identify this tomb as
a tholos, though Tsipopoulou previously identified it as a chamber tomb.
Also, approximately 500 meters to the northeast of Mavrikia, a destroyed tholos tomb
with rectangular chamber, which contained 36 PGB-LG vases, was uncovered in 1961.
E. Photoula (Site 53) – South of the Third Acropolis, east of Praisos Tomb B, and
~15 minutes northeast of Nea Praisos/Vavelloi, at the northwest foot of Kapsalos Hill, in
85
1960 Platon excavated one large tholos tomb with rectangular chamber (4.5 x 3.0 m), built of
large stone slabs, with an unlined dromos. This tomb contained three burials, one
inhumation inside a larnax together with the cremation of a youth in a pyxis, and another
inhumation placed just under the roof with two stirrup jars. Finds of note include a gold ring,
fragment of decorated gold plate, an ivory handle, stirrup jars, and a wooden vessel with
bronze covering, and the tomb dates primarily to LM IIIC. The stirrup jars are said to
resemble those from Karphi and Mouliana. Pini and Borgna date the tomb to LM IIIC-SM,
though all other sources date the tomb only to LM IIIC, and Whitley, on the basis of recent
survey information, states that there is no sign of reuse of this tomb.
F. Praisos – In 1901, a cemetery was excavated to the east and below the 3rd
Acropolis. At least 53 tombs were found, dating from EIA-Hellenistic times, though these
have not been fully published.
Tomb A is a large, round tholos (4.07 m diameter) without dromos located southeast
of the Third Acropolis, east of the main cemetery, and underlying the south side of the road
which leads to Praisos. A small, rectangular antechamber (2.3 x 1.5 m) exists in front of the
chamber, the narrow entrance to which has a large threshold block. This tomb was much
disturbed and reused in later periods for various other purposes. On the basis of its lack of a
dromos, Xanthoudides originally suggested that the tholos was constructed in the Prepalatial
period and then completely cleared out and reused in the Geometric. Branigan, however,
rejected this suggestion from the lack of finds from the Early Bronze Age, suggesting that the
tomb was MM. Tsipopoulou and Whitley, on the other hand, originally believed that the
tomb was constructed in LM III, with the Geometric activity representing either evidence of
later (LG/O) reuse of the tomb, offerings to the deceased, or “hero worship,” as at Mochlos,
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Agia Photia, and Achladia. Bosanquet, however, dated the tomb to the Geometric period, as
does Nowicki, comparing it to Tomb R at Arkades. In addition, Tsipopoulou now considers
the tomb to have been constructed in the 3rd quarter of the 8th c. B.C. Two round stones with
a sunken center, possibly for libations, were found, one near the entrance to the tomb and the
other to the right of the entrance, though their date is unknown. There appears to be some
evidence of cremation in the tomb, and finds of note include two Corinthian aryballoi, a gold
ring, gold rosette, ivory sword handle, bone comb, triton shell, 2 sealstones, a bronze bowl,
silver pin, and clay and glass beads. Human, cow, and dog teeth were found in the upper
layers of the tomb, possibly from later disturbance.
Tomb B is a square (2.5 m) tholos with dromos located ~250 meters south of Tomb A
at the location of Arphanoperivolia. The excavators considered there to be three burials from
three different periods, LM IIIA2, G, and 4th c. B.C. Nowicki, however, dates the earliest
burial to LM IIIB/C. Coarse ware sherds and terracotta beads were associated with the
Geometric burial, two larnakes and gold ornaments with the Minoan, and iron swords and
spearheads and a gold stater to the latest phase. Whether any of the burials were Geometric
or not remains unclear, as the activity could represent later offerings to the deceased. The
distance of this tomb from the others in the cemetery may indicate that it was not part of the
main cemetery, though other burials were found nearby.
Tomb C was found ~75 m to the northwest of Tomb A, ~100 m southeast of the 3rd
Acropolis, and it is part of the main cemetery. It was an unlined, square shaft (2.6 x 2.3 m)
cut out of the bedrock containing at least three inhumation burials, placed one on top of the
other. One side of the grave was lined with a raised bench covered with stone slabs. The
tomb dates to PGB-O, though the 30 vases were primarily EO and included one
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Protocorinthian aryballos. Finds include two obsidian razors, seven lekythoi, a bird vase,
tripod, clay beads, and bronze tweezers.
Tomb E was found approximately a quarter of a mile south of Ag. Constantinos, on
top of the lowest and southernmost part of the summit of Kephala hill. This tomb was a
rectangular tholos with roughly paved floor. No finds were recovered and thus Bosanquet
was unable to assign a date. The Praisos Survey, however, may have rediscovered this tomb
(site 63), before it was destroyed in 1997, and LM IIIB/C larnax fragments were found in and
around this rectangular tholos.
Tomb 53 is a small, rock-cut chamber tomb with built entrance, located on the west
side of Praisos, excavated in 1901. According to the excavators, the exact dimensions were
difficult to determine as the walls and roof had collapsed. 44 vases (G-EO) were recovered,
along with obsidian fragments, bronze tweezers, blue faience, and a bronze spoon, among
other finds.
Somewhere “near the Acropolis,” a tomb was excavated by Platon in 1959. It was
looted and its type was not recorded. Many sherds, a bird vase, and fragments of iron tools
and weapons were recovered, most of which appear to date to the Orientalizing period.
In 1953-1954, Platon recovered vases from two rock-cut, robbed Geometric tombs
near the Hellenistic cemetery. Investigations in 1984 by Tsipopoulou suggested that the
tombs are similar to those found at Dreros (“funerary enclosures”). Nine EO vases, including
an Early Protocorinthian kotyle, and fragments of iron spears, other weapons and tools were
recovered from the tombs.
G. Skales Cave – This cave, also known as Chelidones or Riza Maronias, is found
near the quarries at the north end of the Praisos plateau, ~500 meters north of the 2nd
88
Acropolis and just above the gorge. It was first investigated by Bosanquet, later by Faure,
and most recently by Papadakis and Rutkowski, who dug trial trenches in several locations.
The cave appears to have been used periodically as a cult grotto from the late Neolithic until
the end of the Bronze Age. In PG, and especially G-O, it was used for inhumation burials,
which were placed primarily on the 10 meter wide platform in front of the entrance and
within the entrance itself. The EIA finds consist primarily of sherds (one possibly Attic)
from jugs, cups, and kraters, though bones and 1 bronze fibula were also recovered. In
addition, Bosanquet mentions a lid (pyxis) with attached hare on the handle.
H. Vavelloi – The area of Vavelloi is southeast of Photoula at the northeastern part of
Nea Praisos. Bosanquet acquired five LG vases which were found somewhere in the area,
placed together with an inhumation under a ledge of rock in a natural hollow.
Also, at Chavagas, 10 minutes south of Nea Praisos, Faure identified LM III/SM and
PG sherds, especially of cups, in a cave with an entrance built of Cyclopean masonry. He
believes that this cave may have been used as a tomb, though no burials have yet been
recovered. The cave may, perhaps more likely, have been used for cult activity.
I. Xygi Mandra – Just south of Kato Kephali Spetsoti at Xygi Mandra were found
traces of tombs, likely tholoi. No other information about these tombs is known.
J. Other – According to Tsipopoulou, two LG and six EO vases were found in a
tomb from Pyrgos and taken to the museum in 1961. The tomb type is unknown and the
vases have not been published, though they included one Corinthian cup. In addition, in
1957 vases were brought to the Herakleion Museum, possibly from LM IIIA-C tombs in the
area.
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Overall – Whitley notes that the burial caves at Praisos are distant from the other
tomb types and distinguished by a more restricted range of grave goods, and he also notes the
absence of PG-MG tombs in the area around Praisos. Whitley further states that the isolated
tombs and burial caves some distance away from Praisos and its main cemetery imply the
existence of smaller settlements, in some cases possibly no more than farmsteads, further
away. The burial sites closest to Praisos were likely associated with the LM IIIC-O (and
especially A-H) settlement on the three acropoleis, while many of the more distant sites, such
as Kato Kephali Spetsoti, Kapsalos, Xygi Mandra, and Kephala, could have been connected
either to Praisos or to the large LM IIIC-O and A defensible settlement at Kypria above
Kalamafki to the southeast. Several burials are located in the area between the two sites.
Some finds from the burials are in the Herakleion, Agios Nikolaos, and Siteia Museums.
Ref: Bosanquet 1901-1902, 235-251; Droop 1905-1906, 24-36; Marshall 1905-1906, 64;
Levi 1927-1929c, 572-575; Pendlebury et al. 1937-1938, 111; Schachermeyer 1938, 474;
Pendlebury 1939, 306-307, 315, 326; Alexiou 1953b, 485; Platon 1953a, 295-296; Cook and
Boardman 1954, 168; Courbin 1954, 155; Faure 1956, 95; 1960, 194; Platon 1960b, 302-305;
Platon and Davaras 1960, 514; Daux 1961, 864-866; Faure 1962, 39; Desborough 1964, 177178; Faure 1964, 37, 67, 6, 187; Pini 1968, 90 #2.2,3,5,8; Branigan 1970, 8; Snodgrass 1971,
168-169, 210; Davaras 1973b, 160, 162; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 66-67; Coldstream 1977,
276-277; Davaras 1978, 392; Kanta 1980, 179-182; Papadakis 1983, 79-82; Syriopoulos
1983, 110-111 #218; Tsipopoulou 1984; Papadakis and Rutkowski 1985; Catling 1986, 94;
Tsipopoulou 1987a, 268-279; 1987b, 262-266; 1991, 139; Whitley 1992, 256-257;
Tomlinson 1995, 70; Tsipopoulou 1995, 182, 191; Whitley 1998, 33-36; Whitley et al. 1999,
245-252, 260-261; Jones 2000, 265-266; Nowicki 2000, 56-59; Borgna 2003, 165 n. 49;
Tsipopoulou 2005, 235-294
50. Sklavoi – From Aveliakos come 63 vases, dating to the end of LM IIIC, SM, PG, PGB,
LG, and EO, excavated by private individuals in 1965. These vases are unpublished, though
some are currently on display in the Siteia Museum. In addition, the number and type of
tomb from which the vases were robbed is unknown, but LM III chamber tombs have
recently been excavated on a low hill near the village.
90
Ref: Tsipopoulou 1984; 1987b, 266; 1991, 139; 2005, 295
51. Skopi (fig. 91) – In 1972, Davaras excavated a series of five small, robbed and destroyed
tholoi with square chambers and probably without dromoi at Drongara, which is located
~500 m to the east of the tholoi found at Chamaizi Phatsi, though in the area of Skopi. These
tombs were nearly completely pillaged, though of the same type as those found at Phatsi, and
the only remaining finds were four vases and an iron knife, datable to EPG. Three of the
tombs were essentially scattered within a 200 meter radius of the other two, which were
perhaps grouped together. These tholoi were likely associated with those found at
Liopetro/Phatsi and thus also with the EIA settlement on the summit of that hill. Finds from
the site are in the Agios Nikolaos Museum.
Ref: Davaras 1972b, 45; Papadakis 1983, 112; Syriopoulos 1983, 152 #93b, 533 XLIV, 663
XCVII; Belli 1991, 441; Tsipopoulou 1995, 185; 1997, 455, 482; Nowicki 2000, 101-102;
Tsipopoulou 2005, 312
52. Sphakia (fig. 92) – On Patela Hill south of the modern village, in 1955 Platon excavated
a small tholos (#4) with rectangular chamber (1.5 x >2 m) and short dromos. At least 15
inhumed bodies (possibly 18 or 19) were found in the tomb. Finds include approximately 30
vases, bronze and iron fibulae, glass paste and stone beads. Many animal bones were found
in higher levels of the tomb, but the excavator was unable to determine whether or not they
were associated with the burials. Platon and Tsipopoulou (2005) date the tomb to PG, while
Tsipopoulou and Little (2001) date the tomb solely to SM. Unfortunately, this tomb has
recently been destroyed by a bulldozer (~2001 or 2002).
In addition, an LM IIIB/C tholos (#2) with round chamber was excavated on the
northwest end of the same hill, and it contained two larnakes, vases, a bronze knife/chisel,
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and a sealstone. Both of these tombs may be associated with the LM IIIC-G (and A?)
settlement on the summit of Kastri, which is located ~800 meters to the northeast.
Ref: Orlandos 1955, 101; Platon 1955a, 295-296; 1955b, 563; BCH 80 (1956) 359; Hood and
Boardman 1956, 31; Desborough 1964, 268; Pini 1968, 92 #4.2; Snodgrass 1971, 210;
Leekley and Noyes 1975, 69; Papadakis 1983, 117; Syriopoulos 1983, 217 #210, 665 CVI;
Tsipopoulou 1984; 1987b, 266-267; Belli 1991, 441; Tsipopoulou 1995, 182; Nowicki 2000,
55-56; Tsipopoulou and Little 2001, 92; Tsipopoulou 2005, 316-317
53. Tourloti – An extensive LM IIIA-C cemetery of chamber tombs was identified in the
hills beneath the village, ~2 km to the north, at Plakalona, and five of these have been
investigated. One was excavated by Seager in 1905 and another by Papadakis in 1938.
Platon excavated an additional chamber tomb at the site in 1959, and rescue excavations
were conducted in 1984 on two disturbed chambers in the same area. These tombs have not
been well-published, though some of the tombs reportedly contained larnakes, sealstones,
necklaces, bronze bracelets, rings, daggers, razors, beads, spindle whorls, and faience
representations of animals. The extent of the LM IIIC presence is thus unknown, though one
of the 1984 tombs (IIIA-C) contained an LM IIIB import from Chania, two IIIC imports from
the Peloponnesos, as well as stirrup jars, jugs, and a pyxis with cremation, all of which may
be IIIC.
In addition, a recent cleaning of a LM IIIC bath-tub larnax on display in the Agios
Nikolaos Museum, which had been looted from a tomb, revealed five bronze fibulae, one of
which dates to SM/PG. According to Tsipopoulou, this fibula seems to provide evidence of a
re-opening and re-using of the larnax for a later burial, as seen at other sites, such as Kritsa,
Piskokephalo, and Adromyloi. It is thus possible that other chamber tombs in the area were
also re-used in SM-PG.
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Finds from the excavations are in the Agios Nikolaos, Herakleion, and University of
Pennsylvania Museums. An LM IIIC(?) and PG-O (and A?) settlement existed on the
summit and slopes of Kastri ~1 km southeast of Tourloti, but Nowicki considers the tombs
too far away to have been associated with it. Coarse wares (pithoi and tripod cookpots) have
also been recovered from the hill above Plakalona, perhaps representing the settlement to
which the tombs belonged.
Ref: Seager 1909, 286; Platon 1959, 388-389; Pini 1968, 92 #13; Leekley and Noyes 1975,
69; Kanta 1980, 173; Papadakis 1983, 128-129; 1984, 306; Tsipopoulou 1995, 186;
Tsipopoulou and Vagnetti 1999; Betancourt 2000, 21; Nowicki 2000, 104; Touchais et al.
2000, 989
54. Zakros – Burials of various dates, including Early Iron Age, were recovered from
numerous caves and rock shelters both in and around the Zakros gorge; according to
Tsipopoulou, at least six tombs were definitely used in this period. The Zakros burials were
especially common around the entrance to the gorge from the east (from Epano Zakros).
Some finds from these tombs are in the Herakleion, Siteia, Ag. Nikolaos, and Ashmolean
Museums.
A. Ellinika (Lenika) – In the heart of the Zakros gorge (~2.5 km from the mouth at
Kato Zakros and ~2 km from Epano Zakros) where the gorge widens out, an extensive LM
IIIC-O and A settlement (Ellinika) has been identified. Just above Ellinika, and likely
associated with it, was found one small cave, within which a section of the rock was cut out
to contain a rectangular pit (~1.8 x 1.2 m). This tomb held an inhumation, six LG vases,
including a large tripod cooking pot, and beads of blue Egyptian paste/faience.
B. Koukou to Kephali – On a hill immediately south of the village of Epano Zakros
were found remains of an EIA cult site. To the east across the river, in 1900 Hogarth found
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two robbed cave burials. Tomb A was in a natural recess and still contained 70 vases, bronze
fibulae, pins, glass and clay beads, three stone vases, a steatite lid, iron sword hilt, and three
terracotta spindle whorls. Tomb B, located to the left of Tomb A, had walls built out from
the rock to form a sort of enclosure; 15 vases, only one with painted decoration, were found
in this cave. The burials were likely inhumations, and the pottery has not been published,
though Tomb A seems to show evidence of SM/PG-G use and Tomb B of Geometric. At
least one vase, an LPG jug, from this excavation is in the Ashmolean Museum.
C. Malakari – Also in the gorge, at least four burial caves/rock shelters were found at
Malakari, located approximately ~0.3 km further up the gorge to the north from Ellinika and
high up on the right bank. Tsipopoulou names two of these as at Ellinika, rather than
Malakari. These two rock shelters, both robbed, contained disturbed bones and fragments of
LG pottery. The third cave/rock shelter was found by Platon and Davaras in 1963, and the
eight vases from the excavation which are currently on display in the Siteia Museum date to
PG, LG, and EO. Platon also notes a fourth cave, which contained 7-8 inhumations, 15 PG
vases, stone beads, and a bronze fibula. In addition, another (?) burial cave at this location is
said to have contained two LM IIIC (early) stirrup jars. The Malakari burials are also likely
associated with the settlement at Ellinika.
D. Others – Faure also reports rock shelters, likely with inhumations, at the
following locations: Marmara (SM-G), Gerovasili (SM-G), Pano Kastello (SM-G), and
Anemospiliara (G). Marmara is just beyond Malakari as one travels further into the Zakros
gorge towards Epano Zakros, and the other sites are listed in order of their location in the
gorge (from south to north). These sites are all closer to Epano Zakros than Kato Zakros, and
they are likely associated either with the settlement at Ellinika or its defensible settlement at
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Pano Kastello. No further information about the contents or the burials has been published.
In addition, rock shelters at Chalassa and Chalavro may have contained LM III inhumations.
E. Palaimylos (Epano Zakros) – Davaras reports that two stirrup jars, one of which
contained a cremation and gold ring, and a pyxis with cremation were found by a private
individual in the valley near the western mouth of the gorge, ~400 m west of the settlement at
Ellinika. These are said to be of LM III/SM type.
Ref: Hogarth 1900-1901, 143-148; Pendlebury et al. 1932-1933, 98-99; Pendlebury 1939,
308; 315, 326; Desborough 1952, 270, 327; Boardman 1961, 95-97 (#432); Platon 1961, 224;
Faure 1962, 39; Platon 1962, 166-167; Alexiou 1963, 385; Platon 1963, 187; Faure 1964, 66;
Pini 1968, 94; Snodgrass 1971, 169, 210; Davaras 1973b, 158; Coldstream 1977, 277;
Catling 1979a, 41; Kanta 1980, 195-196; Syriopoulos 1983, 155 #101, 293 #347, 536-537
LII, 888 CLIII; Tsipopoulou 1984; 1987b, 261; 1995, 184; Vokotopoulos 1997-1998, 252;
Nowicki 2000, 46-48, 54-55; Tsipopoulou 2005, 220-223
55. Zou (in the area of Stavromenos) – A small burial cave with 11 PGB and LG vases and
inhumation burials was excavated by Platon in 1954. No further information about this cave
has been published and its exact location is unknown. Finds from the site are currently in the
Ag. Nikolaos and Siteia Museums.
Ref: Platon 1954, 363; Hood 1955, 18; Faure 1964, 67; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 72;
Coldstream 1977, 277; Syriopoulos 1983, 291 #338, 886 #CXLVII; Tsipopoulou 1984;
1987b, 266; 2005, 313
II. HERAKLEION NOMOS
KAINOURION EPARCHIA
56. Agia Deka – One or two simple pit tombs, apparently of Geometric date, were found in
the plain a few hundred meters east of the village, just east of the modern road to Vagionia.
No other information about these tombs has been published, though they may have been
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associated with the Geometric habitation on Profitis Elias and Armi hills (Gortyn) located
less than a kilometer to the west.
Ref: Di Vita 1991, 317 n. 13; Sjögren 2001, 209 (C141)
57. Ampelouzos – In 1958, three vases (a stirrup jar, deep bowl, and oinochoe) were found
in the village of Ampelouzos (~2 km west of Gortyn) near the modern cemetery behind the
church of Ag. Georgios. These vases date from LM IIIC late to SM/PG, but they are
definitely earlier than the PG vessels from Petrokephali. According to Kanta, the vessels,
which are currently in the Herakleion Museum, apparently came from a tomb or cemetery at
the site. No further information about these potential burials is known.
Ref: Kanta 1980, 90; 2001b, 18
58. Gortyn (figs. 93-95) – Early Iron Age tombs have been found in various locations near
the ancient city.
A. Ag. Georgios – In 1966 in the neighborhood of Georgikis Scholis, near the church
of St. George, and at the foot of the acropolis of ancient Gortyn where there was also a
Hellenistic necropolis, Alexiou excavated an unrobbed, built PG tholos with a 2.70 m
diameter circular chamber and a narrow, deep rock-cut dromos. One unusual feature of this
tomb was that it had eight or nine regular, built courses of masonry above the lintel, creating
an elaborate façade. The tomb contained approximately 50 vases, including urns, pithoi and
amphorae with cremations, jugs, cups, and kraters, iron spears, swords, spits, an axe-head,
and a saw, a fragment of bronze foil/plate, possibly from a wooden vessel, as well as a
terracotta spindle whorl. Also, one lid (?) may have been used as a lamp. All of the finds
appear to date to PG, and they are currently in the Herakleion Museum. The acropolis (Ag.
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Ioannis Hill) of Gortyn, located just northwest of the Greco-Roman town, contained a
settlement from LM IIIC/SM until the seventh century BC, during or after which time the
city spread down to the plain below. The tholos tomb was thus likely associated with the
EIA settlement on the acropolis.
B. Armi – The southern slopes of Profitis Elias and Armi hills, which are located just
to the east of the Gortyn acropolis, were occupied as early as PG and G, perhaps representing
an expansion of the Ag. Ioannis settlement, and scattered remains of Geometric burials have
been found on the upper, west slope of Armi Hill, ~600 meters east of the Gortyn acropolis.
The burials appear to have been cremations placed in simple pit tombs, similar to those found
at Agia Deka. No further information about these tombs is known. Finds from this site may
also be in the Knossos Stratigraphical Museum.
Ref: Alexiou 1966, 189-191; Orlandos 1966, 152-154; Alexiou 1967a, 485-486; Daux 1967,
793-794; Megaw 1967, 20; Coldstream 1968, 416; Pini 1968, 94; Snodgrass 1971, 166, 209;
Desborough 1972b, 225-226, 372; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 80-81; Coldstream 1977, 49-50;
Kanta 1980, 91-92; Syriopoulos 1983, 111-112 #220, 219 #217, 666 CXI; Allegro 1991;
Belli 1991, 449; Di Vita 1991, 316-317; Nowicki 2000, 186-187
59. Kourtes (figs. 96-98) – In 1893 Halbherr and Taramelli investigated three primarily PG
(SM-G and possibly LM IIIC) tombs at this site, located on the upper, west slope of a hill
called Plakoura or Kourtekephala near the modern, though apparently now abandoned,
village; this former village is ~1 km southwest of the road leading from Ag. Deka to Zaros
and ~1 km north of Panagia. They were unable to perform systematic excavations due to the
political conditions of the time, and more tombs appear to have existed in this robbed and
partially destroyed cemetery. The tombs were small tholoi, the chambers of which were
more horseshoe-shaped or omega-shaped rather than round, ranging from 1.15–2.90 meters
in diameter, though inconsistencies appear between the two authors’ articles regarding the
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tombs’ measurements, and they did not have dromoi. One of the tombs was cylindrical, with
the corbelling beginning only near the top, rather than in the lower courses. Pendlebury
expressed reservations regarding the excavators’ conclusions, suspecting that the chambers
might have been square or rectangular in the lower courses, as commonly found in this
period in the east of the island. Taramelli does, in fact, indicate that some of the tombs were
almost quadrangular on the exterior.
Inhumations appear to have been placed in the tombs together with cremations in
cinerary urns. Local residents had previously opened and robbed the tombs, though it
appears that nearly all the vases were recovered. 234 vases are catalogued in the Herakleion
Museum as coming from these tombs, and they include stirrup jars, oinochoai, aryballoi,
hydriai, amphorae, cups, feeding bottles, and a kernos vase with small amphorae and human
figures (cf. Arkades). Fragments of bronze fibulae, hairpins, and iron spears were also
removed from the tombs. In addition, Halbherr found fragments of other Geometric vases, a
Minoan steatite seal, fragments of a whetstone, and a piece of stone with relief decoration in
the vicinity of the tombs. Furthermore, five vases were found buried in a pile outside one of
the tombs, possibly connected with the burial ritual. Scattered remains of an LM IIIC-O/A
settlement were observed on the summit and southern slope of the same hill, with which the
tombs are likely associated.
Ref: Halbherr 1896, 531-532; 1901a, 260-261, 287-293; Mariani 1901; Taramelli 1901a;
Levi 1927-1929c, 558-562; Pendlebury et al. 1932-1933, 90; 1937-1938, 111; Pendlebury
1939, 306, 315; Desborough 1952, 256-258, 325; 1964, 182; Coldstream 1968, 255, 416;
Pini 1968, 86 #97.1-3; Snodgrass 1971, 165, 209; Desborough 1972b, 234, 372; Leekley and
Noyes 1975, 87; Coldstream 1977, 276; Kanta 1980, 88; Syriopoulos 1983, 155 #102, 218
#215, 293-294 #349, 537 LIII; Di Vita et al. 1984, 31; Rocchetti 1988-1989; 1990; Belli
1991, 444; Kanta 1997, 244-245; Nowicki 2000, 187-188
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60. Petrokephali – In 1957, the Italian School excavated a rectangular SM-PGB (and
possibly to O) shaft/pit grave (1.50 x 1.45 m) at the site of Myloi, around 50 m to the north of
the modern village at the foot of Mt. Asterousi; Petrokephali is located a little over 2 km
southeast of Phaistos, though in Nomos Kainourgion rather than Pyrgiotissa. The tomb
contained 77 vases, including skyphoi, kraters, amphorae, oinochoai, kalathoi, pithoi, tripod
vessels, and a krater on an open-work stand base, and at least five of the vases were used for
cremation burials. The tomb also contained iron weapons and glass/paste beads. Other,
especially metal, finds may originally have been present but were destroyed over time, as the
excavator describes the difficulties in excavating the tomb, which was continually filling
with water. Finds from the tomb are in the Herakleion Museum, the Archaeological Museum
of Rizza (Italy), and in the Stratigraphic Museum of Phaistos. This site may be associated
with one of the EIA settlements in the vicinity of Phaistos, or with that at Siva (less than 2
km to the southwest of Petrokephali), or more likely, with another closer, unknown
settlement, possibly under the modern village of Petrokephali.
Ref: Platon and Alexiou 1957, 336; 342; Levi 1957-1958, 358-361; Hood 1958, 17;
Desborough 1964, 184; Rocchetti 1967-1968; Coldstream 1968, 255; Pini 1968, 89 #104;
Snodgrass 1971, 210; Desborough 1972b, 226, 231, 372; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 93;
Syriopoulos 1983, 220 #221, 667 CXIV; Watrous et al. 1993, 230; Cucuzza 1998, 62-64;
Watrous et al. 2004, 533 site 51
61. Valis – Marinatos excavated a robbed tholos tomb at this site (Vorou) near the modern
village in 1926. The tomb appears to have had a long period of use. It is of EM type, with a
large chamber (4.90 m in diameter) carefully built of sizeable stones, and a few finds from
that period remained in the tomb (two sealstones and two vases). The tomb was extensively
reused in the LM period, with 15 larnakes found in situ in the tomb, along with additional
pithos burials. Many MM and LM cups remained on the tomb floor, as well as grave goods,
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including stone vases, two bronze earrings, and a bronze hair spiral, though the larnakes and
pithoi were completely robbed. In addition, the tomb contained one urn with a child
cremation. Pendlebury noted the difficulty in determining the exact dates of the burials, due
to the lack of grave goods; furthermore, the pithoi and larnakes have not been published,
though it is possible that some of the pithoi date to LM IIIC/SM. Finally, Kanta considers
the tomb to have been used continuously from EM-LM I, and presumably until LM III. No
definite evidence of LM IIIC or SM has been published, though Davaras believes the child
cremation dates to LM IIIC or SM. An LM IIIC-O settlement has been identified on an
adjacent hilltop to the south.
Ref: Boccard 1926, 578; Blegen 1927, 127; Woodward 1927, 258; Pendlebury 1939, 295;
Pini 1968, 93 #99; Davaras 1973b, 164; Kanta 1980, 95; 1997, 232
MALEVYZION EPARCHIA
62. Agia Marina – Xanthoudides investigated a rock-cut tomb with circular chamber (1.6 m
diameter) and dromos at Kollyva Metochi in the plain near the village of Ag. Marina (~4 km
west of Herakleion). Four vases were recovered and the discoverer of the tomb alleged that
no other finds had been present when he opened it. Desborough, however, believes that
many more vases were originally present, as the remaining pottery is not contemporary (SM;
PG; and possibly G). Finds are in the Herakleion Museum and they consist of an
amphoriskos, krater, amphora, and an imitation Attic PG oinochoe. No other information
about this tomb or its burials has been published, though Snodgrass states that the tomb may
have contained cremation burials. He further identifies the tomb as a vaulted chamber
(tholos), though it is unclear on what evidence; all other sources consider it to be a standard
chamber tomb. An associated settlement has not yet been identified.
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Ref: Marinatos 1931-1932, 1-2; Pendlebury 1939, 314; Desborough 1952, 252, 325; Pini
1968, 75 #85; Snodgrass 1971, 167, 209; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 76; Kanta 1980, 22;
Syriopoulos 1983, 212 #189, 657-658 XCI
63. Agia Pelagia – A Minoan harbor was identified by Evans somewhere on the coast near
the modern village. Evidence of a Minoan settlement (LM I-IIIC, especially IIIB) was
uncovered during excavations in 1971 at Cape Souda, which is located immediately beside
the sea near the chapel of Agia Pelagia; the Geometric-Hellenistic town, possibly ancient
Dion or Kytaion, was apparently located on top of this LM III occupation. Evans claimed to
have observed extensive remains of an associated Minoan cemetery in the hills to the
southwest of this site. According to Alexiou, however, these tombs were not located to the
southwest of the ancient remains but were on a small cape (Kladisos) just to the northwest of
Souda.
Evans identified the tombs as tholoi, though Kanta reports being shown a chamber
tomb by villagers who claimed that it was the one seen by Evans. The cemetery appears to
date primarily to LM IIIB, and also IIIA, though there is evidence that it continued for a short
time into the Early Iron Age, as illustrated by a PG stirrup jar which is among the finds
currently in the Ashmolean Museum. Furthermore, Pini dates this cemetery from LM IIIB–
PG. No other information about these tombs has been published. The location of the
Geometric cemetery is also unknown, though it is surely somewhere nearby. In addition, a
Classical funerary stele with an archer in relief (currently in the Herakleion Museum) was
found somewhere near the village, and a robbed 5th c. B.C. tomb was excavated to the west
of the small church.
Ref: Pendlebury 1939, 263, 347, 351; Boardman 1961, 95, 97 (#433); Evans 1964a, 299 n. 2;
Pini 1968, 76 #87; Alexiou 1972a, 240; 1972b, 620; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 77; Kanta
1980, 18; Sjögren 2001, 225 (W51)
101
64. Kavrochori – Remains of Geometric burials have been found in the area of the modern
village.
A. Kavrochori – Approximately 1 km northeast of the habitation site of Tylissos near
Kavrochori were found remains of greatly destroyed Geometric tombs of uncertain type. A
large steatite bowl with incised decoration and two small oinochoai were the only objects
from the tombs not taken by looters. No further information about these tombs has been
published, and their exact location relative to the tombs at Petres (Tylissos) is unclear. The
Kavrochori burials could have been associated with the Marathokephala settlement, if it
continued into the EIA, with that at Tylissos, or with another undiscovered habitation site
nearby.
B. Xepetra – In addition, a krateriskos (deep bowl) and two stirrup jars, mostly likely
SM/PG, were found in 1970 near the village at Xepetra. According to Kanta, the vases have
very close parallels to others found in Tomb Π at Fortetsa (Knossos), and thus they may be
SM rather than PG. It is unknown if the Xepetra pottery came from tombs in the same area
or from a settlement. Evidence of a possible LM IIIB-C settlement was found, however, at
Marathokephala nearby.
Ref: Hazzidakis 1934, 73-74, 93; Alexiou 1971a, 493; Kanta 1980, 22; Syriopoulos 1983,
213 #193; Sjögren 2001, 198-199 (C104)
65. Krousonas – Burials have been recorded near the village from Koupos Hill, Chalepa,
and possibly from Livadiotis. The tombs from Krousonas may have belonged to the LM
IIIC-A (and through R) settlement on the summit of Koupos Hill, and finds from the sites are
in the Herakleion Museum.
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A. Chalepa – In 1970, at this location ~1 km. northeast of Livadiotis was found a
child burial in a pithos. Finds included three small PG vases (a jug, cup, and a triple vase,
possibly a kernos), some spherical stone beads, and fragments of a pin. No other information
about the burial has been published. Ioannidou mentions that fragments from other PG burial
pithoi were also found nearby in 1972.
B. Koupos Hill – On the west slope of this hill, which is located just south ~300 m of
the modern village of Krousonas, at the place called Choiromandres or Prinori was found by
chance a cinerary urn, together with other small Geometric vases, in a shallow pit. No
further information has been published about this tomb.
C. Livadiotis – LG-EO pottery, iron spear fragments, and an iron dagger, possibly
from tombs, were recovered in 1976 at this location, which is to the northeast of Koupos Hill.
The remains could be from a habitation, however, as a small section of wall was also
observed at the site.
D. Rizoplagies – At this location, ~2 km southwest of Koupos Hill, a large (16 x 13
m) LM I building with multiple rooms was excavated; this building was partially destroyed
by fire. In the corner of one room, enclosed/separated by an upright plaka, were found the
remains of a skeleton and three skulls, along with LM IIIC stirrup jars, cups, and skyphoi;
burned animal bones were also found beside these finds. The excavator does state, however,
that it is uncertain whether or not these finds represent burials.
Ref: Xanthoudides 1918a, 10-11; Pendlebury et al. 1932-1933, 92; Pendlebury 1939, 325;
Orlandos 1970, 189-190; Alexiou 1971a, 493; Ioannidou 1973, 572; Karetsou 1976, 359;
Syriopoulos 1983, 216 #204, 290-291 #332, 664 CI, 886 CXLIII; Catling 1985, 60;
Demopoulou 1985; Catling 1987, 55; Pariente 1992, 939-940; French 1994, 78; Löwe 1996,
234; Nowicki 2000, 181-182
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66. Prinias (figs. 99-109) – An extensive necropolis (~140 x 100 m) existed on the southeast
slope of Siderospilia Hill, which is located ~500 meters to the northwest of the ancient
settlement on Patela Hill (~1.5 km northeast of the modern village). The cemetery is located
to the east and west of the Prinias-Asites road, which cuts roughly through the middle of it.
In 1899, Taramelli reported a “late Mycenaean” chamber tomb from the site, and funerary
stelai with incised decoration were uncovered during roadwork in 1959. The primary
excavations at the site were conducted from 1969-1978 by the Italian School, and two
additional graves were found in 1984 in a small space between two previously explored
areas, as well as part of a road/paved area belonging to the second phase of the cemetery. A
total of 680 tombs has been investigated thus far, forming a continuous sequence (consisting
of three phases) from the end of the 13th to the middle of the 6th centuries B.C.; the necropolis
was also re-used in Roman times, and some earlier burials may date to the Prepalatial
settlement located on the hillock that forms the northern boundary of the cemetery.
From the first phase of use (LM IIIC-SM) come a few simple cremations, typically
not in urns, which were placed in oval, rock-cut pits covered with stone slabs. These burials
were scattered throughout the area and usually isolated. Tomb AI is an example of an
isolated burial from this period, and it contained several stirrup jars. Tomb BA (0.6-0.8 m
diameter at base) is also from the first phase, and it held two stirrup jars, an oinochoe, a large
bronze bowl, and other bronze and iron artifacts, such as a rod, ax, spear, and sword. Tombs
K, 207 and 232, however, were found inside a large, stone circular enclosure, which
apparently supported a tumulus (circular mass of stone possibly ~6 meters in diameter), with
207 and 232 each having first been surrounded by their own smaller enclosure or tumulus
formed of large stones. According to Kanta, the tumulus seems to occur here for the first
104
time on Crete, with LM IIIC Tomb K (0.44 x 0.5 m), the earliest in the cemetery, being
located in the middle of the tumulus. The contents of tombs K, 207 and 232 included two
bronze pins and LM IIIC stirrup jars.
The second phase (SM to PGB) consisted of tholoi (~14 examples) with inhumations,
with the earliest tombs concentrated around the foot of the northern hillock. From this phase
comes Tomb F, a robbed tholos with a circular chamber (3.8 m diameter), which had been
sunk into the bedrock and lined with regular, squared blocks, and a long rock-cut dromos.
This tomb was robbed, though remaining finds included a large number of vases (including
several pithoi), metal objects, clay figurines (including a head with diadem), and gold items.
This tholos is representative of the early stage of phase two, as are Tombs J (with a stone
sarcophagus), Q, and AQ (regularly built and well-constructed with paved entrance and
monolithic jambs), though these tholoi have smaller chambers and shorter dromoi.
Representing a later stage of phase 2 are Tombs D, AH, AL, B, G, AR, AN, and AV.
Tomb D is also a tholos with dromos, but it has a roughly trapezoidal plan (1.8 x 1.9 m); this
tomb was covered by large, flat slabs and was not as regularly or carefully constructed as
tombs from the earlier part of the period. This tomb was un-robbed and contained two adult
and two child inhumations (one in a pithos, and the other in a limestone aedicula which faced
the entrance), as well as grave goods, including a feeding bottle, oinochoe, and krateriskos.
Tomb AH was similarly constructed and contained a stone sarcophagus. Tomb AL (slightly
later than D and AH), on the other hand, was small, partly rock-cut, and constructed of stone
only for the entrance and beginning of the dromos. Tomb G was also basically a tholos, but
it was contained within an irregular rubble structure; Tomb B was essentially a circular pit
with doorjambs and a narrow dromos, though it also has a small aedicula to hold the burial.
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Finally, phase 2 also included flat-roofed “pseudotholoi” (not the same use of the term as at
Krya), to which Tombs D and G may be considered intermediary forms. Tombs AR and AV
for example, were small, flat-roofed, simplified structures of low depth with a series of slabs
arranged in a circle around the pit. Additional finds from phase two tombs include cups,
jugs, a bronze bowl and ax, and iron weapons.
Also associated with the second phase burials are 18 animal burials (Tombs BU, BS,
BV, BE, for example), 12 of which contained horses in ovoid, rectangular, and circular pits
(0.9-1.85 m in diameter), cut into the rock like the human tombs. These tended to be located
in the center of the necropolis. One pit contained a pony with its head turned back, and at
least one pit contained two horses. Two other animals, possibly dogs, were found
accompanying two of these burials. Horse remains were also found in the dromos of one
tholos tomb. These burials appear to be related to the horse sacrifices commonly mentioned
in ancient literature. The horse burials also frequently contained bronze and iron bits, and
they are securely dated to the second phase, as cremations from the last phase were placed on
top of some of the tombs.
Burials of the third phase (PGB-O) were typically urned cremations supported by
stones and carefully placed under rubble so as to form one, single uniform tumulus/mass of
stones. Over 200 tombs of the third phase have been found. The majority of the urns were
upright, though some were placed on their sides, and the mouths of the vessels were closed
with bowls or stone slabs, with the grave goods placed inside or beside the urn. Evidence of
the funerary pyre was sometimes recorded in a pit below the cremation urn. In a few
instances, cremations were placed merely in the middle of the rubble and not inside a vessel,
and in other cases, such as T. W, burials were placed in pithoi which were surrounded and
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covered by rubble; in appearance these burials were more like the pseudotholoi from Krya.
The pithoi typically contained individual inhumations of youths. Tomb 122, for example,
consisted of a pithos burial with numerous terracottas, including a human figure, possibly a
charioteer, a sea horse, and a pair of horses, probably associated with two wheels for a
chariot. In some cases, however, such as T. 93, the head was removed and buried inside the
vessel, while the rest of the body was cremated, and in these instances one, two, or three
skulls could be placed in the same pithos.
In at least one area at the south end of the necropolis, the pithoi and urns were
grouped inside rectangular/trapezoidal chambers (funerary enclosures), such as that (15 or
more chambers) which was added to the stone tumulus of phase 1. These chambers (2-2.5 x
1-1.5 m) consisted of low, well-built walls, and they were filled with rubble, thereby
becoming part of the large mound. The rooms often contained burnt material, which may
have come from pyres, and some rooms contained cinerary urns. Grave goods from phase 3
(burial urns as well as the enclosures) include aryballoi, a baby feeder, four embossed sheet
gold ornaments (two with a double axe motif and one with a six-pointed star), pieces of sheet
gold band, a gold pendant, ivory items, and many terracotta figurines. Other clay figurines
were found in the vicinity of the cemetery, such as a female statuette and horses, possibly
offerings to the deceased.
The earliest graves of phase three were placed near the center of the necropolis and
they gradually expanded outward to the east, with the stone heap eventually covering some
of the tholoi, and to the south, where the latest tombs are placed. In this phase, the necropolis
reached its maximum extension, with the burials placed both in groups, often of two, three,
or four, and isolated. Phase 4 consisted of Roman burials, which were placed primarily in
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the western part of the cemetery. The EIA burials belonged to the extensive town (LM IIICH), possibly ancient Rizenia, which existed on the plateau of Patela. The development of the
necropolis coincides with the EIA settlement at this site. Finds are in the Herakleion
Museum and the Pigorini Museum in Rome.
Ref: Rizza 1969, 24-32; Michaud 1971, 1055-1056; Desborough 1972b, 372; Rizza 1972;
1973a; 1973b; 1973-1974; Michaud 1974, 718; Rizza 1974, 154-156; Levi 1974-1975, 413;
1976a, 321; Di Vita 1977, 357-358; 1978, 463-464; Rizza 1978, 106-127; 1979; Kanta 1980,
14-15; Rizza 1981, 472-474; 1983, 45, 50; Syriopoulos 1983, 108-109 #214, 153, #96, 217
#208; Day 1984, 25; Di Vita et al. 1984, 152-167; Catling 1985, 61; Touchais 1985, 851;
Belli 1991, 444; Rizza 1991, 331-334; Stampolidis and Karetsou 1998, 76 #42, 160 #123,
264 #329; Nowicki 2000, 180-181; Kanta 2001, 19
67. Stavrakia – Sometime around 1895, two large Late Geometric cinerary urns and one
amphora, which was also used for cremation, were recovered from the mountain slopes near
the modern village. The exact location of the tombs, as well as an associated settlement,
remains unknown, though the type was perhaps a simple pit. A funerary stele of later date
was also apparently found in the area. In addition, at Xylangouri near the village, Davaras
excavated an LM IIIB chamber tomb with three larnakes and three vases. Finds from the site
are in the Herakleion Museum.
Ref: Mariani 1895, 230; Orsi 1897, 257-260; Wide 1899, 36-39, 42-43; Alexiou 1963b, 398;
Coldstream 1968, 416; Snodgrass 1971, 210; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 96; Kanta 1980, 16;
Syriopoulos 1983, 290 #326, 885 CXXXVIII; Sjögren 2001, 199 (C106)
68. Tylissos – Dark Age tombs have been found at several locations in the vicinity of the
modern village.
A. Atsolou – In 1929, Marinatos excavated an LM IIIC-SM/PG isolated chamber
tomb at the southwest edge of the village at Atsolou. The tomb contained a cremation burial
in a bronze basin, two stirrup jars (from outside the tomb), a bronze spear, four or five bronze
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fibulae, and two pieces of iron (a knife?). The excavator dated the tomb to “LM-just before
SM,” stating that the bronze basin has LM parallels but the fibulae SM, and Furumark dated
the stirrup jars to LM IIIB2C. Kanta states that the tomb is probably just before PG, though
Desborough, Pini, Davares, Lorimer, and Snodgrass claim a SM-PG date. Finds are in the
Herakleion Museum.
B. Petres – At Petres near the Minoan villas, which are located at the northern edge
of the modern village, were found the remains of completely destroyed and robbed
Geometric tombs, possibly chamber tombs. No further information about these tombs has
been published.
C. Tylissos – In addition, an LM IIIB and C chamber tomb, the finds from which
included three larnakes (each with one inhumation and no vases), nine vases (one was
imported from Chania and three were IIIC – a kalathos, and two krateriskoi), a silver ring,
bronze ring, triton shell, and a sealstone, was also excavated in 1913 somewhere to the west
of the Minoan villa. According to Kanta, some of the vases have SM parallels with those
found at Fortetsa (Knossos). Scattered remains of Geometric pottery have been found at
various locations above the LM IIIC villas/houses at Tylissos, possibly indicating a later reuse of the earlier architecture; thus the Geometric, as well as the IIIC-SM/PG, burials may
have been associated with this habitation site.
Ref: Hazzidakis 1913, 45; 1921, 82-86; Marinatos 1931; Hazzidakis 1934, 73; Furumark
1944, 227-229; Desborough 1952, 255, 326; 1964, 182; Pini 1968, 93 #89.1-3; Snodgrass
1971, 166, 210; Desborough 1972b, 233, 372; Davaras 1973b, 166; Kanta 1980, 10-11;
Syriopoulos 1983, 104 #207, 213 #194, 288 #317, 384 XCVIII, 658 XCII, 882 CXXXIII;
Vasilakis 1992, 274; Sjögren 2001, 158 (C3), 199 (C107)
MONOPHATSION EPARCHIA
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69. Arkalochori – In 1957, just north of the modern village at Pano Kalives, which is
located in the plain, were found Geometric cremation urns (kalpai), together with three
aryballoi. It is unknown whether these come from a single tomb or multiple tombs, and the
exact location and tomb type are unknown. The location of the associated Geometric
settlement is also unknown. In addition, Davaras has excavated LM III chamber tombs at
Tsoulouka Kolymbos near the village.
Ref: Platon 1957, 339; Daux 1958, 783; Hood 1958, 20; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 74-75;
Kanta 1980, 80; Sjögren 2001, 207 (C136)
70. Ligortynos – In 1961 at the northern entrance to the town, a large, rock-cut chamber
tomb with roughly circular chamber was uncovered during roadworks. The tomb had a built
entrance with monolithic jambs and lintel, and it also contained cremations in ash urns.
Although the tomb had been looted, the remaining finds, which dated PGB-LG, included a
Cypriot lekythos/aryballos, two LG Creto-Cypriot lekythoi, and a krater fragment with
painted decoration of a female Daedalic head, which according to Alexiou helps provide a
more accurate date for the beginning of the daedalic form (LG rather than EO).
This tomb has not been well-published, but it may be associated with the unexcavated
PG-G (and O-R) settlement/town on the summit and south slope of Kephala, the long ridge
located directly to the northeast of the village. In addition, three LM IIIA-B tholos tombs
with larnax burials were previously examined by Evans somewhere to the north of the
village. Finds are in the Herakleion Museum, the Knossos Stratigraphical Museum, and
some vases from the settlement are in the Louvre.
Ref: Pendlebury et al. 1931-1932, 85; Hood 1961, 24; Platon and Davaras 1961-1962, 284285; Daux 1962, 897; Alexiou 1963b, 385; Coldstream 1968, 416; Pini 1968, 86 #76.3;
Snodgrass 1971, 209; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 89; Syriopoulos 1983, 294 #351, 888 CLVII;
110
Karetsou and Stampolidis 1998, 170 (#153), 174-175 (#167), 177-178 (#174); Nowicki 2000,
185-186; Brown 2001, 345-348
71. Rotasi (figs. 110-111) – Early Iron Age burials have been found at several sites in the
vicinity of Rotasi.
A. Embasos/Berdeleto – In 1954, a small rectangular (1.70 x 1.50 m) tholos (Tomb
A) with short dromos, which contained ~30 PG vases, including a bird vase, and two female
idols with upraised arms, was uncovered east of Pyrgos between Pharmakara and Rotasi
Kephala. The exact findspot is unknown.
In 1993, a small (exterior diameter-1.05 x 1.30; interior-0.76 x 0.30 m) unrobbed
Geometric tholos tomb was also excavated at Embasos, ~250 meters from the ancient
settlement, on the Pyrgos-Rotasi road; it was discovered when a piece of the road
sank/collapsed. It contained two skeletons (a female and child), 15 vessels, including 5
feeding bottles, 3 jugs, 4 krateriskoi, a krater, cup, and hydria, as well as 11 faience beads, a
bronze pin, and two spindle whorls, one terracotta and the other stone.
B. Pharmakara – In 1955, an extensive Geometric cemetery was found at this site
during the construction of the road from Pyrgos to Rotasi. The tombs (analogous to
Arkades?) consisted mostly of pithos burials with cremations, and finds included ash urns,
pithoi, cups, and aryballoi. A rectangular block with a “very archaic” inscription of the
name λξ δζαμ was also found at this location (date?). No further information about this
cemetery has been published, though the Embasos tombs may have been associated with it.
C. Rotasi – In 1958, in the plain slightly to the north of the village and not far from
Xerokambos, Platon found an intact Geometric tholos tomb with circular chamber and
unlined dromos. More than 250 PG-EO vases, including burial urns, amphorae, jugs, and
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aryballoi, many iron weapons, pins, fibulae, nails/rivets (silver and one gold), gold finger
rings, decorated gold foil, and bronze bands (comprising a vessel of unknown use) were
found in the tomb, along with an estimated 40 or more burials. In the center of the chamber
was an undecorated, elliptical larnax covered with slabs, on top of which were placed several
of the vases. The tomb was not of extraordinary size (int. dia. 1.70 m; ext. dia. 2.50 m),
though it contained a wealth of finds.
In 1971, exploration on the northeast side of Kephala Hill revealed remains of walls,
possibly comprising a funerary enclosure, like those found at Vrokastro and Prinias (or a
place for offerings?). Associated with this structure were terracotta animal figurines,
including a fish, three bulls, a horse, and LG-EO vessels, including ring vases, aryballoi,
cups, dishes, a lid handle with a ram figure, a disc with tree of life motif, and a bronze fibula.
Overall – Finds from the burial sites are in the Herakleion Museum, though most
remain unpublished. A very extensive Geometric-Roman town (also PG and LM IIIC?),
likely ancient Rhytion, occupied the summit and slopes of Kephala, the hill that rises above
and immediately (100-200 meters) to the south of the village of Rotasi. Most, if not all, of
these burials likely belonged to this town, which according to Nowicki is not very defensible
and belonged to the group of large acropoleis typical for central Crete and the Mesara, such
as nearby Ligortynos and Kasteliana (possibly ancient Priansos).
Ref: Platon 1954b, 516; BCH 79 (1955) 304; Hood 1955, 17; Platon 1955b, 567; BCH 80
(1956) 343; Hood and Boardman 1956, 30; Platon 1958, 468; Daux 1959, 734-735; Hood
1959, 16; Platon 1959, 387; Desborough 1964, 268; Coldstream 1968, 416; Pini 1968, 91,
#71.1-2; Snodgrass 1971, 166, 210; Alexiou 1972b, 622; Desborough 1972b, 234, 372;
Leekley and Noyes 1975, 95; Touchais 1977, 650; Catling 1978, 64; Coldstream 1979, 102;
276; Syriopoulos 1983, 220-221 #223, 295 #356, 667-668 CXV, 889 CLIX; Belli 1991, 449;
Galanaki 1993, 466-467; Kanta and Karetsou 1998, 159, 164, 170; Stampolidis and Karetsou
1998, 138-139 #85, 161 #128, 173 #162, 180 #181; Blackman 1999, 118; Touchais 1999,
819; Tsipopoulou and Vagnetti 1999, 139; Nowicki 2000, 190-191
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PEDIADA EPARCHIA
72. Agies Paraskies (fig. 112) – Isolated tombs have been recorded at Ag Marina and Kellia
in the vicinity of the village. The associated settlement for these two locations has not yet
been identified.
A. Ag. Marina – In 1934, Platon excavated a tholos tomb at the place Agia Marina,
located at the foot of a hill, though in a flat area of the plain approximately 2 km north of the
village. The tomb was free-standing, only a small circle was cut out of the bedrock before
construction. The chamber was circular with a diameter of 1.40 m, except for the northeast
side which deviated from the circle, possibly due to the construction of the stomion. No
dromos was found, though the excavator believes one existed, as there was a step down into
the chamber. In addition, the tomb had monolithic jambs and a threshold paved with small
stones. Although it had been robbed, the tomb still contained nearly 150 vases, which dated
from PG-O. These included 25 kalpai/cremation urns with lids, many pitchers, cups,
skyphoi, aryballoi/lekythoi, and lekanai, most of which were found inside the ash urns. A
bronze nail and bronze tweezers were also found in the tomb, and the finds are in the
Herakleion Museum. While only one tomb was found, the nearby area was not investigated
due to the presence of vineyards, and thus other tombs may exist in the area.
B. Kellia – A PG cremation burial (kalpis) placed in a rock hollow was recorded by
Platon in 1958 from Kellia, located just to the northeast of the village, and southwest of Ag.
Marina. This burial contained a few vases and one bronze fibula, though no further
information about it has been published. Remains of three other cremation urns and a burial
pithos were also uncovered at this site.
113
Ref: Blegen 1936, 372-373; Marinatos 1936, 224; Megaw 1936, 151-152; Pendlebury 1939,
313, 324, 340; Levi 1945, 27-28; Platon 1945-1947; Desborough 1952, 250, 324; Platon
1958, 479; Daux 1959, 740; Coldstream 1968, 245, 415; Pini 1968, 76 #59; Snodgrass 1971,
208; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 77-78; Coldstream 1977, 276; Syriopoulos 1983, 291 #333,
886 CXLIV; Belli 1991, 444
73. Aitania – EIA tombs have been found at two locations southwest of the village. The
exact relationship between the three Aitania tombs is unknown, however, as is the location of
their associated settlement.
A. Phonia – In 1954, a small rock-cut “burial cave” (chamber tomb?), which
contained an unknown number of Geometric cremations and approximately 30 vases, was
discovered at Phonia near the village, which is located ~2 km northwest of Episkopi and ~2
km west of Stamnioi. This tomb may have contained only one burial in a large skyphos-like
vase, though it is unclear from the short published note if other vessels were also used as
cremation urns.
In addition, a second Geometric tomb (chamber?), also cut into the bedrock, was
found at this location, in the same field (Tziraki) by an agricultural road, in 1997. This tomb
was smaller than that uncovered in 1954, and it contained one burial pithos and five other
vases. No further information about these tombs has been published.
B. Gridia – In 1960, another G tomb was uncovered in the vicinity of the village, but
near the river at Gridia. This tomb was a robbed chamber with a lidded urn cremation, a jug
and three cups. No other information about this tomb has been published.
Ref: Platon 1954b, 515; BCH 79 (1955) 304; Hood 1955, 17; Platon and Davaras 1960, 525;
Faure 1964, 68; Mandalaki 1997, 1000; Whitley 2004, 78
74. Alitzani – A Geometric pithos burial with inhumation was reported at Petra near the
village. The tomb type is not reported, though it may have been a pit. No grave goods were
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found with the pithos, and no other information about this burial has been published. The
location of an associated settlement is also unknown.
Ref: Platon 1951, 445; Cook 1952, 110; Deshayes 1952, 242
75. Anopolis – Halbherr reported PG and G burials from a probable cemetery located on a
small hill near the modern village. The exact location of these tombs is unknown, though
they were apparently on the west side of a hill. The site has not been excavated but at least
15 cremation urns, primarily pithoi, have been recovered, along with other vases, including a
stirrup jar and lekythos. In addition, Taramelli implied that there was a settlement to the east
of the burial area, though its location has not been identified. LM III tombs have also been
reported from the sites of Kambos and Paterika, Kelli, though their relationship to the EIA
burials is unknown. Finds from the site are in the Herakleion Museum.
Ref: Orsi 1897, 254-265; Wide 1899, 36-43; Taramelli 1901a, 295; Levi 1927-1929c, 567568; Pendlebury 1939, 313, 319, 324; Desborough 1952, 250-251, 324; Benson 1961, 74 and
pl. 5; Coldstream 1968, 245-249, 415; Pini 1968, 76 #50.2; Snodgrass 1971, 208; Leekley
and Noyes 1975, 73; Kanta 1980, 46; Syriopoulos 1983, 213 #192, 288 #315, 882 CXXXII;
Sjögren 2001, 202 (C116)
76. Arkades (Aphrati) (figs. 113-118) – The site of ancient Arkades (LM IIIC/SM through
Hellenistic) is located on the summit of Profitis Elias Hill near modern Aphrati, and it was
allegedly founded by immigrant Arkadians from the Peloponnesos. Nowicki, on the other
hand, has suggested that this site was the successor to that at Erganos Kephali. Numerous
tombs belonging to the Arkades settlement have been found nearby. The earliest tombs
(SM/PG) from the area were found at tou Kophina to Kephali (see entry for Panagia).
Slightly later in date are several (at least three – Tombs A, B, and C) tholoi investigated by
Halbherr on the extreme western slope of Profitis Elias. These three tombs had small,
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square/rectangular vaulted chambers (T. A-1.8 x 1.9 m; B-1.5 x 1.5 m; C-1.35 x 0.9 m)
similar to those found at Panagia, and they reportedly lacked dromoi. Tombs A (possibly
three burial vessels), B (eight skulls), and C (two-three skulls) were the earliest tombs in the
Arkades cemetery, and they contained inhumations which dated primarily to G but also
possibly to PG and O. The tombs were placed together at the northwest edge of the main
cemetery, which is located ~500 m to the west of the ancient settlement. A carved limestone
dado was found in the entrance to Tomb A, and the tombs were robbed, though some vases
remained, including pithoi, a lekane, krater, and lid with seated female figurine, as well as a
bronze fibula, pin, and spatula, an iron pin and arrowheads, faience/paste and stone beads,
and a fragment of amber. Sheep/goat, cow, and pig bones were also found in Tombs A and
B, possibly associated with the funerary ritual (meal or offerings), and burned earth and
vegetable matter were discovered in front of T.B. According to Kanta and Karetsou, based
on the number of burials and tomb type, these tholoi may have been used as family tombs
and reflect an older, Minoan tradition in contrast to other tombs at the site.
Levi and the Italian School excavated three large tholoi (Tombs L, M, and R) with
circular chambers to the southeast of the smaller tholoi. These tombs contained a large
number of cremation urns and dated to G, O, and A. The largest of these (Tomb R) was over
3 meters high, 3.57-3.75 m in diameter, built of squared stones, and had a long, partly stonebuilt dromos. This tomb also contained a stone sarcophagus, cremation urn burials (at least
34) and over 250 vases. Above the capstone of T. R and just above ground level was found a
stone paving and earth mixed with ash, possibly for offerings to the deceased. Tomb R was
also isolated from the other tombs, and Tombs L and M, though near each other, were walled
off from other tombs on three sides. Tombs L and M had both collapsed, though L was still
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3.2 m in diameter and ~2.2 m in height. All three tombs were relatively wealthy (M the least
so), and finds of note included an Egyptian scarab, bronze basins, a bowl with lotus flower
handles (EIA-Cypriot?), possible shields, iron weapons, faience beads, a faience dog and
lion, faience bowl, stone spindle whorls, fragments of clay rod tripods, two terracotta human
figurines, including a lyre player, bird vases (commonly present here even into the 7th c.), and
Corinthian (EPC-EC) and Rhodian pottery. According to Kanta and Karetsou, these tholoi,
based on their size, style of architecture, and number of burials (at least 67 all together) may
represent larger social groups, possibly clans, and reflect a more Mycenaean tradition, as
opposed to the smaller Tholoi A, B, and C.
In addition to the tholoi, approximately 162 cremation burials (mostly O-A, but some
G) were excavated in the cemetery. These burials were typically placed in terracotta jars,
lekanai or in small bronze cauldrons (in at least one case with a tripod support), each of
which was closed by a terracotta or bronze lid/plate. The burial jars, together with the grave
goods, were then covered by large, upturned pithoi. In some cases, the pithoi were also
covered with soil, creating a small tumulus. Often the upturned pithoi were placed directly
on the ground or buried in small, shallow holes; many of these vessels, however, were
supported with stone slabs or placed on a stone slab base. Also, the burial urns were
sometimes placed inside a larger lekane and then covered by the pithos, rather than being
placed directly on the ground. The urns typically held only one cremated individual, though
two vases held two interments, and grave goods commonly consisted of only one or two
vases, typically aryballoi, oinochoai, or cups, though MG-LG Cycladic vases, an
Attic/Boeotian fibula, an iron horse, Corinthian pottery, and faience and paste beads were
also recovered from some of the pithoi. In addition, burnt soil was often found above the
117
burials, possibly representing activity associated with the funerary ritual or later offerings or
activity. The pithos burials were found scattered throughout the cemetery, often in groups or
clusters. In fact, in the southwest area of the cemetery, two walls appear to separate groups
of pithoi, and the cemetery itself appears to have been surrounded by an enclosure wall; a
few terracotta animal figurines were found beside one section of this wall.
In addition, a few burials of other types were recovered from the cemetery. For
example, two urn burials (P.102-103) were found placed in rock-cut pits and covered with
large stones; these were found at the extreme north end of the necropolis, just north of Tomb
C. Tomb P. 114 at the west side of the necropolis consisted of a pithos placed on its side and
surrounded by a low stone wall. T. E, which is located just to the southwest of T.A,
apparently consisted of an urn placed on its side and covered by a mass of stones ~1 m in
diameter; this tomb may have been a pseudotholos, as seen at Prinias or Krya. Possible
Tomb G may also have been of this same type.
Furthermore, three small, rectangular built enclosures (F1, F2, F3), each one of which
was open on one of the short sides, were found, and they contained burnt earth, fragments of
bone, paste beads, iron pins, bronze tweezers and pins, two terracotta female figurines, a gold
bead, and stone spindle whorls. These buildings were interpreted as specific architectural
structures used for the cremation of the dead, possibly pyres or crematoria, though
comparisons can also be made with the funerary enclosures of Vronda and Vrokastro. In
addition, a double building (H-H1), which contained many vases but no human bones, may
have served as a votive depository for nearby tombs; this structure is located roughly in the
center of the necropolis, just southwest of T.L.
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Finds from the site are in the Herakleion Museum, the Metaxas Collection, and
possibly also in the Ashmolean. At least 15 single pithos graves were also found at Sto Selli,
a small hill on the western slope of Profitis Elias, just below and several hundred meters to
the west of the large Arkades cemetery, but these are primarily Orientalizing in date.
Extensive illegal excavation has taken place at this site, and it remains uncertain whether or
not EIA burials existed at this location.
Ref: Halbherr 1896, 532; 1901a, 262; 1901c, 394; de Boccard 1924, 491-492; Woodward
1924, 278-279; Levi 1927-1929a, 78-380; Lorimer 1933, 167-170; Pendlebury et al. 19371938, 111; Pendlebury 1939, 314, 319, 324, 341; Levi 1945, 19-27; Desborough 1952, 254,
326; Sakellerakis and Alexiou 1965, 561; 1966, 406; Coldstream 1968, 255-257, 416; Pini
1968, 76 #67; Snodgrass 1971, 166, 208; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 74; Coldstream 1977,
276; Kanta 1980, 75; Syriopoulos 1983, 110 #216, 388-389 CIV; Di Vita et al. 1984, 168173; Rutkowski and Nowicki 1990, 120; Belli 1991, 444; Morris 1997, 59-61; Kanta and
Karetsou 1998; Stampolidis and Karetsou 1998, 158 #12, 178 #176, 179 #178, 193 #211, 251
#314; Jones 2000, 253-257; Nowicki 2000, 179-180; Sjögren 2001, 209-210 (C144)
77. Elia (Artsa) – At Artsa (to the northeast of Elia) in 1971, seven LG/EO-LO ash urns
were recovered, along with jugs, aryballoi, and a skyphos. The burials apparently came from
an ellipsoidal rock-cut chamber tomb, which was destroyed by the land owner. Witnesses
report that two tombs were discovered, but no traces of a second tomb were found. The
relationship between these burials and those found at Kato Vatheia is unclear; due to their
proximity (the modern villages are only ~1 km apart), they may both belong to the same
undiscovered settlement. Xanthoudides also excavated an LM IIIA chamber tomb at Artsa in
1903.
Ref: Alexiou 1971b, 285; Lembesi 1971, 290-292; Orlandos 1971, 259-261; Alexiou 1972a,
621; Kanta 1980, 45-46; Sjögren 2001, 202 (C117)
78. Episkopi – In 1952, one small Geometric burial pithos with possible cremation was
found west of the modern village at Kavousi. Nearby were found a small jug and cup. No
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further information is known about this burial, and the associated settlement has not yet been
identified.
Also, Hartley published PGB-LG vases from robbed tombs, which were previously
found nearby at unspecified locations. The vases, which included pithoi, aryballoi, skyphoi,
and lids, were said to be comparable to those found at Fortetsa (Knossos).
LM III chamber tombs have also been noted and/or excavated at several locations in
the area of Episkopi (Ta Markavousa, Tou Episkopou, Christos, Ag. Apostolos, Kavousi,
Kalyvotopos, Malathre, Ston Potamo, Sto Kambo, Kephala, and Alonia), though no find
definitely datable to LM IIIC has yet been found. Finds from the area are in the Herakleion
Museum.
Ref: Hartley 1930-1931, 69-72; Pendlebury 1939, 265; Platon 1952a, 628-629; Cook 1953,
128; de Santerre 1953, 239; Coldstream 1968, 415; Pini 1968, 79 #54; Snodgrass 1971, 209;
Leekley and Noyes 1975, 79; Coldstream 1977, 277; Kanta 1980, 58-68; Syriopoulos 1983,
289 #323; 885 CXXXVII
79. Erganos (Katophygi) (figs. 119-123) – A large LM IIIC defensible settlement, perhaps
one of the largest on Crete, existed on the summit and slopes of Kephala Hill, which is ~2.5
km southeast of the modern village of Katophygi, and according to Nowicki, this site is
located at the most important route leading to the Lasithi Plain from the southwest. Tombs
associated with this settlement were found on the west slope of the hill at Xenotaphia. These
tombs were first recognized from heaps of stone on the ground; the stone piles may have
resulted from later re-opening or looting or else they may have served as tomb
markers/protectors. In 1894, Halbherr excavated three tholos tombs with round chambers
(ranging from 1.3-1.9 m in diameter) and long stomia/short dromoi; the tombs were of
similar form to the smaller tombs found at Karphi, and one of them had a paved slab floor.
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As at Kourtes, the site was unable to be properly excavated due to political restrictions at the
time. The three tombs were found grouped together and they contained inhumations (one
had six skeletons and another had three). The tombs have been dated primarily to the LM
IIIC period, though there also appears to have been some SM/PG and possibly G; apparently
a PG-G burial urn was found inside one of the tombs. Halbherr’s tombs, as well as other
robbed tombs, are still visible along the old kalderimi leading from Katophygi to Erganos.
In addition, in 1981 two tholos tombs, with fragments of pithoi and two larnakes, and
a pit grave were destroyed during construction of the new road from Katophygi to Erganos,
though the tholoi are still visible in the escarpment; these tombs are located just to the south
and southeast of Halbherr’s tombs. Nowicki notes that the ceramics from these excavations
were primarily LM IIIC middle. Rescue excavations were conducted that same year, during
which at least six tombs were cleaned, and it appears that may more tombs originally existed
(Halbherr mentions considerable numbers). Finds from the Erganos tombs are in the
Herakleion Museum, and they include stirrup jars, a pyxis/kalathos used to contain a burial, a
bronze ring, stone bead, and two larnakes. According to Nowicki, tombs are scattered in
groups and isolated over a vast area at distances of c. 250-400 m from the Lower Settlement
on Pano Kephala.
Ref: Halbherr 1896, 531-532; 1901a, 261, 266, 271-280; Mariani 1901, 303-305; Sergi 1901;
Pendlebury 1934, 262, 306, 314; Pendlebury et al. 1936-1937, 196; 1937-1938, 111;
Furumark 1944, 222-224; Platon 1945-1947, 71; Desborough 1952, 251, 325; 1964, 177;
Pini 1968, 94 #68.1-3; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 79; Pelon 1976, 262; Kanta 1980, 75-76;
Rethemiotakis 1981, 389; Di Vita et al. 1984, 31; French 1990, 72; Rutkowski and Nowicki
1990, 118-121; Belli 1991, 442; Nowicki 1991, 137; 1992, 113; Nowicki 2000, 143-145,
241; Wallace 2003, 269; Nowicki 2005, personal communication
80. Gonies – An LM IIIC-SM/PG defensible settlement has been identified on To Flechtron,
the long ridge with a rocky spur (separated from Louloudaki Mountain by a saddle) located
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to the south of the modern village. While no tholos tombs have yet been recorded from the
site, Nowicki states that they should be expected on the slopes around the settlement.
Ref: Rutkowski and Nowicki 1990, 122; Nowicki 2000, 148-149
81. Kato Vatheia – In 1937 in a field at Kaminia near the village, an isolated PG-G circular
chamber tomb with a diameter of ~1.80 meters was excavated. The tomb contained
cremation urns, which in turn held smaller vases. In 1959, an EO funerary pithos, a krater
and a jug were also found nearby, though the tomb type was not reported. No further
information about these tombs has been published, and the location of an associated
settlement is unknown.
Ref: Marinatos 1937, 224; Petrou-Mesogeitis 1938, 615; Pendlebury 1939, 385; Platon 1957,
460; Daux 1959, 733; Pini 1968, 93 #49; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 98; Sjögren 2001, 203
(C119)
82. Kounavoi (figs. 124-126) – Early Iron Age tombs have been uncovered at various
locations in the vicinity of the village.
A. Kastrinaki – In 1987, a PG cremation urn (krater) placed in a small pit cut into the
bedrock was found northeast of the modern village at Kastrinaki, on the road to Myrtia from
Skalani. This location is ~200 meters east of Kaki Rachi, where other PG tombs were
previously found and with which this burial likely belongs. The site appears to be near that
of Vromonero (see entry under Archanes), though the exact relationship between the two
remains unclear. The Kastrinaki burial contained a broken and folded iron weapon, possibly
a sword which had been ritually killed.
B. Kounavoi – Rescue excavations were carried out to the south of the village in
1993 and 1998 on the property of D. Eleutheraki. At least 16 tombs (2 tholoi, 9 chamber
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tombs with dromoi, and 5 rock-cut pits) have been found at the site thus far. A 9th-8th century
BC tholos tomb (#10; 2.6 m in diameter) was among the tombs excavated at this site; it was
well-built with a slab floor and limestone door frame, which was closed by a single large
slab. Many cremation urns were found in this tomb, and approximately 100 vases (PGB-LG)
were recoved, many of which showed Knossian links, as well as a bronze fibula, gold leaf, an
iron spear, dagger, and knife. In addition, sheep, goat, and pig bones were found, together
with four fragments of iron obeloi, likely evidence from the funerary meal. Another, smaller
PG tholos (Tomb 11) with no apparent entrance was also found nearby, but it had been
robbed; terracotta beads, bronze plate, a bronze pin, fragments of iron daggers and swords, as
well as animal bones and fragments of iron spits, were recovered from this tomb. In
addition, evidence of burnt and poured offerings was found around the tholos – a pyre at the
western edge and two shallow pits for libations.
The four small chamber tombs (1, 3-5) found in 1993 were grouped around the large
tholos (Tomb 1 to the west and 3-5 to the east), and the five additional chamber tombs (1216) which were excavated in 1998 continue the main line of tombs to the south. The
chamber tombs were rock-cut with dromoi facing the west, and they typically contained onethree inhumation burials, though a few urn cremations were also present (Tombs 4 and 16,
one of which had a killed iron sword). The chamber of Tomb 4 appears to have been divided
in half, and outside the tomb by the entrance was found an irregular circular construction (1 x
0.3 m), possibly a pyre or offering table/altar, with bones and sherds; Tomb 16 also had a
pyre in front. From Tomb 12 come a pithos burial with Cypriot juglet, aryballos and two LM
I conical cups, and finds of note from the other chamber tombs include clay beads, bone pins,
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iron spits and weapons, faience beads, and bronze fibulae. These tombs date primarily to PG
and PGB.
The excavators believe that the chamber tombs were constructed during the first
phase (PGA) of the cemetery, with the dromoi of Tombs 3-5 starting from the edge of a
paved road which ran north-south and crossed part of the cemetery. To the west side of this
paving, beside T. 1 and the large tholos, was a rectangular hearth (0.7 x 0.9 m), which
contained carbon and ashes, evidence of burnt offerings to the deceased. The second phase
(PGB) of the cemetery is represented by the large tholos, the construction of which appears
to have cut into the dromos of T.1 and put the paved road out of use.
Also from the site come five, mostly PG, shallow, rock-cut pit tombs (T.2; 6-9);
according to the excavator, the chamber tombs are concentrated in the eastern part of the site
where the bedrock is softer, while the pit graves were concentrated in the southwestern area
where the bedrock is harder. The pit graves include Tomb 2, an elliptical pit covered by a
heap of stones, which contained cremations (four in pithoi and three in amphorae), along
with many skyphoi, a plate, krater, kalathos, iron sword and scraper. Tomb 7 was a small
natural cavity/pit grave which held an upright burial pithos, held in place by stones, and
showed evidence of libations to the deceased; a lekane, with spout and pierced base, was
attached to the pithos rim in order to receive poured offerings, and the pithos was also
positioned below a rectangular hole, the floor of which had a stone slab and was found filled
with dark soil (remains of liquid offerings). In addition, Tomb 7 contained a stirrup jar, one
gold and one silver ring, a bronze spear and dagger. Furthermore, T.8 contained a single
inhumation without grave goods, while T.9 contained a child burial with 3 vases. A little to
the north of the 1993 tombs, a shallow pit was excavated with a cranium (a secondary burial),
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hydria, kernos (with amphoriskos and cup on the rim), and an unusual lekane with four
animals, three birds, and a seated female mourner attached to the rim (cf. Kourtes, Arkades).
In addition, two Geometric urn burials, three small vases, and two clay beads, as well
as an isolated skeleton were recovered during the initial excavation at the site, though the
tomb type and its location relative to the other tombs is unclear from the reports.
Finds from the site are in the Herakleion Museum, though the tombs have not yet
been fully published; a monograph by Englezou is forthcoming, Σκ ΰ πηΫ λδεκ θ ελκ αφ έκ
βμ Έζ υθαμ. Five Roman pit tombs were also found ~200 m to the west of the EIA
cemetery, all of which may have belonged to the ancient (Greek and Roman) city of Eltyna.
The site has been identified by inscriptions found in the area, and evidence of an Archaic
building was found near the village by the river Hellenika, though the exact location of the
settlement remains unknown. Kounavoi is only ~2 km northeast of Archanes, though in
Nomos Pediada rather than Temenos.
Ref: Demopoulou-Rethemiotaki 1987a, 530; 1988; French 1990, 72; 1994, 78;
Rethemiotakis and Demopoulou 1993, 463-465; Pariente 1994, 817, 819; Rethemiotakis and
Demopoulou 1994-1996; Blackman 1998, 116; Papazoe 1998, 144; Rethemiotakis 1998;
Stampolidis and Karetsou 1998, 162 #130; Blackman 1999, 117; Touchais 1999, 823-824;
Blackman 2000, 135; 2001, 130-131; Sjögren 2001, 173 (C43); 206 (C132)
83. Koxari – Fragments of Geometric and Orientalizing cinerary urns, many of which
contained cups, were found in 1965 at Riza near the modern village. No other information
about these burials is known. The burials may be associated with the G-O habitation site
identified by survey on a low hill just above the plain near Koxari. In addition, a G pithos
was uncovered in 1959 at the location Ali Choraphi.
Ref: Platon and Davaras 1960, 525; Alexiou 1965, 290; Sjögren 2001, 164-165 (C22); 203
(C120)
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84. Krasi (figs. 127-128) – Taramelli sketched a small tholos tomb (A) on the slope
Siderokephala/Sidero Hill (~800 m-1 km southwest of the modern village), and he located it
just above the road from Avdou to Kera Kardiotissa Monastery. This tholos was said to
resemble those found at Karphi, with rectangular chamber (1.50 x 2.00 m) and vaulted roof,
though its back side was apparently cut from the bedrock rather than built. No remains of the
tomb now exist. Taramelli did not actually see the finds from the tomb, though it was said to
have contained human bones, a few vases, including pithoi, a bronze dagger, and a gold ring.
He dated the pottery as Mycenaean, though Pendlebury, Desborough, and Pini refer to the
tomb as SM-PG. According to Nowicki, this tholos was probably located to the west of the
LM IIIC settlement which was found on the peak, north and east slopes of the same hill,
rather than to the south as indicated by Taramelli’s sketch. In addition, Watrous has
identified Siderokephala as a winter settlement of Karphi, though Nowicki prefers to view
the site as part of a complex network of defensible settlements in this area of Lasithi.
Taramelli also observed pithos sherds and fragments of larnakes on terraces on the lower
north and east sides of the hill.
Also likely associated with the settlement at Siderokephala is a small tholos tomb (B),
which was unearthed and half-destroyed in 1994. This tomb is located ~200 meters southsoutheast of the settlement, on Stavros Hill, immediately south of Siderokephala and directly
south of and above the main Krasi–Kera road (~700 meters before the monastery of Kera
Kardiotissa and left of the ascent, visible high up in a cutting of the road). Tomb B is also
very similar to those found at Karphi, with dimensions (interior - 1.5 x 1.5-2.0 m) which fall
within the middle range of the Karphi tombs. The exterior enclosure was rectangular and the
interior chamber was roughly circular. The tomb was constructed of rough limestone blocks
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and the gaps were filled with smaller pieces of schist. The floor was paved with plakas upon
which were placed the funerary remains. Within the fill, ~0.5 m above the floor, was found a
gold finger ring and on the floor, the poorly preserved remains of one inhumation and four
LM IIIC-PG vases (a kalathos, cup, skyphos, and krateriskos). In the area below the
destroyed section of the tomb were found additional sherds, including those from a pithoid
jar, lekane, krateriskos, jug, and cup. Most of the pottery associated with the tomb is
undecorated and of LM IIIC/SM Karphi types, though the two krateriskoi are PG. This tomb
would have faced the footpaths to other sites in the area, such as Avdou-Gonies. According
to Nowicki, as these two tombs were located far from each other, they point to a very large
scatter of tombs or to different cemeteries.
In addition, an LM IIIC stirrup jar was found near the same road, possibly from
another destroyed tomb. This would seem to indicate the existence of other, dispersed tombs
on the south side of Siderokephala Hill.
Some finds from the site are in the Herakleion Museum. At Armi, the ridge directly
south of the western edge of the village, ~700 m east of the summit of Siderokephala and
~500 m west of Kastello, Nowicki identified remains of a small LM IIIC late-PG settlement,
“possibly a hamlet or small peripheral settlement of the same economic system whose center
was probably Karphi,” though no associated tombs have yet been found. A PG-G (and
possibly O) settlement has also been noted and recently illegally excavated at Kastello, the
mountain which towers over Krasi, located ~400 m to the southeast of the village (~1.5 km
north of Karphi and ~1.3 km east of Siderokephala). Blackman notes that finds from the site
include one robbed G-A tomb, though this appears to be a mistake, actually referring to the
settlement; no confirmed tombs have yet been found at this location.
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Ref: Taramelli 1899, 402-405; Pendlebury et al. 1937-1938, 111; Pendlebury 1939, 315;
Platon 1945-1947, 70; Desborough 1952, 259; Platon and Davaras 1961-1962, 289; Pini
1968, 82 #40; Snodgrass 1971, 165, 210; Kanta 1980, 71; Watrous 1982, 20; Syriopoulos
1983, 215-216 #210, 663-664 XCIX; Rutkowski and Nowicki 1990, 123; Belli 1991, 442;
Eliopoulos 1994; 1996a, 127-128; 1996b, 658; 1998b; Touchais 1999, 819; Nowicki 2000,
152-157, 241; Blackman 2000, 142; 2002, 111; Whitley 2004, 80
85. Lyttos (formerly Xidas) – The ancient settlement of Lyttos was located on a hill less
than a kilometer northeast of the modern village (~5 minutes from Timios Stavros Church),
and it was founded, probably in LM IIIB/C as a type of defensible settlement, only later to
become one of the largest Cretan Doric poleis, lasting into Roman times, though it was
destroyed and rebuilt once. Taramelli indicated that, based on the information given to him,
the necropolis of Lyttos must be located toward the vineyards in the valley of Askoi to the
northeast of the settlement. No tombs have yet been recorded in the area, but his suggestion
cannot be disproven as the area has never been explored.
Ref: Taramelli 1901a, 301; Nowicki 2000, 177-178
86. Malia – Early Iron Age burials may have been found at several sites near the modern
village.
A. Ag. Pelagia – A few Geometric vases, a cremation burial, and inhumations were
found by Renaudin in 1920-1 in the dromos of an LM III chamber tomb located near the
church of Ag. Pelagia, on the coast, north-northwest of modern Malia. These remains have
been interpreted as evidence of Geometric reuse of the tomb for the cremation burial. It is
possible, however, that the cremation dates to the last phase of use and that the Geometric
vases actually represent later offerings at the tomb, as seen at Mochlos, Achladia, and Agia
Photia, for example.
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Five LM III larnakes were also found in robbed, rock-cut cave-like tombs, probably
chamber tombs, the number of which is not specified, located near this same church. Vases
inside the larnakes included stirrup jars, cups, and a pitcher. Some of the vases were said to
correspond in date to those found in the first tomb (the possible tholos) at Dreros as well as to
the sarcophagi and pithoi of Olous, though there is a large difference in date between these
two sites and it thus remains unclear whether or not there was any evidence of LM IIIC
burials in these Malia tombs.
B. Christ Island – A few fragments of Geometric pithoi and other vases, possibly
from burials, were found in the vicinity of the MM I cemetery on this small islet just off the
coast, directly north of the modern village and ~750 m northeast of Ag. Pelagia. The G finds
were concentrated to the east and southeast of the MM excavations, in a place where Minoan
burials were not found. In addition, a probable tomb, with an askos, stirrup jar, hydria, jug,
and pithos/amphora, was identified in a rock hollow in this same area, and Kanta dates at
least two of the vases, the askos/ring vase and stirrup jar, to LM IIIC.
C. Trochaloi (Stous Trochalous) – A PG-G cist grave (0.75-0.9 x 0.85 m)
constructed with large stone slabs was excavated in 1918 by Xanthoudides at this site,
located near the sea ~1 km to the west of the church of Ag. Pelagia. Five cinerary urns with
cremations were found, along with 20 other vases, including stirrup jars, bowls, pitchers,
cups, and a skuttle, as well as a steatite lid.
Overall – Finds from the site are in the Herakleion Museum. Scant traces of possible
LM IIIC habitation have been recovered in the area (LM IIIB/C from Quartier E), though
evidence of non-funerary Protogeometric and Geometric activity at Malia has not yet been
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found; the location of the associated settlement(s) therefore remains unknown, though it
could have been under the modern town.
Ref: Xanthoudides 1918b, 18; de Boccard 1921, 536; 1925, 473-474; Pendlebury 1939, 324;
van Effenterre et al. 1963, 112-113, 118-122, 129; Coldstream 1968, 416; Pini 1968, 87
#41.2,6; Snodgrass 1971, 168, 209; Kanta 1980, 50-52; Syriopoulos 1983, 881-882 CXXX
87. Nipiditos – A small Geometric oinochoe, an iron fibula, and two beads, found by chance
somewhere near the modern village in 1960, may have come from a tomb of unknown type.
No further information is known about this site in the Geometric period, though two LM III
vases, possibly also from a tomb, had been previously brought to the Herakleion Museum. In
addition, Platon dug an empty, stone-lined cist tomb somewhere near the village in 1956,
beside which was found a large LM I rectangular building.
Ref: Alexiou 1956, 417; Platon and Davaras 1960, 525; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 92; Kanta
1980, 74; Sjögren 2001, 178 (C58)
88. Panagia (figs. 129-131) – At Tou Kophina to Kephali, a small hill to the south of the
modern village and somewhere on the western/northwestern slope of Profitis Elias Hill (~30
minutes from the summit), two plundered SM-PG tholos tombs, with square/rectangular
chambers and no dromoi were investigated in 1893-1894 by Halbherr; one of these tombs,
later called T.H by Taramelli, had a chamber of 1.9 x 1.65 m. He completely cleared only
the better preserved tomb, from which a bronze finger ring and a stone spindle whorl were
recovered. Halbherr was unable to discover the original contents of the tombs or the method
of burial, though he noted the remains of several other similar tombs in the vicinity.
In 1924, the Italian School (under Levi) excavated four tholoi (α,ί,ΰ, ) nearby; one of
these may be the tomb not completely cleared by Halbherr, as Desborough mentions a total
of five tholos tombs from the site. These tombs had rectangular or trapezoidal chambers (α
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− 1.4 x 1.1 m), round stone enclosures/tumuli, short dromoi, monolithic jambs and lintels,
and pointed vaults with a flat ridge on top (keel-vaulted); furthermore, they appear to have
been spaced ~11-14 meters apart. Tomb was nearly completely destroyed, though it may
have been a double tomb. The tombs contained inhumations (Tomb ί had six-seven), and a
few vases remained in the tombs, including oinochoai, kalathoi, stirrup jars, and hydriai. To
the right of the dromos of Tomb α was found burned earth, vases, animal bones, a mass of
iron swords and spears, and two fragments of non-Melian obsidian knives possibly from the
Dodecanese, possibly representing an offering to the deceased; in addition, a small jug was
found under a rock at the entrance to Tomb ί.
This site may have served as a necropolis for the earliest phase of settlement on Ag.
Elias Hill (see Arkades entry) to the southeast/east, though Nowicki mentions the possibility
of a closer, undiscovered settlement. Finds from the site are in the Herakleion Museum.
Ref: Halbherr 1901a, 262, 283-287; Woodward 1924, 279; Levi 1927-1929b, 389-400;
Pendlebury et al. 1937-1938, 111; Pendlebury 1939, 314, 324; Platon 1945-1947, 71;
Desborough 1952, 326; 1964, 184; Pini 1968, 89 #66.1-5; Snodgrass 1971, 209; Desborough
1972b, 116, 235, 372; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 92-93; Kanta 1980, 74-75; Syriopoulos
1983, 154 #99, 218 #211, 535 L; Di Vita et al. 1984, 168; Belli 1991, 444; Kanta and
Karetsou 1998, 169; Nowicki 2000, 179-180
89. Smari – Early Iron Age burials have been found at two locations near the village.
A. Profitis Elias – An LM IIIC–O (and possibly A) settlement has been found on the
summit of Profitis Elias Hill at Troulli tis Koriphis, ~2-2.5 km east of the modern village.
An apsidal building with foundations cut into the bedrock was excavated on the northwest
edge of the site, just outside the acropolis, in 1999. The excavators have suggested that it
was a funerary building, possibly a pyre or bone enclosure, as it contained LM IIIC-SM
kylikes and badly preserved bones in a burnt level. The bones have not yet been studied,
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however, to confirm that they are human, and no further information about this structure has
yet been published.
B. Riza – To the north-northeast of the modern village at Riza, north of the Byzantine
church of Ag. Georgios and at the foot of the hill between Ankarathos and Leividitsa, were
found fragments of G and O pithoi and cinerary urns, indicating a probable burial site.
Furthermore, Chatzi-Vallianou states that a large SM-O cemetery likely existed here, and it
would have contained burials similar to those found at Arkades. No further information
about these burials is yet known. The settlement to which these burials belong is uncertain;
the site seems to be too far away (~2.5 km to the southeast) to be associated with the
settlement on Profitis Elias, though Spitakia, a low hill just to the south of Smari with a G-O
habitation site, is only approximately 1.5 km to the south.
C. Leivaditsa – An LM IIIB tholos tomb was excavated at this location to the
southwest of the modern village in 1977. This tomb has been compared to the tholos found
at Plati, one of the tombs at Kritsa, and LBA tombs from Enkomi on Cyprus. It had a
rectangular chamber (1.7 x 1.85 m) and a declining dromos placed at the side of the tomb,
rather than the center, thus giving the tomb a “pipe-plan.” The dromos was also nonfunctional, leading to a rocky spur, and the tomb was constructed in a mixed technique,
partly cut into the rock and partly lined with stone blocks. Furthermore, remains of a pyre
were uncovered 11-12 meters to the northwest of this tomb. In addition, Chatzi-Vallianou
reports that at least two more tholoi were identified to the south-southeast of this tholos,
though their dates are unknown. Fragments of pithoi and sarcophagi were also found in the
area of Leivaditsa.
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D. Other – In addition, another G-O habitation site was discovered through survey at
Kallergi on the summit and eastern slope of the lower hill immediately (~800 m) to the south
of Profitis Elias, with which undiscovered tombs may belong. Furthermore, scattered pithos
sherds, possibly associated with burials, were found all over the plain between Lenika in the
vicinity of modern village and Profitis Elias.
Ref: Chatzi-Vallianou 1980, 22-23, 39-44; Kanta 1980, 69; Belli 1996, 43-45; 1997, 252;
Pangalos 1999, 176-177; Nowicki 2000, 178; Touchais et al. 2000, 993; Sjögren 2001, 174175 (C44-46), 207 (C133); Blackman 2001, 132; Chatzi-Vallianou 2002, 326
90. Stamnioi (figs. 132-133) – Two simple, rock-cut LG pit tombs were found just to the
south of Stamnioi, which is located ~1.5 km north of Episkopi, near the public highway. One
tomb contained a pithos, the mouth of which was covered by a stone slab, and two oinochoai.
The pithos was empty, and it is uncertain whether it originally contained an inhumation or
cremation. The other tomb held an ash urn/kalpis with a stone attached to its base, but no
other finds. The construction of an aloni (threshing floor) appears to have destroyed other
tombs nearby, and many more tombs thus may have existed in the area. In addition, in 1963
a Geometric oinochoe and cups were recovered, possibly from another tomb. The settlement
with which these tombs belong remains unknown, and several LM IIIA-B chamber tombs
have also been found in the area at Palialona (~10 minutes northwest of Stamnioi). Finds
from the site are in the Herakleion Museum.
Ref: Platon 1952a, 628-630; de Santerre 1953, 239; Alexiou 1963b, 386; Kanta 1980, 53-58;
Syriopoulos 1983, 289 #323, 885 CXXXVII; Sjögren 2001, 207 (C134)
91. Vatheianos Kambos – Pendlebury noted an SM/PG chamber tomb with dromos at this
site, which is located on the coast ~9-10 km east of Herakleion and 1 km northeast of Nirou
Chani. The tomb contained an inhumation in a larnax, and a few small vessels, including a
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krater “of SM character,” a basket vase, and a stirrup jar were found placed around the
sarcophagus. Syriopoulos assigns the finds from this tomb to SM, though Kanta prefers the
more likely date of LM IIIA-B. This burial was possibly associated with the nearby villa and
surrounding settlement (LM I-IIIA/B) at Nirou Chani. Geometric sherds found above the
villa may indicate an EIA reuse of the architecture for habitation, and thus Geometric burials
may also exist nearby. Finds from the site are in the Herakleion Museum.
Ref: Marinatos 1933-1935, 56-57; Béquignon 1934, 273; Marinatos 1934, 249-251;
Pendlebury 1939, 314; Pini 1968, 85 #46.1,3; Kanta 1980, 44-45; Syriopoulos 1983, 151
#89, 531 XL; Sjögren 2001, 164 (C20)
92. Zinda – According to Platon, in 1954 Geometric vases were found which confirm the
existence of a necropolis in the area of the modern village (located ~2.5 km west of
Arkalochori). No other information about these tombs has been published and the number
and type are thus unknown.
Ref: Platon 1954b, 515; BCH 79 (1955) 304; Hood 1955, 17
PYRGIOTISSA EPARCHIA
93. Agia Triada – Pre-palatial and post-palatial burials have been excavated by the Italian
School, and they are concentrated in a small area just to the north and northeast of the
Minoan villa. Among these are Tholos Tomb B, which was used from EM II-MM IB and
later reused in LM IIIA2-B, and the Tomb of the Painted Sarcophagus, a rectangular chamber
tomb which has recently been definitively dated to LM IIIA2. Near Tomb B is the large
tholos (Tomb A), which was used from EM II-MM II (~150 burials), and had a circular
chamber (~9 m in diameter) with annexes in front. The only potential EIA funerary activity
from the site comes from two LG or EO bronze bulls which were found in the vicinity of the
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large tholos. These may represent offerings or some other form of cult activity, though the
exact findspot is unknown. Many post-palatial, especially PG-EO, terracotta and bronze
figurines, both human and animal, have been found within the villa, especially in the south
part of the site known as the “Regione di Sacelli,” where a “ruin cult” appears to have
existed. In addition, possible evidence of Geometric habitation has recently been found to
the southeast of the grand portal, with which this ritual activity may have been associated.
Ref: Banti 1930-1931; Stefani 1930-1931; Pelon 1976, 8-11; Di Vita et al. 1985, 117; La
Rosa 1992a; Blackman 1998, 111-112; D’Agata 1998, 22; Touchais 1998, 962-964; D’Agata
1999b; Sjögren 2001, 178-179 (C60-62); Prent 2003
94. Kamares (fig. 134) – Tombs were found at various locations near the village.
A. Sopato – In 1894, Taramelli and Halbherr visited the site of tis Kaimenis to
Sopato, which is located to the (south)west of the modern village on the summit of a hill, on
the west side of the Kamares River. They were informed of the existence of seven tombs in
the area, and they found and explored four small, pillaged tholos tombs. Three of these were
grouped together on a single line and the fourth was located slightly to the northwest. The
tholoi had built, round chambers, ranging from 2.0–2.4 m in diameter and 1.6-2.0 m in
height, with dromoi (1.0-1.4 m in length). The tombs were empty, except for fragments of
bone, pottery, a mass of bronze, and possibly a sealstone; according to locals, one of the
tombs originally contained seven skeletons.
Evans investigated two tombs nearby in the same year, and he found a stirrup jar and
a bronze knife in one of them. He said that the tombs were built up like Mycenaean tholoi
but smaller. He also reported that a large bronze spear and ‘amphorae’ had previously been
found in the vicinity of these tombs. In 1905, C. Hawes went to dig tombs, probably at this
site, and he apparently found the remains of four or five empty tholoi (the same tombs?).
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The area of the site is now destroyed and full of vineyards, and finds from the site are in the
Herakleion and Ashmolean Museums.
The tholoi are difficult to date due to the lack of finds. Taramelli called the tombs
“Mycenaean,” though he saw no datable finds. Pendlebury assigned them the same date as
the tombs at Karphi (LM IIIC-PG), and Pini dates the tomb type to LM IIIB–SM. In
addition, Faure considers the cemetery Iron Age (SM), and Snodgrass mentions the
possibility of Geometric cremations in the tholoi, though it is unclear on what evidence.
Kanta, on the other hand, discusses two stirrup jars and a jug, ranging in date from LM IIIAC, in the Herakleion Museum which likely came from these tombs. Furthermore, she
considers these tombs to bridge the gap between the LM IIIA-B tholoi of Amari and the
small LM IIIC-SM tholoi, as seen at Karphi for example; Kamares was located on the ancient
route from Amari to the Mesara.
Taramelli reported a settlement (probably LM IIIA-C) to the west of the cemetery at
Kaimenis Mitato, with which these tombs might have been associated.
B. Kambes – A small PG burial pithos, or possibly more than one, with vases was
also reported in 1964 at Kambes near Kamares. No other information about this tomb has
been published and its exact location relative to Sopato is unclear. An EIA settlement site
has not yet been identified in the area.
Ref: Taramelli 1901b, 439-443; Pendlebury et al. 1937-1938, 111; Pendlebury 1939, 315;
Desborough 1952, 259; Alexiou 1964b; 284; Faure 1964, 178; Pini 1968, 81 #112.1-2;
Snodgrass 1971, 209; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 84; Kanta 1980, 111-112; Syriopoulos 1983,
153 #97; 534 XLVIII; Belli 1991, 444; Kanta 1997, 244; Brown 2001, 41; 69; 332
95. Kamilari – Evidence of Early Iron Age funerary activity has been observed in the
vicinity of the modern village.
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A. Alisandraki – A PG tomb with burial pithos and associated vases, including a
tripod, three jugs, an oinochoe, aryballos, and cylindrical vase, was uncovered at this
location. No further information has been published about this burial, and the tomb type and
its exact location relative to Gligori Koriphi remain unknown.
B. Gligori Koriphi – A well-known, large MM IB–LM IIIA2 tholos tomb with
circular chamber (7.65 m interior diameter) and five annex chambers was excavated by Levi
and the Italian School in 1959 at this location, ~1.6 km northwest of Kamilari and ~1.9 km
southwest of the Minoan villa at Ag. Triada. A recent re-examination of sherds from the
excavation has identified four Geometric (possibly PG and G) vessels – a skyphos, amphora,
pitcher, and some form of openwork stand. Two of these vases were discovered in a pit near
the entrance to the annexes located in front of the tomb. The EIA activity at this tomb likely
represents offerings to the deceased or evidence of hero cult, rather than re-use.
Overall – A Geometric (with some Minoan) habitation existed on the summit of the
low hill at Seli directly above (south) of the modern village, ~1.75 km south of the tholos;
numerous EIA habitation sites have been found in the vicinity of Phaistos (~2.5 km to the
north-northeast); and some evidence exists for Geometric habitation at Agia Triada. The EIA
funerary activity may have been associated with one of these sites, though it seems more
likely that a closer, undiscovered settlement exists. Finds from the site are in the Herakleion
Museum.
Ref: Platon 1958, 480; Daux 1959, 747; Levi 1961-1962b; Pini 1968, 81-82 #108.1-2; Levi
1976b, 701-742; Pelon 1976, 19-22; Kanta 1980, 101-102; Di Vita et al. 1984, 139-142; La
Rosa 1992b; Sjögren 2000, 184 (C74); Lefèvre-Novaro 2001; Wallace 2003, 271
96. Phaistos (figs. 135-138) – Evidence of Early Iron Age funerary practice has been found
at numerous sites in the vicinity of the modern village.
137
A. Agios Ioannis – A Geometric tholos tomb was found in 1993 at this location, in
the plain ~1 km south-southwest of Phaistos next to the road to Matala. It had monolithic
door jambs and lintel and a roughly circular chamber (3.23-3.26 m diameter), and it
contained multiple cremations in urns and pithoi. A Hellenistic funerary peribolos with two
cist graves lay above the tholos. A total of 112 vases were recovered, ranging from PG to
LH. Geometric finds include skyphoi, cups, amphorae, oinochoai, burial pithoi and kalpai,
Knossian and Cypriot vases, including aryballoi, two LG-EO Phoenician lekythoi/aryballoi, a
bronze statuette, bronze bracelet, pins, and iron weapons (swords and daggers).
In 1958 ~1 km southeast of Ag. Ioannis and ~1.5 km northwest of Petrokephali at the
location of Ambeli, PG vases were found, during preparation of a vineyard, in a hole in the
ground surrounded by a circle of stones. These vases likely come from a tomb, and they
include a basket vase, two baby feeders, an amphoriskos, jug, two cups, an amphora
(possibly a cinerary urn), and a hydria. West of the cavity was found a line of wall destroyed
during cultivation, and the excavator was unable to determine whether it represented the
remains of the entrance to the tomb or a deposit for grave goods. No bones were found in the
immediate vicinity.
Also, the Western Mesara Project reports finding off-site LM IIIC pottery, just south
of Ag. Ioannis, which may come from an additional burial. Furthermore a possible G-LR
settlement was identified ~650 m south-southeast of the village, and an additional settlement
(G-ER) was identified just north of the shrine of Ag. Demetrios, ~850 m south-southwest of
the village.
B. Agios Onouphrios – Watrous et al. in the preliminary report of the Western
Mesara Survey mention the existence of PG-G burials at this location, though no other
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information is provided. This site is famous for the EM I – MM II cemetery, which was
found directly northeast of the church of Ag. Onouphrios, ~1 km north-northwest of Phaistos,
and stretches for at least 300 m across the south slope of Ieroditis ridge.
C. Ieroditis Ridge – The Western Mesara Project identified an LM IIIC gravesite
somewhere on the slope of Ieroditis to the northeast of Phaistos. No further information has
yet been published, however, and the exact evidence thus remains unknown. Watrous et al.
also refer to known PG-G burials found on the ridge of Ieroditis, though it is unclear whether
they are referring to one or more of the burials listed below in this entry (i.e., Mulino or
Tomb 1954) or to additional unpublished tombs.
D. Kalyviani (Site 104) – In the area around the Panagia Kalyviani monastery, which
is just west of the village of Kalyvia, less than 2 kilometers east of Phaistos, were found
traces of burials, belonging to the “same period as Liliana,” (LM III-PG?, according to Pini).
No further information about these burials has been published. Pendlebury also reported
seeing surface sherds from Geometric burials at Kalyviana, though the exact location relative
to these burials is unknown.
In 1979, a PG chamber tomb (9.5 x 10 m) with dromos was excavated at Kalyviani,
not far from the LM IIIA necropolis at Kalyvia (~1 km east of Phaistos and ~450 m west of
the monastery) which contained 14 tombs, primarily chambers. The PG tomb contained a
large number of vases, including 3 large cinerary urns, amphorae, amphoriskoi, pithoi, stirrup
jars, jugs, cups, and kraters, iron and bronze weapons, and beads. This tomb appears to be
the same tomb referred to by Vallianou in the comments to Tsipopoulou and Little (2001);
she mentions a rock-cut chamber tomb at Kalyviani which contained cremations in pithoi and
pith-amphorae along with ~300 other vases, which date to LM IIIC-PG.
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E. Liliana (Site 103) – Eight unrobbed tombs (A-H) were excavated by the Italian
School in 1902-1903 at this location, which is ~750 m west of the Kalyviani monstery and
~900 m east-northeast of Phaistos. Four of the tombs (A-D) were irregular, rock-cut
chamber tombs, three of which had dromoi, while the other four tombs (E-H) were single
trenches/pits. Most of the burials were inhumations, though one vase (from Tomb D)
contained the partially cremated remains of a child. As many as 21 larnakes were found in
the tombs, along with 46 vases (stirrup jars, feeding bottles, jugs, cups, bowls, a pyxis,
kalathos, and krater), bronze rings, a hair spiral, needle, stone and paste beads, stone and clay
spindle whorls, an alabaster vase, and a terracotta horse figurine. Finds from this site date to
LM IIIB-SM, mainly IIIC, and Tomb D is the most likely candidate for LM IIIC/SM
material. In addition, Watrous states that some of the larnakes may have been reused in the
Geometric period, and that urn burials were found nearby, though no further information
about these burials has been published.
F. Logiadi (Site 89) – Trial excavations at this site, which is located to the west of
Zaimoglu to Choraphi and ~700 m west-southwest of Kalivia Monastery (~850 m eastnortheast of Phaistos), identified traces of tombs, possibly pits/trenches with cremations and
a group of late “Mycenaean” vases, probably PG. No further information has been published
from this site. Fragments of LM III larnakes and sherds have also been observed at
Zaimoglu to Choraphi.
G. Mulino (Site 59-Neromylos) – In 1957, finds were recovered from a PG tomb or
tombs at this site, which is located a short distance north of the hill of Phaistos and ~30-40
meters from the mill (Mulino), at the ancient road between the main street and the palace just
below the path from the mountain opposite the summit of the hill. The exact tomb type is not
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recorded, though it was likely a pit or chamber tomb. The tomb(s) contained three or four
fragmentary urns/pithoi with half-burned cremations and 24 vases, including pithoi, jugs,
hydriai, skyphoi, cups, oinochoai, and a baby feeder, as well as fragments of iron weapons
and a bronze fibula. This tomb(s) was probably part of the same necropolis represented by
the chamber tomb found in 1954 (Tomb 1954).
H. Tomb 1954 (on the highway) – A nearly destroyed SM chamber tomb was found
in 1954 during road construction at the foot of the north slope of the hill of Phaistos along the
Ieropotamos River, near the third from the last turn in the main street, which ends at the
square of Ag. Georgios, at Phalandra; this is in the area northeast of Ag. Photini. This tomb
contained 13 SM-PG vases, including 4 stirrup jars, 3 amphorae, 2 kalathoi, 3 skyphoi, and
an askos, as well as a bronze hair spiral, two bronze fibulae (possibly from Cyprus or Argos),
and a steatite button.
In the same year, a hydria, kalathos, stirrup jar, two jugs, and a skyphos, possibly
from another robbed/destroyed tomb, were also recovered along the same road in the vicinity
of this tomb.
I. Tou Phygiote to Aloni – Twelve chamber tombs (supposedly SM/PG-G, though
perhaps primarily LM IIIC) were excavated at this location in 1902, though they have not
been well published. Tomb 9 is reported to have contained a partially cremated adult, while
all other burials were inhumations. Finds of note from these tombs include a bronze mirror,
weapons, and vases, sealstones, gold, paste, and stone beads, gold, silver, and bronze rings,
as well as stone vases. This exact location of this cemetery relative to the others in the area is
unclear, though it appears to be ~2 km east of Ag. Onouphrios.
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J. Other – A kalathos, amphoriskos, skyphos, stirrup jar, and jug, recovered from
somewhere around the street near Phaistos, may provide evidence of other destroyed SM/PG
tombs in the area.
Overall – Finds from the tombs are in the Herakleion, Phaistos, and Pigorini (Rome)
museums, though none of the burial sites has been well-published. Evidence of Early Iron
Age habitation or activity has been observed to the west and southwest of the Minoan palace
(G-O), including near Ag. Georgios church ~350 m to the west and at Chalara (the southeast
slope of the palace hill, ~75 m southeast of the palace). Post-Minoan (G-O) habitation or
activity has also been identified on Ag. Photini Hill (~150 m northeast of the palace), on the
west side of the Acropoli Mediana (PG fortification wall and possible settlement, IIIC/SMEA), the west slope of Christos Ependis (the conical hilltop immediately west of Phaistos),
and on top of certain sections of the palace (LM IIIC-PG), including the West Court, and just
to the southwest of the palace (G-EO). Most of the cemeteries in the area likely belonged to
some of the large settlement or series of sites at Phaistos.
Ref: Gerola and Pigorini 1902; Savignoni 1904, 627-654; Levi 1927-1929c, 575-576;
Pendlebury 1939, 264, 315, 319, 325; Borda 1946, 29 #170-176; Furumark 1944, 227-229;
Desborough 1952, 258-259, 326; Hood 1955, 17; Levi 1955, 159; Desborough 1964, 183184, 187, 267; Levi 1957-1958, 355-359; 1961-1962a, 467-468; Pini 1968, 90 #107;
Rocchetti 1969-1970; Snodgrass 1971, 209-210; Desborough 1972b, 116, 225-226, 372;
Furumark 1972, 106-107; Davaras 1973b, 162-163; Rocchetti 1974; Levi 1976b, 631;
Chatzi-Vallianou 1979, 384; Kanta 1980, 99-100; Syriopoulos 1983, 112 #221, 113 #223,
390 CVIII, 537 LV, 581, 667 CXIII, 889 CLVIII; Di Vita et al. 1984, 85-86; Catling 1988,
67; Touchais 1988, 688; La Rosa 1992c, 235, 240; Vasilakis 1993; Watrous et al. 1993, 229;
Vasilakis 1994-1996; Blackman 1998, 112; Cucuzza 1998, 62-64; Stampolidis and Karetsou
1998, 180-181 #185-186; Blackman 1999, 113; Jones 2000, 284; Watrous et al. 2004, 307313, 525-526, 532-534, 537-539
97. Sivas – In 1986, the Western Mesara Project discovered a cemetery site (B37=site 92),
with associated sherds dating from LM IIIA1–PG/G, ~700 m south-southeast of the modern
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village at Monasteriako Pigadi (~3.5 km south of Phaistos). No further information about the
tomb type and number of tombs has yet been published. An associated settlement (B38=site
93), MM I-G, was also identified by the survey approximately 200 m above (to the southeast
of) the cemetery on top of a steep ridge. The cemetery produced larnakes, ash, bone, kraters,
bowls, tripod offering tables, and snake tubes. PG/G surface pottery from the settlement and
cemetery included a skyphos, kalathos, krater, jugs, and pithoi. South/southeast of the
village two robbed EM circular tholos tombs were previously excavated, and LM sherds
were found in front of one.
Ref: Marinatos 1924-1925, 77-78; Kanta 1980, 113; Watrous et al. 1993, 228-230; 2004, 538
sites 92-93
TEMENOS EPARCHIA
98. Agios Syllas – The modern village is located south of Herakleion, ~4 km west of
(Epano) Archanes, on the lower, northwest slope of Mt. Juktas. LM, PG and G pottery was
found in association with tombs at Sochoro near the village. No further information about
the EIA burials has been published, and the associated settlement has not yet been identified.
LM IIIA-B chamber tombs with larnakes have also been reported from the area. Many LM
and G vases from the site are currently in the Herakleion Museum.
Ref: Marinatos 1933-1935, 56; Kanta 1980, 35; Sapouna-Sakellaraki 1990, 70; Sakellarakis
and Sakelleraki 1991, 14; Chaniotis 1994, 69; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 36; Sjögren
2001, 204 (C123)
99. Agios Vlasis – Geometric pottery was recorded in connection with tombs found
somewhere near the modern village, which is located ~2 km northeast of Ag. Syllas and ~3
km northwest of (Epano) Archanes. No other information about the G burials has been
published, and the associated settlement is unknown. LM III chamber tombs have also been
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recorded in the vicinity of the village. In addition, Platon and Davaras report the finding of
four Geometric vases, including two small jugs and an aryballos, from Agios Vlasios, and it
seems likely that they are referring to the same site.
Ref: Platon and Davaras 1960, 524; Sapouna-Sakellaraki 1990, 70; Sakellerakis and
Sakelleraki 1991, 14; Chaniotis 1994, 69; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 36; Sjögren
2001, 204 (C124)
100. Archanes (figs. 139-140) – Early Iron Age burials have been found at numerous sites
in the vicinity of the modern village.
A. Phourni – Phourni, which is located on a small hill just northwest of Epano
Archanes, was the site of an EM II–LM IIIB/C cemetery. This cemetery contained several
types of tombs, including tholoi, burial buildings, a “Mycenaean” grave enclosure with shaft
graves, and a chamber tomb/cenotaph. Tholos D (Building 15), the last tomb on the south
end of the hill, was originally used for one wealthy LM IIIA2 female burial. The tomb was
smaller than the other tholoi at the site, with a round chamber, (~2.2 m in diameter) and
possibly no dromos, and finds include a bronze mirror, gold diadem, ivory fragments, a silver
ring, glass paste pins, gold hair spirals, a sealstone, and gold, paste, faience, and amber
beads. In debris from the collapsed roof were found three disturbed SM inhumation burials
with five bronze rings, a bronze fibula, and a small fragment of bronze plate. No ceramics
were found with these burials and the SM date is based on parallels for the bronze fibula.
In addition, Geometric sherds have been observed at Phourni outside the east wall of
Building 4, which is located roughly in the center of the cemetery, between Tholoi A and B.
These sherds may provide evidence of later offerings to the deceased, as this unique building
appears originally to have been connected with funerary rituals; in fact, while the cemetery
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was in use, Building 4 apparently contained workshops potentially to make items for use by
the dead, storage facilities, and space to perform religious rituals.
B. Phythies – A cemetery existed at this location, which is part of Kambos, north of
the Minoan palace, southeast of Phourni, and east of the main road connecting Kato and
Epano Archanes, from LM IIIC until at least PG, and possibly until EO. A clay model,
possibly of a tomb in which offerings are made to the dead through the roof, along with 15
vases, including cups, hydriai, oinochoai, jugs, kalathoi, and a cinerary urn, were recovered
from the site, possibly in 1949. Workmen report that these came from plundered, rectangular
built tombs, likely stone cists, in the vineyard of Anna Ludaki. Their size appears to have
averaged 1.50 x 0.60 meters, though this figure could be exaggerated, and the tombs were
built of cut plakas, though at least one was cut out of the rock and only covered with plakas.
In addition, the grave with the terracotta model was said to have been distinctly roofed “like
a bridge/arch”. There may have been as many as six graves in the vineyard, two of which
were not excavated. Numerous additional finds were apparently recovered from these tombs
but were hidden and later sold by the land owner or other members of the family. These are
said to have included other cremation urns with lids, cups, pitchers, and two blue beads.
Many fragments of pithoi, amphorae, and small vases were still visible on the surface in
recent years.
In 1969, a LM IIIC/SM rectangular, lidded stone larnax/cist (0.44 x 0.31 m) with
cremation was excavated nearby, and it contained a krateriskos, kotyle, two stirrup jars, an
iron arrowhead, and a lump of iron. This larnax is comparable to the stone cremation urn
excavated at Kato Lakkos (see entry under Juktas), a type not commonly found elsewhere in
Crete during the EIA.
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C. Synoikismos – At this site located to the southwest of the ancient settlement on the
western fringe of the modern town, was uncovered a large PG burial pithos, which was
placed on its side in a pit and held in place by stones at the neck and mouth. Two skulls and
a few bones were found inside, along with a stirrup jar and bronze pin. No evidence of fire
was found in the grave, though possible traces of a pyre with sherds and bone fragments were
found nearby.
D. Vromonero – Robbed tombs were investigated in 1936 by Marinatos at this site,
which is reportedly near a spring. Vromonero apparently lies somewhere to the southeast of
Patsides, just east of a road to Varvarous (Myrtia) which branches off from the old road from
Herakleion to Peza, on the south side of a small hill just down from the peak (N of
Kounavoi?). 39 vases, including 3 cremation urns, amphorae, oinochoai, jugs, aryballoi,
pyxides, and cups, primarily dating to PG-EG and LG-EO, were recovered from the tombs,
as well as an iron pin and fragment of cloth. The vases were made in a local workshop and
were similar to vases found at Phythies and Knossos Fortetsa. A bronze ring, terracotta
spindle whorl, and worked stone may also have been associated with these tombs. The
history of the tombs is very confused in the scholarship; according to Sakellarakis, however,
there appear to have been two tombs, possibly unlined pits, though the exact number and
type remain uncertain.
Overall – Remains of the Geometric, and possibly earlier (some LM IIIC and likely
also SM-PG), settlement at Archanes have been found in the center of town, on the site of the
Minoan palace (Tourkoyeitonia) and at Tzami, and some of the burials were likely associated
with this habitation. The EIA scattering of cemeteries in the area around Archanes parallels
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the pattern observed in the Minoan period. Finds from the sites are in the Herakleion
Museum and Giamalakis Collection.
Ref: Hartley 1930-1931, 72-75; Blegen 1936, 372; Marinatos 1936, 224; Megaw 1936, 151;
Alexiou 1950b; Hood 1958, 20; Marinatos and Hirmer 1960, 154 (#138-139); Coldstream
1968, 415; Pini 1968, 76 #80.2; Snodgrass 1971, 208; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 75;
Sakellarakis 1975, 257-268; Kanta 1980, 32-34; Sakellarakis 1986; DemopoulouRethemiotaki 1987b, 530; Sakellarakis 1987; Sapouna-Sakelleraki 1990, 83-85; Sakellarakis
and Sakellaraki 1991, 14, 24-25, 66, 128-134; 1992; Chaniotis 1994; French 1994, 73;
Pariente 1994, 821; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 35-36, 185-188, 223-229, 465;
Cameron 2003, 128
101. Herakleion (figs. 141-142) – Numerous EIA burials have been found in the vicinity of
the city. Finds from the sites are in the Herakleion Museum.
A. Atsalenio – In 1958, at Atsalenio, which is ~3 km southwest of the city center (~3
km northwest of Knossos), Platon excavated a Geometric chamber tomb with 40 vases, the
exact location of which was not reported. No further information is known about this tomb.
In 1962, Davaras excavated two additional, though largely destroyed, Geometric
chamber tombs with dromoi ~100 m west of the road to Knossos and ~200 m north of the
modern cemetery of Atsalenio. The chamber (1.7 x 1.1 m) floor of Tomb A (PGB-O, but
primarily EO-O) was lower than the dromos, a common feature of Knossian tombs. This
tomb contained 17 pithoi with cremations and 43 other vases, including skyphoi, cups,
aryballoi, and an imported Cypriot jug, 4 terracotta spindle whorls, one terracotta spool, two
bronze tweezers, one bronze pin, and 2 iron pins. Tomb B (6 meters to the east of T.A) was
nearly completely destroyed, but 19 vases remained.
While these three tombs may represent the northernmost part of the Knossos
cemeteries, they could also represent a small part of a separate cemetery, which remains
largely unexplored and partly destroyed to intensive modern building in the area. Numerous
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scattered settlements are known from the Knossos region, though Alexiou long assumed the
existence of an EIA settlement at Atsalenio, with which this cemetery could be associated, if
not with the settlement at Knossos.
B. Mastamba – Two Geometric chamber tombs have been excavated at this location,
which is ~1.5 km southwest of the city center and ~5 km northwest of the palace at Knossos.
One small, ellipsoidal chamber (1.25 x 0.9 m) with dromos was excavated in 1970 at the
northwest corner of streets Damaskenou and EOK; this tomb was also ~600 m north of
Atsalenio Tombs A and B. The Mastamba tomb contained 17 cremations in pithoi and
kraters (two of these were in the dromos) and 76 other PG-O vases, two terracotta horses, as
well as bronze tweezers, a bronze fibula, iron knife, spear, and two axes. In the dromos north
of the two burial pithoi was found evidence of two successive fires/pyres. No bone was
found, though these appear to represent offerings to the dead; in addition, further north were
found a cup, other sherds, ashes, and burned earth.
In 1976, another small chamber tomb with dromos was excavated ~700 meters to the
south of the previous tomb, and it contained 21 PG-LG/EO vases, including 5 cremation
urns, skyphoi with Attic influence, plates, cups, jugs, and hydriai, a terracotta statuette of a
seated figure with upraised arms (possibly attached to the handle of a vessel), a terracotta bull
and bird, a bronze fibula, and an iron spearhead.
The two Mastamba chamber tombs are of the same type as those found at Atsalenio,
and they are thought to represent another large cemetery analogous to those from the area of
Knossos. The Mastamba tombs may further have belonged to a new harbor town founded at
Herakleion, the possible settlement at Atsalenio, or another closer unknown site, rather than
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to the settlement at Knossos. Also, an LM IIIB chamber tomb was excavated in the area,
though its exact location was not recorded.
Ref: Platon 1958, 460, 468; Daux 1959, 735; Hood 1959, 16; Alexiou 1963a, 311-312;
1963b, 398; Megaw 1963, 29; Coldstream 1968, 415; Davaras 1968; Pini 1968, 80
#84.11,14; Lembesi 1970, 270-297; Orlandos 1970, 189-190; Snodgrass 1971, 209; Leekley
and Noyes 1975, 82; Catling 1976, 29; Lembesi 1976, 351; Syriopoulos 1983, 287 #309, 288
#314, 881 CXXVIII, 882 CXXXI; Catling 1985, 58; Touchais 1985, 849; Cadogan 1992b,
132-135
102. Katsamba – One Geometric tomb was reported in 1936 from this site, a suburb east of
Herakleion, which is located at the mouth of the Kairatos (now Katsamba) River, just west of
Nea Halikarnassos, and very near the ancient port of Knossos (Poros). No further
information has been published from this tomb, though it was said to have contained many
vases. The tomb may have belonged to the new harbor town founded at Herakleion.
In addition in 1953, just to the south of Katsamba, Alexiou excavated a rock shelter
which was used for burials in the Neolithic, Middle Minoan and Late Minoan periods. Kanta
has identified one deep bowl from the excavation as LM IIIC, though it remains uncertain
whether or not there was an associated burial from this period. Alexiou also excavated at this
location seven LM II-IIIA chamber tombs, as well as the remains of an associated settlement,
which extended to Poros and lasted until LM IIIC. The rock shelter burial may thus have
belonged to this habitation site. Finds from the site are in the Herakleion Museum.
Ref: Blegen 1936, 372; Marinatos 1936, 224; Alexiou 1953a, 307-308; Courbin 1954, 150152; Alexiou 1967c; Pini 1976, 80 #84.3-10; Kanta 1980, 28-29; Syriopoulos 1983, 102
#202, 287 #306, 881 CXXVI; Sjögren 2001, 158-159 (C6)
103. Knossos (figs. 143-152) – A great number of EIA tombs (approximately 200, primarily
chamber tombs) and cemeteries have been found in the vicinity of the Minoan palace.
Nearly all of these are noted in Hood and Smyth’s publication (2nd edition) of the Knossos
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Survey; therefore, the tombs, especially those from the North Cemetery and Fortetsa, will not
be described here in great detail as they have been well-published elsewhere (see also Brock
1957 and Coldstream and Catling 1996). The sites in this entry will be presented based on
location, roughly from north to south.
A. Isopata – The “Royal Tomb” (Knossos Survey #2) was excavated by Evans in
1904 at this location, which is just over 2.5 km north-northwest of the palace; it was,
however, destroyed during World War II. The tomb originally contained a large rectangular
chamber (6.07 x 7.85 m), rectangular antechamber, and long dromos (~10 m), and its height
(keel-vaulted roof) may have been as great as 8 m. Evans first dated the tomb to MM III on
the basis of masons’ marks found on some of the blocks, though he later changed the date of
the earliest burials to LM II. The tomb was apparently disturbed and plundered multiple
times, though there is evidence that it was re-used for burials in LM IIIC. Some of the
burials found in the three niches (one in the back wall of the chamber and one on both the
north and south sides of the antechamber) may date to this period as a few of the vases,
including two stirrup jars and a cup, are apparently IIIC. A few Geometric sherds were also
discovered “rather in the upper levels,” though it is uncertain whether or not these indicate
Geometric activity at the tomb.
Approximately 250 msouth of the Isopata Tomb, Hood and Smyth identified the
collapsed remains of an LM or EIA chamber tomb (KS #3), though no further information
about this tomb is known.
In addition, fragments of a cinerary urn and Geometric amphora, likely from a tomb,
were found at Isopata near the church of Ag. Nikolaos.
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B. Agios Ioannis – Eight rock-cut chamber tombs (KS #6), all with collapsed roofs,
have been excavated at this location (~1 km southwest of the Isopata Tomb), on the north
side of the road from A. Ioannis to Mesambelies (Ambelakia), just past the junction from the
Herakleion-Knossos road. The tombs had circular, oval, rectangular and quadrangular
chambers (ranging from 0.65-1.7 x 1.3-2.3 m) which were often closed by worked ashlar
blocks, likely re-used from a Minoan building. Both inhumations and cremations were found
in the tombs, and finds of note include 122 vases, iron swords and spears, 7 bronze rings, 2
bracelets, a whetstone, over 250 clay beads, faience beads, 4 gold rings, 2 silver rings, and
rock crystal fragments, possibly from a Minoan vase, though unfortunately most of the small
finds were lost during World War II. In addition, Tomb IV contained an inhumation burial in
a niche, in front of which was a small area with ash, burned animal bones (bird?), and food
remains, likely from an offering to the deceased. The cemetery was short-lived, used only
from SM/EPG-LPG, and it may have been used by inhabitants of a small local settlement,
rather than the main settlement at Knossos.
In 1980, four SM/PG (or one PG and four Roman, the number of PG tombs is
unclear in the report) chamber tombs were also reported from this area, and finds include
many vases, including stirrup jars and an amphora, iron weapons, and gold jewelry. The
exact location of these tombs relative to the eight previously excavated tombs is unknown
and no further information about them has been published.
Another chamber tomb (KS #19) was excavated in 1959, and it is located
approximately 550 meters southeast of the main group of Ag. Ioannis tombs; this tomb is
often referred to as the tomb south of Ag. Ioannis. This tomb lies under the boundary fence
of the Apollonio hospital to the east and a little below the orphanage, and it is also ~550 m
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west of one of the groups of Kephala tombs (KS #16). The tomb originally dates to LM I or
II and it has a quadrangular chamber (2.4 x 1.9-2.6 m) and a deep-cut dromos with narrow,
inward leaning sides. The tomb further appears to have been reused in SM for two
inhumation burials, a male and a female. Two large bronze pins (one with an ivory head)
were found with the female, one placed on each shoulder, a feature thought to be foreign to
Mycenaean tradition, though common in Central Europe. Furthermore, the skulls were said
to be “quite different from most of the Cretan material.” Two stirrup jars, one amphora, and
fragments of bronze also accompanied these burials. In addition, an ash deposit was found in
front of the door to the chamber, possibly indicating ritual purification before the reuse of the
tomb or some part of the SM burial ceremony.
C. Ambelakia – In 1950, Alexiou excavated a robbed and half-destroyed oval
chamber tomb (~2.15 m in diameter) in an area between a vineyard and a field ~1 km west of
the road from Herakleion to Knossos (west of Ag. Ioannis). Protogeometric and Geometric
sherds were recovered from this tomb, which also had two monolithic door jambs, a
rectangular threshold cut into the kouskoura, and possibly a floor paved with plakas, or
possibly fallen from the roof. The tomb likely contained cremations, though no further
information about it has been published.
D. Kephala – In 1958, Coldstream excavated a tomb (KS #10) with a rectangular
chamber (2 x 1.6 m) and dromos with inward leaning sides at this location, which is ~700 m
south-southeast of the Royal Tomb, on the west bank of Kephala ridge, near the church of
Agios Nikolaos at Isopata, and ~500 m northwest of Payne’s Kephala tombs. This tomb has
previously been mis-identified as being located at Sopata of Agios Nikolaos (Lasithi). The
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tomb appears to have been constructed in LM III but reused for a single MPG inhumation
burial. This burial was accompanied by an amphora, stirrup jar, bronze ring, and bronze pin.
The 1958 tomb is likely associated with tombs (KS #16) found ~200-300 m to the
south. Evans dug two tombs, which he called beehive tombs, at this location in 1907, one of
which was said to have contained nearly 100 vases, including Corinthian imports. Bronze
tweezers, a bronze cup, and iron swords were also recovered from these two tombs. Payne
dug an additional tomb (or two-chamber tombs) a little to the south in 1927. Payne’s tomb
had a circular chamber (~2.4 x 1.9 m), which contained three pits, and a dromos with two
niches. Over 100 terracotta vases, including Rhodian and Corinthian imports, and bronze
vessels were also found in this tomb, as well as a rough limestone block, identified as a
possible altar. The pottery from these three (or four) tombs dates from PG to O, and they
contained cremation burials, primarily in kalpai and pithoi. These tombs also continue the
line of Hogarth’s tombs, which are located ~400 m to the south.
Around 150 meters east of KS # 16 on the crest of the ridge was found a tholos tomb
(Kephala tholos - KS #17). This tholos contained a round corbel-vaulted chamber,
rectangular fore-hall with two side chambers, and a walled, steep dromos. Mason’s marks
were also found on some of the blocks. The earliest burials of this tomb, from four shaft
graves, appear to date to LM II, though authors have previously argued that its construction
could be as early as LM I or MM III; the tomb was also, however, reused in LM IIIC, as was
the Isopata tomb. According the excavation reports, the LM IIIC material consists of 5
deposits in the chamber fill, which include up to 9 inhumations and 15 vases. Preston,
however, proposes two LM IIIC burial deposits, one in the chamber at a depth of 2.1 m (the
so-called 5th bone deposit, with four skulls, two deep bowls, two stirrup jars, and an
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aryballos) and the other in the forehall (with an amphoriskos). She further identifies an SM
stirrup jar and deep bowl as associated with an inhumation in a pithos found ~1 m deep in the
chamber fill; in addition, a PG bell krater found higher up in the fill may indicate presence of
yet another EIA burial in this tomb.
Hogarth dug eight (seven of which were robbed) rock-cut tombs (KS #39) at this
location (a little over 1 km north of the palace and ~500 m east of the North Cemetery) in
1899-1900. Most of the tombs were chambers with dromoi, though one or two (#6-called
tholus chamber and #1-called vaulted chamber whose walls almost converge to form a
pointed arch) may have been a tholos. At least two of the tombs had sloping, stepped dromoi
with inward leaning sides, signs that they may have been constructed in LM III. The tombs
contained evidence of burials from SM-EO, and one also contained evidence of LM III.
Finds of note from these tombs include a clay kernos with tripod feet, a bird vase, three pairs
of bronze tweezers, three bronze mirrors, a gold diadem, blue paste and terracotta beads, a
bronze tripod, and iron weapons. In addition, Tomb 2 contained a cylindrical stone, which
may have been used as an altar, and Tomb 5, which was unrobbed, contained only two
inhumations and four vases, reminiscent of the tomb at Agios Ioannis. Finally, Hogarth’s
tombs appear to have contained both inhumations and cremations.
Payne also apparently investigated two previously excavated tombs in the vicinity of
Hogarth’s tombs in 1929, one with a circular chamber with G and A sherds, and the other
with a rectangular chamber dating to LM. It is unclear whether the Kephala tombs are the
eastern outliers of the North Cemetery or represent smaller local plots, possibly for extended
families. Many of the tombs may have been reused from Late Minoan times, as Kephala
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ridge was in a prominent location above the main ancient road leading from the
palace/settlement to the harbor.
In addition, in 1957 another, half-destroyed chamber tomb (~4.2 m diameter), with
PG-O pottery, was cleared on the southern edge of Kephala ridge (between KS #39 and #40,
to the south/southeast of Hogarth’s tombs). The remaining small finds from the tomb
consisted of a gold bead, iron sword, gilt iron pin, and a Levantine scarab. According to
Coldstream, this tomb would have been an outlying member of Hogarth’s cemetery (or the
NC). An empty tomb with a small, oval chamber and stepped dromos was also found just to
the east of this tomb.
Less than 150 m to the west of Hogarth’s tombs opposite the stream were identified
other (at least three were noted by Evans) Geometric tombs (KS #41), though no other
information about them is known.
E. Kallithea (Babali) (KS #32) – In 1959, Platon uncovered two “rather poor” PG
chamber tombs, ~1 km northwest of the village of Kallithea (which is ~1.5 km northeast of
the palace), and he noted traces of tombs and buildings of the same period in the area. These
tombs were said to have contained a few burials and very few vases, including a small stirrup
jar. Just below the burial layer of Tomb B was uncovered a palaeontological find: seven
large vertebrae of some unknown mammal. A possible associated settlement (G-H) was also
identified ~200 m southwest of the village.
F. North Cemetery – The North Cemetery at Knossos (the main cemetery of the EIA)
appears to have been quite large: it consists of tombs labeled as from Teke (Ambelokipi), the
Knossos Medical Faculty (University Site), Venizelio Hospital (=Sanatorium, ~100 m to the
SE of the Medical Faculty), and Fortetsa (North).
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Approximately 100 m to the south of the University site was identified a
concentration of chamber tombs, which form the southern limit of the North Cemetery.
Brock published three tombs (SM-EO) from this area (labeled as Fortetsa) which were
excavated by Payne and Blakeway in 1933 (Tombs L, TFT, and Π = KS #52). These tombs
were located ~800 m to the north of the other Fortetsa tombs (see below - K. Fortetsa) and
were of the same type. Tomb Π was noteworthy in that it contained evidence of SM burials;
Tomb L contained one inhumation (possibly a child) and at least two cremations; Tomb TFT,
on the other hand, was small (<1.25 m in diameter) and contained 15 burials (three in a niche
in the dromos), along with numerous imported vases (Naxian, Cycladic, Corinthian, Cypriot),
though few other finds.
Approximately 50 meters west of KS #52 (~50 m southwest of the main KnossosHerakleion road and immediately opposite the Sanatorium/Hospital) on a small rise were
three chamber tombs in a row (KS #56) excavated by Hood. Two of these contained
evidence of inhumations and the other of cremations. Also from this concentration of tombs
come 10 additional chambers excavated by Coldstream and Huxley in 1967 (KS #55) in an
olive grove opposite the main entrance to the Venizelion Hospital. All of these tombs had
been thoroughly looted, though there was evidence from SM (two tombs) until EO/O.
Knossos Survey #62 represents part of the Medical Faculty site (an SM-LO, H and R
cemetery), which is located under the new Medical Faculty building of the University of
Crete, ~1.2 km northwest of the palace and 1 km north of the main Fortetsa cemetery. 86
tombs were excavated in 1978, the majority of which (60 or more) were chamber tombs;
these had mostly irregular, round chambers, though some were rectangular, and niches/side
chambers were often found in the dromoi. The SM chamber tombs, in particular, most
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resemble the Fortetsa tombs in “the shape of the chambers and their size relative to the whole
tomb.” The Medical Faculty site also contained a few shaft graves, pit graves, and pit caves,
which are defined as rectangular shafts which lead to miniature chambers dug into the sides.
The tombs in the cemetery seem to occur commonly in clusters arranged in rows of four to
six tombs. A limited number of burials were found in each tomb, and Cavanagh has
suggested that they were family tombs serving a “very narrow kin group.”
As many as twenty-one SM tombs were excavated, all except one located on the
southern edge of the Medical Faculty; these consist of 11 chamber tombs, 1-4 shaft graves,
and 2-4 pit caves, types all observed in the LM III cemetery at Zapher Papoura. Catling
believes that the earliest burials in this cemetery date to SM and that no previous burials
existed here, though Coldstream suggests that some of the burials (T. 75 and 107, for
example) may have been placed in reused LM III tombs. From PG onwards, nearly all adult
burials are found in chamber tombs. Many new chamber tombs were constructed in PG-MG,
though it has been suggested that new chambers were not constructed after the ninth century
and that in LG-O old ones were simply reused with burials, often the older ones, frequently
being placed in niches cut into the dromoi. Small pits with burials in larnakes, pithoi, and
urns also occur during this later period. The SM tombs contained both inhumations and
cremations, while urn cremation was predominant from PG onward. Geometric inhumations
in this cemetery likely all (or nearly all) represent infant/child burials in pithoi and larnakes,
and these occur within and outside the chamber tombs, as well as in pits. Parts of 17 Minoan
(LM IIIA-B) larnakes, as well as at least one small scale imitation (T. 104), have been found
with EIA burials from the North Cemetery and Coldstream has suggested that in PGB these
larnakes began to be reused, possibly all for the inhumations of children. The total number
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of burials in the Medical Faculty may range from 422-671, with a peak in the Geometric
period.
In addition, two of the SM pit caves (T. 186 and 200-202) from the Medical Faculty
were especially noteworthy in that they contained warrior burials; T. 200-202, for example,
contained the remains of a male, two females, and possibly a child (the male, one female, and
the child may have been cremated at the same time on the same pyre), and finds included a
boar’s tusk helmet, bronze openwork stand, bronze weapons, a bronze shield boss, an ivory
comb, iron pins, 80 gold beads, and stone, glass and faience beads. The shaft graves, also
SM, consisted of rectangular or trapezoidal pits cut into the bedrock, within which a smaller
pit was dug to a greater depth to receive a single inhumation (male where it was possible to
identify the bones) and then covered with stone slabs. These tombs contained few to no
offerings; one stirrup jar was the only recovered find.
Finds of note from the Medical Faculty chamber tombs, on the other hand, include an
MM III-LM I stone gem in EIA gold setting, bronze cauldrons and other vessels, iron obeloi
and firedogs, glass and amber beads, bronze and iron weapons, bronze, silver, and gold
jewelry, a serpentine pendant, limestone basin and mortar, iron horse bit, bone pin, scarabs,
faience figurines and vessels, fragments of a terracotta house model, goat horns, and
eggshell. Attic, Corinthian, Argive, Thessalian, Euboean, Cycladic, East Greek, Cypriot, and
Phoenician imported vessels have also been identified from these tombs. Furthermore,
evidence of funerary meals (bones of sheep/goat, and pig), amulets (bones of cattle,
sheep/goat, pig, and dog), offerings (eggshell), and animal sacrifice (T.79-2 horses and 2
dogs; T. 152-two horses) were recovered from some of the tombs.
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Other tombs were previously identified less than 50 meters from the excavated area
of the Medical Faculty: KS #53 (EIA tombs northwest of the fork between the Fortetsa and
Knossos roads, southwest of KMF) and KS #54, about which no further information,
including date of excavation, is known. Survey #63 is another possible EIA chamber tomb
uncovered in 1976 on the east edge of the Medical Faculty tombs. Also from the area of the
Medical Faculty tombs come four LG chamber tombs dug in 1982. In 1991, three chamber
tombs were excavated in the area of the hospital, one of which contained LM III-SM vases,
and in 1996 two chamber tombs, one of which was PG and the other included an LM IIICSM stirrup jar among its contents, were excavated adjacent to the west side of the Hospital.
In addition, a cippus, presumably from the North Cemetery was found out of context in the
vicinity of the hospital in 1997.
Also likely part of the North Cemetery are KS #50 and #51 (located ~150-250 m
south and southwest of the Medical Faculty tombs). KS #50 (labeled as at Teke) is an EPG
chamber tomb which was excavated by Coldstream in 1959. Fragments of two inhumations
remained (an infant in a pithos in the chamber and an adult in the dromos), along with 18
vases, 2 iron spears and a bronze ring. Survey #51 represents EIA tombs discovered in 1957
on the edge of Fortetsa village looking towards Ambelokipi (Teke). Two tombs, located ~15
m apart, were excavated, and fragments of G pottery were also found nearby; these appear to
have been the chamber tombs dug by Payne in 1927 “at Fortezza” which were said to have
been PG-O.
From Ambelokipi (Teke) come numerous chamber tombs, which appear to comprise
an outward extension/the northern fringe (~100 m to the northwest) of the North Cemetery.
KS #47 with 13 or more tombs (PG-O) was excavated, primarily in 1975-1976, during
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construction on the Niotakis and Koiladi plots. Tomb G represents the tomb partly dug by
Platon in 1943 and it contained over 150 terracotta vases, at least 10 bronze vessels, two
loomweights, and obsidian fragments. Tombs N-G-H-J-L-K form a single line, with other
tombs located nearby. Tomb F contained a pit in the dromos with the remains of two horses
and two dogs; finds of note from the other tombs include bronze vessels, imported vases,
bronze and iron pins, a possible limestone altar, an LM III sealstone, gold pins, gold rings,
and obsidian fragments.
The Teke tholos tomb (KS #46), which was found by Hutchinson in 1939-40
approximately 150 m north of KS #47, may originally have been Minoan but was reused for
burials from PGB-EO. The tomb had a round chamber (>3 m in diameter) and a long (15.3
m) dromos. Just inside the doorway, on either side was a vase, both of which contained fine
jewelry. The tomb was looted and disturbed but still contained evidence of cremation burials
(at least 19), approximately 120 vases, a terracotta house model, gold, amber, bronze, and
crystal pendants, silver pins with gold heads, an ivory crescent, ostrich egg, an electrum
potnia theron, LM III larnax, fragments of limestone ‘horns of consecration,’ a faience bottle,
an ivory crescent, a gold fillet, scarabs, a gold male and female kriophoros, bronze horses,
and fragments of a bronze tripod cauldron, among numerous other items. The finds from this
tholos have been well-published and Boardman has identified it as possibly the tomb (in
PGB) of an immigrant goldsmith (and his family) from the Middle East (North Syria?), as it
contained much fine jewelry (often with NE elements), and gold bars and gold, silver, and
electrum dumps, though Hoffman does not consider the tomb to have been that of a jeweler.
Two adjacent chamber tombs of the same period (G-O) were also excavated, one of which
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contained a curved stone which may have come from the tholos. Traces of two pyres were
also identified between the tholos and the nearest chamber tomb.
Additional tombs have recently been excavated in the Ambelokipi/Teke area. One
LG chamber tomb with built stone jambs and a possible offering table was reported in 1991.
Seven PG-O chamber tombs with both inhumations and cremations were excavated and six
more were identified, but were unable to be excavated, in 1993 from the Koiladi plot on
Knossou Street. One of these tombs had four cups placed just in front of the blocking stones,
and fragments of iron obeloi, a terracotta bird and votive idol were recovered from the tombs.
In 1994, on the Daphermou plot, two robbed PG and SM-G chamber tombs were
investigated. Furthermore, in 2000 three additional G (and O?) chamber tombs were
excavated in this area, one of which contained a stone kernos and a scarab.
G. Mavro Spelio (KS #251) – A cemetery of 21 MM II-LM IIIB chamber tombs
(with one-four chambers each and dromoi) was excavated at this location (~600 m northeast
of the palace) by Evans and Forsdyke in 1926-1927. In some tombs (IV-14, VII-2, and
XVII-1 or more), Geometric pithoi with infant burials were placed in the collapsed/fallen
earth above the Minoan interments; the pithoi of tomb IV were placed high up in the fallen
earth, while those of tomb XVII cut into a larnax resting on the chamber floor. Cups and
jugs are the only finds mentioned as accompanying some of these burials.
H. Villa Ariadne – In 1958, twelve LPG vases (a krater, five skyphoi, two aryballoi,
a cup, a miniature cup, jug, and oinochoe) were discovered ~150 m southwest of the villa,
possibly from a tomb. The surrounding area was thoroughly explored the next year, though
no tomb was found. If the vases do come from a burial, it would likely represent an isolated
cremation in a domestic area.
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I. Near the Palace – An ‘oven-shaped’ tomb (KS #223), possibly EIA, was found
immediately north of the palace, “a little east” of the Geometric well of the north pillar crypt
(KS #222). No further information about this tomb is known.
J. Stratigraphical Museum – According to Cadogan, excavations behind the Knossos
Stratigraphical Museum have revealed evidence of intramural infant burials placed under the
floors of rooms, a practice commonly observed in mainland Mycenaean burials and also
found in the LM II Unexplored Mansion at Knossos. These infant burials were apparently
found all over the site, dating to LM IIIC (especially the middle phase) and SM, though the
exact number of burials and grave goods have not yet been published. The brief report
mentions that in one example, however, the infant was placed under a large, plain lekane.
K. Fortetsa (KS #151) – Seventeen or eighteen chamber tombs were excavated in
1933 and 1935 at this site on the lower west slopes of the so-called Acropolis of Knossos
(~850 m west of the palace and ~1 km south of the Medical Faculty tombs). The tombs
typically had round or oval chambers (~1-2.5 m in diameter), except for the two smallest (III
and OD) which had square chambers, and dromoi (length 1->5 m), some of which contained
ledges for burials. They were entered by a low rectangular opening, and there was usually a
considerable step down from the descending dromos into the chamber. The tombs were
roughly divided into three groups based on location (I-IX and P; OD, X, XI, LST and BLT; F
(the only tomb with a different orientation) and possibly γ and Q). Cremation burials were
found inside the chambers, in the dromoi, and on the cut ledges, and these were usually
placed in pithoi, though sometimes in a krater or bronze lebes/dinos. While most tombs
contained as few as one-five burials, a few tombs contained many more (for example, T.VII12, F-13 or 14, X-21, II-28, and P-as many as 78).
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The Fortetsa tombs were used from EPG-LO, though according to Brock, there is no
evidence that any of the tombs was constructed after the end of PG. Tomb P was by far the
richest grave with ~380 vases, followed by T. II with 137, among numerous other finds.
Aryballoi, oinochoai, cups, and krateriskoi were the most common vase types, and Cypriot,
Attic, and Corinthian imports were also present. Finds of note from the Fortetsa tombs
include many bronze vessels (dinoi, bowls, oinochoai, phialai, a tripod stand), fibulae, pins,
reliefs, and a ram, gold (leaf, rings, pins, a bee, and a daedalic head), terracotta (trees, horses,
birds, a boat, and a basket), and silver objects (pins and tweezers), iron weapons and tools,
gold, faience, glass/paste, terracotta, and amber beads, scarabs, pendants (steatite, crystal,
carnelian, and ivory), sealstones (one with a flying fish), whetstones, a lead lion, and faience
figurines. In addition, a large burned area was found in front of the dromoi of Tombs P(I)
and II, likely from pyres, funerary rituals/offerings, or from cleaning out the tomb for later
burials.
In addition, fragments of G tripod pithoi and other vases suggested to Hood and
Smyth the existence of possible EIA tombs at KS #107, which is less than 1 km northeast of
the palace, 500 m south of the Medical Faculty tombs, and ~400 m north of the Fortetsa
tombs.
L. Lower Gypsades – The MM III-LM I Temple Tomb (KS #323) is located ~600 m
south of the palace. In 1975 approximately 200 m northwest of this tomb on the eastern
slopes of Lower Gypsades, a PGB-LO chamber tomb (KS #320) with an irregular, oval (~2.6
x 1.5 m) chamber and narrow dromos was uncovered. The tomb contained 35 cremation
urns (21 PGB-LG), and other finds included 81 additional vases, a pair of silver pins, bronze
tweezers, iron weapons, and a faience scarab. Fragments of eggshell were also noted,
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possibly from an offering made at the tomb. According to Boardman, this tomb may have
belonged to an undiscovered outlying habitation on Lower Gypsades or have been placed on
the land of a family living in the main settlement at Knossos.
Just beyond the northwest corner of Temple Tomb was found what Evans records as a
“Late Geometrical grave pit containing vessels of characteristic types.” No further
information about this grave has been published, however.
In addition, ~150-200 m south of Temple Tomb in a vineyard on a high bank
bordering the west side of the main road was recorded a plundered, possibly EIA tomb (KS
#325), though no further information about this tomb is known. Two other possible EIA
tombs (KS #328) appear to have been exposed before and during WW II, ~300 m southwest
of Temple Tomb, though again no further information is known. Also in this area,
immediately south of KS #328, was excavated an LM III chamber tomb and two or three
shaft graves (KS #329).
M. Upper Gypsades – At this location (~200 m southwest of KS #328 on Lower
Gypsades), 18-20 tombs (KS #331), primarily chambers, were excavated in 1955. One of
these tombs dated to MM and the majority dated to LM IIIA-B. Tomb IX, however, dates to
LM IIIB2 (possibly IIIC), and it contained a larnax with three skulls, a stirrup jar, deep bowl,
and bronze earring. Dating to the same period is possible Tomb VIa, which consisted of a
group of vases (two stirrup jars, a jar, and a flask), though no bones were found. Tomb VII,
on the other hand, is the latest from the cemetery (LM IIIB2-SM) and it held many more
vases and grave goods than the other tombs. This roughly circular chamber tomb (1.7 x 1.9
m) with dromos contained at least three inhumation burials, one larnax, 11 vases, 4 bronze
pins (one cf. Mouliana), an iron knife with bronze rivets, 2 sealstones (one engraved with a
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flying fish), a spindlewhorl, 2 bronze rings, an amber bead, 2 stone beads, and a faience bead.
Two additional stirrup jars were found higher up in the fill and may also belong with this
tomb.
Also in 1993 in Papadakis field, five chamber tombs (four LM IIIB and one PG) were
uncovered; in 1997 immediately to the east of these tombs, Grammatikaki excavated a large
SM-PG chamber tomb (T.5) which was divided in two by a section of wall. The north side
of the tomb contained eight skulls, fragments of larnakes, a feeding bottle, and a small jug,
while the south end of this tomb contained three skulls and a few sherds. It is unclear from
the reports whether this tomb is located on Upper Gypsades or Lower.
N. Other – In 1897, Orsi published one large Early Iron Age cinerary urn and two
lids, which were said to have come from burials at Knossos. The exact findspot(s) and tomb
type, however, are unknown.
Overall – Finds from the cemeteries are in the Herakleion and Knossos
Stratigraphical Museums and possibly also the Ashmolean and British Museums. An
extensive LM IIIC and SM settlement has been identified behind the Stratigraphical Museum
to the west of the palace. The area west of the palace remained the main habitation site of
Knossos throughout the EIA, expanding to the north in the area between the palace and the
Venizeleion hospital during LG and O. Some scholars have suggested that the wide
distribution of EIA cemeteries (spread over 5 km) implies the existence of a scatter of
separate villages and hamlets, though Hood and Smyth believe that the main center of
habitation from PG on was this area west of the palace. In addition, Coldstream has
suggested that Knossos was an urban nucleus thoughout the Dark Age and that the tombs are
typically located less than 500 meters from the settlement. Furthermore, Hood and Smyth
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consider the tombs in the EIA to be no more scattered than in the BA or R periods. They
also postulate that the distribution of EIA tombs may have been to some extent conditioned
by the distribution of BA ones; for example, in the earlier part of the period some BA tombs
appear to have been reused, especially those (KS #16; 39) flanking the line of what may have
been the ancient road from BA Knossos to the north. The tombs from Gypsades, Fortetsa,
Mavro Spelio, Kephala, the North Cemetery, and near the palace all likely belonged to this
settlement, with the North Cemetery being the main cemetery. The Geometric finds from
Isopata may have belonged to the possible settlement at Herakleion, along with the tombs at
Mastamba and Atsalenio, or to a potential, smaller settlement on Agios Ioannis Hill, to which
the cemetery at the western foot of the hill and the tomb at Ambelakia would also have
belonged. Evidence of G-H occupation (KS #32) also existed on top of the ridge to
southwest and on the slopes below Kallithea (Babali), with which the tombs in that area may
have belonged. There may also have been a scatter of farmhouses, to which some isolated
tombs could have belonged.
Ref: Orsi 1897, 255-257; Hogarth 1899-1900, 82-85; Welch 1899-1900; Evans 1901-1902,
8; 1903-1904, 4-6; 1906, 136-172; Mackenzie 1906-1907, 443-444; Karo 1908, 122;
Forsdyke 1926-1927; Woodward 1927, 244-245; Payne 1927-1928; Levi 1927-1929c, 568572; BCH 52 (1928) 495; Herbig 1928, 604-605; Karo 1930, 156; Hartley 1930-1931, 56-69;
Béquignon 1933, 292; Marinatos 1933, 304-314; Payne 1933, 288-292; Béquignon 1934,
269-270; Payne 1935, 166-168; Karo 1936, 160; Marinatos 1936, 224; Pendlebury 1939,
314, 324; Robertson 1939, 203-205; Walter 1940, 298-299; 1942, 195; Dunbabin 1944, 8486; Furumark 1944, 226-227; Platon 1947, 628, 633; Cook 1948, 117; Alexiou 1950, 294296; Desborough 1952, 325; Platon and Alexiou 1953, 487; Cook and Boardman 1954, 166;
Hutchinson and Boardman 1954; Hutchinson 1956; Brock 1957; Hood 1958, 24; Platon
1958, 477; Hood 1959, 21; Platon 1959, 367, 380-381; Hood et al. 1958-1959; Boardman
1960; Daux 1960, 838-840; Hood 1960a, 42; Boardman 1961, 97-98; Hood and Boardman
1961; Coldstream 1963; Desborough 1964, 179-181; Evans 1964b, 154, 547, 555-558;
1964c, 771-776, 1018; Alexiou 1965, 290; Boardman 1967; Cadogan 1967; Coldstream
1968, 415-416; Hood and Coldstream 1968; Megaw 1968, 22; Pini 1968, 83-85 #83;
Snodgrass 1971, 80-82, 165-166, 209; Desborough 1972b, 115, 225-229; Furumark 1972,
106-107; Lembesi 1975; Sackett 1976; Pelon 1976, 263-265; Catling 1977, 11-18, 22;
1979b; Kanta 1980, 29-30; Catling 1981, 42; Coldstream 1981; Holloway 1981, 101; Hood
166
and Smyth 1981, 16-18, 34-39, 42, 46, 52-53, 58-59; Rethemiotakis 1982; Touchais 1982,
624; Catling 1983, 43-56; Syriopoulos 1983, 658-662 (XCIII), 882-884 (CXXXIV); Warren
1983, 73-74, 80; Coldstream 1991; French 1991, 68-69; Cadogan 1992b, 132-133, 139;
Grammatikaki 1993; Coldstream 1994; Serpetsidaki 1994; Catling 1995; Coldstream and
Catling 1996; Grammatikaki 1996, 624; Blackman 1997, 105-106; Grammatikaki 1997, 987;
Hoffman 1997, 191-245; Kanta 1997, 231; Blackman 1999, 113; 2000, 133; Jones 2000,
216-229; Banou 2002, 309-313; Coldstream 2002; Whitley 2003, 81; 2004, 77; Preston 2005
104. Mount Juktas (figs. 140, 153) – Several Early Iron Age burial sites have been found in
the vicinity of Mount Juktas, to the southwest of Archanes.
A. Kastro – Sakellarakis reports that remains of a Geometric cemetery were found at
this site, which is located ~300 m southwest of Stravomyti Cave, in the area of Karnari,
southwest of Mount Juktas, and northeast of Profitis Elias (Kanli Kastelli). No further
information about these tombs has been reported. Evidence of LM, G, and A occupation has
also been found in the vicinity of Kastro, with which these burials may have been associated.
B. Kato Lakkos – An SM cremation burial was found in a lidded limestone ash urn at
this site, which is located ~800 m southeast of Kanari, on the far southern slope of Juktas,
south-southwest of Archanes. Grave goods include one stirrup jar, a bronze spearhead, iron
spearhead, and two iron Nave Type II swords.
C. Krya Vrysi – Geometric pottery was found in connection with tombs at this site,
which may be located somewhere on the lower, southeast (or southwest) slope of Juktas.
The exact location, however, is unknown, and no further information has been published
about these tombs. Mycenaean, Geometric, and Archaic remains have been found at Kato
Vrysi, though its location relative to Krya Vrysi is unclear from the reports.
D. Stravomyti – Pendlebury reported fragments of SM/PG larnakes from
Kambariane, which is located just west of Stravomyti Cave and northwest of Kastro, on the
southwest flank of Juktas, at the foot of the mountain near Karnari. These burials may more
167
likely date to LM III, however, though the date remains uncertain. These larnakes may also
have been associated with the settlement at Kastro.
Overall – A small LM III and SM settlement has been reported from the area of
Kanari (Kambariani #6c), ~60 meters west of a fountain, and remains of a few G-EO
buildings were also found, somewhere near a spring. The exact location of these sites
relative to each other is unclear, and it is also unclear from the reports whether the
occupation identified in the vicinity of Kastro refers to the same site(s) or to a different one.
At least some of the burials from the area, however, likely belong to these sites. In addition,
an LM IIIB rock-cut chamber tomb was excavated by Sakellaraki at Tragomandra. Some
finds from the Juktas tombs are in the Herakleion Museum.
Ref: Pendlebury 1939, 315; Pini 1968, 82 #79.1; Orlandos 1974, 115; 1978, 62; Sakellarakis
and Sakellaraki 1978, 322; Catling 1980, 50; Kanta 1980, 34; Sapouna-Sakellaraki 1990, 7376; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1991, 14, 24-25; Chaniotis 1994, 69; Sakellarakis and
Sakellaraki 1997, 35-36; Sjögren 2001, 171 (C35); 204 (C125)
105. Nea Halikarnassos – One Geometric grave (a chamber tomb?) was reported from this
site in 1936, and Pendlebury refers to a G cemetery at this location, which is a suburb just to
the east of Herakleion and east of Katsamba. No further information has been published
from these tomb(s), however, though they could have belonged to the new EIA harbor town
founded at Herakleion.
In addition, in 1972 Lembesi excavated a robbed LM chamber tomb at this site,
located between Herodotou and Artemisias roads and west of the church of Agios Nikolaos.
The tomb was of LM II or IIIA1 type, similar to the Tomb of the Double Axes and the
Isopata Tomb from Knossos, and it had a trapezoidal chamber (3.5 x 3.2 m), which was
divided into three sections by a large columnar support, and a long (8.6 m) dromos. The
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tomb appears to have been cleaned out in ancient times, with three small conch shells, one
from each of the three tomb sections, representing the only finds still on the chamber floor.
Inside the tomb to the left of the entrance was found a pit (1.25 x 0.6 m), which was full of
earth, stones, bones, two skulls, three vases, a faience vase, one clay bead, three stone beads,
and a glass/paste bead. This pit was apparently created in ancient times as a deposit for
goods and bones, rather than a primary burial site, and a tripod altar was also placed on top of
the pit. The faience vase and two of the beads appear to date to the earliest phase of the
tomb’s use, though two of the vases (a stirrup jar and jug) date to LM IIIC and perhaps
represent a later re-use of the tomb or the period in which it was cleaned out. According to
Lembesi, this tomb seems to indicate that the LM cemetery of the harbor settlement at
Katsambas and Poros was larger than previously thought, extending further to the east as far
as Nea Halikarnassos. Finds from the site are in the Herakleion Museum.
Ref: Blegen 1936, 372; Marinatos 1936, 224; Pendlebury 1939, 324; Snodgrass 1971, 209;
Lembesi 1973, 564-567; Catling 1979a, 36; Syriopoulos 1983, 102 #203, 287 #307, 881
CXXVII
106. Phoinikia – Early Iron Age tombs have been found in various locations in the vicinity
of the modern village, which is 4-5 km southwest of Herakleion. Finds from the site are in
the Herakleion Museum, and the associated settlement has not yet been identified.
A. Phoinikia – Marinatos notes that as many as 11 PG and 3 G vases were recovered
from a vineyard located on a small hill near the village, apparently in 1925. These vases
certainly come from one or more robbed tombs, likely chambers with cremations, though the
exact location of the tombs remains unknown. The pottery includes two aryballoi, two
pyxides, two oinochoai, two coarse ware vases, a cup, jug, and pithos.
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B. Drakouliari – In addition, in 1967, at Drakouliari or Chochliodoloi on the west
side of the plain of Phoinikia, Alexiou excavated a small EPG round chamber tomb (1.39 m
diameter) with short dromos. The dromos was apparently used as a pit, and was full of ash,
but no bone, possibly from offerings to the deceased. The dromos also contained three steps
and was 0.6 m higher than the chamber floor. Finds from the tomb chamber include a
cremation in a pithos, ten other vases (four stirrup jars, two amphorae, two krateriskoi, a jug,
and oinochoe), two hemispherical bronze bowls, a bronze spear, iron weapons, and an iron
fibula with a bronze disc through the middle. In addition, the burial pithos was placed on top
of a large plaka and its mouth was also closed with one.
C. TEI – Also, in 1994 during the digging of a pipeline on the land of the
Agricultural Technological Institute of Herakleion (TEI), one half-destroyed, rock-cut
chamber tomb was discovered with 27 LG vases, including 6 skyphoi, 6 jugs, 6 aryballoi, 4
ash urns, 4 cups, and a hydria. A thick layer of burned clayish soil was uncovered just above
the tomb. Evidence of a short, possibly funerary, peribolos wall (the longest section running
for 6 m) was also found ~400 m from the tomb, and south of the northern section of this wall
was observed burnt earth from a possible pyre. In addition, at the northwest corner of this
area and to the south of the peribolos wall, a low semicircular building was identified, also
LG (though with evidence of an earlier phase), along with five amphorae and one coarse
ware vessel; the function of this building has not yet been established.
Ref: Marinatos 1931-1932, 2-5; Pendlebury 1939, 314, 325; Desborough 1952, 254, 326;
Alexiou 1967b, 213-214; Orlandos 1967, 124-126; Alexiou 1968, 404; Coldstream 1968,
416; Daux 1968, 999; Megaw 1968, 23; Pini 1968, 90 #82, 93; Snodgrass 1971, 210; Leekley
and Noyes 1975, 93; Syriopoulos 1983, 214 #197, 663 XCV; Galanaki 1994; Touchais 1999,
823; Blackman 2000, 139
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107. Profitis Elias (formerly Kanli Kastelli) – Xanthoudides excavated an EIA tomb at
Riza, located approximately one km north of the modern village, which is ~4 km southsouthwest of Ag. Syllas. The tomb type and exact contents of the tomb were not reported,
though there were said to have been many vases, primarily Geometric but some
Protogeometric. It is unclear, however, whether the Attic PG skyphos discussed by
Desborough comes from this tomb or another unknown robbed tomb. The finds from the site
are in the Herakleion Museum.
This tomb could have belonged to the PG-G (and possibly LM IIIC) settlement(s)
which existed on Rokka, the rocky hill immediately to the south of the modern village, and
perhaps also on Korifi, the small hill less than 1.5 km to the east of the village. The archaic
city that developed on this site, and lasted until Byzantine times, may have been ancient
Lykastos.
Ref: Xanthoudides 1918, 10; Pendlebury 1939, 325; Desborough 1952, 259; 1972b, 372;
Leekley and Noyes 1975, 84; Syriopoulos 1983, 216-217 #205, 291 #336, 664 CII; Jones
2000, 266; Nowicki 2000, 182-183; Brown 2001, 334-336
108. Tsangkaraki – Marinatos reported finds from PG and G tombs at this site, which is
located a little over 2 km to the north of Kanli Kastelli/Profitis Elias. No other information
about these tombs has been published. These tombs appear to belong to the Geometric
cemetery referred to by Evans as located ~3 miles northeast of Kanli Kastelli.
Ref: Marinatos 1933-1935, 56; Evans 1964c, 74 n. 5
VIANNOS EPARCHIA
109. Arvi – An LM IIIC (and possibly late IIIB) defensible settlement has been identified on
the summit of Fortetsa, which is located on the east side of the gorge ~1.3 km north of the
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village of Arvi. Possible larnax fragments were observed by Hood et al. and also by Nowicki
just beyond the east edge of the settlement in Area C. In addition, Hood et al. identified the
remains of a possible, destroyed tholos just below and ~20 m to the southeast of the east end
of the summit ridge. Nowicki, however, believes that there is not enough evidence to suggest
that this was the location of a cemetery in connection with the settlement. No definite burials
have yet been identified, though tholos tombs should be expected nearby. A Greek and
Roman cemetery was identified to the southeast of Fortetsa at Xenotaphoi, which is located
south/southwest of Kamini Hill (where the Minoan settlement was located), and the
associated Greco-Roman town was located by the sea in the vicinity of the modern village.
Ref: Hood et al. 1964, 89-93 #42; Nowicki 1991, 139; 1996, 265; 2000, 139-143
110. Viannos: Keraton – In 1956, a few Geometric vases (three kalpai, a cup, and two
aryballoi) and a bronze pin, were found on the slope of Keraton/Vigla Hill in the vicinity of
the acropolis. These likely come from a tomb, though no graves have yet been identified at
this location. This probable burial would have been associated with the extensive LM IIIC–
G defensible settlement, possibly ancient Arvi, which has been identified by Nowicki on this
hill, especially on the summit and northern slope. Evans had previously recorded pottery and
larnax fragments from this site and he also noted a Minoan settlement on the north slope of
the hill.
Approximately 1 km northwest of Keraton at the place Petrota, Nowicki identified a
tholos of Dark Age type, and he found three LM IIIC-PG sherds nearby, which may provide
the date of the tomb.
Ref: Frothingham 1896, 465; Taramelli 1899, 422; Alexiou 1956, 420; BCH 81 (1957) 618;
Hood et al. 1964, 84 #37; Pini 1968, 94; Nowicki 1991, 139; 2000, 139; Brown 2001, 342343; Sjögren 2001, 277 (E119)
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III. RETHYMNON NOMOS
AGIOS VASILIOS EPARCHIA
111. Atsipades (fig. 154) – At the location of Pezoulos, approximately 300 m to the
southeast of the modern village and directly above the road leading from Atsipades to
Phonises, in 1912-1913 Petroulakis excavated 21 LM IIIC-SM jar burials, in a 9 x 5 meter
area (now in the vicinity of a large stone enclosure). He did not notice any associated pits,
nor did he specify the vessel types, though they appear to have been primarily pyxides and
collared jars. Some of the burial vases were very small (only 0.1-0.15 m in height), and
many appear to have been supported upright by stones placed on either side. The rims of
most vases were covered by stone slabs, while a few were covered with large pot sherds.
The burials usually contained one or more smaller vases as offerings, and finds include
amphoriskoi, stirrup jars, an askos, a few bronze fibulae, a bronze bracelet, spearhead, and an
awl. The excavator believed that the burials (either cremations or secondary inhumations)
were all of children, a conclusion supported by Kanta based on the smallness of the vases.
This theory seemed to be confirmed in 1975 when Mavriyiannaki was shown an in situ
burial, apparently an infant cremation in a skyphos, at the northeast corner of the excavated
site; furthermore, she re-dated the burials to LM IIIB-SM after studying the pottery from
Petroulakis’ excavation. Hood and Warren, however, suspected that the burials were actually
adult urn cremations.
Additional evidence was provided in 1997 by the Agios Vasilios Survey Project
which noted parts of three jar burials (site 5024 #7) in a field house complex immediately
above the dirt road to the Korakia peak sanctuary (Phonises); these were in the vicinity of
and likely associated with Petroulakis’ burials. One of these vases contained a bronze
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handle, possibly from a wooden vessel which had been burned on the pyre. Two vessels, a
collared jar and an amphora, were identified as containing adult male cremations, thus
proving that the cemetery was not used only for children, and data from the survey has
further revealed that the burials from the cemetery apparently date only from mid-late LM
IIIC-SM. Agelarakis et al. also observed evidence of links with Cyprus in some of the
pottery, and they further note that the density of the burials is unusual, suggesting the
possibility that this was an urnfield cemetery, the only one known from Crete in this period
(cf. Amathous, Cyprus), though of a type common in the Levant and W. Anatolia. Kanta
further states that evidence of a mainland presence in the cemetery may be indicated by a
typical form of Mycenaean cooking jar which was used for one of the urn burials.
Scattered LM IIIC/EIA sherds were found in the fields above and to the south of
these burials, possibly from other tombs. The Atsipades jar burials were likely associated
with the extensive LM IIIC (and PG?) settlement which has been identified ~300 m to the
southeast on the north slopes of Phonises hill (~600 m southeast of the modern village). In
addition, according to Hood and Warren, a bronze sword or dagger was reportedly found on
the lower slopes of the Phonises settlement at ‘Lakkos’, possibly from a tholos tomb. Also,
several LM IIIA/B pithos burials with inhumations have been identified at Adzeivitos to the
north. Finds from the site are in the Rethymnon and Chania Museums.
Ref: Karo 1915, 198; Petroulakis 1915; Pendlebury 1939, 261; Desborough 1964, 184; Hood
and Warren 1966, 178-179 #15-16; Mavriyiannaki 1967-1968, 171; Pini 1968, 77 #129;
Snodgrass 1971, 165, 209; Davaras 1973b, 164; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 101;
Mavriyiannaki 1975; Catling 1978, 67; Kanta 1980, 209-210; Syriopoulos 1983, 108 #213,
388 CIII, 475 CXXI; Blackman 1998, 120-121; Touchais 1998, 968; Nowicki 2000, 204206; Agelarakis et al. 2001; Kanta 2001b, 17; Sjögren 2001, 233 (W73); Moody 2004, 257
174
112. Koxare – Hood and Warren mention the possible existence of tombs at Kamini, which
is located ~500 m to the southeast of the modern village at the foot of the ridge/acropolis
Ambelo. Two LM IIIC pithos sherds were found in a great pile of stones, which runs 40-50
meters across the edge of a field. These stones could represent a row of tholoi. These
possible tombs likely belong to the LM IIIC settlement at Phonises (Atsipades) ~1 km to the
west, though an LM III (primarily A and B) settlement has also been identified at the Ag.
Markos location ~1.5 km to the north of Kamini.
Ref: Hood and Warren 1966, 177 #13, 179 #17; Kanta 1980, 210
113. Orne (figs. 155-156) – Kanta and Stampolidis identified an extensive LM IIIC
defensible settlement on the summit of Kastello Hill, ~1 km northeast of the village.
Remains of a small tholos tomb (1.20 m preserved length) were found built into a small
hut/toolshed in the middle of an orchard on a slope to the south of the citadel. The tomb is
said to be similar to those found at Karphi, Kamares, Kourtes, and Krya, and its irregular
shape has been compared to some of the small tombs found at Anavlochos. The Orne tomb
also had a keel-vaulted roof, as at Panagia. The land owner reports that the tomb was once
full of vases, but that they were destroyed during World War II.
Ref: Nowicki 2000, 200; Kanta and Stampolidis 2001, 98-103; Kanta and Davaras 2004,
151
AMARI EPARCHIA
114. Mesonisia – At the location of Pano Sarakina northwest of the village, Faure identified
a pithos with infant burial in a rock shelter called Kalogerospilios; this is the southernmost of
a row of rock shelters. Faure dated the burial, which was accompanied by a small jug and
perfume vase, to SM (?), though Hood et al. dated it to MM (?). Hood et al. also observed
175
fragments of another possible pithos in the rock shelter. No further information about this
burial has been published. A possible EIA (and also Minoan?) settlement has been identified
on the hill immediately above the rock shelters, with which the burial(s) may have been
associated; this appears to be the same site (Ai Nuphris) where Faure identified LM and SM
sherds.
Ref: Faure 1963, 503-504; 1964, 68, 71 n. 2; Hood et al. 1964, 75 #25.2; Kanta 1980, 207
115. Pantanassa (figs. 157-158) – Rescue excavations were conducted in 1995 and 1998 in
Politakis field at the Erimoklisies site to the north of a new dirt road on the southeast slopes
of Veni, the mountain directly to the northeast of the modern village. Two stirrup jars, two
bronze pins, and a fragment of a terracotta figurine were uncovered in this area in 1988,
likely from a destroyed tomb. In 1995, a small tholos tomb, dating to late SM, with a
rectangular chamber (1.12 x 1.4 m) and a short dromos was excavated. The north and east
sides of the chamber were built up against the bedrock; the interior of the tomb shows careful
construction, while the exterior is somewhat poorly constructed. The tomb contained two
ash urns (a pithos and a bronze amphoroid-krater) placed on their sides on the floor, which
also contained two stirrup jars and two lekythoi. The pithos contained only an amphora, a
bronze pin, and cremated bones from an adult male, while the krater held an adult male
cremation, an amphora, stirrup jar, two krateriskoi, an iron dagger, and an iron knife; a
lekythos and the bronze krater show connections with Cyprus. Both of the vessels were
larger than the stomion and therefore must have been placed in the tomb through the roof.
The crown of the tomb’s roof, which originally consisted of one large plaka, was apparently
completely covered/hidden by a pyre. Fragments of burned earth, carbon, wood, and a jug
were found with it. Immediately to the south and east of the pyre, two hollows full of ash
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were uncovered in the bedrock, though the excavator was unable to determine whether the
ash came from the cremation or from some other funerary activity. Another pyre, apparently
the earlier of the two, as ash from the first pyre was found on top of earth used to put out the
fire of this pyre, was uncovered in the dromos by the entrance, from which two bronze spears
and a possible iron fibula were recovered.
A PG pithos burial was excavated in 1998 at the same site. The pithos was placed on
its side in a shallow pit and had stones placed around it. One baby feeder and two small
oinochoe accompanied the single cremation burial. The funerary pyre (0.9 x 0.57 m) was
identified immediately to the southeast of the burial. A section of wall and another possible
pyre were also uncovered to the west of the pithos burial. In addition, part of a poros
funerary stele was found on the surface somewhere nearby.
The Pantanassa tombs were likely associated with the large (LM IIIC-O and A-H)
settlement (possibly ancient Vene or Phalanna) on the summit of Veni; according to
Nowicki, this site is located at a strategic point in the northern entrance to the Amari valley,
and its summit is ~3 km west of the summit of Thronos Sybrita (Kephala). Also,
approximately 400 m to the west of the summit of Veni, at Metochi (Voliones), in 1982 two
larnakes with a few grave goods were found placed in simple pits, dating to the transitional
LM IIIB/C period. Some of the finds from the site are in the Rethymnon and Chania
Museums.
Ref: Dunbabin 1947, 186; Hood et al. 1964, 70-71 #21; Pologiorgi 1981; Prokopiou 1994,
253; Tegou 1995; Stampolidis and Karetsou 1998, 84 #55; Tegou 1998; Nowicki 2000, 197199; Tegou 2000-2001; Blackman 2001, 142; Tegou 2001; 2002; Whitley 2003, 87
116. Thronos – A large settlement (LM IIIC-G; A-R), likely ancient Sybrita, has been
identified on the summit of Kephala hill, which is located just to the west of the modern
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village. According to Belgiorno, traces of G-A finewares were discovered in the area of Ag.
Theotokos hill (southwest of Kephala), possibly revealing the location of an unpublished
Geometric tomb excavated by the Greek Ephoreia. It is unclear whether the PG-G vases and
terracotta figurines from the area of Sybrita, which were recently found in the collection of
Ch. Neonakis in Athens, come from this tomb or a different one. The finds from the
Neonakis collection consist of 23 vases, 3 spindle whorls, a terracotta human figurine
(probably a vase attachment), terracotta figurine of two joined horses with riders, and 10
bronze fibulae. In addition, G-A sherds have been found at Ghiristo, which is just to the
north of Ag. Theotokos; these may also indicate the location of tombs, though no further
information about any of the EIA tombs at Sybrita, including their number or type, is known.
Furthermore, Hellenistic and Roman tombs have been uncovered at Ta Ellenika (immediately
north and northwest of the summit of Kephala) and at Charaka to the south of Kephala (south
of the village of Yenna, where LM III chamber tombs have also been excavated).
Numerous (>60) pits, possibly of ritual nature and located in the area between the two
plateaus, and buildings (located primarily on the north plateau) dating to LM IIIC-G have
also been uncovered during the recent and continuing Greek-Italian excavations on the
summit of Kephala hill (see yearly reports from 1987 to present in AR, Kritiki Estia,
ArchDelt). Of interest from the area of the settlement is pit (lakkos) 54 excavated in 2000,
which contained LM IIIC finds (fragments of 38 vases, 1 bronze blade, 2 stone tools, two
dog skeletons (one complete), tortoise shell, and small quantities of goat and human bones,
which showed traces of flesh removal). The function of this pit is unknown, though it may
have been associated, along with pit 53 to the north, with building 1 (located to the east of the
pits), which is of megaron type with a hearth.
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Ref: Dunbabin 1947, 186; Hood et al. 1964, 71-72 #22; Kanta 1980, 208; Lembesi et al.
1991, 534; Belgiorno 1994, 205, 213-217; Rocchetti 1994; Tomlinson 1996, 47; Touchais
1998, 966; D’Agata 1999a; Nowicki 2000, 199-200; Blackman 2002, 114; Karamaliki and
D’Agata 2002
MYLOPOTAMOS EPARCHIA
117. Eleutherna (figs. 159-163) – The PG-O and A-R city of Eleutherna was located on the
long and narrow ridge (and its east slopes) directly north of the modern village of Prines.
This site was apparently one of the most important towns on Crete by the Geometric period,
and the DA settlement was probably on the top of the ridge. Evidence of LM IIIC
occupation has been found at Pyrgi to the north/northwest and LG-O buildings have recently
been excavated at Xeniana to the northwest. On the west slope of the acropolis (Prines Hill)
at Orthi Petra (area III) near Halopota stream has been identified a significant LPG-A
(~880/870-early 6th c. BC) necropolis, excavated by Stampolidis and the University of Crete,
beginning in 1985. Payne had briefly excavated at this location in 1928 and suggested that it
was the necropolis, but he was unable to prove it. Approximately 1000 m² of the cemetery
have been uncovered thus far.
Three types of burials have been uncovered in this necropolis: ‘open burials,’
inhumations in vessels, and cremations, both primary and secondary. The first two types
appear to have been located primarily in the south and west sectors of the cemetery, while the
cremations were in the north and east sectors, though pithos and open burials were also
frequently found near the cremation burials. The ‘open burials’ are relatively few in number,
though the exact number and their date range are difficult to determine, as they seem to have
been largely destroyed by plowing. There is no indication that these burials were placed in
pits or covered/surrounded by a tomb of any sort; rather, it appears that the deceased were
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primarily women, and they were covered in burial shrouds and laid on a wooden stretcher,
which was then placed directly on the ground. Some of these burials, however, appear to
have been found within the large mound (see below) and especially to the west of it. One
open burial, uncovered to the south of building A, consisted of the skeleton of a girl (~6-7
years old) with a pair of gold earrings or hair pins (dating to the middle of the 7th c. B.C.). In
addition, remains of three open burials were found in quadrant ΛΛ, one of which was
accompanied by a small oinochoe and a lion-shaped vase (probably EO). Vases, pins, and
fibulae were the most common type of small finds from this type of burial.
The urn burials were comprised of inhumations (normally one, though sometimes
two, per vessel), primarily though not exclusively, of infants, children, and adolescents,
placed in pithoi (often smaller ones for infants) and amphorae. This burial type was also
common for older adults (>55-60 years old). Many of these burials were found in section B,
along with open burials; the majority of the inhumations were found in the immediate
vicinity of the burial mounds and pyres (see below), and they occurred both in groups and in
isolation. The exact number of urn burials has not been revealed thus far in any of the
excavation reports (“a few tens”), though 11 new pithos burials were uncovered in 2003
during construction of a cover for the site. The burial vessels were typically placed on their
sides in shallow pits cut into the earth, and some were covered by stones, creating
“pseudotholoi” as at Krya. The mouths of the vessels were covered by single stones (slabs or
fieldstones) and/or terracotta sherds, and the locations of the burials were often marked by a
grave stele or large stone. Grave goods frequently consisted of small pots, astragaloi
(knucklebones), and gold jewelry or beads. Some adult burials in pithoi do exist, though they
tend to be poorer than the other urn inhumations, often containing no grave goods. Of the
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urn inhumations for both the adults and children, those that are further away from the places
of cremation and later in date tend to be poorer, while those nearer the cremations are richer,
possibly taking importance from their proximity. The urn burials date from the late 8th –
7th/6th c. B.C.
The cremation burials were frequently associated with the pyres, which were placed
on the ground (often on a base of mud-bricks) or within a rectangular pit/trench (2-3 x 1-2 x
0.5-1 m). Some of the pits were also surrounded by rectangular stone enclosures (A and K
for example). Trench A (3.5 x 2.2 x 0.6 m) appears to have been a crematorium; it contained
evidence of a large number of cremations and pyres and was used continuously from LPGEO (~880/870-beg 7th c. B.C.). Hundreds of faience beads, gold and crystal beads, part of a
bronze cauldron, and a glass bowl were recovered from this trench, along with animal (ox,
pig, sheep, goat, fowl) bones, representing both burnt offerings and remains of funerary
meals, human bones, food offerings (figs and grapes) and terracotta vases. In addition, a
group of inverted cups and vessels appears to have been added to the fire as part of a ritual
after one of the cremations had been completed. The trench was further covered by a mound
of rough stones and earth, and it may have been marked by a stone stele. Trench A was also
surrounded by a rectangular enclosure (5 x 3.5 m), which was constructed of fieldstones,
though the lower exterior section of the east side was constructed of ashlar masonry. To the
east of this building and contiguous with it is a courtyard ~12 m² surrounded by a temenos
wall, possibly of the same date. In a corner of the court was found a gold plaque depicting a
goddess with upraised arms and a relief protome, probably also a goddess, from a vessel; the
function of this structure remains uncertain, though it was likely used for rituals associated
with the cremations.
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Enclosure K (2.3 x 4.4 m), which is located on the north side of crematorium A, dates
to the 8th century B.C. and contained evidence of one or more burial pyres, cremations (few
bones), bronze and terracotta vases, iron obeloi and weapons/tools. It is unclear whether this
enclosure also served as a crematorium (or as help for crematorium A) or if it was the site
both of funerary pyres and primary burials, as at Vronda (Kavousi).
Likely associated with the crematorium (trench A), and also possibly with enclosure
K, was an unlooted, large, roughly square chamber tomb (burial A1/K1) with dromos,
located immediately to the west of the enclosures. The chamber (2 x 1.8 m) contained
hundreds (or 10s, the reports give conflicting information) of funerary urns dating from ~870
to the end of the 8th/early 7th c. B.C., and burials were placed in the dromos during the
beginning-middle of the 7th century, after the chamber was closed. While the cremations
from this tomb were primarily adults, there appear to have been a few child cremations as
well. Finds from the chamber include two lotus handles from a bronze cauldron, fragments
from a bronze rod tripod stand, faience vessels and beads, a faience Sekhmet figurine, scarab,
dozens of bronze phialai (often used to cover the urns), lekanides, cauldrons, fibulae and
pins, and iron obeloi, swords, daggers, spears, knives and an ax; gold jewelry was recovered
from the dromos. This tomb was found just below and to the west of a small π-shaped stone
structure with orthostate base (monument A1/K1), which dates to ~700 B.C. Monument
A1/K1 contained a pyre with a single cremation amphora covered with a bronze phiale and
surrounded by stones. Stampolidis suggests that this burial/monument may have been
erected just after the last burial was placed inside the chamber tomb but before the first burial
was made in the dromos.
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At the end of the 8th-7th c. the crematorium appears to be mostly replaced by single
(independent), relatively isolated burial pyres, the exact number of which has not yet been
published. These pyres are primarily located to the north and east of enclosure K. The
typical pyre (placed on the ground or in a trench) was built of wood, upon which the body (or
bodies) was placed, and grave goods, food offerings (such as figs, grapes, honey, oil, wine,
olives, pomegranate, fat/meat), and remains from the funerary meal were placed on many
pyres at various times during the burial ritual. The pyres may have been extinguished with
water, and frequently certain bones (usually white ones) were collected and placed in
amphora(e) beside the pyre, all of which was then covered with a mound (large or small) of
earth and/or stones. These mounds were often surrounded by mudbricks, with large and
small pebbles placed on the upper surface. The single/isolated pyres contained only adult
(19-50/55 yrs.), typically male, cremations, and Trench KK provides a good example of this
type of burial in that it contained a single amphora with white bones placed next to the pyre,
which was then covered with a mound of stone. Sometimes the pyres or mounds were
marked with stelai or Phoenician-style cippi, and remains of food and small perfume vases,
possibly offerings to the memory of the deceased, were also found above some of the
mounds.
Of note from these independent pyres was a pyre in sector ΛΛ (placed on bricks on
the ground); ΛΛ contained two pyres, the upper one (B) nearly destroyed and dating to ~670
B.C. and the lower (A) (~2.4 x 1.8 m) dating to ~700 B.C. (720-690). The cremated remains
of two individuals (one a ~30-40 year old male) were found on top of pyre A, along with a
bronze spear, iron sword (Naue Type II), two iron knives, a bronze conical pyxis, and bronze
and iron tongs (possibly for removing the white bones after cremation). Two amphorae with
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the white bones of a male and female, probably from the two individuals cremated on the
pyre, were found at its southern edge, and the remains of an unburnt, headless skeleton from
a ~40 yr. old male were found at the northwest side. An iron axe, iron dagger, whetstone,
and part of a burned wooden board were found next to this inhumation. This individual may
have been a sacrifice victim or an opponent (possibly the killer, sacrificed as an act of
retaliation) of the warrior burned on the pyre (cf. the Trojans who were executed in front of
the pyre of Patroklos in Homer’s Iliad 23.174-176). Remains of libations/rituals (many
cups), the funerary meal, and burnt (cow, pig, sheep/goat, shellfish) and non-burnt food (figs,
olives, grapes) offerings were also found on the pyre. The pyre was covered with a mound of
earth, and its sides appear to have been bordered with mudbricks, while a layer of river
stones was placed on top.
Funerary monuments, some with periboloi, were also found in the cemetery, though
these mostly date to LO and A. For example, 4A, which is located immediately to the east of
the courtyard of trench A, was a large rectangular structure built of ashlar masonry (with
limestone warriors, possibly akroteria) placed inside a peribolos. This structure may have
been a cenotaph or heroon (or “monument to the unknown soldier”) and it dates to the middle
of the 7th century B.C. In addition, it appears that the single pyres and their tumuli were all,
or nearly all, covered at some point by a huge tumulus of small stones and earth located at
the northeast side of the necropolis. These appear to have been marked by a large boulder
(1.5 x 1.5 m), which supported a pillar/marker (original height possibly 3.6-3.8 m). This
monument apparently remained visible well into the Medieval Period, providing the name for
the area (Orthe Petra). The monument also appears to have been contemporary with some of
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the pyres, and it may have served to commemorate warriors who fell in battle, as the burials
on the pyres are primarily, or all, of males.
Many of the tombs from the cemetery contained pottery imported from Central Crete,
Attica, Corinth, the Cyclades, Cyprus, and possibly Euboea and Laconia; Attic and
Corinthian pottery was particularly common. In addition, possible connections with the
Argolid, Phoenicia, and Egypt can be observed in some of the small finds. Finds of note
from the tombs include a bronze bowl with tripod base, glass phiale, hundreds of faience
beads, rock crystal and gold beads, a clay die, terracotta spindle whorls and loomweights,
iron obeloi, spears, swords, daggers, axes, knives, chisels, and tongs, bronze vessels, spears,
tongs, tweezers, fibulae, and pins, a stone tray, half of a lead turtle, gold earrings,
bands/diadems, and beads. Cremation burials were frequently wealthy in all periods of the
cemetery’s use, and there does not appear to be a different distribution of grave goods
between the chamber tomb/enclosure group and the independent pyres. Finds from the site
are in the Herakleion and Rethymnon Museums.
Ref: BSA 1928-1930, 268; Woodward 1929, 224-226; Hartley 1930-1931, 108-114;
Stampolidis 1988; 1989/1990; 1990a; 1990b; Pariente 1991, 944; Stampolidis 1991/1993;
Pariente 1992, 942; Stampolidis 1992; Themelis 1992; Pariente 1993, 895-896; Stampolidis
1993a; 1993b, 36-46; Pariente 1994, 833; Stampolidis 1994a; 1994b; 1994/1996; 1995;
Tomlinson 1995, 73; Stampolidis 1996a; 1996b; 1996c; Morris 1997, 59-61; Blackman 1998,
125; Stampolidis 1998; Stampolidis and Karetsou 1998; Brown 2000, 324-325; Jones 2000,
287-288; Nowicki 2000, 193-194; Stampolidis 2000-2001; 2001; Whitley 2003, 86-87;
Stampolidis 2004, 116-143, 234-296
RETHYMNON EPARCHIA
118. Mesi – Two isolated LM III chamber tombs were excavated in 1976 near the village,
which is ~10 km southeast of Rethymnon. One tomb (1.45 x 1.85 m) was located in the area
of Mourniani or Nikitas to the northeast of the village; it contained a larnax with inhumation
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and a kylix, and an early LM IIIC amphora was found in a niche inside the chamber. Hood
et al. had previously observed an LM tomb with larnax at this location. The second 1976
chamber tomb was located at Phoukianos, ~100 m east of the village. At this same location,
Hood et al. noted a chamber tomb, and Evans in 1894 saw two LM IIIB larnakes and a
possible chamber tomb.
In addition, a tholos tomb (LM III A or B?) was also uncovered at Aera to the
northwest of the village. The associated settlement has not yet been found, though a small
Minoan site (possibly with LM II or III) was discovered at Selli on a rocky knoll called
Kephala just southwest of the village. The amphora from Mourniani is the only LM IIIC
evidence to have been uncovered from a tomb in the area thus far.
Ref: Alexiou 1963b, 412; 1964a, 447; Hood et al. 1964, 66-67 #14; Pini 1968, 87 #124;
Tzedakis 1976, 372; Kanta 1980, 215; Catling 1985, 65; Touchais 1985, 855
119. Rethymnon – Woodward noted that a group of Geometric burials was examined in
1929 by Stavropoulos approximately 6 km along the road from Rethymnon to Herakleion.
Pendlebury, followed by Snodgrass and Syriopoulos, cited these burials as being near Touzla
on the main road by Khania, though Andreadaki-Vlasaki confirms that the location was ~6
km east of Rethymnon on the road to Herakleion. These burials consisted of ash urns
(upright?) surrounded by small walls of stones, though what exactly this means is unclear.
Grave goods typically included two or three smaller vases, and most burials supposedly
included a bronze dagger, bent to fit inside the vase. No further information about these
burials has been published and the exact number remains unknown. LM III A-B chamber
tombs have also been excavated at Mastamba, a suburb to the southeast of Rethymnon.
186
Ref: Woodward 1929, 235; Pendlebury 1939, 323; Hood et al. 1964, 60 #8; Pini 1968, 91
#125; Snodgrass 1971, 168, 209; Kanta 1980, 211; Syriopoulos 1983, 101 #200, 286 #302,
881 CXXIII; Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1985, 11 n. 3
IV. KHANIA NOMOS
APOKORONAS EPARCHIA
120. Aptera (Aptara) – The ancient (LG-R) city of Aptera (or Aptara) was located on the
large plateau east of the modern village of Megala Choraphia and immediately east of the
village of Palaiokastro (~17 km southeast of Khania); Minoan Aptara appears to have been
at a different location, possibly near Stylos. The ancient town was encircled by an ~4 km
long fortification wall, and one of its cemeteries (apparently in use continuously from LG to
R) was located just outside the west fortification wall near the main entrance. This cemetery
now, however, lies mostly beneath the modern village. In 1987-88 in the Kelaidi field, two
late 8th/early 7th century (LG-EO) pithos burials were excavated in this (the west) cemetery.
The pithoi were placed on their sides in shallow, rock-cut pits and apparently contained
inhumations. Pithos 1 was accompanied by ~20 vases (amphoriskoi, skyphoi, cups,
oinochoai, a flask and a jug), and pithos 2 had 10 vases (skyphoi, cups, an aryballos,
amphoriskos, and an oinochoe) placed around it. The vases are said to resemble those from
Pelekapina (Khania) and Vouves, and finds from the site are in the Chania Museum.
Ref: Coldstream 1968, 415; Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1988; 1989/1990; 1991, 410, 417-419;
Huber and Varalis 1995, 1029; Tomlinson 1995, 71; 1996, 47; Andreadaki-Vlasaki 2000, 3435, 46
KISSAMOS EPARCHIA
121. Astrikas (fig. 164) – Two Geometric (beginning of the 8th c.) rock-cut chamber tombs
were excavated in the vicinity of this village in 1993. Tomb 1 was found in the middle of the
village and was of the type known from Gavalomouri and Vouves to the east. It had an
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irregularly shaped chamber (3.15 x 2.15 m) with dromos and two limestone plakas used as
door jambs, probably to support a lintel. This tomb contained ~63 vases (including skyphoi,
amphorae, pithoi, kraters, cups, and braziers), three terracotta human figurines (probably vase
attachments), a bronze tripod cauldron, 32 additional bronze objects (fibulae, pins, rosettes,
and sheet/plate), 15 iron objects (fibulae, nails/rivets), 6 large terracotta pyramidal
loomweights, two spindle whorls, a gold ring and two hair spirals, and one lead, one glass,
and one stone object. Seven burials (one female inhumation in a corner, one cremation in an
urn, and five inhumations in pithoi, amphorae, and kraters) were identified from the chamber.
A funeral stele with relief rosettes had also fallen into the tomb from above.
Tomb 2 was found on Ai-Lias hill to the east of the village and was of the same type
as Tomb 1, with an elliptical chamber (2.2 x 2.6 m), dromos, and limestone door jambs and
lintel. Although the tomb had been robbed, it still contained 12 vases, 4 bronze fibulae, a
terracotta loomweight, and bones from an inhumation.
The location of the associated settlement is unknown, though according to
Andreadaki-Vlasaki, an important classical, and possibly earlier, settlement is known to have
existed in the area of Astrikas. Finds from the excavations are in the Chania Museum.
Ref: Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1993; Pariente 1994, 842; Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1994/1996; Huber
and Varalis 1995, 1029; Blackman 1998, 122; 1999, 123; Andreadaki-Vlasaki 2000, 32
122. Gavalomouri (figs. 165-168) – Geometric (Middle and Late) and Early Orientalizing
chamber tombs, most nearly destroyed by cultivation, were excavated at two locations
southwest of the modern village in 1976-1978.
A. Sphaka – Three chamber tombs (III-V) were excavated on the low hill of Sphaka
(~700 m to the south-southwest of the village). Tomb III was destroyed, though the remains
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of 17 vases and 2 iron spears were found scattered in the vicinity. Tombs IV and V had
ellipsoidal chambers (1.85 x 2.18 and 1.2-1.68 x 2.06 m) with short dromoi, and each
apparently contained only one MG burial, a cremation in a pithos. Finds from these two
tombs included 33 vases, especially amphorae, flasks, cups, and amphoriskoi/ krateriskoi,
two iron fibulae, an iron spear, an iron knife, two terracotta beads, and a whetstone. In both
tombs, a small flask was found placed inside both an amphora and a skyphos.
B. Langi – Remains of four chamber tombs (I-II; VI-VII) with short dromoi were
recovered at this location, on a low hill approximately 350 m to the northwest of the Sphaka
tombs. Tombs I and II were next to each other, and Tomb I contained the remains of ~100
vases, including an Attic MG cup, kantharos, and skyphos, as well as an MG Cycladic
skyphos, a bronze fibula, and iron weapons. Tomb II consisted of a mostly destroyed,
irregularly shaped chamber (2.5 x 2.25 m). The right side of the chamber contained a child
(~9 yrs. old) inhumation, with 18 vases (10 cups, a flask, lekane, jug, feeding bottle, bowl,
dinos, aryballos, and a brazier, an item rarely found in EIA tombs), 2 terracotta beads, a
faience bead, 3 bronze finger rings, a fibula and pin, a terracotta toy (an ox on wheels), a
terracotta figurine (a woman (?) on a horse), and two iron knives, dating to the late 8th-early
7th c. Evidence of an earlier adult inhumation was found on the left side of the tomb, along
with a bronze fibula and fragments of a krater and oinochoe. Tombs VI (west of I and II) and
VII (~50 m. southwest of I and II) were nearly completely destroyed, though fragments of
seven vases and two bronze rings were recovered from VII, which may have been a child’s
tomb.
Overall – According to Andreadaki-Vlasaki, these tombs, along with those at Vouves
(a little over one km to the northeast of Langi), probably belonged to two small,
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undiscovered neighboring settlements within the sphere of broader control of a larger
settlement, perhaps that on Grimbiliana ridge (Riza hill, possibly ancient Polichna). It is also
possible that a large village settlement pattern existed in this area, comprised of neighboring
settlements which together formed one autonomous city. Finds from the site are in the
Chania Museum.
Ref: Hood 1965, 105 (A7); Tzedakis 1976, 365-366; 1977; 1978, 375-377; 1979;
Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1985, 16-19, 25-29, 32; Catling 1985, 67; 1986, 97; Andreadaki-Vlasaki
1987; Gondicas 1988, 279; Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1991, 420; Stampolidis and Karetsou 1998,
140-141 #86; Andreadaki-Vlasaki 2000, 32; Jones 2000, 289; Moody 2004, 257
123. Kavousi – Three chamber tombs were uncovered at this location in 1969 during the
widening of the Platanos-Phalasarna road. Two of the tombs were completely destroyed,
though approximately half of the third tomb remained; this tomb was located ~3.5 m above
the level of the road and a short distance to the north of the other two. The chamber of this
tomb (1.75 x 1.2 m preserved) contained 36 LPG-MG vases (amphorae, amphoriskoi,
oinochoai, skyphoi, a pithos, and many cups), terracotta beads, and iron fibulae. The tomb
appears to have had two phases of use, one represented by an inhumation found on the floor,
the other by a cremation urn. The tombs and finds from this cemetery have many similarities
to those found at Gavalomouri. In addition, the excavator (Tzedakis) believed that another
group of tombs likely existed just below the level of the road, but he was unable to
investigate this area as it was covered by rubble from the roadwork. According to
Andreadaki-Vlasaki, these tombs could have belonged to Phalasarna, which was probably
founded during this period, though this seems unlikely due to the distance between them (~4
km). It seems more likely that this cemetery belongs to an undiscovered settlement nearby.
Finds from the site are in the Kissamos Museum.
190
Ref: Alexiou 1969, 542; Tzedakis 1969a, 432-433; Fraser 1971, 32; Leekley and Noyes
1975, 112; Syriopoulos 1983, 286 #305, 881 CXXV; Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1985, 19, 29-30,
33; Gondicas 1988, 83-84, 279; Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1991, 415; 2000, 32; Sjögren 2001, 229
(W62); Moody 2004, 257
124. Kissamos – In 1891, Evans purchased a male figure vase which supposedly contained
several minor objects, said to be from a chamber tomb at Kissamos. The exact location of
this tomb is unknown. The accompanying finds are nearly all Geometric in date and include
a head from a smaller, similar vase, bronze fibulae, plaques, beads, and a fragment from a
tripod, iron nails and sockets, a lead wheel (?) and bead/whorl, stone spindle whorls and
beads, a bone spindle whorl, a faience bead, rock crystal beads and pendants, glass beads,
clay beads, and one amber bead. One skull was also among the finds, which are currently in
the Ashmolean Museum. No further information is known about this tomb.
Ref: Halbherr 1901b, 382; Payne 1931, 54 (plate 2); Boardman 1961, 89-94; Jones 2000,
289; Sjögren 2001, 228 (W61)
125. Vouves (figs. 169-170) – In 1978, two G-EO chamber tombs were excavated in a
vineyard ~500 m south of the modern village and ~1 km northeast of the Gavalomouri
(Langi) tombs. One of the Vouves tombs was largely destroyed by cultivation. The second
tomb (2 x 3.55 m), however, was of LM III type with a descending dromos which, at the
entrance, was 0.4 m higher than the chamber; large plakas formed a step down into the
chamber (cf. Herakleion Atsalenio). Two shallow pits were uncovered, one on the right side
of the tomb and one on the left, each containing a single inhumation, apparently one male
and one female. Above the pit on the right side were found two cremations in amphorae and
a child inhumation in a pithos. Associated with these burials were over 110 vases (primarily
8th c.), very similar to those found at Gavalomouri, 2 iron spears, an iron sword (Naue Type
191
II), axe, and 7 fibulae, 3 terracotta beads, 3 loomweights, and a whetstone. Furthermore, a
group of 23 seventh century vases was found on a ledge above a layer of rocks which had
fallen into the right side of the tomb; it is uncertain whether these vases come from an
unpreserved child burial, based on their size, or from some form of ritual or offering.
The finds from the site are in the Chania Museum. In addition, the cemeteries of
Vouves and Gavalomouri may have belonged to small, undiscovered neighboring
settlements; according to Andreadaki-Vlasaki, these settlements could have been within the
sphere of control of a larger city, possibly the EIA settlement on Grimbiliana ridge to the
north (on Riza hill south of the main Chania-Kastelli road, west of the fork to Palaiochora).
Ref: Hood 1965, 105 (A7); Alexiou 1969, 535; Tzedakis 1978, 374-375; Andreadaki-Vlasaki
1985, 15-16, 22-25, 32; Catling 1986, 97; Gondicas 1988, 279; Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1991,
420; 2000, 32; Moody 2004, 257
KYDONIA EPARCHIA
126. Chania (fig. 171) – A few Early Iron Age burials have been found in the vicinity of the
modern town.
A. Park of Peace and Friendship – Excavations from 1986-1988 at this location in
the middle of the modern city uncovered part of a Minoan-Roman cemetery (primarily
Hellenistic cist and tile graves). Among the tombs was one LG/EO pithos burial, which
contained a child inhumation accompanied by several vases. The child also had bronze rings
on every finger. No further information about this burial has yet been published, though
finds are in the Chania Museum.
The main Minoan settlement at Chania was to the northwest of the Park of Peace and
Friendship on Kastelli Hill by the coast; it appears to have been abandoned in early LM IIIC
and not resettled until LG. The pithos burial is thus likely associated with this later
192
settlement. In addition, numerous LM IIIA and B chamber tombs have been found at various
locations throughout the city, though mainly in the area of the Law Courts and also in the
area of Ag. Kyriaki at Chalepa. Syriopoulos mentions three SM chamber tombs which were
excavated in the vicinity of the Law Courts, but these appear actually to date to LM IIIB, and
an SM inhumation with bronze fibula is noted in the Chania Museum as coming from the
Rovithakis plot, though no further information about this burial is known. According to
Hallager, however, no LM IIIC burial has yet been found in the city of Chania.
B. Pelekapina – In 1984, remains of two PG (late 10th-early 9th c.) pithos burials with
inhumations, one apparently female, were uncovered by a bulldozer at this location in a high
embankment of the Kladisos River just outside the town of Chania, ~2.5 km to the southwest
of the settlement at Kastelli. Each of the burials was accompanied by a few vases, and finds
include an imported ‘Aegean’ pyxis and lid, two gold disks (roundels), and a bronze fibula.
The associated settlement for this burial remains unknown. Finds from the burials are in the
Chania Museum.
Ref: Karo 1930, 163-164; Jantzen 1951; Hood 1965, 100, 109-110 (C13); Pini 1968, 77-78
#133; Tzedakis 1969; Snodgrass 1971, 165, 209; Kanta 1980, 217-228; Syriopoulos 1983,
100-101 #200, 150 #86, 578 XXXVI; ελσπκζδμ 1984; Catling 1985, 67; Touchais 1985,
857; Markoulaki 1987; Touchais 1987, 579; Niniou-Kindeli et al. 1988; Andreadaki-Vlasaki
1991, 405-410, 414-415; Hallager and McGeorge 1992; Pariente 1994, 836; Tomlinson
1995, 72; Hallager and Hallager 1997; Andreadaki-Vlasaki 2000, 28-32, 34; Hallager 2000;
Jones 2000, 287; Moody 2004, 256
127. Modi – Early Iron Age tombs were found at multiple locations near the modern village.
A. Ag. Ioannis – In 1952, Platon excavated a group of seven rock-cut tombs near the
modern village at Ag. Ioannis, ~1 km northwest of the tombs at Vryses Timios Stavros.
These included two chamber tombs, one burial under overhanging rock, and four rectangular
pits/shafts. Isolated pithos burials were also noted in the vicinity. The first chamber tomb
193
contained two pithos burials accompanied by 15 vases, iron spears and a knife, and the
second contained similar finds. The Modi burials appear to have consisted primarily, if not
exclusively, of inhumations. The finds, which remain unpublished, date mainly to PG (but
also some G) and include many iron weapons (swords, spears, and a dagger), iron tools,
bronze fibulae, a whetstone, and ~80 vases (many small kraters, amphoriskoi, pyxides, jugs,
1-2 oinochoai, kalathoi, cups, skyphoi, a dish, and an amphora). No further information
about these tombs is known.
In 1967 at the same location, another tomb, the type of which was not published, was
uncovered. It reportedly contained nine LG/EO small vases (krateriskoi, oinochoai, two
aryballoi, a skyphos, and a cup). According to Andreadaki-Vlasaki, this tomb may have held
a child burial, based on the size of the vases.
B. Ag. Gerasimos – Also, in 1991 SM pithos burials placed on their sides with
inhumations, accompanied by small pots, were uncovered on the southeast part of Ag.
Gerasimos hill. Part of the cemetery appears to have been destroyed by previous roadwork.
Furthermore, the location of Ag. Gerasimos relative to Ag. Ioannis and the Vryses tombs is
unclear.
Overall – The Modi cemetery may have belonged to the same settlement (that on Ag.
Georgios hill ~2 km to the northwest) as the cemeteries at Vryses. The modern villages of
Modi and Vryses are located ~1 km apart (cf. Vouves and Gavalomouri), and according to
Andreadaki-Vlasaki, they could also have belonged to neighboring settlements which
together formed one autonomous city, possibly ancient Pergamon. Finds from the Modi
cemetery are in the Chania Museum.
Ref: Platon 1953b, 485-486; de Santerre 1953, 240; Cook and Boardman 1954, 169; Faure
1958, 499; Desborough 1964, 267-268; Coldstream 1968, 234 n. 2, 415; Pini 1968, 87 #135;
194
Tzedakis 1968, 418; Alexiou 1969, 535; Snodgrass 1971, 81, 167, 209; Desborough 1972b,
225, 234, 372; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 114; Syriopoulos 1983, 212 #187, 657 LXXXIX;
Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1985, 14, 20-22; 1991, 415; Blackman 1997, 122; Andreadaki-Vlasaki
2000, 32; Moody 2004, 257
128. Mousouras/Agia Triada – Moody identified a possible SM or PG pithos burial at this
location (AT3) on Akrotiri, approximately 135 meters northeast of the Choraphakia-Agia
Triada road fork and 800 m southwest of the monastery of Ag. Triada. No bone was
observed, however, and an associated settlement was not identified. In addition, an LM III
(primarily B) cemetery (AT1a) with pithos burials was identified at Megeino/Ammoutsos,
750 m east-southeast of the monastery, and its associated settlement (AT1b) was found ~350
meters to the southwest.
Ref: Moody 1987, AT1a-b; AT3; Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1991, 414 n. 28
129. Vryses – Early Iron Age tombs have been uncovered at two locations near the modern
village. An LM IIIC-G and A settlement, possibly the acropolis of ancient Pergamon, has
been identified on the summit of Ag. Georgios hill ~1 km to the southeast of the village, with
which these tombs, and possibly also those at Modi, were likely associated.
A. Logades – A burial pithos with child inhumation was found in a pit at this
location, on the east flank of a small hill ~7 minutes northwest of the village center, in 1959.
The findspot of this burial is ~1 km south of the cemetery at Modi and was wrongly assigned
to Vrises Apokoronou in the Kretika Chronika report. According to Platon, the finds
consisted of one small vase, many bronze objects, including two miniature double axes,
fibulae, needles, a long pin, four-spoked wheel, ring, bracelet, and four small snake heads
(also possibly from a bracelet), and 34 shell beads. Only the double axes and the wheel are
195
catalogued in the Chania Museum, however. Faure dated the burial to LM III, though
Andreadaki-Vlasaki considers the finds to date more accurately to the Geometric period.
B. Timios Stavros – In 1939, two isolated chamber tombs with many vases were
discovered at this location east of the village and near the chapel of Timios Stavros, ~1 km
east of Logades. Theophanides (the excavator) dated the burials to SM or PG, though no
details about the tombs or their finds were published. Jantzen published 8 vases (a krater,
pithos, oinochoe, and five cups) in the Chania Museum, which may have come from this
group, and he dated them to PG. Andreadaki-Vlasaki, however, considers these not to
belong to PG, but probably to LG/EO, though it remains uncertain whether or not these vases
came from the Timios Stavros chamber tombs. In addition, Faure states that other similar
tombs were found by locals at this location, though no further information about these burials
is known.
Ref: Theophanides 1940, 485; Walter 1940, 306; Dunbabin 1944, 88; 1947, 192; Faure 1958,
499; Platon 1959, 392; Alexiou 1960, 271; Daux 1961, 896; Faure 1962, 48-49; Jantzen
1964; Hood 1965, 106 (C3); Coldstream 1968, 415; Pini 1968, 94 #134; Snodgrass 1971,
165, 210; Desborough 1972b, 236, 372; Leekley and Noyes 1975, 116; Kanta 1980, 233-234;
Syriopoulos 1983, 150 #87, 212 #188, 286 #303; Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1985, 12-14, 19-20;
Moody 1987, VRS2-3; Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1991, 411, 414-415; 2000, 34; Nowicki 2000,
214-215; Moody 2004, 257
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CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS BY TOMB TYPE
This chapter presents an analysis of the burials catalogued in Chapter Three. It is
organized by tomb type: 1. tholoi, 2. caves/rock shelters, 3. chamber tombs, 4. pit graves,
shaft graves, and pit caves, 5. pithos burials, pseudotholoi, and intramural burials, 6. cist
graves and burial enclosures, 7. other tomb types, 8. tombs of unknown type. Each section
contains a definition and brief history of the individual tomb type; the focus, however, is on
the basic analysis of the tombs within each type (architecture, location relative to the
settlement, method of interment, grave goods, date, etc.). Tables with all of the published
information regarding these features are included within the text of this chapter, while maps,
plans, and graphs are placed within the figures after the Bibliography.
1. THOLOS TOMBS
Brief history of use
In the Early Iron Age on Crete, tholos tombs were used for burial at the greatest
number of catalogued sites (at a minimum of 41 sites or 34%, though likely at as many as 49
sites or 40% – fig. 173), though with the second highest frequency (with over 200 known
examples – fig. 172). The tholos tomb had a long history of use on the island; the “Minoan”
tholos was used from FN/EM-MM, sometimes continuing at a site up to LM I or even LM
III. This tomb type occurred primarily, though not exclusively, in the Mesara (e.g., Lebena,
Platanos, Kamilari, and Valis). The “Minoan” tholos was built completely above ground, or
with a small section cut into the hillside, and typically consisted of a large, round chamber
(between 4-13 m in diameter) with thick walls (0.7-2.5 m) constructed of unworked
fieldstones, a small doorway (usually less than 1 x 1 m and sometimes with monolithic jambs
and lintel) which frequently opened to the east, no dromos, and a corbel-vaulted stone roof
(thus far proven only for the smaller examples).77 The later examples of this tomb type, on
the other hand, tended to be smaller and to have improved masonry (i.e., cut blocks), as well
as built and/or higher doorways and annexes, defined as rectangular complexes of rooms
typically added around the front of the tomb. In addition, these communal tombs often
contained as many as hundreds of inhumations, and they are most commonly believed to
have been used by large clans over a long period of time.78
Currently, most scholars consider the “Mycenaean” tholos to have evolved from, or at
least been influenced by, the “Minoan” type.79 Significant changes to the basic form,
however, were made on the mainland.80 The mainland tholos (e.g., Messenia, Mycenae,
Pylos, Kapakli, Koryphasion) was used from MH-LH IIIB (primarily LH II-IIIB); it was
typically subterranean, cut into the hillside, and sometimes covered with a tumulus of earth.
77
See Pini 1968, 7-72, 433-453; Branigan 1970a, 160-175; 1970b, 1993; Pelon 1976; Belli 1991; Kanta 1997,
among others, for discussion of the “Minoan” tholos. See also Rutter, J. 2000. “Lesson 6: The Early Minoan
Period: The Tombs.” http://projectsx.dartmouth.edu/history/bronze_age,” for an excellent summary of the
history of scholarship, tomb typology and origin of form, the question of roofing, and for additional
bibliography.
78
Branigan 1970b, 128.
79
For scholarship in support of the Minoan influence or derivation, see Hood 1960b; Matz 1962, 196-199;
Branigan 1970b, 152-160; Belli 1997, 254; Kanta 1997; Kanta and Karetsou 1998; Belli 2003, 327. See also
Rutter, J. 2000. “Lesson 10: Middle Minoan Crete.” http://projectsx.dartmouth.edu/history/bronze_age, for
additional bibliography. For purely “Mycenaean” development, see Hutchinson 1962, 152-154; Mylonas 1966,
132; Cavanagh and Laxton 1981, 132-133. Dickinson (1994, 224-226) argues that this type of tholos is
basically a superior version of a chamber tomb.
80
See Mylonas 1966, 118-131; Pelon 1976, esp. 153-423; Dickinson 1977, 1983; Taylor 1983, 70-81;
Cavanagh and Mee 1998, 44-46, 63-64, 92. See also Rutter, J. 2000. “Lesson 19: Mycenaean Tholos Tombs
and Early Mycenaean Settlements.” http://projectsx.dartmouth.edu/ history/bronze_age, for a good summary of
the Mycenaean tholos and for additional bibliography.
198
“Mycenaean” tholoi contained a corbel-vaulted circular chamber, often lined with stone
masonry in horizontal courses, a long, steeply sloping dromos which narrowed at the stomion
(the orientation of which was determined by topography), and a doorway of greater height
(typically higher than 2 m, though often of monumental proportion).81 These tholoi typically
held only a small number of burials, and their use tended to be restricted to the ruling class,
rather than the entire population as with the “Minoan” tholos.82
Both “Minoan” and “Mycenaean” style tholoi occur on Crete during the Late Bronze
Age. As previously mentioned, EM/MM circular structures (“Minoan tholoi”) continued to
be built up to the end of the Middle Minoan period, with certain examples continuing in use
until LM I, or even as late as LM III.83 A continuation of the old “Minoan” burial customs
can perhaps also be observed in recently identified LM IIIA-early IIIC tholos tombs from
around Apodoulou in the Amari region of west-central Crete, an area with a tradition of close
relations and contact with the Mesara; in fact, Kanta considers these tombs to be the direct
descendants of the large circular structures.84 These tholoi (e.g., Frangou to Louri, Ag.
Paraskevi, Psila Chomata, Sata, and Aigidomandra) are relatively small (ca. 2-3 m in
diameter) with roughly circular vaulted chambers, no dromoi or else very small, rudimentary
ones, and no tumuli; they are built both above and partially below ground, occurring
81
Kanta (1997), however, considers that some of the “Mycenaean” features, such as the long dromos, may
actually have developed or evolved on Crete; tholos B at Archanes, for example, could potentially be the
earliest example of a long dromos in Crete or elsewhere in Greece. See also Branigan (1970b, 152-160) and
Hood (1960b, 170-174) who note that the adoption of the dromos became necessary on the mainland when the
tombs were placed in a mound or hillside; some of the earliest mainland tholoi, though, were placed more or
less at ground level and then covered with a mound of earth.
82
Hood (1960b, 174) does note that some of the smaller and simpler “Mycenaean” tholoi appear to have been
used for repeated burials, possibly serving as family tombs.
83
See Pelon 1976, 70-71; Kanta 1980, 85; 1997, 231-233. Sites with the strongest evidence for post-MM burial
include Valis, Ag. Irini (Koumassa), Ag. Triada Tholos B, Kamilari, Drakones (Stavies), and Knossos
Gypsades tholos.
84
Pologiorgi 1987; Kanta 1997.
199
sometimes in clusters, and burials are frequently placed in larnakes. The Apodoulou tombs
would thus appear to indicate a more “Minoan” than “Mycenaean” character in their frequent
lack of proper dromoi, construction above or partially above ground, and extensive use of
larnakes; in addition, the number of examples found so far, as well as their presence in
clusters, may indicate that these tholoi were family tombs, comprising a common method of
burial for the community, rather than just for the elite.85
On the other hand, “Mycenaean” influenced tholoi were also used on Crete in the
Late Bronze Age (e.g., Knossos Kephala, Armenoi, Achladia, Phylaki, Maleme, and Stylos),
beginning in LM II or earlier, though they were especially common in LM III. According to
Belli, these were proper tholoi, built deep into the slope, with medium-large square (3.255.50 m diameter) or round (2.7-5.0 m in height) chambers of carefully constructed walls
(with almost regular coursing) and long dromoi.86 The majority of these hypogean tombs
had the typical beehive/hemispherical corbelled vault, though a few tombs with rectangular
chambers (Royal Tomb and T.1 at Knossos Isopata and two tombs at Damania) contained a
keel vault.87 These monumental tholoi date to the period when Mycenaean influence on
Crete was at its peak, and they also appear to have been used in a similar manner as on the
mainland, namely for elite burials; in fact, Belli has even suggested that the limited number
85
Kanta (1997, esp. 233-235, 242-247) also notes that some of the traditional Mesara tholoi were built partially
below ground (Ag. Triada, Kamilari, Ag. Kyrillos).
86
Belli 1997.
87
In a keel vault, only the long sides of the chamber were corbelled to form the vault (the short sides had
continuous vertical walls). This feature, however, is not necessarily Mycenaean, though it is present in T. Rho
at Mycenae; it may derive from the Near East/Levant, as tombs from Ugarit have the same type of roof, or else
it may have been a Cretan development. See Belli 1997, 252; 2003, 328-333; Kanta and Karetsou 1998, 169, for
discussion of tombs of this type.
200
of these tombs, their superior construction, and distribution across the island may indicate
that each associated site was related to a regional center of administration.88
Like the LBA tombs, the Early Iron Age tholoi also show both “Minoan” and
“Mycenaean” features. EIA tholoi can be divided into two basic types (fig. 174): small
tholoi (type 1: these should, in most cases, perhaps more properly be called small vaulted
chamber tombs, though they will be referred to here as small tholoi to distinguish them more
clearly from the typical rock-cut chamber tomb – fig. 175) and large (by EIA standards)
circular tholoi (type 2 – fig. 176). Tholoi characteristic of the first type have square/
rectangular, trapezoidal, or circular/oval/ellipsoidal interior ground plans of small diameter
(most commonly 1.5-2.5 m) and low height (1.0-2.0 m). Most of these tombs were
constructed by first cutting a pit into the bedrock or earth and then lining it with stones to
form the walls (typically irregular, unworked fieldstones). Tombs were frequently built into
the hillside and were often mostly-entirely below ground. A form of circular corbelled vault,
often closed by a single capstone, roofed the majority of tombs; a small number of examples
appear to have had keel vaults. Some tombs were without dromoi, while others had very
small, rudimentary ones, often just a pit or trench; a few tombs had slightly longer, lined or
unlined dromoi. In addition, the doorways were quite low (frequently less than 0.50 m),
though they sometimes contained elaborately constructed facades which included monolithic
jambs and lintels.
The large tholoi, on the other hand, typically contained corbel-vaulted circular
chambers (with a diameter >2.5 m, especially 3 m or more), often with dromoi. These tholoi
were frequently cut into the hillside and were often fully below ground. They also tended to
be of much better craftsmanship than the smaller tholoi, with more regular, rectangular
88
Belli 1997, 252; 2003, 327-328.
201
courses of stones; in fact, some of these tombs were originally assumed to be LM II-III as a
result of their ‘superior’ architectural features. Tholoi of this type have been identified at
Kavousi Skouriasmenos, Praisos A, Gortyn, Prinias (F, J, Q?, AQ?), Arkades (L, M, R),
Phaistos Ag. Ioannis, Knossos (Kephala Tomb 6 and Teke), and possibly also at Kourtes
(one tomb), and Kounavoi (the large tholos) (fig. 176).
Tombs of the small type comprise the vast majority of EIA tholos tombs, occurring at
75-80% of the sites with tholoi and comprising at least 85%, and probably more, of the total
number of tholoi (figs. 175-176). Although the Early Iron Age small tholoi exhibit some
“Mycenaean” features not typically observed in the Apodoulou tombs, such as being built
into a hillside, fully below ground, and containing dromoi, they appear to be primarily the
product of the continuous “Minoan” tradition identified by Kanta, though in general they
tend to be smaller in size and less well-constructed than their LM III counterparts.89 While
these small tombs were typically placed into a hillside like “Mycenaean” style tholoi, they
were usually dug only shallowly into the slope; also, while many tombs had some form of
dromos, very few had true, long dromoi. The low doorways and rough architecture, on the
other hand, are reminiscent of the EM-MM large “Minoan” tholoi. In addition, EIA small
tholoi occurred in large numbers, often in clusters, and they appear to have been used by
most-all members of the community for family burials, not just the elite. Finally, these small
tholoi tended to be located in mountainous regions and especially in east Crete, the areas
typically considered to have held onto Minoan traditions the longest.
The large Early Iron Age tholoi, however, exhibit more features typically identified as
“Mycenaean” (i.e., few in number, with chambers of more regular courses of stones and
89
See Belli 1996, 2003, 328-333, for the potential influence of Cypriot or Levantine tombs on certain Cretan
LBA and EIA tholoi (e.g., Plati, Smari, Kritsa A).
202
longer dromoi, and built below ground into a hillside), though they are not, in fact,
exclusively Mycenaean in character, often containing a large number of burials.90 Variations
and subcategories exist within the two basic types of EIA tholoi, however, and a small degree
of overlap does occur; an analysis of the individual tomb types and their architectural
features will be presented in the following section. Despite the distinctions between the large
and small types of Early Iron Age tholoi, both share a common factor in that they display a
mixture of “Minoan” and “Mycenean” features; in fact, this is typical of the period in
general, where at many sites, such as Arkades and Karphi, the population is often considered
to have been of mixed origin, or at least Minoan with Mycenaean elements.91 It is difficult,
however, to determine the exact degree of “Minoan” versus “Mycenaean” influence on the
actual form of the tholos tomb in the EIA; what is most significant is the simultaneous use on
Crete during the Late Bronze Age of at least two distinctive types of tholoi and the
continuation of this trend into the Early Iron Age.
Analysis of architectural features
The tholos was the characteristic tomb form for numerous sites (see table 1); at
approximately 17-18 primarily Eastern sites (Papoura, Karphi, Adrianos, Kastri (?), Zenia,
Braimiana, Chalasmenos, Kalamafka, Schoinokapsala, Vasiliki, Chamaizi, Mouliana, Skopi,
Sphakia, Kourtes, Krasi, Viannos, Orne), no other form of burial has yet been discovered. At
many sites, however, tholoi were found together with other grave types, including chamber
tombs, bone enclosures, rock shelters, and pit graves. Tholoi also rarely occurred singly;
90
See Kanta 1997. Kanta and Karetsou (1998, 170) also state that the small EIA tholos tombs “go back to the
comparable tombs found in Crete at the end of the Bronze Age, a typical Minoan burial custom, while the large
circular tholos tombs go back to the Mycenaean tholos tombs, which although of Minoan origin, acquire their
grander features on the mainland and are relatively rare in Crete. Although it cannot be proved, it is possible
that they represent the burial places of two social groups which identify with a different tradition, perhaps
Mycenaean versus Minoan.”
91
See for example, Kanta and Karetsou 1998; Nowicki 2000, 163; Tsipopoulou and Nowicki 2003.
203
typically, more than one example existed within the area of any given site. Small tholos
tombs (type 1) have been uncovered in great numbers at several sites (e.g., Karphi->27,
Adromyloi->20, Kavousi-16, Krya-13 or 14, Vrokastro-10), and this tomb type was by far
the dominant form at several others, making it a common form of grave for all members of
society. The large circular tholoi (type 2), however, occur in much smaller numbers
(between 12-15 total examples), often with only one per site, though multiple examples do
exist (e.g., Prinias and Arkades); and they are also commonly found in association with
smaller tholoi. These larger tholoi thus appear to have had a more restricted use than the
smaller examples.
In terms of interior chamber shape (see table 1), the small tholos tombs contain more
than twice as many square/rectangular (or trapezoidal, though only four definite examples are
recorded) ground plans than circular/ellipsoidal (or horseshoe, though only four definite
examples are recorded). The exact shape of a tomb’s chamber, however, is often difficult to
determine, with many chambers being only roughly square/rectangular or circular and with
the corbelling of some rectangular tombs beginning as low as the second course; in fact,
Pendlebury himself noted the difficulty in deciding which stones were fallen into the
chamber and which were part of the lowest course(s) of the walls.92 The tombs from many
sites have also not yet been published, though the general observation that there were far
more square and rectangular than circular examples does appear to be valid; in fact, this is
also true at most sites which have examples of both chamber types, such as Karphi (at least
20 sq/rect. versus only 5 circular), Krya (9 sq/rect. versus 1 or 2 circ.), Adromyloi, Vrokastro,
and Kavousi.
92
Pendlebury 1939, 306.
204
The shape of the tomb chamber does, however, vary in dominance with the size of the
tomb (fig. 177). The smallest tombs, with diameters less than 1.5 m, have a much higher
percentage of circular chambers than the larger examples of type 1, with slightly more
circular chambers existing than square/rectangular ones. 93 The average-large sized small
chambers have a much higher percentage of square/rectangular plans; those with diameters of
1.5-2 m, the majority of the small tholoi, are approximately two-thirds sq/rect., while the
larger ones with 2-2.5 m diameters are over 83% sq/rect.94 The largest tombs (type 2), with
average diameters greater than 2.5 m up to 4.0 m, however, are all/nearly all circular in plan;
only Praisos Photoula (4.5 x 3.0 m) has a rectangular chamber, and this tomb may belong to a
different tradition than the other large-chambered examples. Thus, the size of the chamber
does appear somewhat related to the shape; most importantly, it serves to clearly distinguish
the average small tholos type from the large circular type.
The interior height of the chamber (see table 1) is frequently not published in the
reports; furthermore, it is often difficult to determine the exact original height due to the
collapse of the roof. The height of the small tholos tombs appears to be primarily related to
the size of the tomb, as would be expected. The typical interior height for tombs of the small
variety is between 1.5 and 2.0 meters. Tombs with heights of less than 1 meter tend,
predictably, to be of small-normal/average size, while those tombs with chamber heights
greater than 2 m tend to be large or average sized. The heights of the large circular tholoi are
93
Tombs with diameters of less than 1.5 m are Karphi M. 10, 13, Anavlochos, Kritsa T. B, Kavousi Azoria,
Krya T. 1, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 17, 22, 27, Praisos Mavrikia and Kato Kephali Spetsoti, Kourtes, Prinias, Rotasi
‘93, Ag. Paraskies, Erganos, Panagia T. A, Orne, Pantanassa. Note that both western (Rethymnon Nomos)
examples fall into this category.
94
Tombs with diameters between 2-2.5 m are Papoura, Karphi M. 8 and A. 5, Adrianos, Kritsa A, Vrokastro
Karakovilia T. I, Kavousi Aloni I and II, Vronda III, Vasiliki Kamaraki and Kephala, Ag. Georgios T. A,
Chamaizi T. II and V, Krya T. 28 and the far away tholos, Mouliana T. A, Skopi T. I, and Kamares (? earlier
date). Note that all of these examples occur in East Crete.
205
more variable, ranging from 1.3 (Kounavoi) or 1.7 (Knossos Kephala #6) to 3.21 m (Arkades
T.R), though again with the tombs of larger diameter tending to have greater heights.
Table 1 (Tholoi – chamber shape, size, height; large circular tholoi indicated by *)
Site
Ag. G. Papoura
Karphi:Ta Mnem.
# Tombs
1
>20 (#1-17; A)
Chamber shape
circular
4 circ-#4;6;13;
14
14 sq/r-#1-3;5;7;
8;9-12;15-17;A
Chamber size
~2.2-2.3 m
<1.5 m-#10;13
1.5-2 m-#1-7;9;11;12;
14-17
>2 m-#8
Karphi:Astividero
>7 (#1-4; A-C)
1.5-2 m-#1-4;B
>2 m-A
Adrianos
Anavlochos:Lami
Kastri
Kritsa:Lakkoi
>1
3 or more
>2
2 (#A;B)
1 circ-#3
6 sq/r-#1;2;4;A;
B;C
rectangular
circ;ellip;rect
circular
trapezoidal
Vrokastro:Amig.
Vrokastro:Karak.
Vrokastro:Kopran.
1 (# IV)
1 (# I)
3 (#V-VII)
rectangular
rectangular
V-circ; VII-rect
Vrokastro:Mazich
2 (#II-III)
rectangular
Vrokastro:Poros
Zenia
3 (2-CT?)
2 or 3
1991-elliptical
2-circular
Braimiana
Chalasmenos
Kalamafka
Kavousi:Aloni
>1
>1 (#A)
2
4 (#I-IV)
Kavousi:Azoria
Kavousi:Plai
*Kavousi:Skourias
Kavousi:Vronda
1
1
1
10 (#I-X)
Schoinokapsala
Vasiliki:Kamaraki
Vasiliki:Kephala
Adromyloi:Ag.Ant
Adromyloi:Ag.Apo
Ag. Georgios
1
1
1
?
18
2 or 3 (#A;B)
elliptical
sq/rect
circular
3 circ-#I;II;VI
4 sq-#III;V;VII;
IX; 1-irreg-#IV;
1-horseshoe-X
?
~circular
circular
sq;rect;circ
prim sq/rect;circ
trapezoidal
Chamaizi:Liopetro
Chamaizi:Phatsi
1
5 (#I-V)
rectangular
sq/rect;trap
?
circular
?
rectangular
206
2.1 x 2.6 m
one w/ <1 m (circ)
~2 m
A-2.25 x 2.05 m
B-1.45 x 1.25 or
1.34m
1.80 x 1.55 m
~3 x 2 m
V-1.66 x 2.09 m;
VII-2.24 x 1.59 m
III-1.34 x 1.76 m;
II-1.70 x 2.04 m
small
’98-1.9-2 m;
Nowicki~2m
?
A-1.60 m
?
I-~2 x 2.5 m;
II-2.1 m length
1.42 x 0.90 m
large; poss 1.83 m??
2.9 m
1.5-<2 m-#I;II;IV;V;
VI;X
2 m-#III
Height
>1.5, prob. 2 m
<1 m-#6;9;15
1-1.5 m-#1;3-5;
7;8
1.75 m-#17
>2 m-#16
<1 m-#3
1-1.5 m-#1;4;B
>2 m-#A
?
?
?
A-2.2 or 2.1 m
B-1.5 m
pres. 1.15 m
~1.5 m
V-1.38 m pres
III->1.4 m; II1.09 m pres
?
’98-1.15 m
?
A-1.40 m
?
I-1.65m; max H
others-1.45 m
1.25 m
>1.58 m+0.86?
2.2 m
typically <2 m
?
?
2.5 m
2m
1.3 m
1.8 m
?
?
A2.2x2.46x2.0x1.97m
B-1.7x1.38x1.5x?m
?
II-2.8x1.59x2.85x2.75
III-2.2x1.62x2.2x1.65
V-2.10 x 2.10 m
?
?
A-0.95 m
preserved
?
?
Krya
13 or 14 (#1;4-7;
9;11;14;17;22;27;
28;Isopata;+1 far
Mesa Mouliana
2 (#A;B)
Pefkoi
*Praisos
Praisos:KKS,K,XM
Praisos:Mavrikia
>5
1 (#A)
>5
2
Praisos:Photoula
Skopi
1
5 (#I-V)
Sphakia
*Gortyn
Kourtes95
*Kourtes
Prinias
*Prinias
Rotasi
1
1
>2
1
7-10 (Q?,AQ?,
AN,D,AH,AL,B,
G,AR,AV)
2-4 (F,J,Q?,AQ?)
3
Ag. Paraskies
Arkades
1
3 (#A;B;C)
rectangular
circular
circ/horseshoe
circular
most roughly
circ/oval; trap-D;
AH; horsesh-AN
circular
A(1954)-rect;
1958+1993-circ
circular
sq/rect
*Arkades
3 (#L;M;R)
circular
Erganos
Kounavoi (T.11)
*Kounavoi large
Krasi
>6
1
1
>2 (#A;B)
Panagia
5 or 6
circular
circular
circular
A-rectangular;Broughly circular
rect;trap
Kamares
up to 7 (? how
many built IIIC)
1
1 or more (#6)
1 (? date)
1
1
1
*Phaistos:Ag. Ioan.
*Knossos:Kephala
*Knossos:Teke
Keraton
Orne
Pantanassa
9 rect/sq-#1;5;7;
9;14;17;27;28;Iso
1 circ-#11
1 irreg-#4;
1 horseshoe-#22
rectangular
2 sq; circ
circular
circ;sq/rect?
1-sq w/ rounded
corners; 2-rect
rectangular
rect/sq
circular
circular
circular
circular
?
irregular
rectangular
95
<1m-#14;17;22
1-1.5m-#1;4;5;7;9;11;
27
T.28-2.5x2m; far ex.2.6x1.5; Iso-2.2x1.1m
A-2.42-2.48 x 1.82 m
B-1.9-2.12 x 1.97 m
one ex. 1.8 m
4.07 m
1.8 m; 1.25 m
1.35 x 1.25 m
<1m-#1;7;14;
17;22
1-1.5m#4;5;9;11;
27
far-1.75;T.28-2m
A-~1.6 m
B-0.8 m
prob. ~1.5 m
?
?
0.7 m preserved
4.5 x 3 m
I-2.8x2.65x1.8x1.8m
II-much smaller
1.5 x >2 m
2.7 m
1.15; 1.4 m
2.9 m
most 1-little >2 m
D-1.8x1.9m;AH-2.3x
1.54-1.8m; B-1.5m
F-3.8 m; J-3.1 m
A-1.7x1.5; 1993-0.76x
0.3 m;1958-1.70 m
1.40 m
A-1.8x1.9; B-1.5x1.5
C-1.35x1.9 m
L-3.2; M->3 m; R3.57-3.75 m
1.3-1.9 m; one-1.76m
smaller than T.10
2.6 m
A-1.5 x 2 m;
B-1.5 x 1.5-2.0m
1.9x1.65; A-1.4x1.1 m
B1.56x1.94x1.87x1.68
T.1;3-2.0 m; T.5-2.2;
T.2-2.4 m
3.23-3.26 m
~3 m
>3 m
?
pres. 1.2 x 1 m
1.12 x 1.4 m
~1.3-1.5 m
I-1.7 m
?
2.9 m
av. ~1.7m
~1.8 m
AH-2.05 m
F-1.6 m pres.
A~1 m; 19930.65 m
prob ~1.4 m
A-~2 m; B-1.5m
C-0.6 m
L-2.2 m; R-3.21
m
0.8-1.25 m
?
1.3 m
A-1.8 m
B->1.0 m
1.25 m pres;
A-<1 m; B-1.4m
T.1;3-1.6 m; T.2
-1.8; T.4-2.0 m
3m
1.7 m
?
?
~0.8-0.85 m
~1 m
The measurements of the investigated tombs at Kourtes are provided inconsistently by Halbherr and
Taramelli (1901) and it is unclear whose measurements are the most accurate or if different tombs are referred
to by the two authors; this is particularly significant for the identification of a tholos tomb of the large type at
this site.
207
The stomia (see table 2) of most tombs were blocked, either with small-large stones
or with one or more slabs/plakas. For the small tombs, the width typically varied between
0.5-0.75 m. Extra small (0.3-0.35 m) stomia have been found at Erganos (two tombs) and
Ag. Paraskies; some of the tombs at Krya also had stomion widths of ~0.38 m. Those tombs
with very small stomion widths tend to be the tombs with extra small chambers, as would be
expected. Above average stomion width was observed at Karphi (M.1 and 4 with 1 meter)96
and Chamaizi (T. II and III with 1.3 m); while Chamaizi T. II is a rather large tomb, the other
three tombs are of relatively average size. Further, the stomion widths of the large circular
tholoi do not appear to be significantly larger than those of the small tholoi, with most
recorded examples being around 0.7-0.8 m. In addition, the width of the stomion in some
tombs (Krya Isopata type, Skouriasmenos, and one tomb at Erganos) narrows towards the
interior of the tomb.
The length of the stomion is rarely provided in tomb publications; based on the few
published examples, the average stomion length for tholoi of all sizes appears to be 0.5-1.0
m. Pantanassa has the smallest recorded stomion length with 0.38 m (and that of the far
tholos at Krya was possibly only 0.32 m), while Papoura has by far the longest of the small
tholoi with 2.5 m. Of the large tholoi, only the stomion of Tomb R at Arkades is extra long
(3.75 m). Tombs with long stomia (usually in the 1.0-1.5 m range) have sometimes been
mistakenly identified as having short dromoi; it is also often unclear from the short published
reports whether a tomb has a short dromos or a long stomion. Tombs at Karphi (M. 4, 8, 17),
Erganos, Kamares, Arkades, and possibly Panagia appear to have had this type of long
stomion.
96
Stomion width at Karphi varies from 0.5 (M. 2; 5-7; 9-12; 14; 17; A. 1-4; 6), 0.75 (M. 8; 16; A. 5), to 1.0 (M.
1; 4), and length ranges from 0.5 (M. 6; 9; 11; 12; A. 6), 0.75 (M. 14; 16; A. 2; 5), 1.0 (M. 1; 5; 7; 10; A. 1; 3;
4), 1.25 (M. 8), and 1.5 (M.4;17).
208
The small type of tholos tomb also typically has a low stomion, with nearly all
examples falling in the height range of 0.5-0.8 m. Such a low stomion height makes the
doorways of many of these tombs essentially non-functional, and it is believed that in many
cases, interments may have been made through the roof rather than through the doorway.
The tholoi at Karphi (range 0.35-0.45 m) and one tomb at Erganos (0.4 m) have stomion
heights slightly lower than average, while Vrokastro Mazichortia (III-0.85 m) and Vasiliki
Kamaraki (0.90 m) have slightly above average door heights. Most of the large circular
tholoi, on the other hand, have stomia which are at least one meter in height, making the
doorways more likely to have been functional. The greater stomion height is also more
appropriate and predictable for the larger chamber size. In addition, some tombs, such as
Mouliana A and Arkades A and R have stomia which are higher at the dromos than at the
interior (chamber).
Many tholos tombs have well-constructed or elaborate doorways, with monolithic
lintels, door jambs, and/or thresholds or paved entrances (see table 2). The doorway is a
natural point of emphasis, visible at least during the actual burial and associated funerary
rituals and also potentially during later offerings, and even poorly constructed tombs of
relatively small size frequently have well-built door frames; at Prinias, for example, Tombs
AL and B were built only at the entrance and in front of the dromos, with the back of the
tomb being rock-cut, though these examples are really more like chamber tombs than tholoi.
The monolithic lintel is the most common of these elaborative features, found on small tholoi
from at least 19 sites, and apparently on all of the large tholoi; in many cases, the doorways
were not preserved and thus even more tombs likely originally contained monolithic lintels.97
97
Among the small tholoi, monolithic lintels were found at Papoura, Karphi, Kritsa, Vrokastro, Zenia, Kavousi
Vronda and Azoria, Vasiliki Kamaraki and Kephala, Adromyloi, Ag. Georgios, Chamaizi Phatsi (V), Krya
209
Door jambs, however, are less common than monolithic lintels, occurring at 13 of the sites
with small tholoi and at least 7 of the sites with large tholoi; in some cases, the jambs are
monolithic, while in others, they are built with large or small stones.98 Entrances paved with
stones or with single threshold blocks occur at even fewer sites (eight small tholoi at five
sites and six large tholoi at six sites).99
Only three sites with small tholoi (Ag. Paraskies, Arkades A and B, and Prinias Q,
AQ, AN) and four sites with large tholoi (Gortyn, Prinias F, Arkades R, and Kounavoi) have
tombs with all three of these features (several other sites have tombs with two out of
three),100 though again the doorways of tombs were often destroyed or not preserved and
more examples may originally have existed. While these architectural features occur in a
much higher percentage of large tholoi than small tholoi (the larger tholoi – more elaborate
and better constructed – are by definition more likely to have these features), chamber shape,
size and stomion height do not appear to be significant factors in their presence within the
small type of tholos, as some of the smallest tholoi have one or more of these as well; it is
true, however, that such characteristics are slightly more common on the larger sized small
tholoi. These features do, however, serve as a form of architectural elaboration or
enhancement, signifying better construction and attention to detail, as well as potentially
distinguishing some tombs from others, both within a site and among different sites. In some
(Isopata and T. 28), Mouliana, Skopi (I), Kourtes, Prinias, Arkades, Krasi (A), Panagia (H, A, B), and
Pantanassa.
98
Door jambs were found at Karphi M. 9-12, 14 (all of which are in a group), Zenia, Vasiliki Kephala and
Kamaraki, Kavousi Azoria, Chamaizi Phatsi T.V, Krya (Isopata), Mouliana A, Praisos Mavrikia (one example)
and Photoula, Gortyn, Kourtes (one example), Prinias (F, A, AQ, AN, B), Ag. Paraskies, Arkades, Kounavoi
(large), Panagia (A, B, H), Phaistos, and Knossos Teke.
99
Paved entrances/threshold blocks occur at Karphi A. 2, Kritsa A, Praisos A, Gortyn, Prinias F, Q, AQ, and
AN, Ag. Paraskies, and Arkades A, B, R, Kounavoi (large), and Knossos Teke.
100
Two out of three features exist at Karphi M. 14, Kritsa A, Zenia, Vasiliki Kamaraki and Kephala, Chamaizi
V, Krya Isopata, Mouliana A, Kourtes, Panagia, and Praisos A and Photoula, Phaistos, Knossos Teke.
210
instances, only a few tombs, or even just one, at a site have these characteristics; thus they
could have served as a form of display, an indicator of real or desired social status for the
occupants, or a greater degree of wealth.
In addition, a few tombs have an elaborate, built façade (frequently with rectangular
courses of stones), which often extends above the stomion (e.g., Kritsa A, Kavousi Vronda II,
IV, V, VI, Skouriasmenos, Arkades A and R, and Gortyn). One further feature, observed in
only a few examples, is the presence of a step down into the burial chamber from the
stomion; this has been recorded at Kritsa A, Krya T. 22, and Ag. Paraskies. Also, a small
number of tombs, all rectangular or trapezoidal but of any size, have doorways which are offcenter (e.g., Karphi M. 2 at NE, Kritsa A at NE, Krya T. 27 at SE, Pantanassa at SE, and
Phatsi V at SE); these can perhaps be compared with, or derived from, a type of LM IIIB
tholos tomb noted by Belli, which contains a roughly circular chamber with entrance at the
side of the tomb, rather than in the center (e.g., Plati, Smari, LBA tombs at Enkomi on
Cyprus).101 A further unusual feature is observed in the smaller tholos at Kounavoi (T.11),
which appears to have been without an entrance (i.e., an entirely closed circular chamber).
Most of the type 1 tholos tombs had a dromos of some form. The presence of a
dromos in tombs uncovered by old excavations, however, is often uncertain; in many cases,
the dromoi were not exposed at all, or were only partially cleared (compare Mouliana where
a recent cleaning of the two tholoi revealed the presence of long dromoi). The tombs which
are recorded as having no dromoi (Anavlochos, Chalasmenos, Praisos Mavrikia, Kourtes,
and some Karphi tombs), however, tend to be of the smaller range of chamber size. Some
tombs had a “pseudodromos” or rectangular trench, often ~1 m wide, rather than a real
dromos, as at Vronda, Kourtes (one tomb), and possibly Vrokastro. Still other tombs are
101
Belli 1996.
211
published as having a very short dromos of less than 1 meter in length, though these are
difficult to distinguish from the small trench/pseudodromos, if in fact there is a difference, as
at Vrokastro, Vasiliki Kamaraki, Adromyloi, Krya, Pantanassa, and Prinias. In addition,
some of these short dromoi may actually have been long stomia, which have not been
published or were mis-identified. Karphi M. 11, Kritsa, Vrokastro, Kavousi Aloni, Vronda I
and X, and possibly Panagia have been identified as having short dromoi (~1-2 m long), and
most or all of these appear to have been real dromoi, rather than long stomia or trenches.
Finally, long dromoi (3-8 m) have been found at Papoura, Karphi (M.1, 4, 7, 8; A. 4),
Vasiliki Kephala, Mouliana, and Prinias D.
Unfortunately, the dromos length for the large circular tholoi was often not recorded,
making it difficult to make inferences relative to the small type, though it appears that some
of these tombs may been without dromoi or had only short dromoi, while others, such as
Arkades R (2.2 m or more), had deep dromoi of average-long length. In other words, dromos
length or presence is not a distinguishing feature of the two different tholos types. In
addition, a few sites had stone-lined dromoi: Karphi (M.1; 4; 7; 8; 11; A. 4), Kritsa A,
Vronda I, Krya T. 6, Vrokastro III, some at Prinias, and Arkades R. The presence of stonelining also does not appear to have been related to the size of the tomb or the length of the
dromos. Other features of note regarding dromoi are that some, as at Karphi, narrow towards
the stomion, while others rarely, as at Pantanassa, are considerably wider than the stomion,
even at the stomion itself. In addition, the dromoi of most tombs tend to be positioned at
roughly an even level with the stomion of the tomb; in some cases, however, the dromos
declines slightly from the surface to the tomb (as at Kritsa A, Arkades R, and Kounavoi),
212
while in others (as at Karphi) it inclines to the stomion, reaching it even as high as the top of
the door.
The small tholos tombs were typically constructed of unworked, irregularly shaped
local fieldstones (most commonly limestone, though schist slabs were used at Kavousi Aloni,
Pefkoi, and Kamares), and the space between stones was filled either with a bonding of clay
or with smaller stones. A few tombs were noteworthy for having better construction than
others, consisting of more regular coursing of stones or roughly square/rectangular blocks:
Papoura, Karphi M. 4, 8 and 5, 11 (?); Kritsa A, Vrokastro Karakovilia I, Vronda III, Vasiliki
Kephala, Krya T. 9 and Isopata, Prinias Q, AQ, and possibly Panagia H. These better
constructed tombs tend to be of large size or at least among the largest from a site, and they
also tend to have at least one additional architectural detail (lintel, jambs, or paving/
threshold). The large tholos tombs, on the other hand, are almost always of better
construction with square or rectangular fieldstones, typically unworked but placed in more
regular, carefully built courses.
Table 2 (Tholoi – stomion, dromos, construction)
Site
Ag. G. Papoura
Karphi:Ta Mnem.
Karphi:Astividero
Adrianos
Anavlochos:Lami
Kastri
Stomion (WxL)
~0.75 x 2.5m; partly
blocked; H-0.65 m; 2
mono lintels (int. + ext.)
typ. blocked; H-~0.350.45m; L-0.5-1.5 m; W0.5-1.0 m; project into
dromos #9;10; 12;14;17;
mono lintels #4;5;7;8;14;
17;A; jambs #9-12;14; T.2
door to left not center
wid-0.5-0.75m; leng-0.501.0 m; #2 ent-proj.+ raised
paved
?
?
?
Dromos
shallow, unlined <3 m
long, rubble covered
Chamber Construction
int-regular courses of
unworked local limestone
yes, stone-lined + blocked
(1 course) #1;3?;4;7;8;11;
A; width narrows at
stomion; leng. (#11=1.5 m
pres.; 1=4.5 m; 7;8=6m;
4=8 m); incline-some reach
entrance high up, even at
top of door (ex#4); dromos
of T.4 filled in w/ bonded
stone
#4 has lined dromos, <4 m
long; blocked
unworked local
limestone; T.4 larger
stones+better const. than
most; T.8 square-built
masonry, largest
tomb+best built of both
cem; T.5-large+ carefully
selected stones; T.11-sq.
and better built jambs
yes
no
unworked fieldstones
unworked fieldstones
med-large rough
limestone blocks
?
213
unworked limestone
Kritsa:Lakkoi
A-small, v. low, at NE
corner, not ctr., façade wall
over st.; threshold block,
step down into chamber;B0.44x 0.52 (H) mono
lintels (A+B-double)
Vrokastro:Amig.
Vrokastro:Karak.
lintel 2 large stones
>0.65 m H; mono lintel
Vrokastro:Kopran.
VII- prob. 0.67 m H
Vrokastro:Mazich
T.III-0.85 m height
Vrokastro:Poros
Zenia
Braimiana
Chalasmenos
?
’98-H-0.6 m; mono lintel
and jambs
?
A-0.90 m width
Kalamafka
Kavousi:Aloni
?
I-0.7Wx0.85L; II-0.62 W
?
short; L-I=1.10 m; II=1.2
Kavousi:Azoria
0.69 Hx 0.49 x 0.49 m;
monolithic lintel (doubleone above other?) and
jambs; blocked/filled with
earth
unknown
Kavousi:Plai
0.77 m W?; mono lintel?
Kavousi:Skouris
blocked; 0.7-0.38 m W;
1.10-H; built façade, 3
mono lintels
v. small, blocked w/ earth
or 2-3 flat slabs; elab. built
façade II;IV;V;VI; mono
lintels W-0.42-0.82m;H0.5-0.6 m
?
0.82 W; 0.9 m H, incline to
door, sides lined w/ slabs
in two rows (jambs), mono
lintel
built-up; 0.8x0.8 m; small
stone blocking; mono lintel
+ jambs
some mono lintels
some mono lintels
A-0.75 W; 0.6 m L; mono
lintel
Kavousi:Vronda
Schoinokapsala
Vasiliki:Kamaraki
Vasiliki:Kephala
Adromyloi:Ag.Ant
Adromyloi:Ag.Apo
Ag. Georgios
A-2 m long; ~1 m wide;
lined w/ walled masonry,
declining, stepped; lining
of dromos continues above
lintel; B-non-functional,
rock-cut rough unlined
steps (0.3-0.5 m)
v. short <1 m
v. short; L~1 m; W~0.5m
V+VII have short; W-0.640.75 m
yes, W-II-0.47;III-0.6 m;
III-lined; L-1.51 m
?
?
?
no
?
>1.7 m long, unlined
most pseudodromoi (~1m
rect trench); I+X w/
dromos (I-lined, 1.5m len
declining?), most filled w/
earth+stones up to lintel
?
v. short; downward sloping
(toward ent), cut into earth
A-unusual atten. to detail;
small-large roughly quadrangular stones; lower
part of walls almost reg,
rect blocks; B-more irreg
shaped small-medium
stones, roughly quad
unworked fieldstones
more regular const. than
others at site
unworked fieldstones;
VII-‘well-built’
unworked fieldstones
?
’98-unworked limestone;
9 courses; 0.4 m wall W
?
A-med+large blocks
(0.27-0.59m), space filled
w/ smaller stones
?
irreg flat schist slabs;
more courses+denser
packed than Vronda
primarily small-medium
sized unworked
fieldstones (0.07x0.170.21x0.49 m); 8 courses;
1st 4-5 courses well
bonded; upper full of
voids=poss disturbance
irregular stones, some
clay bonding
rough rect stones, thin
slabs, schist, earth filled
cracks, façade-rect stones
irregular local unworked
limestone, clay bonding;
bottom stones more reg.;
III best construction
(stones fairly reg in size)
?
irregular fieldstones
yes, 3 m long
carefully built w/ large
flat stones
lined stomion/short dromos
lined stomion/short dromos
?
irregular fieldstones
irregular fieldstones
small+large irregular
stones; plakas for vault
214
Chamaizi:Liopetro
Chamaizi:Phatsi
?
blocked; II+III-1.30 W; Vbuilt, 0.62 W; V-mono
jambs+lintel, ent. at SE
av. ~0.38-0.58 m W (T. 280.7; Iso-0.85-0.42x0.6)
0.52-0.66 H; oft blocked;
Isopata type-mono lintel+
jambs; T.22 step down to
floor; T.27 ent SE corner
not ctr;T.28 mono lintel
mono lintels; A-0.7-0.45
H; 0.73m W, closed by
plakas, mono jambs; B-0.7
H,0.7-0.9 W-blocked;
built jambs; slightly built
up façade
blocked
probably no
probably no
?
medium-large irregular
local stones
v. short; T.6 w/ stone
lining
irregular fieldstones; T.9
carefully built; Iso-larger
size + diff type; far and
28 (?) larger
vestibule 2.3x1.5m; 0.85
passage, mono lintel;
threshold
?
blocked; one w/ jambs; 0.6
H; 0.6 m W
blocked; 1.10x1.15 (L?) m;
mono lintel and jambs
I-0.7x0.7x0.8 m; mono
lintel
?
short
blocked w/ 2 plakas; 0.5
W; 1.0 H; mono lintel and
jambs, threshold, built
façade above lintel
at least one mono lintel; 1
w/ jambs
0.65 L; 0.5-0.6 H; mono
lintel
some mono lintel; jambs
(#Q,AQ,AN,B); paved ent
(Q,AQ); threshold (AN);
oft blocked ent, D-blocked
by large slab; B- blocked
non-functional ent.
narrow, deep rock-cut
Prinias-F; J
F-mono jambs; threshold;
prob mono lintel
Rotasi
1958-blocked, mono lintel?
F-long (~7 m), rock-cut
dromos
J-probably yes
A-short; 1958-unlined
Krya
Mesa Mouliana
Pefkoi
Praisos A
Praisos:KKS,K,XM
Praisos:Mavrikia
Praisos:Photoula
Skopi
Sphakia
Gortyn
Kourtes
Kourtes-large
Prinias
[stomion:T.1-0.48x0.52;
0.84 H; far-0.53x0.32; 0.85
H]
yes, A-5.7 m L; B-3.7 m;
slopes downward to tomb
?
local schist and limestone
slabs; T.10-med. irreg
shaped
reg courses of large,
roughly rect stones
?
?
?
no
yes, unlined
large unworked stone
slabs, av. 1.3x1.5m
rough fieldstones
probably no
?
no, at least one had deep
pit out front of door
pit/pseudo-dromos, 0.7 m
length
all/nearly all have,
typically short, some stonelined; D-0.9x4.0m; B-0.45
m W; AQ-wide
215
irreg, roughly rect plakas
(large and medium),
smaller stones fill gaps
boulders w/ roughly
regular shape
carefully built with large
and small plakas; smaller
stones for gaps; façadereg rect courses
rough local stones; irreg
courses
irreg fieldstones, 0.6-0.65
wall thickness
Q,AQ-reg, well-cons w/
med stones + smaller
ones for gaps; AN-irreg
poor const; D,AH-irreg
stones + slabs; AR+AVsimple, series of slabs
around pit; AL,B-partly
rock-cut, only built
ent/dromos; G-irregular
rubble
regular rectangular
blocks, well-built
A-large plakas; other 2medium irreg plakas
Ag. Paraskies
Arkades-A;B;C
Arkades-L;M;R
Erganos
Kounavoi T.11
Kounavoi-large
Krasi
Panagia
Kamares
Phaistos
Knossos:Kephala 6
Knossos:Teke
Keraton
Orne
Pantanassa
0.35x0.45m; H-0.80m;
mono jambs+lintel; paved
threshold (small stones);
blocked
A-0.4-0.65m H; C-small;
all mono lintels; jambs;
blocked (B w/ 1 slab);
A,B-low threshold;A-built
façade; declining stomion
–A,B
blocked; R~0.8x3.75; H0.62-1.2 m; built façade
above lintel; double mono;
jambs; threshold
Tomb L-0.85 W; 1.0-H
mono lintel; L+M-long
stomion/ short dromos
0.3x1.0, H-0.4m
0.35-0.50x1.3; 0.65H
0.58x1.40, H-0.75 m
no entrance
mono lintel; jambs;
threshold; blocked w/ large
slab
A-mono lintel; B-not
preserved
0.53-0.6 W; 0.5-0.7 H;
mono jambs+lintel-A,B,H
av. 0.45 W; 0.5 m H
0.7 W; 1.2 H; mono lintel
and jambs
built door; mono lintel
mono jambs; lintel
?
not preserved
0.59x0.38x0.51m,closed
by mono plaka;mono lintel,
ent. off-ctr.
prob had unlined dromos
b/c step down into chamber
and placed parallel to
hillside
small stomion instead of
dromos; mass of stones in
front of ent-A,B; A-2
niches in dromos/ stomion?
irregular fieldstones,
0.35-0.45 m thick walls
irregular stones and some
more regular/square; wall
thickness A~0.7 m
L+M-long stomion/short
dromos; R-long, partly
stone built/lined, 0.8-1.2
W; 2.2 m L or more;
blocked at end; slight
decline
R-sq/rect stones w/ earth+
small stones b/w; outer
const less careful than
inner; M-more irregularly
shaped stones
lined stomion/short
dromos, 1-1.4 m long (inc.
w/ stomion dimen.)
no
deep, declining; 1.3 m L
irregular fieldstones
?
some w/ short; A~1 m
long, blocked
lined stomion/short dromos
1.0-1.4 m long, blocked
?
yes, inclined
yes, blocked, 15.3 L; 1.3W
?
not preserved
rock-cut, 0.88x0.84 m;
wider than stomion
?
well-built w/ roughly rect
fieldstones
A-built front, r-c back; Brough limestone blocks
(av. 0.4x0.15 m), gaps
filled w/ small schist
roughly rectangular
stones
schist slabs
irreg, plaka-like stones;
0.6-0.8 W of wall
?
worked, sq blocks
?
rel flat stones, lower
courses roughly rect;
N+E sides built against
bedrock
int-careful const., smallmed stones w/ wellworked face; ext-less
careful
Many of the small tholos tombs were covered either by masonry enclosures (the
“Karphi-type”) or a form of stone tumulus.102 With the possible exception of T. R at
102
Masonry enclosures or stone tumuli were found at Karphi, Papoura, Adrianos, Kritsa, Zenia (?), Adromyloi,
Arkades, Krasi, Panagia, Pefkoi, and possibly at Vronda, Azoria, Erganos (tumulus ?), and Krya T.28 (??).
216
Arkades, the stones of which are probably just paving, it appears that none of the large
circular tholoi, however, contained either of these features. It is often difficult to distinguish
between these two elements as the excavation reports frequently mention only the presence
of a mass or pile of stones above or near the tomb. As defined by Pendlebury, tombs with
masonry enclosures (the “Karphi type”) were “surrounded by a mass of rough masonry
roughly square in shape and in thickness equal on three sides to the diameter of the tomb;”
the entrance side was only the thickness of the chamber wall, and “the buttressing extends to
within less than a meter of the top of the tomb, which appeared above it as a cupola.”103 The
chambers of other tombs, but typically not the dromoi, however, appear to have been covered
by circular or rectangular/square piles of stones or tumuli. In most cases, these are not the
hill-shaped tumuli seen elsewhere in Greece; they appear to be more of a unified pile of
irregularly shaped, though not flat, stones of roughly a single height covering only the top of
the tomb chamber.
The exact function of this rough masonry is unclear; in some cases, as at Kaphi where
the masonry was probably visible, it may have served as a kind of buttress, to support the
free-standing/partially free-standing tombs against the hillside. At other sites, however, it is
unclear to what degree the enclosure/tumulus of stones was visible above ground in ancient
times; in these cases, the stones may have served to cover or protect the roof when it
projected above ground level, to somehow support the roof/impede water penetration, or else
to serve as grave markers.104 Enclosures or tumuli occur on both large and small tholoi of the
first type and on tombs with circular and rectangular chambers.
103
Pendlebury 1939, 308.
104
Levi 1927-1929, 208, for impeding water penetration into tombs.
217
Perhaps most significant is the fact that all examples of both types of tomb covering
come from the eastern part of the island; the few examples that are technically in Herakleion
Nomos are all within the vicinity of the Lasithi Mountains. In addition, this type is especially
popular in the Lasithi area (the plateau and surrounding mountains), as illustrated by the fact
that 9 of the 13 possible sites (and 6-7 of the 8 definite ones: Karphi, Papoura, Adrianos,
Arkades, Krasi, Panagia, Kritsa, Zenia, and Erganos?) are roughly located in this region; in
fact, Pendlebury previously identified this as a local Lasithi (especially Karphi) type.105 The
other four possible sites are all in the region of the west Siteia mountains, with three of the
sites (Krya, Pefkoi, Adromyloi) all located near each other (~5 km apart); Kavousi (Vronda
and Azoria) is the fourth possible site.
The majority of EIA tholos tombs (all of the large variety and most of the small) have
corbel-vaulted roofs which form roughly hemispherical vaults; in the tombs with rectangular
chambers, the corbelling typically begins in the 1st-6th course. Unfortunately, a large number
of the roofs have collapsed due to their relatively poor construction and frequent placement
close to the surface (pressure from surrounding earth; agricultural activity). In most cases,
the regular corbelled vault was closed at the top by a single capstone, consisting of a
medium-large irregularly-shaped fieldstone or else a more square/rectangular plaka. In a few
instances (Gortyn, Arkades R, Kounavoi large tholos, and possibly Rotasi 1958 and one or
more tombs at Kourtes, as well as Vronda V), however, a circular, flat paving of stones,
comprised of flat plakas or fieldstones of similar thickness/height, surrounded the capstone.
This paving can be distinguished from the masonry enclosure or tumulus by its flatness and
clearly defined shape, though in some instances it is unclear from the reports whether a tomb
had a paving or a tumulus. The paving further appears to be a feature more common to
105
Pendlebury 1939, 319.
218
tombs in central Crete and possibly also more characteristic of the larger tholoi. The function
of the paving could have been the same as that of the enclosures and tumuli (i.e., to keep out
water or support the roof), though it could also have been used for offerings or funerary ritual
(cf. Arkades R-ash and terracotta figurines found on the paving).
A few sites had roofs which varied from the normal form of roughly hemispherical
vault. One alternate form of roof was the keel vault, in which only the long sides of the
chamber were corbelled to form the vault and the corbelling ends in a straight line of slabs
(flat ridge) on top, running the length of the tomb. This type of vault was found at Krya
(Isopata type), Panagia, Arkades A-C (?), Orne, and possibly Ag. Georgios A, and was a
minor form also observed in LM III.106 This form of roofing was by nature normally only
present in tombs with roughly rectangular chambers, though it is possible that many more
EIA tombs originally had this form of vault and that the roofing was either destroyed or not
noticed/understood by the excavators. In addition, a third (and possibly fourth) form of
roofing appears to have existed at Praisos Photoula and at several of the tombs at Prinias.
Several tholos tombs at Prinias (AR; AV) are mentioned as being flat-roofed with large stone
slabs or with a pseudo-dome in which the corbelling of the tomb apparently retains the
square/rectangular shape of the chamber rather than becoming at least somewhat rounded (D,
AH, AQ), while at Praisos Photoula the roof is essentially flat, constructed of flat slabs with
only a slight corbelling in the top two-three courses above the walls.
The floors of EIA tholos tombs were frequently comprised of natural bedrock or
packed earth, though they were sometimes paved, with either stone slabs or pebbles, and very
106
Belli 1997, 2003; Kanta and Karetsou 1998, 169.
219
rarely, covered with sand;107 in addition, at two sites (Vrokastro Karakovilia I and Mouliana
B) pebbles were found mixed with sand. Multiple forms of floor type often occur at a single
site, as at Karphi and Krya, though as with other tomb features, the floor type was often not
recorded by the excavators. At some sites, the presence of paving may have served as a
feature distinguishing some tombs from others, while at other sites, such as Karphi, it appears
to have been a normal aspect of tomb architecture. In addition, surprisingly, floor paving
appears to have been more common in small tholos tombs than in large, though again the
floors of the large type were often not recorded and so this remains uncertain.
In the Early Iron Age, the majority of the tholoi were completely or nearly
completely below ground; most examples were dug into the side of a hill, though a few were
found the plain. The shallow depth of these tholoi, however, was one cause of the
destruction or near destruction of so many tombs. At least half of the tombs with masonry
enclosures or stone tumuli/paving were also of this type, built completely below ground,
though their stone coverings may in some cases have been visible above ground.
Furthermore, at as many as five sites (Papoura, Karphi, and possibly Adrianos, Adromyloi,
Pefkoi) with masonry enclosures, the tomb itself may have been partially visible/above
ground on one or more sides. Completely free-standing above ground tombs are known to
have existed at only two sites, Ag. Paraskies (no masonry enclosure, tomb placed parallel to
hillside) and Karphi (masonry enclosures, tombs placed parallel and against the hillside).
The recently excavated tholos tomb at Kavousi Azoria is exceptional, however, in that it
107
Floors paved with slabs occur at Karphi (M.1-4; 6-11; 14; 16; A), Vasiliki Kamaraki (south half), Kavousi
Azoria (at least N half), Krya (17, 22, far ex.), Arkades B (some), Erganos (1 ex.), Krasi B, Kourtes (large), and
Kounavoi, with pebbles/small stones at Papoura, Vrokastro (Karakovilia also with sand), Mouliana B (and
sand), Ag. Paraskies, and Panagia A. Sand only was found at Knossos Teke.
220
appears to have been left, blocked-off but partially exposed in the corner of a Late Archaic
room, with the capstone even being incorporated into the back wall of the building.
Table 3 (Tholoi – enclosure, roofing, floor, above/below ground)
Site
Enclosure/tumulus
Roofing
Floor
Ag. G. Papoura
rect rubble enc, ~10 x 6m
filled w/ smaller stones; 2nd
enc. over stomion +dromos
at lower level
sq+rect; range-2.5-6.0x 2.57.0 m [>6m avg-#8; >4m#1;3;4;7;16;17; rest >2]
T.14 no enc.; some- times
irreg at back; 0.4->2 m thick
(1-2 courses);
T.8- squarely built enc
sq/rect; >4m-#4; >2m-#1-3;
typically smaller than Ta. M
examples
prob reg corb
vaulting
hard-packed
w/ small
stones
corbelled vault,
begins 2nd-4th
course, single
capstones
paved w/
irreg schist
slabs-#14;6;11;
14;16;A;
platform at
back-#3
paved w/
schist slabs#1;3;4;
packed
earth-#2;
bedrock-#5
?
Karphi:Ta Mnim.
Karphi:Astividero
corbelled vault
begins 2nd-4th
course, single
capstones
Adrianos
rect, ~4 x 6 m
corbelled vault,
beg 2nd-3rd
Anavlochos
no
Kastri
Kritsa:Lakkoi
?
rect enclosure/tumulus, A5.5 x 3.3 m; B-3.2 x 2.5 m
Vrokastro:Amig.
no
corbelled vault
begins 3rd-4th
?
B-corb vault, beg
3rd; A-poss keel
vault; begins 7th
(11-12 total
courses)
prob corbelled
vault
Vrokastro:Karak.
no
corbelled vault
Vrokastro:Kopran.
no
prob corbelled
vault
Vrokastro:Mazich
no
prob corbelled
vault
pebbles
Vrokastro:Poros
Zenia
no
possibly small covering/enc
?
’98-corb vault (9
total courses)
?
?
bedrock
A-corb vault
begins 2nd (7
total courses)
earth
Braimiana
Chalasmenos
?
no
221
?
?
bedrock
?
sand; river
pebbles
?
?
Above/below
ground
dug into side of hill
on N+W; above
ground E+S sides
#1;2;4-8;16;17
free-standing, rest
partially above
ground/visible
masonry oft runs
into hillside or
parallel
#4 free-standing,
rest partially;
masonry oft runs
into hillside
mostly below
ground
poss partly visible
prob completely/
nearly below
?
nearly below
ground; enc.
partially visible
prob complete/
nearly below
ground
completely/nearly
below ground
prob complete/
nearly below
ground
prob complete/
nearly below
ground
?
completely/nearly
below ground
prob complete
below
completely below
ground
Kalamafka
Kavousi:Aloni
?
app not, but T.I poss
enclosure wall
Kavousi:Azoria
appears to have sq/rect
(>0.95 x 1.78 m), though
poss = Archaic activity
Kavousi:Plai
?
Kavousi:Skouris
no
Kavousi:Vronda
some appear to have form of
enclosure/tumulus, circ or
rect/sq; some pile of stones
at stomion
Schoinokapsala
Vasiliki:Kamaraki
no
Vasiliki:Kephala
no
Adromyloi:Ag.Ant
Adromyloi:Ag.Apo
yes, rect
yes, rect
Ag. Georgios
no
Chamaizi:Liopetro
Chamaizi:Phatsi
no
no
Krya
normally no; T.28-poss.,
large ext-5 x 3.5 m
Mesa Mouliana
no
Pefkoi
yes, square, T.1=3.2 m;
T.3=<4.5 m
no
Praisos A
?
?
corb vault, beg
2nd-3rd; 5th-6th
course, app cov
by single slab
corb vault;
begins 1st-2nd; (8
total courses);
single large
capstone (0.33 x
0.57m)
corb vault beg at
level of lintel (sq
up to lintel)
corb vault, sq.
capstone, 23
total courses
corb vault beg
2nd-3rd, at least
V-flat/paved
exterior/tumulus
?
corb vault, rel.
large cap-stone
large capstone;
corb vault
prob. corb vault
prob corb vault,
some keystones
preserved
corb vaulted; or
poss keel-walls
perpendicular up
to dome
?
prob corb vault
V-beg 2nd cour
Iso-keel-vault;
most prob. corb
vault
A-6th beg corb
vault; B~3rd-4th;
single large
plaka cov. ;
A~12 total
courses; B~10
prob. corb vault
cov. by slabs
prob corb, but
not preserved
222
?
?
prob completely/
nearly below; ? if
partially above
paved with
plakas (at
least N half)
prob mostly below
in IIIC; in A
blocked off in
corner of room
earth
?
prob completely
below ground
earth
completely below
earth
completely/nearly
below ground;
some of
enc/tumulus
visible?
?
completely below
ground, in plain not
on slope
completely below
?
S half paved
w/ irreg
slabs
?
?
?
bedrock?
?
?
most
bedrock;
T.28-earth;
paved-#17;
22;far, Iso
B-pebbles
and sand; Aearth?
?
earth?
?
up against hill,
poss. only partially
below/partly
visible
?
?
completely/nearly
below ground
most apparently
completely below
ground
completely/nearly
below ground
mostly below; enc.
visible?
prob completely
below
Praisos:KKS,K,
XM
Praisos:Mavrikia
probably no
Praisos:Photoula
prob no, ext. trapezoidal
7 x 4.5 m
Skopi
no
Sphakia
probably no
4th beg corb vault
?
Gortyn
no
corb vault, 20
courses total,
circ paving ext
?
Kourtes
prob. no, though some
almost quadrangular ext
?
Kourtes-large
no
Prinias
no
Prinias F, J
Rotasi
no
no
Ag. Paraskies
no
corb vault, 1-2flat/paving on
top ext.
corb vault, large
capstone,
paving?
flat roofed/
pseudodomeAR;AV; large
flat slab(s) on
top-D;AH;AQ
?
1958-corb vault;
poss paving on
top
prob. corb vault
Arkades
yes, mass of stones on top,
circ/rect
prob keelvaulted roof
Arkades L,M,R
R-form of enc, also over
stomion, 5.8 x 5.4 m (? if
not just paving)
earth?
Erganos
possibly at least one (IV,
V), though exc. note tombs
visible by heaps of stone on
ground (from ‘re-opening’
or ‘markers’)
no
no
R-corb vault, 2425 courses total,
capstone, paving
above
3rd-4th beg corb
vault; large slab
cap-stone
1 paved w/
plakas
completely/nearly
below ground
?
corb vaulted;
paving above
A-6th; B-2nd beg
corb vault
?
large slabcovered
B-paved w/
plakas
H-beg vault 2nd
(6 total); keelvaulted
A-paved w/
small stones
?
completely below,
paving visible?
prob comp/nearly
below; A-back=
carved bedrock
completely/nearly
below ground,
tumulus visible?
Kounavoi T.11
Kounavoi-large
probably no
Krasi
yes, sq/rect, B-2.5x2.5-3.0
m (0.20 m thick, esp. to S)
Panagia
yes, round tumulus for at
least 3
?
appears to be
corb vault
flat slabs, slight
corbel above
walls top 2-3
courses
not pres; prob
corb vaulted
223
earth?
earth
large slab in
front of
larnax
?
plaka-paved
?
earth
?
small
seastones
B-some
paving
?
completely/nearly
below ground
completely/nearly
prob complete/
nearly below
ground
completely/nearly
below ground
completely/nearly
below; roof 15 cm
above ground
today
completely below
ground
completely below
most apparently
just below
completely/ nearly?
below
1993-well below
ground; 1958comp/nearly below
free-standing,
parallel to hillside
completely below
ground; mass
visible?
completely below;
paving visible?
Kamares
prob no
Phaistos
Knossos:Kephala
Knossos:Teke
Keraton
Orne
no
no
no
prob no
Pantanassa
no
?
3rd-4th beg corb
vault, prob.
single capstone
corb vaulted
corb vaulted
corb vaulted
?
keel-vaulted
4th beg vault; (9
total) large
plaka-capstone
?
completely/nearly
below ground
?
?
completely below?
?
below?
?
partially built
against rock
N+E sides built
against bedrock;
below?
sand
?
earth
?
Inhumation and cremation were practiced in the Early Iron Age tholoi, with both
occurring at some sites or tombs (see table 4). The majority of sites at which only
inhumation was found are located in east Crete, or just on the west side of Lasithi,108 while
nearly all examples at which cremation exclusively occurred are located in the central part of
the island.109 The presence of cremation, however, is often difficult to determine, as ash and
bits of bone were often not preserved or not observed/reported in old excavations. In
addition, partially cremated remains can easily be mistaken for inhumations, while evidence
of burning on bones from fumigation of a tomb or other, later non-funerary activities can be
mistaken for cremation. With the exception of Pantanassa, all tholoi which contained solely
cremations have circular chambers (six of the large type and Ag. Paraskies of the small type
but free-standing), while those which held only inhumations are typically of the small variety
(except Prinias and Knossos Kephala, which are both in central Crete) and occurred in both
rectangular and circular chambers. In addition, at sites where both inhumation and cremation
were found, nearly all of which were in east Crete, the cremations commonly occurred in just
108
Inhumation alone appears to have been practiced at Papoura (?), Karphi, Zenia, Chalasmenos, Kavousi
(Aloni ?), Vasiliki Kamaraki and Kephala, Adromyloi (?), Chamaizi (?), Praisos Mavrikia, Sphakia, Erganos,
Krasi, and Panagia in the eastern Crete, and Prinias, Kamares, and Knossos Kephala in central.
109
Cremation alone was found at Gortyn, Ag. Paraskies, Arkades (L; M; R), Kounavoi, Phaistos, Knossos Teke
(?), Pantanassa, and Praisos A (?).
224
one tomb with only one or two examples, and thus was an uncommon, potentially significant
form of burial at these locations.110
EIA tholos tombs typically contained a low number of burials: most examples held
fewer than five burials, and only 10-11 tombs held more than eight (Sphakia, Knossos Teke,
Vrokastro Mazichortia Tomb III, Rotasi 1958, Ag. Paraskies, Arkades Tomb R and possibly
also L and M, Gortyn, Kounavoi large, and Phaistos). Unfortunately, the total number of
burials from the large circular tholoi has, in most cases, not been published, making it
difficult to determine any definite trends with regard to total number of interments, though
they appear in general to have contained a greater number of burials. According to Nowicki,
the typically low number of burials in the small tholoi indicates that most single tombs
belonged to one family (probably two generations), and that the average use of a tomb was
likely less than 50 years, though some of these tombs show much longer use.111 Of the 12
possible tombs with a large number of burials (>15-40+), four (with five additional possible
examples) are tombs with circular chambers (seven large and two small) which held only
cremations, one with a rectangular chamber contained ~15 inhumations (Sphakia), and that
from Vrokastro, also rectangular, was unusual (24 skulls found in rows around the tomb and
piles of bones inside). These tombs (except for Sphakia), predictably, tended to be in use for
a longer period of time than those with fewer burials.
The inhumation burials were placed in larnakes, pithoi and occasionally, other vessels
(often placed on their sides), as well as on the floor, while cremation burials were typically
placed in upright urns or other vessels (such as pyxides, amphorae, kraters), and some pithoi
110
Both inhumation and cremation occurred at Kritsa (1 cremation?), Vrokastro, Vronda (1 cremation?), Krya,
Mouliana A (2 cremations), Praisos Photoula (1 cremation), Kourtes, Rotasi 1958 (1 larnax=1 inhumation ? or
just re-use), and Arkades (A; B; C) (cremation ?).
111
Nowicki 2000, 98.
225
may also have been used for cremations. In addition, at Kavousi Aloni, some skulls were
later (after decay) apparently moved to bronze bowls, and at Prinias D a stone aedicula
contained an inhumed child. Burial of children thus did occur in some of these tombs
(Vrokastro Karakovilia, Vasiliki Kamaraki, Prinias T. D., Rotasi 1993); unfortunately,
however, the bones of children were often not preserved or noted by excavators, and the
exact frequency of their presence in tombs of this type remains unknown. In all four
recorded examples, the burials were inhumations, including at Vrokastro where the adult
burials in the same tomb were cremations. In addition, the sex of the adult burials was only
very rarely noted by excavators; of note are the inhumation burial of a woman and child from
Rotasi (1993) and the cremation of two males in a pithos and bronze krater at Pantanassa.
Table 4 (Tholoi – burial information)
Site
Form
(inh/crem)
inhumation
Pithos/larnax/other
Ag. G. Papoura
#Burials
(Total)
multiple
Karphi:Ta Mnem.
>43
inhumation
larnax-#1;4-6
pith-#1?
Karphi:Astividero
Adrianos
Anavlochos
>6
inhumation
?
?
larnax-#5;7;pith-#4?
?
?
?
A-pyxis-poss for
crem
?
?
?
?
Kastri
Kritsa:Lakkoi
>3
?
inhumation+
poss 1 crem
Vrokastro:Amig.
>4
cremation
2 jars; poss 1 sj
Vrokastro:Karak.
>6
5 crem + 1 inh
at least 2 in jars
112
Notes/Other
bones found in chamber
+dromos
1-5 burials per tomb;
#3-platform at back w/
burial; #4- walled+
paved area outside SE
corner w/ human
bones112
excavators assumed
cremation, though no
bones/ash were
recorded
A-no human remains
found, but pyxis sugg
crem; B-2 inh; poss
secondary burial-bones
found outside tomb near
NW corner
bits of bone in vessels
+scattered
5 adult crem and 1 child
inh
At Ta Mnimata, tomb 4 had five burials, tombs 9, 10, 12, and 16 had four, tombs 2, 8, and 17 had three,
tombs 7, 11, 15, A had at least two, and tombs 3, 6, 14 had one.
226
Vrokastro:Kopran.
>5
inh + crem
Vrokastro:Mazich
31 or 32
31 inh;1crem?
Vrokastro:Poros
1991-2
inhumation?
Zenia
1998-at least 6
1998inhumations
Braimiana
Chalasmenos
?
5
?
inhumation
Kalamafka
Kavousi:Aloni
?
multiple
?
inhumation
Kavousi:Azoria
prob 2-3
inhumation
?
1 larnax, pithos frag.;
bronze bowls
on floor
Kavousi:Plai
Kavousi:Skouris
Kavousi:Vronda
>2
inhumation?
inhumation?
inh + 1 crem?
?
?
some pithoi, kraters?
Schoinokapsala
Vasiliki:Kamaraki
Vasiliki:Kephala
Adromyloi:Ag.Ant
Adromyloi:Ag.Apo
Ag. Georgios
Chamaizi (all)
Krya
?
7
at least 1
multiple
multiple
>5
?
>14-18
?
?
Mesa Mouliana
>6
?
inhumation
inhumation
inh?
inhumation
?
inhumation
most inh + few
poss crem
inh+crem
Pefkoi
Praisos A
Praisos:KKS,K,XM
Praisos:Mavrikia
Praisos:Photoula
?
?
?
multiple
3
?
cremation
?
inhumation
2 inh+1 crem
Skopi
Sphakia
Gortyn
?
>15
multiple
inhumation
inhumation
cremation
?
?
inh+crem
inhumation
?
>10
Kourtes (all)
Prinias (all)
Rotasi
~42
V-pithos burial?
?
1991-one pithos
burial per tomb
?
V-crem+inh?; VI-3 inh;
VII-frag of inh
II-24 skulls found in
rows outside of tomb;
other bones inside; III-7
inh+1 poss c
6-7 skulls were found in
lower level; 2 in upper
at the doorway (last
phase)
?
no
burials all adults-2 f; 1
m; 1 youth; 1 ?
?
B-1 larnax
?
?
pithoi (T.17; 22)
A-c in krater+pyxis;
B-larnax+on floor
?
?
?
?
larnax, pyxis; J, AHstone sarcophagus
1958-larnax, c urns
227
II-3 inh; IV-4 inh+1c?
(pith w/ blackened
earth); IX-3i
5 adults and 2 children
larnax
?
?
pithoi, urns,
amphorae
pithoi; crem in urns
pithoi; aedicule
(T.D;B)
inh+crem
I-some skulls app in
bronze bowls=reburial
1-2 adults and 1 poss
youth
A-at least 5 burials
? if any ev. of crem
1-4 burials per tomb;
#11;22 prob cremations
A-‘many’ inh+2 crem
B-2 inh
(Kamini only known)
larnax-1 inh+crem of
youth in pyxis; 2nd inh
just under roof of tomb
latest burials in entrance
T.D-2 children (1 in
pithos; 1 in aedicula) +2
adults floor
1993-2 inh-female+
child; 1958-~40 or more
crem; inh?
Ag. Paraskies
Arkades A-C
25
>13-14
cremation
inh+crem?
all in urns
pithoi, jars, urns
Arkades L,M,R
Erganos
prob ~67
>11
cremation
inhumation
Kounavoi T.11
Kounavoi-large
Krasi
Panagia
Kamares
Phaistos
Knossos:Kephala
?
many
>2
>9
>7; ? # IIIC
multiple
3
?
cremation
inhumation
inhumation
inhumation
cremation
inhumation
urns; R-stone sarc.
pithoi, 2 larnax,
1pyxis
apparently pithoi
urns
A-pithoi?
?
?
urns, pithoi
?
Knossos:Teke
Keraton
Orne
Pantanassa
min. 19
?
?
2
cremation
?
?
cremation
urns; LM III larnax
?
?
pithos; bronze krater
A-at least 3; B-8 skulls
(4 stomion, 4 ch); C-2-3
skulls
R-at least 34 burials
1 tomb-6; other-3
burials
B-1 inh on floor
B-6-7 skulls
Tomb 2 had 7 burials
burials found near
dromos
some in dromos
both males
The vast majority of EIA tholos tombs appear to have been constructed in LM IIIC
(primarily middle-late) or SM (see table 5 and fig. 178). It is frequently difficult to be more
precise or to distinguish between the two periods due to problems with the definition of the
terms SM and LM IIIC late (as well as variations between dating in eastern vs. central Crete),
dates provided by old excavations, and lack of publishing from the sites. In addition, often
only the date range for all the tombs at a single site is provided by the sources, rather than the
periods of use and construction of individual tombs. Despite these difficulties in dating, it is
clear that the earliest tholos tomb at a site frequently dates to LM IIIC;113 tombs of this
period are found at between 17-20 sites, or 44-51% of the sites with confirmed tholos tombs.
The tombs of certain LM IIIC date are all located in the eastern part of the island (or the
western side of the Lasithi Mountains), with the exception of Kamares, which belongs to an
earlier tradition (the tombs date from LM IIIA-C), and Orne, which may also belong to this
113
Tholos tombs were constructed in LM IIIC at Karphi, Adrianos, Kastri, Kritsa (?), Vrokastro, Zenia (?),
Kalamafka, Chalasmenos, Kavousi Azoria (?), Schoinokapsala (?), Vasiliki, Adromyloi, Chamaizi, Krya,
Mouliana, Pekoi, Praisos, Erganos, Krasi, Keraton, Orne, and Kamares (?). In a few instances however, as at
Sphakia, the earliest tholos tomb at a site may date to LM IIIB/C.
228
same Amari tradition. Most of these tombs continued to be used in SM, with only a few
sites/tombs used exclusively in IIIC, and new tombs were also often built at these same sites
during this period. In addition, the earliest tombs at several other sites (~9-10 new sites or
23-26% of tholos sites) have been dated to SM.114 Thus, between 67-77% of sites with tholoi
have tombs that were constructed in LM IIIC or SM; furthermore, this tomb type continued
to be a primarily eastern Cretan feature in SM, though it also began to appear at some central
and central/western sites in the same period.
In the Protogeometric period, some of the earlier tombs remained in use, and new
tombs, though few in number, may have been constructed at several sites;115 a large number
of the EIA tholos tombs, however, went out of use during PG or just before. No tholos
tombs dating later than SM have yet been found from western Crete, and the two known
examples appear to have been single period tombs (Orne-LM IIIC and Pantanassa-SM).
Tholoi appear for the first time in PG at five-six new sites (or 13-15% of tholos sites),
including Gortyn, Rotasi, Ag. Paraskies, Kounavoi T.11, Phaistos, and possibly Arkades (AC).116 The Protogeometric is thus significant in that the earliest examples of the large
circular tholos occur during this period; no tombs of this type have yet been found dating
earlier than PG. In addition, only two-three new tombs date to PGB (one tomb at Praisos
Mavrikia, the large tholos at Kounavoi, and Knossos Teke, if not originally LM). Most
tombs and cemeteries, therefore, appear to have been used in more than one period (during
114
New SM sites with tholoi are Anavlochos, Braimiana, Kavousi, Sphakia (poss. PG), Zenia, Kourtes (poss.
IIIC), Prinias, Panagia, Knossos Kephala (?), and Pantanassa.
115
The sites with IIIC-SM tholoi most likely to have had new tholoi built in PG are Anavlochos, Vrokastro
Mazichortia III, Vronda, Adromyloi, Chamaizi (?), Krya (?), Pefkoi (?), Praisos (?), Skopi, Kourtes, Prinias,
Panagia.
116
The tombs at Skopi may have begun during this period, though they really belong with those at Chamaizi
Phatsi and Liopetro.
229
LM IIIC-PG), though few of them were used for extended lengths of time (i.e., throughout
the entire EIA), as indicated by the low number of total burials.
A few sites/tombs do, however, show signs of more long-term use, with finds also
dating to the Geometric period; of the tombs which continued into G, seven sites (five or six
of which started only in PG) were in central Crete, while six sites (beginning in IIIC or SM)
were in Eastern.117 Only a maximum of nine new tholos tombs (~4% of the total number of
known EIA tholoi) at six sites (~15% of sites) were constructed during the Geometric
period,118 and at only one of these sites (Papoura) was a tholos constructed for the first time.
Five of the newly-built G tholoi are of the large circular type, and one is of the large-sized
small type. Only a handful of tombs continue into EO,119 and the two tholoi at Ag. Georgios
were apparently the only tombs constructed in this period, though they may actually date to
LG. No new tholos tombs were constructed after LG/EO, and only Arkades (L, M, R), Ag.
Paraskies, and possibly Praisos A contained evidence of continued use in the Late
Orientalizing period, with one or more of the Arkades tombs possibly continuing into the
Archaic period.
In LM IIIC/SM, rectangular chambers tend to occur more frequently than circular
ones, while in PG both types occur with similar frequency, though nearly all examples at new
sites have round chambers; in addition, most Geometric-built tombs also have circular
chambers. Within the small type of tholos, date does not appear to be a determining factor in
chamber size, with large and small examples occurring throughout the period. Date also does
117
Sites with tombs that continued in use in G are Vrokastro Mazichortia, Kavousi Aloni, Plai and Vronda,
Adromyloi, Chamaizi, Krya (?), Praisos, Rotasi, Ag. Paraskies, Arkades, Kourtes, Kounavoi, Phaistos, Knossos
Kephala and Teke.
118
Papoura, Kavousi Skouriasmenos, Praisos A and Mavrikia Kamini, Arkades L, M, R, Vronda V, and Rotasi
1993 (?).
119
Kavousi Plai and Skouriasmenos, Adromyloi (?), Rotasi 1958, Phaistos (?), Knossos Kephala (?) and Teke.
230
not appear to be significantly related to stomion features, presence or lack of dromos,
method/quality of construction, or presence of tumulus/enclosure for the small tholos type;
this remains uncertain, though, due to the difficulty in precisely dating the majority of known
tombs. Paving above the roof, however, does appear to be a relatively late feature, with no
examples occurring before PG. Thus, there does not appear to be any particular definable
evolution or change in the form of the small tholos during the EIA, while the large tholos
type is a feature primarily of PG-G.
Both inhumation and cremation occur in all periods of the Early Iron Age. The
majority of the LM IIIC-built tholos tombs contained inhumations. Three eastern sites
(Kritsa, Praisos Photoula, Mouliana) had one or two possible cremations occurring with
inhumations; the date of the two possible tombs with cremations at Krya has not yet been
published; and only one tomb at Vrokastro Kopranes seems to contain cremations, though
they are possibly later than IIIC. In most cases, unfortunately, it is impossible to distinguish
which burials from a single tomb go with which period. Of the SM tombs at new sites, the
majority still held inhumations, with two containing both inhumations and cremations
(Kourtes with an unknown number of both and Vronda with only one possible cremation),
and one tomb with only cremation (Pantanassa). On the other hand, of the PG and PGB-built
tombs at new sites, nearly all confirmed examples had cremations; only Arkades A-C still
contained inhumations. Inhumation remained prominent, however, at those few earlier sites
which continued in use. Finally, of the Geometric-built tombs, surprisingly inhumation
appears to occur more frequently than cremation, as it is found at as many as five of nine
tombs or four of five sites; cremation was found at two of these same five sites.
231
Early Iron Age tombs are oriented in all directions (see table 5); tombs with a western
orientation appear to be slightly more common than the other directions, but there does not
appear to be an actual preference or significance in the orientation.120 In nearly all cases, the
orientation of the tomb is determined by/follows the slope of the hill into which it is built; a
few tombs (Karphi M.4, 7, 8; A. 4; Ag. Paraskies), however, are oriented parallel to the hill,
possibly for ease of digging a dromos. Only a small number of tombs are not built on the
slope of a hill and these tombs also do not appear to form a pattern in terms of their
orientation. A tomb or tombs with an orientation that differs from that of the other tholoi at
the same site (within a single cemetery, especially when on the same side of a hill) may,
however, be significant or distinguished from the other tombs; for example, Vronda V
(possibly later in date than the other tholoi), Arkades M, and perhaps Karphi M.4 have
different orientations from the other tombs in the same cemetery.
Early Iron Age tholoi were typically not found in enclosed, well-defined cemeteries;
those few examples where this practice occurred were at sites which later became poleis
(Prinias, Arkades, Dreros ?), and the majority of the tombs in these cemeteries post-date the
tholoi. EIA tholos tombs usually occurred scattered over large distances on the slopes
around a settlement; in fact, at Karphi for example, Nowicki also notes that there are “no
special regularity or rules” for the distances between tombs.121 Tholos tombs do, however,
frequently occur in groups/clusters,122 along a single line, and sometimes in pairs;123 these
120
Orientation by site as provided, in most cases, by excavators or published plans: E-9; N-8; S-10; W-16; NE4; NW-4; SE-6; SW-3. Note, these are not necessarily precise as some sources are less specific than others
(e.g., one excavator may describe the orientation as N when in fact it is really NW or NE).
121
Nowicki 2000, 240.
122
Groups/clusters likely occurred at Karphi M. 9-15, Anavlochos, Vrokastro Kopranes, Vronda IV-VII; IIII,VIII, Adromyloi, Chamaizi, Krya, Skopi, Kourtes (?), Prinias, Arkades (A-C), Erganos, Panagia, Kamares
(?).
232
associations are identified by proximity, similar orientation, and in some cases, an enclosure
or dividing wall. In many cases, they likely signify an extended family or clan connection,
while in others, the tomb positioning may indicate a desired association through proximity
with the person(s) buried in an adjacent tomb through implied status. Unfortunately, there is
not enough information available to determine whether any trends existed as to what features
grouped tombs at a site had in common, though at Karphi, for example, nearly all examples
of tombs with projecting entrances occurred in a single group. In a few cases (Kritsa, Ag.
Georgios, Sphakia, Kounavoi, Knossos Kephala), the location of a tholos tomb(s) may have
been determined/influenced by the existence of an earlier tomb or tombs (chamber or tholos),
though at Kritsa and Sphakia the tombs are ~150 m away; these associated tombs are
typically LM III, frequently B/C, except at Kounavoi where the chamber tombs are EIA. In
addition, later EIA tombs, especially bone enclosures and pithos burials, were often placed
near tholos tombs, with the tholos tomb(s) possibly influencing their location (e.g. Vrokastro,
Anavlochos, Arkades, Knossos Teke, Pantanassa, Praisos A).
The isolation of a single tomb from other tombs at a site appears somewhat more
significant, however, though it is often difficult to determine for certain whether a tomb was
isolated without completely excavating a large surrounding area. Tombs that are relatively
isolated within cemeteries include Karphi M. 4, Vrokastro I and VI, Krya Isopata and large
tholos, Vronda IX and X, Praisos A, and Arkades R; in addition, 3 tombs at Adromyloi were
found on three separate hills, as opposed to the 15 which were found grouped around a fourth
hill. Furthermore, the large circular tholos at Kavousi Skouriasmenos seems the most likely
candidate for a fully isolated tomb, as supported by its tomb type and finds, as well as the
123
Pairs have been observed at Karphi, Kritsa, Vrokastro Mazichortia (?), Ag. Georgios, Mouliana, and Pefkoi,
for example.
233
presence of two-three other cemeteries in the vicinity of the settlement but at a considerable
distance from the tomb. Thus, depending on the tomb type and wealth of finds, some truly
isolated tombs, most likely those of the larger type and wealthier in certain grave goods,
could have been used by elite individuals or families (or ruling class/aristocracy), while
others, most likely of the smaller type and in general poorer in grave goods, may have been
placed on family lands, farms or fieldhouses or else separated from other tombs for some
unknown reason pertaining to the interred (disease, ethnicity, social status or rank, etc.).
Tombs and cemeteries were placed in all directions from the settlement, which during
this period was nearly always on top of a hill/mountain.124 As with individual tomb
orientation, the location of the tombs (both large and small) relative to the settlement does
not appear to follow a specific pattern; tombs are found most frequently to the south of the
settlement, though all other directions also commonly occur when looking at the tombs
overall.125 In addition, sites often have burials in multiple locations relative to the settlement.
There may, however, be a slight distinction in relative location based on region; while central
Cretan sites appear to occur most frequently to the north, west, and especially northwest of
the settlement (with only one example each of south and southwest, and no known examples
of east, northeast, or southeast), eastern Cretan tholoi show much greater diversity, occurring
in all directions (but especially SE, S, E, SW, and W, with only one definite example each of
NW and N). The two known central western examples (Rethymnon Nomos) are located to
the south and southeast of their associated settlements.
124
Cf. Branigan 1998, for placement of EM tholoi within the landscape.
125
Tombs are placed to the north of the settlement at 4 sites; to the south at 10; to the east at 5-7; to the west at
5-7; to the northeast at 3-4; to the northwest at 6-8; to the southeast at 5-8; to the southwest at 7-8.
234
The distance of tholos tombs and cemeteries from their associated settlements is
typically one kilometer or less, especially <500 m and sometimes only tens of meters.126
Size, type of tholos and date do not appear to be related to a tomb’s distance from its
settlement. Only six possible sites have tombs located at a distance greater than one
kilometer from their associated settlement (one tomb at Krya-1-1.5 km; the Skopi tombs~1.5
km; the tombs at Kritsa and Mouliana-possibly 2 km; one tomb at Kalamafka-possibly 2.5
km; and Vasiliki Kamaraki-possibly as much as 3 km). For these tombs, it is possible that a
closer settlement remains to be identified, though they could also have served as boundary
markers between the territories of two settlements/villages or between the land/fields of
different owners, or else merely have been placed on a family plot of land or remote location,
rather than within a cemetery or near other tombs.
Nearly all EIA tholos tombs were associated with “defensible” settlements, as defined
by Nowicki;127 only Rotasi (somewhat defensible and belonging to a group of large
acropoleis of central Crete and the Mesara), Knossos, and Phaistos are considered not to have
been of this settlement type. Furthermore, at Knossos and Phaistos (and likely also Rotasi),
the tholos tomb was only a minor form of burial, in other words, comprising a very small
percentage of the total number of EIA burials at the site. The defensible sites varied in size
from small-quite large, and while some were abandoned rather quickly, others continued to
be inhabited beyond the EIA, with some even becoming poleis or large towns. Many of the
126
Burials sites 500 m or less from their settlement are found at Papoura (?), Karphi, Adrianos, Kastri,
Vrokastro, Zenia, Chalasmenos, Kavousi, Krya, Pefkoi, Praisos, Kourtes, Prinias, Rotasi, Arkades, Erganos,
Krasi, Pantanasssa, from 500-less than 1 km at Anavlochos, Vrokastro, Zenia, Adromyloi, Chamaizi, Praisos,
Sphakia, Gortyn, Kourtes, Orne, from 1-1.5 km at Kavousi Skouriasmenos, Chamaizi, Krya (1?), Skopi,
Phaistos, Knossos Kephala and Teke, Keraton. Sites whose associated settlement may be as far as 2-3 km are
Kritsa, Kalamafka, Vasiliki Kamaraki, Mouliana. For the sake of consistency, where possible plans from
Nowicki (2000) were used in determining unknown distances.
127
Nowicki 2000.
235
EIA settlement sites have been investigated and identified only through survey, causing their
exact date range and size to remain unconfirmed. Twelve sites appear to have become large
towns or poleis by the end of the EIA or shortly thereafter (Papoura-not polis, Anavlochosnot polis, Kalamafka, Praisos, Gortyn, Prinias, Rotasi, Arkades, Kounavoi, Phaistos,
Knossos, Pantanassa),128 and seven of these sites had tholoi of the large type (only nine total
sites had large tholoi). This therefore appears to support the proposed distinction between
the small and large types of tholos, as the large tholos, the presence of which likely shows
increased social diversity or hierarchies (few in number, better construction, larger size, and
frequently later in date), occurs most often at the sites where such distinctions would be
expected (i.e., sites which develop into large towns or city-states).
Finally, in a few cases, tombs or cemeteries continue in use for a short time after the
settlement has been abandoned. It is often difficult to confirm this due to lack of publishing
and refinement of chronology for both settlements and tombs. The best potential evidence of
this comes from Karphi, Chalasmenos B (see table 6), Vronda, and Erganos, and these
examples would seem to indicate that the practice occurs primarily at settlements which were
occupied only for a short time (primarily LM IIIC), with a few individuals thus returning to
bury their dead shortly after the abandonment of the site.
Table 5 (Tholoi – date, orientation, location relative to settlement)
Site
Date
Ag. G. Papoura
G (MG)
Karphi:Ta Mnem.
IIIC-SM;
little PG
128
Tomb
Orient.
E
Group/isolated
NE-7,8,16
17; NW-13,A; S-4;
SW-5,6,915
group (#9-15); pairs
(1+2,5+6,7+8,16+17)
1+2,5+6-wall behind
+ b/w; 7+8-conn wall
16+17-built together;
single 3,4
?
And also possibly Skouriasmenos (nearby Azoria later town/polis)?
236
Location rel. to
settlement
immed to E on
slope (Papoura)
to S
~80-300 m
(Karphi)
Settlement
type and date
large town;
IIIC late-A,
esp. PG-G
large
defensible site;
IIIC-SM
Karphi:Astividero
IIIC-SM;
little PG
Adrianos
IIIC;
SM/PG?
Anavlochos
SM-LPG;
G?
Kastri
prob. IIICSM/PG
IIIC lateSM; PG?
Kritsa:Lakkoi
SE-1-3;
NE-4;
W-5
1-N(NW)
pair (2+3) with
dividing wall; single
1,4
?
1-NE
several tholoi on
same small hill
?
?
E; NE
A~10 m east of B;
CT ~150 m SW of B
pithos burial nearby;
~500m from T.II
poss. structures near;
b.e’s-same hill <1km
adj. bone enclosures;
3 tholoi ~200m apart
III by b.e.; II+III
<500m apart
3 tholoi in ~same
area
?
Vrokastro:Amig.
SM-PG
S
Vrokastro:Karak.
SM-PG
SE
Vrokastro:Kopran.
IIIC-SM,
PG?
III-PG-G
II-SM,LG
IIIC-SM
NE; SW
Zenia
’98-IIIB-C
(or SM)
’98-SE (?)
Braimiana
Chalasmenos
SM/PG
IIIC late
?
W (+S?)
Kalamafka
LMIII/SM;
SM
Kavousi:Aloni
SM-LG;
IIIC (?)
IIIC/SMPG
N;W
Kavousi:Plai
Kavousi:Skourias
Kavousi:Vronda
SM-EO
LG-EO
SM-MG
(V-only G)
?
E/SE
W;N;NW;
S-#V
~100 m from Aloni I
isolated
2 groups-IV-VII; IIII+VIII; X-50m
from I; IX-150m
from X
Schoinokapsala
LM or SM
?
?
Vasiliki:Kamaraki
IIIC-PG
Vasiliki:Kephala
IIIC
Vrokastro:Mazich
Vrokastro:Poros
Kavousi:Azoria
N; S
?
?
?
prob other tombs in
area
?
I,II,IV~75 m apart;
III poss 8 m from IV
?
W
SE
report of others
nearby
?
isolated?
237
to E; up to 350
m
“
S-~500 m
(Fortetsa);
+Faure-SE?
N-~500-800 m
(Anavlochos)
defensible site;
IIIC; SM/PG?
SE~200m; S
(Kastri)
E~2 km?
(Kastello)
SW~700 m
(VK summit)
S~200 m
poss. town; GA; defensible
IIIC-PG
defensible;
IIIC-SM/PG
large
defensible;
IIIC-SM; PG?
defensible;
IIIC-LG/EO
“
W~400 m
“
SW~400 m
“
prob W or E
(KA1/3) or VK
NE~600m;
NW~400m
(Kastrokephala)
?
SW~200 m
(Chalasmenos)
2-nearby
(Anatoli
Mesokastella ?);
1-to SE?? >2.5
km(Kastello)
SW~175-300m
(Kastro)
immediately to
SW (Azoria)
S~150 m
SE~1 km
N;NW;
~10>200 m
(Vronda) or
W~1
km(Kastro)
E? (Ag. Ioannis
Psychro)
W or E ~3km??
Chalasmenos or
Kephala
S (Kephala)
small
settlement?
large
defensible;
IIIC (SM?)
?
~small def;
IIIC (mid)
K-v. large def;
later poss
polis, IIIC-R
M-small def
sett
small def IIICO
def sett IIICO; poss polis
in A
“
“
small def IIIC
or IIIC-O
small def;
IIIC-PG
IIIC small
def/IIIC-PG
def
defensible
IIIC-PG
Adromyloi:Ag.Ant
PG-G
?
apparently in group
SW~700?
(Anginara)
Adromyloi:Ag.Apo
IIIC-PG;
G-EO (?)
?
S or SW ~500700?
Ag. Georgios
EO
Chamaizi:Liopetro
IIICPGB;LG
SM-PGB;
LG?
late IIICPG; G?
15 around hill ; 3
more iso on separate
hills
B~25 m to E of A;
12 m from LM III ct
~500 m W of Phatsi
group
tombs roughly in
group
many=main group;
Isopata-120maway;
large-40m from Iso;
far ex-1-1.5 km away
two tombs ~5 m
apart
Chamaizi:Phatsi
Krya
A-N?
B-S?
?
W; S
most SE;
+S;E;W
Mesa Mouliana
A-IIIC;
SM?
B-IIIB/C
or IIIC
W
Pefkoi
IIIC;PG?
SE; S
two Kastellopoulo
tombs 3m apart
Praisos A
LG?-O?;
earlier
const ?;
esp LG-EO
IIIC-G
NW
B~250 m to S;
C~75m to N
1-E
Praisos:Photoula
PGB-LG;
LG (Kam)
IIIC-SM
W
Skopi
PG
W
Sphakia
SM or PG
E
Gortyn
PG
S
Kourtes
SM-G; esp
PG
W;N
apparently some
groups
Prinias
SM-PGB
E;S/SE
Rotasi
PG-‘54; G‘93; PGEO-‘58
most only few m
apart
?
Ag. Paraskies
PG-O
Praisos:KKS,K,XM
Praisos:Mavrikia
?
?
two tombs 500 m
apart
?
T.3-5 w/in 200 m
radius of other two;
~500m from Phatsi
IIIB/C tholos on
same hill
?
?
N
?
238
?
large
defensible;
IIIC-A
“
?
SE~700 m
(Liopetro)
SSE~1 km
def; IIIC-A
E; NE ~300 m
and less (Ag.
Georgios)
defensible
IIIC-PG; G?
nearby(Gouves)
or W (Pyrgos)
or poss ~2 km to
NE (Myrsini
Kastello)
SW~300m (K);
NE ~300?(MC)
or SW~500 (K);
E~100m(MC)
S~250m
(Praisos)
Kastello= def,
IIIC-G, A?
“
defensible;
IIIC/SM (K)
IIIC-G? (MC)
EIA ~defen;
becomes
polis;IIIC-H
SE or W ~500750m? (Praisos
or Kalamafki
Kypria)
SE or W
“ or IIIC-A
large defen
S/SE-5001000m (Praisos)
~E >1.5 km
(Liopetro)
EIA def; bec
polis,IIIC-H
def; IIIC-A
SW~800 m
(Kastri)
S/SE~750m?
(Ag. Ioannis)
med. def; IIICG;A?
EIA def;
becomes polis
IIIC-R
def; IIIC-O/A
W;NW; prob
~500-1 km
(Kourtekephala)
NW~500 m
(Patela)
NW/W~250 m
(’93); N~500 or
more (’58)
(Kephala)
?
“
def; bec polis
IIIC-H
becomes large
town, poss
polis PG-R;
IIIC?
?
Arkades A,B,C
G, poss PG
W;SW
Arkades L,M,R
G-A
W; T.MSE
Erganos
prim IIIC;
SM/PG;G?
large-PGBLG
T.11-PG
B-IIIC-PG
A-LM III?
W?
Panagia
SM-PG
W;N;NW
Kamares
IIIA-C;
SM?
PG-LG/EO
E
Kounavoi
Krasi
Phaistos
Knossos:Kephala
W-large
11-no ent
N;W?
S?
Knossos:Teke
Keraton
SM/PG-G;
EO?
PGB-EO
IIIC-PG?
W?
Orne
IIIC
prob E
Pantanassa
late SM
S
W
?
near pithoi;A-C gr; at
NW edge cem
R-little isolated;
L+M-sep by wall
from others+pithoi
group of 3-4; others
in vicinity
by earlier chamber
tombs; T.11 just to
south of large tholos
?
tholoi only a few m
apart
3 or more in group;
one to NW
isolated ?
among cts
(LM+EIA)
two adj. G-O cts
?
?
near pithos burial
W~500 m (Prof.
Ilias)
W~500m
def; bec polis;
SM-H; IIIC?
“
W~250-450 m
(Kephala)
nearby (ancient
Eltyna?)
large def; IIIC
B-SSE~200; AW<200 m?
(Siderokephala)
W/NW? (Prof.
Ilias?-Arkades)
E?(Kaimenis
Mitato)
SW/SSW<1 km
(Phaistos)
N~1 km
(Knossos)
NW <1km
NW?; ~1km
(Keraton)
S <1 km
(Kastello)
SE~200m?
(Veni)
def; IIIC
EIA-R, poss
town/polis
def; polis; SMH; IIIC?
settlement ?
IIIA-C
settlement;
polis; IIIC-A
bec polis; IIICR
“
def; IIIC-G
def; IIIC early
def; poss polis/
town; IIIC-H
In addition, several sites have structures which may have been EIA tholos tombs, but
their identification has not yet been confirmed (see table 6). Also, in a small number of
instances, pre-EIA tombs may have been re-used for EIA burials (see table 7); of the possible
examples, however, only Archanes Phourni Tomb D is certain, with three SM inhumations
placed in the debris from the collapsed roof of the LM IIIA2 tholos.
Table 6 (Possible EIA tholos tombs)
Site
Adrianos
Dreros T.1
Zenia
Ag. Ioannis
Chalasmenos
Information
Faure noted PG necropolis with tholoi on far side of Xeropotamos River (at Kolomati)
LM IIIC-SM; 1 rectangular tomb, 2.1x1.75 m cut into bedrock; built of large limestone
blocks; covered by 1 large paving stone (? if tholos or cist); among G cist graves; 3 inh; loc
~200 NE of associated settlement
Nowicki reports hearing of destroyed tholos in vineyard north of Kastrokephala
LM IIIC?; 1 round stone construction identified by Nowicki as possible tholos; ~50 m east
of associated settlement
T.B-PG; 1 irregularly shaped structure ~2 m diameter, built into S wall of Room 5 of
settlement after abandoned; slightly cut into floor; possible monolithic jamb; above
ground; v. fragmentary bone recovered; other-Nowicki reports that other robbed tholoi
may be found to W+S of settlement
239
Meseleroi
Adromyloi
Mousadena
Ag. Georgios
Oreino
Praisos T. E
Ag. Marina
Ag. Pelagia
Smari:
Leivaditsa
Archanes:
Phythies
Knossos
Kephala (KS
16)
Knossos
Kephala #1
Arvi
Atsipades
Koxare
Vrokastro Survey identified 2 possible tholoi “with rubble walls” at Profitis Ilias 4, though
the date of this feature is unknown (possibly sometime between LG and A)
G; 1 rectangular tomb 2.3x1.5 m with short dromos ~0.85 m width; id in report as “cist
tomb with dromos,” poss. tholos due to presence of others in area
some of SM-LG/EO chamber tombs may actually have been tholoi-not yet published;
Tsipopoulou also calls 1963 tomb tholos rather than chamber tomb
prob LM IIIC-SM; Evans id tombs ~150 m west of settlement; Nowicki informed of one
destroyed example 100-200 m north of settlement
rectangular tholos (chamber 2.2x1.84m; entrance 0.85 m wide; opens to north; vaulting
begins at 4th; roughly paved floor-Bosanquet), date unknown as empty when excavated;
may be site 63 of Praisos Survey (1.8x4.7 m) for which fragments of IIIB/C larnakes found
inside and around tomb
SM-G; 1 circular tomb 1.6 m diameter with dromos; Snodgrass id as vaulted chamber
tomb; others id as standard chamber tomb
LM IIIB-PG?; Evans id tholoi; Kanta believes were actually chamber tombs
Chatzi-Vallianou identified at least two tholoi to S/SE of well-known LM IIIB tholos; the
dates of these two tombs have not been published, however
one tomb among cist graves said to have been distinctly roofed “like a bridge/arch”;
terracotta model (poss of tomb with offerings being made through roof), tholos ??
PG-O; Evans 1907 id two ‘beehive tombs’; uncertain if tholoi or chamber tombs b/c called
rock-cut tombs in other source+many cts nearby
called “vaulted chamber” by Hogarth (#6 called tholos); square; 2.4 m; sloping dromos 3.2
m long; walls “almost converge to form pointed arch;” step down into chamber and also at
far end of dromos; built door; 1 inh + 5 “Myc” vases, 2 bronze tweezers; just outside
additional human bones, bronze mirror, blue paste w/ relief rosettes (tomb type?, date?)
LM IIIC?; Hood et al. 1964 id remains of possible destroyed tholos, ~20 m SE of
settlement
Hood and Warren id possible tholos at Lakkos
LM IIIC?; Hood and Warren id great pile of stones, possibly row of tholoi ~ 1km west of
settlement
Table 7 (Pre-EIA tholoi with possible EIA burials)
Site
Plati
Achladia
Date
LM IIIB or
B/C
LM IIIA2-B
Praisos T.B
Valis
Kamares
Archanes
Phourni T.D
Knossos
Isopata
LM IIIA2?
EM-LMI/III
LM IIIA-C
LM IIIA2
Knossos
(KS17)
Kephala tholos
MM III; prob
LM II
MM III; prob
LM II
Information
orig. burial in larnax below floor of tholos; uncertain date of bones above
floor, poss LM IIIC or SM
Platon mentioned SM pots on tomb floor, though none id by Tsipopoulou
+ Vagnetti in recent study of Platon’s drawings
apparently 1 Geo burial, though poss. just offerings
one urn with child cremation, poss. LM IIIC or SM (Davaras)
some of IIIC burials likely in tombs built in IIIA+B
3 disturbed SM inhumations in debris from collapsed roof of tholos
some of burials (up to 6 inhumations) in three niches (2 in antechamber,
1 at back of chamber) possibly date to IIIC; tomb is really a combination
of a built chamber tomb/tholos
apparent LM IIIC re-use; deposits in chamber fill and forehall, 5-9
inhumations and 15 vases; poss SM inh with stirrup jar in pithos; + few
poss PG sherds
EIA tholoi of both types also frequently show evidence of contemporary and/or later
offerings, funerary rituals, meals, libations, and burial pyres (see table 8). Terracotta animal
240
figurines (especially bulls, cows, sheep, and goats) were common BA cult offerings without
military connotations,129 and they were found outside EIA tholos tombs at up to four (Karphi,
Papoura, Kavousi Plai, Arkades R) sites, and inside tombs at two or more additional sites;
this practice appears to have been particularly common at Karphi. While ceramic vases were
generally found inside all tombs, sometimes certain vessels, especially cups, jugs, and
bowls/kraters, were left outside the tombs as offerings or as the result of final toasts/funerary
banquets; vases found inside tombs also frequently represent these practices. In fact, ceramic
vessels were the most commonly found items relating to cultic or funerary practices. Some
of these vases may further have been used to pour libations, perhaps in pits or depressions, as
found inside (Vrokastro Karakovilia I, Kavousi Aloni II, and Mouliana A) and outside
(Kounavou T.11) a few tombs. Also, circular stones, interpreted by the excavators as for
libations/offerings (identification uncertain-possibly column bases) were found at Vrokastro
Karakovilia and Praisos A.
In addition, evidence of funerary meals or burnt offerings can be seen in the presence
of iron spits, animal bones, and burned earth. The presence of iron spits has only been
confirmed thus far at Kavousi Plai tou Kastrou (and also firedogs in the shape of warships),
Kounavoi (both tholoi), and Gortyn; two of these are large tholoi and the other is significant
in type and quantity of grave goods. It is often difficult, however, to determine whether
animal bones found in a tomb were associated with the burials, as sacrifices or offerings,
remains of meals, or even themselves intentionally buried, or thrown/dumped in at a later
date, though animal bones were recovered from at least 9 sites and 13 tombs (see tables 8 and
10). Furthermore, burned earth (found at only a few sites, Karphi M. 8, Kavousi Plai,
Arkades B and R, and Panagia A) and other burned items could also sometimes come from
129
See Prent 2003.
241
pyres rather than offerings/meals, and associated pyres have been positively identified for
three tholoi (Kounavoi T. 11, Knossos Teke, Pantanassa). Finally, evidence of EIA activity,
not re-use for burial, but offerings, ritual libations, tomb cult, etc., has also been uncovered
inside or in the vicinity of a few Bronze Age tholos tombs (see table 9).
Table 8 (Offerings, funerary ritual, etc. assocociated with EIA tholoi)
Site
Ag.Georgios
Papoura
Karphi
(Ta M.)
Kritsa
Vrokastro
Kavousi
Aloni
Kavousi
Azoria
Kavousi Plai
Kavousi Sk
Kavousi
Vronda
Vasiliki
Kephala
Krya
Mouliana
Praisos T.A
Sphakia
Gortyn
Kourtes
Arkades
Kounavoi
T.11
Kounavoilarge
Information
animal figurine found on surface near tomb, poss. offering (cf. Karphi)
1-M.4-exterior SE corner, walled paved area with human bones + pottery scattered outside 2M.8-black earth, 2 iron needles, 2 female terracotta statuettes, ox and stand found outside
tomb 3-M.5+6-vases, including late A and 4th c. BC found outside tombs 4-G-A animal
figurines (esp. cows, bulls and sheep) found around many of the tholoi 5-M.11,16 (dog,
sheep, ox),17 (horse, ox, sheep/goat)-animal bones found in tomb (? date)
T.A-jug and many cups in dromos, poss. from libations; Archaic and Classical black
monochrome krateriskoi may represent later use/offerings
Karakovilia I-inside tomb, NE corner rectangular depression, poss for libations; circular
stone, poss for offerings; Maz II-LG pottery (? if later burial or offering because only SM
also id from tomb-poss assoc with placement of skulls outside of tomb); also cow teeth in
upper strata; other- Hayden mentions sets of cups+bowls/kraters found in several tombs,
possibly funerary banquet/toasting ritual
Tomb II had two pits
very eroded vessel found above second lintel (if EIA, poss similar function as at Vronda)
~40 m NE of tomb on rocky ledge, Boyd found burned earth, terracotta animal figurines (esp.
bulls) and sherds, poss from shrine (association with tomb uncertain); iron spits found inside
tomb
sheep/goat bones found inside (date ?) and part of boar’s tusk
T.I,II,IV,V,X-some have vessels (cups, skyphoi, kraters, kalathoi) on stone slabs at stomion,
possibly from final toast or libation; T.X-large pit with animal (dog, fox, donkey) bones-date?
dog bones found on floor of tomb (date?)
one tomb may have had a pit (awaiting publication)
T.A-pit with black earth behind doorway (same width as doorway), poss for libations
two round stone drums with sunken center, excavator suggested for libations (or column
base?); ox and dog teeth (later?)
animal bones in higher level (? if associated)
iron spits found inside tomb
5 vases found buried in pile outside one of tombs, poss connected with burial ritual
A+B-animal bones (s/g-A, pig-A+B, cow-B); B-jar on side with vegetable matter (and
burned earth around) found in front of mass of stones blocking tomb entrance; R-on paving
above roof, found earth mixed with ash, possibly for offerings or pyre? (+LM type female
figurine, 3 animal figs, bronze fibula and pin)
a pyre was found at west edge of tomb; two shallow pits for libations were found outside the
perimeter of tomb (W-feeding bottle and oinochoe; E-2 feeding bottles, oinochoe, jug); inside
tomb-iron spits and animal bones from meal
g/s, pig bones and iron spits found inside tomb, poss from funerary meal; hearth with carbon
and ashes found just to west of tomb=evidence of burnt offerings (?assoc with tholos or
chamber tomb)
242
Panagia
Knossos
Teke
Pantanassa
T.B-small jug under rock at entrance; T.A-to right of dromos, found burned earth, vases,
animal bones, mass of iron swords and spears, 2 fragments of obsidian knives (offering or
poss pyre)
two pyres found between tholos and chamber tomb; just inside doorway of tholos, on either
side found vase with jewelry
pyre found in dromos and also on crown of roof
Table 9 (BA tholoi with possible EIA cult activity)
Site
Achladia
Date
LM IIIA2-B
Praisos
(Tholos B)
Ag. Triada(Tholos A)
Kamiliari
LM IIIA2?
Archanes
Phourni
EM IILMIIIB/C
EM II-MM
II
MM IB-LM
IIIA2
Information
LG oinochoe and cup identified by Tsipopoulou and Vagnetti during study of
Platon’s drawings of tomb contents
Geometric vases, terracotta beads found inside tomb; uncertain if represent
re-use of tomb for burial or offerings
LG or EO bronze bulls found in vicinity of tholos, though exact findspot
unknown
4 Geo (poss PG and G) vessels (skyphos, jug, amphora, open-work stand)
found during recent re-examination of sherds from excavation; 2 of vases
discovered in pit near entrance to annexes (in front of tomb)
Geometric sherds observed outside east wall of Bldg. 4; this building was
apparently connected with funerary rituals during cemetery’s original use
Grave goods
While it is theoretically possible to do a true multivariate analysis of grave goods
from the tholoi, in practice it would not be a very effective study, as only a very small
number of tombs (as few as 12 of over 200) were found intact (i.e., completely unrobbed),130
and a large percentage of the sites and tombs remain unpublished. While the tombs at many
sites were completely, or nearly completely, robbed or destroyed, even empty, numerous
other tholoi were only slightly disturbed, thus providing us with important information for
analysis; in fact, certain trends and distinctions can still be observed among the tombs/sites
and their architectural types. Overall, the grave goods found in EIA tholos tombs show a
large range of offerings; in fact, greater diversity occurs in the tholoi of this period than in
most other tomb types. The total number of ceramics varies from only a few vases to over
130
Completely intact were Kritsa B, one tomb from Adromyloi, one tomb from Vrokastro Poros, Vronda IV,
Vasiliki Kamaraki, Krya 6, 27, 28, Praisos Photoula, Gortyn, Rotasi 1958 and 1993. Other unpublished
examples likely also exist; those listed previously are the certain examples.
243
250, and metal objects commonly occur; terracotta, stone, glass/paste, and even faience and
ivory objects are also sometimes found (see table 10).
The tombs (nine examples-Kavousi Plai, Adromyloi, Rotasi 1958, Ag. Paraskies,
Arkades R,L, Kounavoi, Phaistos, Knossos Teke) with the greatest number of vases (>100)
most commonly had round chambers (five were of the large type, two of the small,
Adromyloi is unknown, and Plai was square). Most of them also contained a large number of
cremation burials (except for Plai and possibly Adromyloi), and they further tended to be
located in central Crete. In addition, all seven of the central Crete cremation tombs were
built in PG or G, while the two eastern exceptions with inhumations were likely built in LM
IIIC or SM. Predictably, all nine of the tombs with many vases were in use for a long period
of time, usually until LG/EO or even later.
Other tombs also contained a relatively large number (~25-50) of vases;131 a greater
percentage of these examples occurred in the eastern part of the island, however, and they
tended to be in use for a shorter period of time. The burials also more frequently consisted of
inhumations, fewer in number. In addition, these tombs contained both rectangular and
circular chambers, including two central Cretan tombs of the large circular type. There does
not appear to be a discernable trend regarding these particular tombs; some tholoi are larger
and better built than other tombs at the same sites or else somewhat isolated, while others do
not appear distinct architecturally and are placed among other tholoi. Analyzing these tombs
only by the presence of a number of vases is difficult, however, as many additional robbed or
unpublished tombs likely contained the same number of vases.
131
Tombs with ~25-50 vases were found at Vrokastro I, Chalasmenos, Vronda IV, Vasiliki Kamaraki,
Adromyloi B, Chamaizi Phatsi III and V, Krya 6 and 28, Praisos Mavrikia (both), Sphakia, Gortyn, Rotasi
1954, Arkades M.
244
Many different types of vases were recovered from tholos tombs. By far the most
common, occurring at nearly all sites and in most tombs, were jugs/oinochoai and
cups/skyphoi, vessel types often used as part of funerary rituals for libations or toasts. Also
occurring frequently were stirrup jars, amphoriskoi/krateriskoi, kalathoi, flasks, hydriae,
aryballoi/lekythoi, pyxides, and bird vases/askoi, as well as vessels often used to contain
burials, such as pithoi, amphorae, kraters, and urns/kalpides. Slightly less common were
feeding bottles, tripods, lekanai, and trays/dishes. Among the ceramic vases, perhaps the
most significant are those which occur rarely, such as stands (Karphi M. 8, Knossos Teke,
Arkades L), multiple vases (Vrokastro Amigdali, Chamaizi Phatsi II, Arkades R), kernoi
(Knossos Teke, Kourtes), open-work vessels (Vrokastro I-kalathoi, Chamaizi Phatsi Vbowls, Arkades L-stand), a strainer with human and horse head spouts (Kavousi Aloni I), and
possibly, unusual rhytons (one in the shape of a human head from Karphi M. 11 and a jug
with human head from Arkades R);132 these rare vases may represent important grave goods,
serving to distinguish one tomb or its inhabitant(s) from others at a site. In addition, with one
or two exceptions (Vrokastro Amigdali, Karphi M. 11), these rare vases were found only in
tholoi of the large type or in large examples of the small type (frequently the largest tomb at a
site and also usually tombs with rectangular chambers).
One further point to consider is the presence of imported vessels; the most significant
possible imports were found at Chamaizi Phatsi II (Euboean aryballos) and V (Early
Cycladic III vase-heirloom), Kavousi Plai (possible Euboean hydria), Knossos Teke
(Sardinian askos, Cycladic and Cypriot vessels), Phaistos (Cypriot vases, Phoenician
aryballos), Kounavoi (Attic skyphoi?), and Vasiliki Kamaraki (possible mainland imports).
132
One ladle was also recovered from Vrokastro Kopranes V, but this may not be as significant as the other
forms, though it may have been used for serving at a feast or libation.
245
The large tombs at Arkades also contained imports (Corinthian – also at Praisos A, Rhodian,
Cypriot), but many of these post-date the EIA. Most of the known imports occur in tholoi of
the large type or at least in large examples of the small type. Finally, numerous other
examples certainly exist, especially possible Cypriot imports (e.g., Vrokastro Kopranes,
Kavousi Plai, Mouliana, etc.), but those listed above appear to be the most significant.
Gold occurs somewhat more commonly than one might expect in EIA tholos tombs,
having been recovered from at least 18-20 tombs at 13 sites (see table 10).133 Rings, often
with elliptical bezels, represent the most frequent gold find; in fact, they were often the only
gold item in a tomb, present in 11-13 of the tombs. Minor objects, such as leaf, rivet heads,
and beads were also relatively common (at 9-10 tombs). Unusual items are a pendant
(Vasiliki Kephala), a Cypriot ox head earring (Krya T.1), possible face masks (Mouliana B
and Praisos Photoula), diadems (Knossos Kephala 6 and Teke), and gold dumps/nuggets,
bracelets, and small statuettes (all from Knossos Teke, a possible jeweler’s tomb).
While gold did occur somewhat frequently, it was not typically found in more than
one or two tombs at a single site; its presence would thus appear to distinguish these tombs
from others; for example, gold was found at Kavousi Aloni and Skouriasmenos, previously
identified as potential elite cemeteries, but not at Vronda. The presence of gold, however, is
not limited to any specific tomb type, and it is the material most likely to have been robbed
from a tomb; gold is found in large circular tholoi and large-average rectangular, as well as
large-average-small circular, tholoi of the first type. Perhaps significant is the fact that a high
percentage of these tombs (at least 15 certain examples with 4-5 unknown) do, however,
133
Gold objects were found at Karphi A. 5, Vrokastro I, Kavousi Aloni and Skouriasmenos, Vasiliki Kephala,
Adromyloi, Krya 1, Mouliana A and B, Praisos A, B?, Photoula, Prinias F, Rotasi ’58, Kounavoi, Krasi A and
B, Knossos Kephala 6 and Teke.
246
have dromoi (at least short ones). In addition, tombs with gold artifacts contained both
inhumations and cremations, with inhumation being most prominent.134 Finally, gold was
found in tombs of all dates, with LM IIIC being the most common construction date for
tholoi of the small type (7-IIIC, 2-SM, 1-PG-the only central Cretan example), and with the
construction dates for the large tholoi evenly divided (2-SM, 2-PGB, 2-LG-the only eastern
Cretan examples).
While gold was found in numerous tholoi, silver only rarely occurred (Karphi Ta
Mnimata A, Praisos A, Arkades R, Knossos Teke, Rotasi ‘58). Silver pins were found in
each of the three above tombs of the large circular type, while rivets were found at Rotasi
(small but later in date and similar to the large type), and a ring at Karphi. In addition, the
exceptionally wealthy Teke tomb also contained a silver dump, bracelet, and an electrum
Potnia Theron. Finally, with the exception of Karphi, all of these tombs date to PG or later
and contained cremations. Lead, however, was even rarer, occurring at only 3 sites, all in the
east (Kavousi Skouriasmenos-pieces, Vasiliki Kamaraki-bead, and Ag. Georgios A“amulet”).
Bronze items were quite frequently found in EIA tholoi, having been recovered from
nearly all sites (see table 10). Types of jewelry, especially fibulae and pins, but also rings,
hair spirals, bracelets, pendants, beads, and earrings, were the most common artifacts.
Bronze jewelry was recovered from at least 24 sites and often from multiple tombs at a site
(59 confirmed tombs); it appeared in both wealthy and relatively poor tombs of both large
and small size and of early and late date. In some cases, one or more pieces of bronze
jewelry were the sole metal artifact(s) from a tomb, though in others additional objects, such
as weaponry, were also present. Most noteworthy among these finds were pendants
134
Inhumation alone occurs in 11 tombs; cremation alone in 4; and both in 3.
247
(Kamaraki, Krya 28, Teke), fibulae, possibly imported from Sicily/Italy (Karphi M. 4 and
Kavousi Aloni I) and Attica (Vasiliki Kamaraki), and a possibly Attic ring (Kamaraki). Iron
jewelry, however, occurs much less frequently, having been found at as many as 9 sites and
11 tombs (and its presence at 3 of these sites has not been confirmed),135 and the artifacts
consist solely of fibulae, pins, and rings, though primarily fibulae; nearly all of these tombs
also contained bronze jewelry and some had iron weapons as well.
Bronze weapons, primarily spears, swords, daggers, knives (but also arrowheads at
Skouriasmenos) occurred less frequently than bronze jewelry (found at only 11-12 sites and
~15 tombs); a few, rare examples of tools also occurred, at Kavousi Plai (razors and sickles)
and Prinias (axe). In most cases, except Mouliana and possibly Kavousi, bronze weapons
were recovered from only one tomb at a site or at least only one tomb from a single
cemetery. In addition, these tombs are typically large circular tholoi or large, especially the
largest at a site, tombs of the first type. With the exception of Pantanassa (in the West), all
known sites with bronze weapons (the axe from Prinias is more of a tool than a weapon and
those from Kamares are likely pre-EIA) were from east Crete (or the western side of LasithiArkades).136 Furthermore, iron weapons were also recovered from most of these same
tombs; the tombs without iron weapons (i.e., with only bronze weapons), however, are early
in date, with all appearing to date primarily/only to LM IIIC.
Iron weapons, on the other hand, were more prominent than bronze weapons, having
been identified from at least 23 sites and 38 tombs; tools (adzes, chisels, axes, razors) were
135
Iron jewelry has potentially been found at Karphi M. 11, Kritsa B, Vrokastro II and VI, Krya 28, Sphakia,
Rotasi ’58, Arkades A and L, Vasiliki Kamaraki, Pantanassa.
136
Bronze weapons were found at Kalamafka ’05, Kavousi Aloni I, Plai, and Skouriasmenos, Vasiliki Kephala,
Adromyloi (1 tomb), Ag. Georgios A, Chamaizi Phatsi V, Mouliana A and B, Praisos A, Krasi A, Kamares
(date?), Arkades L, and Pantanassa.
248
also recovered from 6 of these same tombs (see table 10).137 Iron weapons were found in
tombs of all sizes (9 large, 8 large examples of type 1, 14 normal, and 3 small) of early and
late date with both inhumations and cremations, and in both eastern, central, and westerncentral Crete; these artifacts do, however, appear to be exceptional tomb offerings, typically
occurring at only one or a very small number of tombs at a site. In general, the wealthiest
tombs all have weapons; all but two tombs with gold, for example, also have weapons. A
small number of relatively wealthy tombs without weapons do exist, however (e.g., Vasiliki
Kamaraki, Karphi M. 8 and possibly others such as M. 4, 11, A or A. 5, Vrokastro Amigdali
and Mazichortia III, and possibly Arkades A-C). While swords, spears, and daggers may
give important meaning or status to the inhabitants of the tombs,138 axes (bronze-Prinias F;
iron-Vrokastro I, Skouriasmenos, Gortyn; stone-Ag. Georgios A, Krya 28, Skouriasmenos-all
three eastern sites) and double axes (an old symbol of authority/cult, found at Papoura and
Kavousi Plai) may also be potentially significant objects; these two artifacts occur only in a
very limited number of tombs of the large type or large examples of the small type.
137
Snodgrass (in Coldstream and Catling 1996, 585-587), however, considers knives to be tools rather than
weapons. One or more iron knives were the sole weapon(s) in tombs at Papoura, Karphi M. 11, Kritsa B,
Vrokastro Kopranes V, VI, Vronda IX, and Skopi 2. Iron weapons were also found at Kritsa A (and tools?),
Vrokastro I (and tools) and VII, Kavousi Aloni, Plai (and tool), Skouriasmenos (and tool), Vronda IV and VIII,
Adromyloi (and tools), Ag. Georgios A, Chamaizi Liopetro and Phatsi V, Krya 28, Mouliana A, Pefkoi 3,
Praisos A, KKS, Mavrikia Kamini, and Photoula, Gortyn (+tool) , Kourtes, Prinias F, Rotasi ’58, Arkades L,
Kounavoi, Panagia A, Phaistos, Knossos Kephala 6 and Teke, Pantanassa.
138
According to Kanta (2003), bronze and iron weapons, and some tools, especially when found in combination
with bronze mirrors, vessels, and jewelry, though the tombs often lack other wealthy items, may signify the
presence of “warrior graves” (the descendants of the earlier LM examples and a continuing form of “warrior
ethos” as identified by Kanta), or else at least form symbols of authority or a certain social status. The tholoi
which best fit Kanta’s definition are Vrokastro I, Kavousi Aloni I, Plai, Skouriasmenos, and Vronda IV,
Adromyloi, Ag. Georgios A, Chamaizi Phatsi V, Krya 28, Mouliana A and B, Praisos A and Mavrikia Kamini,
Gortyn, Prinias F, Rotasi ’58, Arkades L, Kounavoi, Phaistos, Knossos Kephala 6, and Pantanassa, though other
examples exist with only a single weapon.
249
Other significant bronze objects recovered from tombs were vessels (tripods,
cauldrons, bowls, phialai, pitchers),139 possible shield bosses (Kavousi Plai, Mouliana B,
Arkades L), mirrors (Knossos Teke and Kephala 1 and 6), a small wheel (possibly from a
chariot-Kavousi Plai), and figurines (Phaistos and Knossos Teke); also found were
attachments, small discs, tweezers, fishhooks, small saws, plate/sheathing, foil, nails, and
needles. Additional iron objects were needles, spits, firedogs, a possible scepter (Kavousi
Skouriasmenos), saws, and nails.
Additional terracotta objects (human and animal figurines, spindle whorls, beads, and
one small wheel) were also recovered from tholoi at 17 sites, and from the interiors of at least
21 tombs. Spindle whorls were found in a variety of tombs (seven or eight) in both central
and eastern Crete,140 while beads occurred only in large relatively wealthy tombs (Aloni I,
Vasiliki Kamaraki, Ag. Georgios A, Chamaizi Phatsi V, and Praisos A-all larger than 2 m in
diameter) from eastern Crete (especially the isthmus area and further east) and also at
Kounavoi T. 11. It is difficult to confirm these observations, however, as only a small
number of examples exist and large beads are often misidentified as spindle whorls. Human
figurines were found in six tombs (Papoura; females-outside of Karphi M. 8, Ag. Georgios
A, Prinias F, Rotasi ’54, Arkades R; lyre player-Arkades R), while animal figurines were
found inside tombs at Karphi M. 1, 2, 4, Krya 28 (a fish), Kourtes, and possibly Prinias.
Also of note are a house model (Teke) and a small wheel (possibly from a chariot at Arkades
Tomb B).
139
Bronze vessels were found at Papoura, Vrokastro I, Aloni I, Plai (possibly Cypriot import), Mouliana A,
Praisos A, Prinias, Arkades M and L, Knossos Teke, tombs which typically also have weapons.
140
Terracotta spindle whorls were found at Karphi M. 1, Aloni I (or bead), Vronda II, IV, Praisos A, Gortyn,
Rotasi ’93, and possibly Krasi.
250
Stone objects, in addition to axes, were also recovered at a small number of tombs.
Of these artifacts, Minoan stone vessels/fragments and sealstones are among the most
important, representing heirlooms, amulets, or old symbols of authority. Remains of stone
vessels (especially lids) were found at Vronda IV, Vrokastro I, Praisos Mavrikia Kamini, and
Sphakia, while sealstones were recovered from Vrokastro Amigdali, Zenia, Adromyloi (one
with pseudo-hieroglyphs), Chamaizi Phatsi III, Praisos A, and possibly one tomb at Kourtes;
all of these sites (except Kourtes) are in the East and only Praisos A is of the large type of
tholos. One or two possible whetstones (Vrokastro Amigdali and possibly Kourtes) were
also excavated; this type of object is rare in DA burials (found for example in Grave Circle A
at Mycenae), though it is usually found in association with weapons, and none were
recovered from Amigdali.
Other stone objects include spindle whorls, beads (steatite, carnelian, rock crystal),141
rock crystal pendants (Vrokastro III and Teke), a possible cippus (Krya 28), an incised disc
(Vrokastro Amigdali), horns of consecration (Teke, and also a relief plaque), and obsidian
(fragments-Vrokastro V, knives-deposit near Panagia A). With the exception of Teke, all
stone beads were found at eastern sites (or on the west side of Lasithi) as with terracotta
beads. Spindle whorls were also found primarily in the east, and they occurred mainly in
average-sized tombs without weapons (or with only a single knife) and with inhumation
burials. Finally, in general, stone objects do appear to be a particularly eastern form of
offering (at least in tholoi), with only three (Kourtes (?), Rotasi ‘93, and Knossos Teke)
tombs (out of 35 total) not being found in east Crete (or the west side of Lasithi); stone grave
141
Stone beads were found at Vrokastro I, III, IV, Vasiliki Kamaraki and Kephala, Chamaizi Phatsi V, Kavousi
Azoria, Krya 28, Sphakia, Arkades C, Erganos, Teke, and spindle whorls were found at Karphi M. 1, 11, 12, 14,
A. 1, Chalasmenos, Vronda I, IV, VII, IX, Rotasi ’93, and Panagia H. Stone buttons were found at Zenia.
251
goods also appear to be more characteristic of the small type of tholos, both large and
average sized examples.
Finally, bone, shell, glass/paste, faience, ivory, and amber objects have also been
recovered from the tholoi (see table 10). Worked bone objects include a needle (Karphi M.
7), disc (Mouliana A), comb (Praisos A-date?), unidentified incised object (Karphi M. 2), and
beads (Karphi M. 8, and Vrokastro Poros), while other significant bone items include a
boar’s tusk (Kavousi Skouriasmenos), oyster shells (Ag. Georgios A), triton shells (Karphi
M. 8 and Praisos A), and an ostrich egg (Knossos Teke). Bone and shell objects would thus
also appear to be an eastern phenomenon (especially common at Karphi) in tholoi; the ostrich
egg (not really bone) at Teke is the only possible exception. Ivory objects are even rarer than
bone, though sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between the two materials, making the
exact frequency of the two types uncertain. Again with Teke as the only exception, all ivory
objects come from the far east of the island (ivory handles-Chamaizi Phatsi V, Praisos A and
Photoula; and fragments-Mouliana B).
Nearly all glass/paste objects are beads (except for a scarab from Teke), and these
beads were found primarily in eastern tombs (and especially in the Siteia Mountains),142 with
the exception of those from Knossos (Kephala 1, 6, Teke). Faience is closely related to
glass/paste and often difficult to distinguish from it; in fact, the two terms are also frequently
confused or interchanged in old publications. Some faience objects may have been imports,
though Hoffman states that it is uncertain whether these beads are imports, Cretan products
or Minoan survivals.143 By far the greatest number of faience items come from Vrokastro, a
142
Glass/paste beads were found at Vrokastro Amigdali, Aloni I, Skouriasmenos, Ag. Georgios A, Chamaizi
Phatsi V, Mouliana A, Praisos A, Sphakia.
143
Hoffman 1997, 38.
252
likely destination (port) for imports; >250 beads (Tombs I, III, IV, V, Poros) and a few
seals/scarabs (I) were found at this site. Other items identified as faience came from Rotasi
’93 (beads), Arkades L and R, Knossos Teke, and possibly Kavousi Skouriasmenos and
Zenia. In addition, a very rare item is amber, found only at Teke (bead) and Arkades C
(fragment), though both of these items may be post-EIA.144
Table 10 (Grave goods from tholos tombs)
Site
Total
Ceramics
Identified
vessel types
Other
terracotta
objects
Ag. G. Papoura
>5
Karphi:Ta
Mnim.
>74
stirrup jar; jug;
cups (1 Cretan
imitation
Attic)
rhyton-human
head; bird
vase; stirrup
jars; feeding
bottles;
pyxides;
tripods;
kalathoi; cups;
kylikes; jugs;
oinochoe;
bowls; lekanai;
pithos;
kraters;
amphora;
altar/stands
human
figurine;
animal fig.
on surface
2 female fig
(ext T.8); 6
animals (ox,
cow)
(T.1;2;4) +
many ext.; 2
spindle
whorls (T.1)
stirrup
jars;cups;
bowls; pithos
poss stirrup jar
and jug
stirrup jars;
feeding bottle;
kalathos; jug;
kylix; skyphoi;
~fruitstand
cups; jug;
flask; bowls;
pyxis; pithos;
amphoriskoi;
kalathos
none
3 tripodsT.2;15;17
2 stands/
altars-T.8
(int+ext)
1 rhytonT.11
Karphi:
Astividero
>17
Anavlochos
?
Dreros
12
Kritsa
(B-unrobbed)
>8
144
Metal objects
(g-gold;
s-silver;
b-bronze;
i-iron)
b-bowl frags;
fib (on wall);
i-knife; double
axe
s-ring (T.A)
b-6 fibulae
(1import?-T.4)
(T.4;8;11;17);
9 pins (T.1;3;
9;10; 13); 7
rings (T.4;8;
17;A);4 hair
spirals(T.8;13)
needle (T.4);
>3 disc/attach
(T.7;8); 1?
i-fibula (T.11);
knife (T.11); 2
needles ext
(T.8); 2? (T.4)
g-beads; leaf
b-beads
(all-T.5)
?
Stone
objects
Other
objs
none
none
4 spindle
whorls
(T.1;11;12
14); 1rock
crystal
obj. (T.11)
boneneedle
(T.7);bead
(T.8);
incised
obj. (T.2);
sheep/
goat;
horse;
dog; ox
(T.11;16;
17);
othertriton shell
(T.8)
1 spindle
whorl
(T.1)
?
none
none
none
none
none
none
b-fibulae; pins
(A, B?)
i-tools (A); unid obj; knife
+fibula (B)
none
beads (A)
?
Hood, Huxley, and Sandars 1958-1959, 239.
253
?
Vrokastro:
Amigdali
>10
tripod triple
vase; stirrup
jars; jug; cup;
bowl;
kalathos;
oinochoe;
krateriskos
stirrup jar;
pyxides; openwork kalathoi;
cups; kylix;
jug; oinochoe;
flasks; bowls;
pithoi; krater;
amphorae;
possible lids
none
b-4 fibulae;
pin; 3 rings
whetstone
seal; 2
discs (1
incised w/
animals);
bead
glass/
paste-10
beads;
faience- 1
bead
Vrokastro:
Karakovilia
33+many
cups
none
possible
lid; a few
carnelian
beads; 1
steatite
bead
faience~250
beads; 6
seals
(some w/
pseudohieroglyp
bird vases;
askos; stirrup
jars; kalathos;
cups; kylikes;
jug; oinochoe;
flasks (1
Cyp?); ladle;
pithos
bird vase; cup;
jug; stirrup jar;
pyxis;
amphora;
oinochoai;
flask; hydria;
bowls;
krateriskoi
skyphos; bird
vase; cup;
stirrup jar,
kylikes; pithoi
none
g-ring
b-3 fibulae;
tweezers;
tripod support;
fish hook;
appliq
i-knives;
daggers;
swords;
spears; adze;
chisel; axe; unid (~25
weapons est.)
b-2 fibulae
(V;VI); 3 rings
(V;VI;VII); 2
earrings (V)
i-ring (VI); 2
knives (V;VI);
spear (VII)
Vrokastro:
Kopranes
>23
(V-13; VI5; VII-5)
obsidian
frags (V)
faience
bead (V)
Vrokastro:
Mazichortia
14 (II-3;
III-11)
none
b-3 fibulae; 9
pins; 3 rings;
bracelet; bead;
perforated
disc; saw (allIII)
i-fibula (II)
bead; 2
rock
crystal
pendants;
un-id obj
(all-III)
faience- 6
beads
(III); cow
teeth
upper
strata (II)
Vrokastro:
Poros
>17
(1991-6;
8; 1994>3)
none
b-earrings;
plate/sheathing
frags. (1994);
jewelry (1991#1)
i-knives
(1991-#1)
b-3 rings; 2
hair spirals
beads
(1991-#2;
1994)
faience+
bone
beads
(1994)
Zenia (1998)
>6
skyphos; 2
jugs; kylix;
feeding bottle;
jug
4 steatite
buttons;
seal
none
b-sheathing
2 spindle
whorls
6 beads
(faience?);
frag.
‘black
glass;’
goat
bonesprob later
none
Chalasmenos
~27
Kalamafka (’05)
multiple
cups; stirrup
jars; skyphoi;
jug; kalathos
?
none
b-spear
none
?
254
none
Kavousi:Aloni
>31
stirrup jar;
cup; skyphos;
jugs; pithos;
strainer w/ 2
human figures
(I)
22 spindle
whorls or
beads (I)
Kavousi:Azoria
at least 6
none
Kavousi:Plai
117
juglets; bowl;
skyphos; flask;
stirrup jar
bird vase;
cups;skyphoi;
oinochoai;
hydriai;
kraters;
amphorae;
some poss.
Cypriot conn. ;
1 hydria poss.
Euboean
Kavousi:
Skouriasmenos
>17
cups; skyphoi;
jugs; hydria;
oinochoai;
lekane?;
kraters;
amphorae; 2
lids w/ birds
none
Kavousi:Vronda
(IV-unrobbed)
>105
(II-13; IV40; VII18; VIII10; IX~
20)
3 spindle
whorls (II;
IV)
Schoinokapsala
>11
Vasiliki:
Kamaraki
(unrobbed)
25
bird vases;
askos; stirrup
jars; kalathoi;
cups; skyphoi;
jugs;
oinochoai;
flasks; bowls;
lekane;
kraters; amph/
krateriskoi;
amphorae;
pithoi (IV w/
amulet around
neck)
stirrup jars;
cups; skyphos;
jugs
stirrup jars;
pyxis;
kalathoi; cups;
none
?
3 beads
255
g-ring (?)
b-4 fibulae (1
It/S?-horse
shaped- T.I);
pins; bowls
+phiale (I);
frag sheath;
spear
i-knives
b-ring
b-3 fibulae;
pin; bowl;
shield boss;
razors; spear;
daggers;
knives;
sickles; small
wheel
i-knives; adze;
daggers; spit; 4
firedogs in
shape of
warships;
double axe
g-button; leaf
b-18 sheath
frag; 2 arrow
heads; fish
hook; un-id;
i->7 swords; 7
spears; axe;
un-id; scepter?
lead-3 frag
b->9 fibulae
(IV;VII:VIII);
2 pins (VII;
VIII); 5 rings
(II;IV;VII)
bracelet (IV);
3 sheathing
VII); 2
fishhooks ?
(VII); un-id
i-knife (IX); 2
swords (IV); 2
spears (IV);
blade (VIII)
?
b-4 fibulae (3
Attic); pin; 2
rings (1 Attic);
none
glass/
paste bead
(I)
2 stone
beads
none
none
none
axe
glass/
paste-8
beads; 2
frags (1
faience?)
bonesheep/goat
boar’s
tusk
animal
bones (X)dog, fox,
donkey
6 spindle
whorls
(I;IV;VII;I
X); 1 lid
(IV-poss.
heirloom)
?
2 beads
?
none
Vasiliki:
Kephala
Adromyloi:
Ag. Antonios
Adromyloi:
Ag.Apostoloi
(1 unrobbed)
4
Ag. Georgios
>10
Chamaizi:
Liopetro
14
Chamaizi:Phatsi
>86
(I-3; II-15;
III-39; IV4; V-2526)
Krya
(unrobbed- T.
6;27; 28)
>90
(T.6-25
vases;
T.28-50
vases
?
>230 (Biso-50;
one of
group
~180)
jugs; flask;
bowls; lekane;
amph/kraterisk
amphora; lid
stirrup jar;
kalathos; flask
many aryballoi
stirrup jars;
kalathoi;
pithoi;
krateriskoi;
oinochoai;
pyxis
oinochoai;
cookpots (A);
lamp?+other
pot (B)
bird vase;
askos; stirrup
jars; flasks;
pyxis;
amphoriskoi;
krater;
oinochoe;
cookpot; cups
bird vases;
stirrup jars;
pyxis; kraters;
kalathos; cups;
jugs; flask;
oinochoai;
hydrai; bowls;
lekane;
aryballoi (1
Eub-II); amph/
krateriskoi;
amphorae;
trays; multiple
vase (II); 3
open-work
bowls+1 ECIII
Cypriot vase
(V)
stirrup jars;
bird vase,
cups; skyphoi;
jugs; feeding
bottles;
amph/kraterisk
flask; pithos;
none
?
3 hair spirals;
2 pendants
i-2 rings; 1?
lead-bead
g-pendant bdagger/sword
?
3 beads
dog bones
?
?
g-2 rings
b-fibulae;
pins; LM III
dagger
i-weapons+
tools-many
b-fibulae;
pins; ring;
knives; foil
i-3 spears; 2
daggers; 2
knives
lead-amulet
(all A)
i-weapons
3 seals (1
w/
pseudohieroglyp
?
beads (V)
b-dagger/
sword; knives
i-knives (all V)
2 seals
(III); rock
crystal
beads (V)
small fish
(28)
g-small ox
head earring Cypriot (1)
b-pendant/
amulet (28);
fibulae- (5,6,
27,28); pins
axe; poss
incised
cippus;
beads
(stone ?);
(all 28)
?
female
figurine; 7
beads (all A)
?
256
axe (A)
?
4 glass/
paste
beads; 2
oyster
shells (all
A)
?
glass/
paste
beads;
ivory
handle
(all-V)
?
pyxis; dish;
oinochoai
Mesa Mouliana
11
(A-4; B-4)
stirrup jars;
pyxis; lid;
flask (Cyp?);
krater;
krateriskos
Pefkoi
>4
Praisos A
>6
cups; tripod
leg (ext);
krateriskos
jug; cup; 2-3
aryballoi
(PC,C); plates;
oinochoe
(Praisos BLM+G-pottery,
gold ring, leaf;
other obj., iron
weapons?)
Praisos:KKS,K,
XM
Praisos:
Mavrikia
Praisos:
Photoula
(unrobbed)
none
?
23 clay
beads; 4
spindle
whorls
(1,5,6,28); foil
(1); frags.
(4,11,Iso)
(i?)-fibulae+
pins (28); 6-7
spears (28)
i-frags (11;Iso)
g-3 rings (B,
A); mask (B);
rivet heads (A)
b-2 fibs+pin
(A); 3 shield
bosses (B); 5
swords+
4spears (A,B);
2handles w/
bulls (A);
pitcher + 3
phialai (A); 4
sheathing frags
(A)
i-knife+sword
(A); frags. (B)
i-dagger/sword
(3)
?
g-ring; leaf;
rosette
s-pin
b-bronze over
wooden bowl;
knife; bowl;
plate; fibula
i-handle; 2
spears
2 seals;
slate
palette (?)
?
ivory/
bonesword
pommel
bone-haft
plate;
comb; ox;
dog teeth
(date?)
glass/
paste13-14
beads
triton
shell
?
?
?
i-knife (KKS)
82
(Kam-46;
other-36)
amphorae;
hydriai; cups;
oinochoai;
jugs; aryballoi;
kalathoi;
krateiskoi;
skyphoi; lid;
pithoi; pyxis;
phiale
stirrup jars;
jug; pyxis
?
i-2 daggers + 5
spears (Kam.)
?
g-ring; leaf
(face mask?);
4 nails
257
ivory-2
pieces (B)
glass/
pastebead (A)
bone-disc
(A)
?
?
6
none
amulet
(frag.
Minoan
stone
vase)
(Kam.)
?
?
ivory
handle;
wooden
b-fibula; pin;
sheathing
i-spear
Skopi
>4
Sphakia
>30
Gortyn
(unrobbed)
~50
Kourtes
234
Prinias
(some
unrobbed?)
?
(F-many)
RotasiEmbasos
(1993-unrobbed)
45
(1954-30;
1993-15)
vessel
stirrup jar,
cup; kraters
(T.2)
cups;
krateriskoi;
aryballoi; jugs
?
i-knife (T.2)
?
?
b+i-fibulae;
pins; rings
lids; beads
stirrup
jar;cups;
skyphoi; jugs;
oinochoai;
hydriai; pithoi;
kraters;
amphorae;
urns
krateriskoi;
lids
jug w/ animal
head spout;
bird vases;
stirrup jars;
feeding
bottles;
pyxides;
tripod;
kalathos; cups;
jugs; bowl
oinochoai;
flasks; hydriai;
dinoi; pithoi;
aryballoi;
krateriskoi;
stamnoi;
amphorae;
trays; lids;
urns; kernos
w/ small
amphorae and
human figures
pithoi; pyxis;
oinochoe;
jugs; feeding
bottle;
krateriskos;
cups; tripod?
bird vase;
feeding
bottles; cup;
spindle
whorl
b-sheathing
i-swords;
spears; spits;
axe; saw
none
animal
figurine
b-fibulae; hair
spirals/pins
i-spears
whetstone
(?); seal
(?); stone
w/ relief
in vicinity
of tomb
?
human
figurine (F)
+ animals?
g-objects (F)
b-bowl; axe;
vessels?
i-weapons (F)
?
?
2 FGUA
(’54);spindle
whorl (’93)
b-pin (’93)
258
spindle
whorl
(’93)
?
glass/
pastebeads
animal
bones in
higher
level
none
11 faience
beads
(’93)
Rotasi (1958)
(unrobbed)
>250
Ag. Paraskies
>132
Arkades A-C
>15
Arkades L,M,R
>390
(R>250;
M>40; L~100)
Erganos
>17
jugs; hydria;
krater;
krateriskoi
jugs; aryballoi;
kalpai;
amphorae
askos; pyxis;
cups; skyphoi;
jugs;
oinochoai;
hydria; bowl;
lekanai; lids
aryballoi;
kalpai
amphorae,
pyxides;
pithoi; dish;
urns; lekane;
lids (1 w/
seated femaleB)
kraters; urns;
amphorae;
pithoi;
oinochoai (inc
Corin; Rhod);
jugs; aryb/leky
(inc Cyp;
Corin); plate;
cup; owl jugs
(L,R); double
vase (R) ;
tripods (R);
horse askos;
ring vase;
flasks; cutout
stand (L); bird
vases; lekanae;
bowls;
krateriskoi;
lids; pyxides;
jug w/ human
head (R)
skyphoi; dinoi
stirrup jars;
pyxides;
tripod; cup;
pithos; lid
krateriskos;
tray
?
g-rings; leaf;
rivet
s-rivets
b-bands for
vessel
i-fibulae; pins;
weapons
b-tweezers;
nail
?
?
?
?
small wheel
(B)
b-fibula (A),
pins (B),
fragments (B)
i-pin (A); rod
(A); frags (B)
bonessheep/goat
+ pig
(A);cow +
pig (B)
amberfrag (C)
2 humans (1
lyre-player;
seated
female); lion
w/ bowl (all
R)
s- 2 pins (R)
b-Cyp bowl
(M); relief
w/griffins
basins+ urn+
phiale (L);
shield cover w/
lion protome
(L) fibulae
(R,L); pins
(R,L); spears
(L), leaf (L)
i-pin (L);
fibulae (L);
spears+arrow
heads+nails
(L); frags (R)
carved
dado
(poss.
column
base) (A);
2 rock
crystal
beads (C)
none
?
?
259
b-hair spiral;
ring
bead
faiencebowl+lion
/ dog (L),
copy
Egypt lion
(R); beads
(R)
Egyptian
scarab (L)
?
Kounavoi (T.11)
?
Kounavoi (large)
>100
Krasi
>13
Panagia
>18
(A-10; B3; D-2)
Kamares
(? what IIIC)
>5
Phaistos
112
Archanes D
none
Knossos:
Kephala
(#1;6;tholos)
#1-5; #623; th-15
insidepithoi;sherds
ext pitsfeeding
bottles;
oinochoai; jug
pyre-skyphoi;
krater
lekythoi/
aryballoi; urns;
pithoi; kraters;
amphorae;
jugs; cups;
hydria;
oinochoai;
pyxis
krateriskoi;
skyphoi (inc.
Attic type)
stirrup jar;
cups kalathos;
skyphos; jug;
lekane; pithoi;
krateriskoi
stirrup jars;
cup; kalathos;
skyphoi; jug;
oinochoai;
hydriai; krater;
krateriskoi
stirrup jars;
jug; pithos;
amphora
skyphoi; cups;
amphorae;
pithoi;
oinochoai;
kalpai;
aryballoi (2
Phoen);
(Knoss+Cyp
vases)
none
#1-aryballos?;
#6-krater;
askos;
krateriskoi;
kalpai; stirrup
jar; kalathos
oinochoai;
bowl aryballoi/
lekythoi;
stirrup jars;
beads
(interior and
pyre)
g-leaf (pyre)
b-plate (poss
from vessel);
pin
i-daggers;
swords; obeloi
none
animal
bones
none
g-leaf
b-fibula
i-4 spits;
sword; spear;
knife
none
goat/sheep
pig bones
spindle
whorl (?)
g-2 rings
(A,B)
b-dagger (A)
?
?
b-ring (H)
i-3 daggers; 3
swords; 2
spears; arrow
head (all
deposit near
A)
b-mass; knife;
spear
spindle
whorl (H);
2 obsidian
knives
(deposit
near A)
?
seal?
?
b-statuette,
bracelet; pins
i-swords;
daggers
?
?
?
?
none
none
260
b-5 rings;
fibula; plate
g-diadem (6)
b-tweezers+
mirror (1); 7
pins+mirror
(6)
i-blades, spear,
sword (6)
?
none
none
none
blue paste
object (1);
hundreds
of paste
beads (6)
jugs; amph/
krateriskoi
pithoi; kraters;
amphorae;
hydria; jugs;
oinochoai;
lids; dishes;
cothon;
feeding bottle;
pyxis; flasks (2
Cyp form);
aryballoi;
skyphoi;
kantharos;
cups; kalathoi;
bowls;
amphoriskos;
stand/brazier;
double tripod
kernos;
Sardinian
askos;
Cycladic and
Cypriot vases
Knossos:Teke
~120
Keraton (from
poss tomb on
slope)
Pantanassa
9?
cup; aryballoi;
kalpai
11
stirrup jars;
jug; pithos;
lekythoi;
krateriskoi;
amphorae; (2
w/ cypriot
conn?)
house model
?
none
g-4 pendants;
fillet; 5
nuggets; 4
dumps; pin;
leaf; m+f
kriophoroi;
eye; band; 2
rings; ribbon;
2 beads;
bracelet
s-4 pins;
dump; bracelet
electrumpotnia theron
b-doe head; 3
horses; plate;
pendant;
fibula; rod;
conical obj;
pins; mirror;
ring handles;
tripod
cauldron frags.
i-swords (1 w/
b plated
scabbard);spea
rs
b-pin
crystalpendant;
16 beads
stonehorns of
consecrati
on; relief
plaque;
beads
amberbead
ivorycrescent; 2
handles;
studs; 2
obj.
glass/
pastebeads; 2
scarabs
faiencebeads;
bottle
ostrich
egg
?
?
b-pin; krater; 2
spears
i-fibula?;
knife; dagger
none
none
Brief summary
Early Iron Age tholos tombs have thus been divided into two basic types. Type 1
comprises the majority of known examples and is characterized by small (especially 1.5-2.5
m in diameter) vaulted chambers (circular and square/rectangular, though the frequency of
square/rectangular chambers increases dramatically with size), sometimes with dromoi (often
short), and constructed with irregular, unworked fieldstones. Numerous examples of this
tomb type often occur at a single site, and frequently certain tombs are distinguished from
261
others by size, architectural features (built facades, monolithic lintels, door jambs,
thresholds), and/or better construction with more regular coursing. Such features are
particularly common in the larger, especially the largest, tombs at a site. An additional
feature, the masonry enclosure or stone tumulus, occurs only rarely and it appears to be a
characteristic feature of tholoi in the Lasithi area, especially the area around Karphi.
Furthermore, type 1 tholos tombs occur most frequently in the eastern part of the island; in
fact, tombs of the largest size range (2-2.5 m) are all found in the east. The characteristic
burial practice for tombs of this type is inhumation with only a small number of burials,
though cremation does occur. The majority of small tholoi were also constructed in LM
IIIC-SM and only used for a short period of time, though later examples do exist, as well as
tombs which were utilized throughout the EIA.
Type 2 tombs, on the other hand, comprise only a very small percentage of the total
number of EIA tholoi. These tombs are characterized by relatively large circular chambers
(>2.5 m in diameter), sometimes with dromoi, and they were typically of better
craftsmanship (with more regular rectangular courses of stone) and contained a higher
percentage of architectural refinements (lintels, jambs, thresholds) than type 1 tombs. A
circular flat stone paving above the roof is a rare feature, having been confirmed only in three
large central Cretan tholoi. Only a small number of large circular tholos tombs, often just
one, occurred per site, indicating a more restricted/elite usage, and this type was also slightly
more common in central Crete, frequently occurring at sites which later became large towns
or poleis. Furthermore, tombs of this type were often later in date than those of the small
type, with the earliest examples dating to PG; most large tholoi were, however, used over
262
several periods. In addition, cremation, with a large number of burials, was more common in
these tombs, especially in central Crete, though inhumation, in smaller numbers, did occur.
Three tombs may provide exceptions or overlap between these two types. Praisos
Photoula is quite large with a rectangular chamber (4.5 x 3.0 m), some elaborative features,
and a nearly flat roof, and it contained only three burials (two inhumations and one
cremation) and was built in LM IIIC; it is thus large in size but more like the small, primarily
eastern tholoi in tradition. Rotasi 1958 and Ag. Paraskies, on the other hand, have small
circular chambers (1.7 m and 1.4 m, respectively) and architectural elaborations; they also
contain a large number of cremation burials, and a large total number of vases, and are of
later date (PG-EO, PG-O), linking them more with the larger type of tholos tomb, especially
the central examples.
While most EIA tholos tombs conform to one of the two basic types, they are
especially characterized by their diversity, in size, architectural features, construction, burial
practice, orientation, location, within these types. Tombs are also, however, distinguished by
the amount and type of grave goods. Tholoi with the greatest number of ceramic vases
(>100), for example, are most commonly of the large circular type. Rare vases, as well as
imports, are characteristic not only of the large circular tholoi, but they also appear in the
larger examples, especially the largest at a site, of the small type; the same trend can also be
observed in bronze weaponry. Bronze jewelry and terracotta objects, however, occur in
tombs of all shapes and sizes, often in multiple tombs at a site. Gold is found as well, though
less frequently, in tombs of both types (large and small), though the small chambered tombs
of the first type with objects of this material tend to be LM IIIC in date. Silver and lead were
recovered only very rarely, with silver found primarily in large tholoi and lead only at three
263
eastern sites. Iron weaponry appeared in tombs of all sizes, though typically only at a small
number of tombs per site; as a general rule, the wealthiest tombs all have weapons. Stone
especially in the small tombs, as well as bone and shell, objects appear to be particularly
eastern forms of offerings, in tholoi at least; the few ivory objects further tended to be found
in the east, in particular the Siteia area. Finally, items identified as glass/paste occurred most
commonly in eastern (especially Siteia) tombs, while faience was recovered in both east and
central tombs, though rarely.
2. NATURAL CAVES, ROCK SHELTERS, AND ROCK HOLLOWS
Natural caves and rock shelters were often used for burials in the Early Iron Age
(figs. 172-173, 179), though less frequently than other tomb types. This form of burial had a
long history of use on the island, beginning in the Late Neolithic, during which period it was
the standard type in the north and east, and Final Neolithic; it was also especially common in
the early part of Early Minoan (e.g., rock shelters at Zakros, Ag. Photia, Gournia
Sphoungaras, Mochlos, Pseira, and Kavousi Ag. Antonios) and continued to occur, though
less frequently, in Middle Minoan (e.g., rock shelters at Ag. Photia and Pseira and a large
cave at Ag. Charalambos) and Late Minoan (e.g., rock shelters and caves at Zakros and
Palaikastro).145 The vast majority of LN-LM cave and rock shelter burials were found in the
eastern and northern parts of the island, though this form of burial also occurred in the far
west.146 In addition, inhumation appears to have been the only form of burial practiced in
these tombs.
145
E.g., Hall 1912, 73; Faure 1964, 66-69; Branigan 1970a, 152-154; Watrous 1994, 162-165, 190; Rutter 2000.
146
This type of burial was never common in south-central Crete, possibly due to the fact that caves are
relatively rare in the Mesara. Branigan 1970a, 152-154; Rutter 2000.
264
Caves
All known examples of EIA cave burials (8 sites with at least 13 examples) occur in
Lasithi Nomos, primarily in the far eastern part of the island (Siteia Eparchia). Cave burials
have been identified at Parsa, Lastros, Karydi (?), Palaikastro, Piskokephalo, Praisos, Zakros,
and Zou (see table 11).147 Inhumation was the primary method of interment in these caves
with burials most often placed on the floor of the cave, though sometimes in vessels or a
larnax as at Piskokephalo Berati; at Piskokephalo Kephala and Zakros Ellinika, burials were
placed in pits. Partially cremated bones were apparently found, however, at Piskokephalo
Berati, and the form of burial at Praisos Kapsalos has not yet been conclusively established
(fragments of bone were recovered, possibly from cremations, in pithoi and a large pyxis).
The caves, except for that at Palaikastro and Zakros Ellinika, were used for multiple burials,
with Zakros Koukou Kephali Tomb A containing as many as fifteen. The fact that nearly all
of the caves appear to have been used in multiple phases of the EIA and the presence of
multiple burials and children (at Parsa and Piskokephalo Kephala) suggests that these, at least
the majority, were family tombs re-used over time.
Table 11 (Cave burials – tomb information)
Site
Date
# of
tombs
Dimensions/features
Parsa
PG-G
1
deep cave
Karydi
1 (?)
1 or 2
80x10x2.5 m; 15 m
corridor; 3 galleries
?
Palaikastro
LM III;
SM; G
LMIIIB;
SM
LIII-SM
1
10x3x10 m
Piskokephalo:
LMIIIC-
1
cave w/ many deep
Lastros
147
Location
relative to
settlement
?
?
Form of
burial
(inh/crem)
inh, inc.
children
prob. inh
# of
burials
multiple
?
NW of IIIB
settlement
?
inhumation
multiple
inhumation
1
?
inh + crem
>4
The terms cave, rock shelter, and cave-like cavity are often confused and interchanged in the sources. For
the sake of consistency, sites are, where possible, identified as caves or rock shelters on the basis of Faure’s
distinctions (1964, 66-69). Faure himself, however, does not actually define these terms. The tombs at
Piskokephalo and Lastros (called cavities by Faure) are here considered as caves to avoid an even more
confusing undefined three-fold distinction.
265
Berati
EO
Piskokephalo:
Kephala
LPG;
PGB;
LG;
LG/EO
1
Praisos:
Kapsalos
LG-EO
1
Praisos: Skales
PG-O
(cult NBA)
1
Zakros:
Anemospiliara
Zakros:
Ellinika
G
1 or
more
1
Zakros:
Koukou
SM-G
2 (near
each
other)
Zou
PGB;LG
1
LG
hollows; ent. to E
3.5x2.5x1 m; built
entrance-jambs (poss
from Minoan bldg) and
threshold (two plakas);
two pits (1 ctr.
0.48x0.70 m cov. w/
plaka; 1 near ent.
0.7x0.92 m)
15x6 m; 4m high double
ent to E; stone bench
NW wall
burials prim on 10 m
wide platform at ent. to
N and w/in ent.
(4x7x2.5m), small
vestibule; 2 chambers
(5x3; 4x7m)
20x30x8 m
small cave (4x5x8m)
within which section of
rock was cut out to form
rect pit/cist (~1.8x1.2m)
A-2x2x2.5 m; B6x2.5x4 m; B-walls
built out from rock to
enclose tomb
small cave
?
re-used
larnax,
pithos,
basin
inhumation,
on floor,
pits,skyphos
w/ infant;
also
children
>10,
poss. up
to 15
SSE or W
~1 km
(PraisosIIIC-H bec
polis or
Kalamafki
Kypria IIICA defens)
N/NW ~500
m (Praisos)
inh/crem?
in pithoi,
large pyxis
prob >3
inhumation
(+ animal
bones)
multiple
NW ?
(Ellinika)
just above
def sett
(IIIC-A
Ellinika)
?, poss W/S
inhumation
multiple
inhumation
1
inhumation
A~15
B~4-5
?
inhumation
multiple
The size of the natural burial caves, as identified by Faure, varied from quite large
(Karydi-80x10x2.5 m) to rather small (Zakros Koukou A-2x2x2.5 m). In most cases, no
architectural alterations were made to the caves. At Piskokephalo Kephala, however, a door
frame with jambs and threshold was constructed and pits were dug inside the cave, and a
rectangular pit was cut out of the rock at Zakros Ellinika, while at Zakros Koukou B walls
were built out from the rock to enclose the tomb.148 The EIA burial caves also tended to be
148
Also, Praisos Kapsalos had a built stone bench, the date of which is uncertain.
266
somewhat isolated, both from other graves (except at Zakros Koukou to Kephali, where the
two tombs were essentially side by side) and from known settlements, though perhaps closer
settlements have not yet been identified. Multiple cave burials do, however, often exist
within a given area, as at Zakros, Praisos, Piskokephalo, and Palaikastro (LM II example
nearby). Some of the caves may have been chosen to hold burials based on their location;
i.e., caves may have existed on a family’s land or field or have been located on a boundary
with the land of another person. In other cases, the significance of a cave’s location and the
exact nature of the burial information are more difficult to determine, due its previous use for
religious purposes or for refuge, as at Praisos Skales where the tomb appears to have had a
cult function from N-BA but was used for burials in EIA.149
Associated grave goods tend to be poor, typically only sherds or a few vases, though
most of the caves were likely robbed, particularly easy due to their open nature, and in nearly
all cases the finds remain unpublished (see table 12). The two tombs (both called natural
cave-like cavities by Faure rather than caves) at Piskokephalo differed from those at other
sites in their relatively large number of vases (and also at Berati-a larnax and a small
terracotta fish; Kephala-two stone objects). Cave burials are, in fact, noteworthy for their
lack of metal objects, especially weapons; this does not appear to be solely the result of
robbing, as a bronze fibula was the only metal object from the unrobbed Ag. Spyridon cave.
Only one bronze fibula was recovered from Praisos Skales in addition to the ceramic vessels,
and Whitley et al. further note that cave burials in the vicinity of Praisos are “dispersed and
distinguished from the other tomb types by a more restricted range of grave goods.”150
149
The possibility further exists that certain individuals were placed in isolated burial caves for other reasons,
such as disease, social status, etc.
150
Whitley et al. 1999, 252.
267
Zakros Koukou Kephali (Tomb A), however, was somewhat wealthy (70 vases, bronze
fibulae, pins, glass and clay beads, 3 Minoan stone vases, a steatite lid, iron sword and other
iron objects, and 3 terracotta spindle whorls); significantly, this is the only tomb (cave or
rock shelter) to contain iron weapons, and it is also one of the smallest tombs, possibly the
smallest. Furthermore, Koukou A was not located near the other caves and rock shelters,
deep inside the Zakros gorge, and it thus may have belonged to a different settlement or have
had a more significant location (it is located to the east of a cult site).
Table 12 (Grave goods from cave burials)
Site
Total
ceramics
Identified vessel
types
Parsa
Karydi
Lastros
Palaikastro
Piskokephalo:
Berati
Piskokephalo:
Kephala
(unrobbed)
sherds
sherds
sherds
1
40
Praisos:
Kapsalos
Praisos:
Skales
sherds
unknown
unknown
unknown
cup
stirrup jars;
pithos; basin
jugs;oinochoai;
kraters;krateriskoi;
cups; amphorae;
skyphoi; pyxides;
kalathos; bowl
(esp. oin+cups);
LM IIIA2 stirrup
jar and bowl
(heirlooms/robbed
from other tomb)
2 jars;
pithos; 1 pyxis
jugs; pithoi?;
amphorae; krater;
pyxis lid w/ hare,
cups (1 Attic?)
unknown
Zakros:
Anemospiliara
Zakros:
Ellinika
88
sherds
?
Other
terracotta
objects
none
none
none
none
larnax;
tc fish
none
Metal
objects
Stone
objects
Other
objects
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
fragment of
bronze pin
conical obj
(mortar?);
small
skullshaped obj
none
none
none
none
none
none
1 bronze
fibula
none
none
?
?
?
6
tripod cook pot
none
none
none
Zakros:
Koukou
A-70
B-15
jug
Zou
11
amphora; jugs;
oinochoe; cups;
skyphoi; phiale;
krateriskoi
3 spindle
whorls;
beads (A)
?
bronze fibs;
pins; iron
sword;obj(A)
?
3 Minoan
vessels;lid
steatite(A)
?
268
?
5 blue
paste
beads
‘glass’
beads
(A)
?
Rock shelters
Burials in rock shelters and under rock ledges have been identified at 9 sites, with at
least 15 examples (Vrokastro Karakovilia, Ag. Spyridon, Ag. Stephanos, Orino, Zakros,
Praisos Vavelloi, Katsamba, Mesonisia, and Modi-see table 13) dating to all periods of the
EIA. These burials also occurred primarily in the east part of the island, though two or three
examples were found in central and west Crete (Katsamba, Modi, and possibly Mesonisia).
The rock shelters varied in size from 10 x 7 x 5 m (Zakros Marmara) to 3 x 2 x <1.5 m (Ag.
Spyridon), and they were typically not altered architecturally; at Ag. Spyridon and Orino,
however, one entrance was deliberately blocked by boulders.
The rock shelters appear to have held exclusively inhumations, often multiple, though
with several rock shelters containing only one burial. In addition, these burials seem to be
somewhat less isolated than the cave burials in their relationships both with other tombs
(Vrokastro Karakovilia-possibly near bone enclosure; Zakros-many rock shelters and caves
in vicinity; Katsamba-near LM II-IIIA chamber tomb cemetery; Mesonisia-the southernmost
in row of rock shelters; Modi-apparently near chamber tombs and shaft/pit graves) and also,
in some cases, with the settlements. Those examples which are located in the vicinity of
tombs of other types and contain only one burial could perhaps have held individuals who
were deliberately isolated (for whatever reason, positive or negative) from others.
Table 13 (Rock shelters – tomb information)
Site
Date
# of tombs
Dimensions/features
Vrokastro:
Karakovilia
G
1
under overhanging
ledge of rock
Ag.
Spyridon
LMIIIA2;
SM-EO
1
Ag.
Stephanos
PGB-G
1
3x2x<1.5 m; 2 ent.,
one blocked by
boulders
5x3x2 m
269
Location
relative to
settlement
to S(~200
m?); IIICLG/EO def
W ~1.5 km?
(Praisos?)
prob. to NE
(PG-G def)
Form of
burial
(inh/crem)
inhumation
inhumation
(+ tripod w/
bird bones)
inhumation
# of
burials
several
4?
1?
Orino:
Kopsa
IIIB; poss
IIIC early
1
4 x 2-3 m; blocked
with boulders
Pefkoi
IIIB/C?
multiple
Praisos:
Vavelloi
Zakros:
Malakari
LG
1
LMIIIC (5?);
PG (4); PG
+LG-EO (3);
LG-EO (1-2)
SM-G
4 or more
reports of rock
shelters E of
Kastellopoulo
under ledge of rock
in hollow
5x5x10 m; 7x4x7 m
1
10x7x5 m
SM-G
1
SM-G
Mesonisia
N; MM; LM;
LMIIIC?
MM or SM
Modi
PG
Zakros:
Marmara
Zakros:
Gerovasili
Zakros:
Pano
Kastello
Katsamba
W~400 m
(IIIC-SM
def sett)
to E?
prob inh;
larnax frags.
1 or more
?
?
S?
inhumation
1
inhumation
multiple
(one #4
w/ 7-8)
prob. inh
?
8x10x9 m
N/W ~300
-500 m
(EllenikaIIIC-A def)
N/W >500
m (“)
NW or S?
prob. inh
?
1
7x10x4 m
NW?
prob. inh
?
1
6x1.6x1.2 m
nearby to S?
1?
1(southernmost in
row of r.sdate?)
1
6.6x11.7x5 m
immed to
SW, poss.
~25 m
LM IIIC
inh?
inh; pithos
w/ infant;
pithos frag.
inhumation
1
under overhanging
rock (near CTs and
shafts)
?
1 or 2
As in the caves, grave goods tended to be sparse, typically consisting only of a few
vases and occasionally a bronze fibula (see table 14); in fact, no iron objects or weapons of
any kind were found in these tombs. The degree to which most of the tombs were robbed is
unknown, however. Ag. Spyridon was the most noteworthy, despite being looted, of the rock
shelters, containing several vases, a Minoan stone vessel, triton shell, and bronze fibula,
though the excavator still noted the lack of bronze and iron weapons and jewelry;151 this
tomb was also exceptional in the presence of a possible offering (bird bones were found in a
tripod).
Table 14 (Grave goods from rock shelters)
Site
151
Total
ceramics
Identified
vessel types
Other
terracotta
objects
Tsipopoulou 1983, 100-104.
270
Metal
objects
Stone
objects
Other
objects
Vrokastro:
Karakovilia
Ag.
Spyridon
sherds+1
jug
none
none
none
none
23+7 IIIA2
none
1 bronze
fibula
1 Minoan
vessel
triton shell;
bird bones
Ag.
Stephanos
17
none
none
none
none
Orino
poss 10 or
more
none
none
none
none
Praisos:
Vavelloi
Zakros:
M;M;G;PK
5
askos; pyxis;
tripod; cups;
skyphoi;
hydria; lid
oinochoai;
aryballoi;amph/
krateriskoi
kalathos; jugs;
amphora; cups;
flask; pyxis;
oinochoai;
krateriskoi
stirrup jars;
krateriskoi;
kalathoi; jugs;
cups
unknown
none
none
none
none
none
bronze
fibula (#4)
beads (#4)
none
Katsamba
Mesonisia
1 IIIC?
>4
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
Modi
?
?
?
?
?
>25
(#3-8; #415; #5-2)
stirrup jars;
feeding bottle;
cup; skyphos;
jug; oinochoe;
amp/krateriskos
deep bowl
pithos; jug;
aryballos
?
Brief summary
Burial in caves and rock shelters was thus a relatively common practice in the Early
Iron Age, occurring at ~12% of the catalogued sites (15 total sites with 28 or more
examples). While these two tomb types represent essentially the same form of burial, some
minor distinctions in use may have existed between them. Cave and rock shelter burials
appear with roughly the same frequency in all phases of the EIA, with most sites containing
burials from multiple phases; lack of published finds makes the exact dating and phasing of
these tombs difficult, however. These EIA burials were continuing a long-established
(“Minoan”) tradition in burial form and location, using in nearly all cases the traditional
method of interment (inhumation). This form of burial required little to no labor, was
inexpensive, accessible, and easily reused; furthermore, the caves/rock shelters were
271
typically somewhat isolated, possibly being located near family fields/land or boundaries. In
addition, most tombs of this type were found in east Crete, primarily in the Siteia region;
cave and rock shelter burial was apparently a characteristic type for this area. Burial in
caves/rock shelters was not, however, the most common funerary type for this region, except
at Zakros, where it appears to be the norm, with numerous examples from various periods
having been identified in the gorge; several examples were also found in the vicinity of
Praisos. Finally, grave goods from these tombs tend to be relatively poor, with metal jewelry
and weaponry occurring very rarely.
Natural rock hollows
Early Iron Age burials were also sometimes placed in natural hollows or small rock
cavities. In many instances, the hollows/cavities were converted into cists or were really
more like pit graves or chamber tombs in nature; these examples will be discussed in other
sections. The graves listed in table 15, however, appear to consist solely of unworked natural
hollows/cavities (i.e., no architectural additions), and they are perhaps best linked with the
caves and rock shelters, though this tomb type is particularly difficult to define. The two
most notable examples (Dreros and Vrokastro Summit) both contained a single infant/child
inhumation inside or under a vessel. While that from Vrokastro (SM-PG) contained no grave
goods other than the vessel which covered the burial, the Dreros tomb (Geometric?)
contained at least five vases, a bronze and iron fibula and a stone disc. On the other hand, the
presence of an EIA burial at Malia Christ Island has not been confirmed, and the exact nature
of the burials at Kavousi Kastro and Ag. Paraskies remains unclear.
Table 15 (Natural rock hollows)
Site
Dreros
Date
G?
Information
T.3-rock hollow; contained inhumed infant in urn; at E end
of cemetery; ~200 m to NE of settlement (IIIC-A def town
becomes polis)
272
Grave Goods
5 or more vases (urn,
aryballoi, jugs, cup);
bronze fibula; iron
Vrokastro
SMPG
Kavousi:
Kastro
LGEO
Ag.
Paraskies:
Kellia
Malia
PG
LM
IIIC?
cave-like recess; child inhumation in inverted krateriskos,
~100 m from settlement on summit (IIIC-LG/EO defensive
settlement)
up to 5 possible adult burials (secondary) found in
abandoned rooms of houses, most placed in rock cavities
(e.g. cremation in NE corner or Room 32)
one cremation burial in urn found in rock hollow; remains
of 3 other kalpai and a burial pithos also found inside or
nearby
Christ Island; probable tomb found in rock hollow; 1 burial
?
fibula; stone disc?
krateriskos
sherds (not yet pub.)
kalpis, jugs, kalathos,
one bronze fibula
askos/ring vase, stirrup
jar, hydria, jug;
pithos/amphora
3. CHAMBER TOMBS
One of the most characteristic forms of burial on Crete in the Early Iron Age is the
rock-cut chamber tomb (fig. 180); this tomb type occurs at the second greatest number of
sites (between 24 to >33 sites, or 20-27% of total sites – fig. 173), but with the highest
frequency (with >250, possibly as many as 300, examples – fig. 172). The standard form of
chamber tomb first appeared on Crete in MM II-MM III at the Mavro Spelio and Upper
Gypsades cemeteries at Knossos, and it was the most popular form of burial in LM,
especially LM III and also at Knossos.152 While the exact derivation of the chamber tomb
remains uncertain (from Egypt, Cyprus, or else an independent Minoan invention), this type
was prominent on both Crete and the Mainland during the Late Bronze Age.153
The typical Minoan and Mycenaean chamber tomb has a circular, oval, rectangular,
square, irregular or horseshoe shaped chamber (averaging 2 x 2 m in LM), approached by a
long or relatively short, horizontal or downward sloping dromos, usually with inclining side
152
See for example, Hood and Smythe 1981, 11-14, for Knossos burials in general; Forsdyke 1926-1927, for
Mavro Spelio; Hood et al. 1958-1959, for Upper Gypsades; Evans 1906, 3-10, for Zapher Papoura; Hallager
and McGeorge 1992, for LM III Chania.
153
See for example, Pini 1968, 36-44; Davaras 1976b, 48-49; Dickinson 1983, esp. 64-65; 1994, 223-226;
Coldstream and Catling 1996, 653-658. Mycenaean chamber tombs are most commonly considered to be
derived from the Minoan examples or else an independent Mycenaean invention. See also Rutter 2000, Lessons
10 and 13 for a full bibliography on chamber tombs, their history, description, derivation, etc.
273
walls and widening slightly toward the doorway; some chambers also have carved stone
benches and/or side chambers.154 The stomion is often cut from the rock in the shape of a
doorway (especially 0.5-1.0 m in width and 1.2-1.8 m in height) and is frequently narrower
than the dromos; furthermore, the stomion was typically blocked with stones and the dromos
filled in, especially with earth, but sometimes with stones. In addition, the ceiling of the
chamber was either flat or domed (convex). These chamber tombs were typically cut, often
deeply, into the limestone (local kouskouras) and placed into a hillside or slope; only rarely
were they on level ground. Late Minoan chamber tombs also do not show consistent
orientation for their entrance, which was determined by topography, and they usually held
multiple inhumations in pithoi, larnakes, wooden coffins, or on the chamber floor, and also
sometimes in pits/shafts or cists cut into the floor. Finally, during the LM period chamber
tombs were especially common in north central Crete, and they were also popular in the
west, though relatively rare in the east.
Early Iron Age chamber tombs, on the other hand, tend to have smaller chambers
with relatively short and shallow dromoi (the chamber is often shorter than the length of the
dromos), though larger chambers and long dromoi continue to exist; niches are also found in
some dromoi. According to Cavanagh, Dark Age chamber tombs at Knossos are
distinguished from Bronze Age examples in that they are half the size even of the smaller BA
tombs, typically without jambs, and they also tend to have smaller stomion widths.155 In
addition, the dromoi of EIA Knossian tombs are on average no smaller than the BA
examples, though the EIA tombs typically show less care in the carving of the entrance,
154
Pini 1968, 36-44; Rutter 2000.
155
Coldstream and Catling 1996, 653-658.
274
which tends to be shorter. Furthermore, the narrowing/inclining of the dromos walls appears
to be a primarily LM feature and only very rarely occurs in the EIA.
Analysis of tomb form
In the Early Iron Age (as in LM), chamber tombs were especially characteristic of
(north) central (especially the area around Knossos) and far western (Nomos Chania) Crete.
Of the nine total eastern sites with possible EIA burial in chamber tombs, none of which are
in Lasithi Eparchia, three (Episkopi, Myrsini, Tourloti) consist solely of LM IIIA-B
cemeteries at which one or more examples of early IIIC burial may have occurred (see table
20), comprising the final period of burial at the site; some may even date slightly after the
abandonment of the associated settlements. Only one chamber tomb was identified at two
other sites (Krya; Adromyloi – IIIB/C), the cemeteries of which consist predominantly of
tholos tombs; the chamber tomb was also not the primary burial type at Kritsa (chambers
predate the tholoi) and Praisos. Therefore, at only two eastern sites (Milatos and Ag.
Georgios) was the chamber tomb the dominant form of burial in the EIA, and both of these
sites also contained extensive LM III chamber tomb cemeteries.
In western (Chania) Crete, however, the chamber tomb seems to have been the
primary form of burial in the EIA, with six of the nine total catalogued sites containing
burials of this type, and at four (Astrikas, Gavalomouri, Kavousi, Vouves) of these sites, no
other form of burial has yet been found. Eleutherna was the only site from west central Crete
(Rethymnon Nomos) with a burial of this type, but only one example has been recovered
from the site thus far. The majority of known chamber tombs come from central Crete,
especially the northern region. In fact, nine of the eleven confirmed central sites with
chamber tombs are in the north; only Phaistos and Ligortynos are in the south, and no
275
examples have yet been found on the west side of the Lasithi Mountains. The chamber tomb
is especially predominant at Knossos and Herakleion (in both LM III and the EIA), occurring
on an enormous scale, with ~170 known EIA tombs (~68% of total chamber tombs); no other
site has even close to this number of tombs (Phaistos has ~19 tombs and Ag. Georgios has up
to 15).
Considerable variation in chamber shape was found in both LM and EIA chamber
tombs, and according to Cavanagh, shape does not appear to be a significant distinguishing
factor, in the Knossian tombs at least.156 EIA tomb chambers rarely conform to an exact
shape; the vast majority are irregular, roughly circular, elliptical, or horseshoe, though some
roughly square/rectangular examples do occur (see table 16). Most chambers are irregularly
shaped due to the manner of cutting into the bedrock, in other words, tombs are typically not
well-cut in the EIA. Square/rectangular or trapezoidal chambers occur at 5 sites (25 or more
tombs), none of which are in the west: Kritsa (both locations?), Ag. Georgios, Phaistos
(Kalyviani, Liliana C, Tou Phygiote), and Knossos (Ag. Ioannis I, II, IV, VII, Kephala III,
North Cemetery T. 14, 40, 55, 75, 106, 207, 218, 283, Fortetsa III). Nearly all of these
tombs, however, appear to be only roughly quadrilateral; the one significant exception is
Phaistos Kalyviani, which is very large (9.5 x 10 m) and appears to have been regularly cut.
Chamber size typically ranges from ~1-<3 m in the Early Iron Age (see table 16); in
fact, within the cemeteries at Ag. Georgios and Knossos, tombs have roughly the same
degree of variation (from ~1-2.7 m in diameter). The most common tomb diameter is 1.6-2.0
m, though larger and smaller sizes occur quite frequently as well (1-1.5 m and 2.1-2.8 m are
found in roughly the same proportions). Chamber tombs with less than 1 m diameters have
been recorded solely at Knossos (NC and Fortetsa), and only three or four known tombs have
156
Coldstream and Catling 1996, 643.
276
diameters greater than 3 m (Knossos Kephala 1957 – 4.2 m circular chamber; Phaistos
Kalyviani – 9.5x10 m rectangular chamber; Phaistos Tou Phygiote T.1 – 6 m circular
chamber and possibly T.2 – rectangular with two chambers). These three tombs were
significantly larger than all other EIA chamber tombs, and they occur at former palace sites
in central Crete which later became poleis and also near Minoan cemeteries (Phygiote?). In
addition, the chamber tombs at western sites appear, based on the limited amount of available
information, to be slightly larger than average in size. Finally, size does not appear to be
related to chamber shape; square/rectangular chambers occur in roughly the same proportions
in all size categories.
Average chamber height, however, is difficult to determine, as tomb roofs are quite
often destroyed by bulldozers or natural collapse and are only rarely preserved intact and
recorded. Tomb height appears to range from <1-2.0 m, and it seems, for the most part, to
have been related to the size of the tomb, with larger chambers more likely to have greater
height, as with tholos tombs. The Knossian tombs may have had slightly shorter than
average chamber heights compared to other sites, though this is difficult to prove, as so few
published/preserved examples exist. In the EIA, chamber roofs continued to be either flat or
domed (convex), as in the LM period. A further chamber feature to be examined is the floor;
the majority of tomb floors consist of cut bedrock/kouskouras, though this information is also
rarely recorded. Sometimes sea pebbles or gravel (Knossos NC, Herakleion Mastamba,
Vouves) were used to cover the floor, and at Knossos Ambelakia the floor may have been
paved with plakas; also at Atsalenio five irregular stones slabs with vases were found on the
floor.
277
Nearly all chamber tombs were cut into the natural bedrock (kouskouras); the
Gavalomouri tombs, however, were cut into the earth (eroded schist). In addition, most
tombs were not well-carved/cut; at Knossos NC, only a few tombs are singled out as being
more carefully cut (T. 13, 28, 106, 219, 306, for example). A small number of tombs
(Knossos Kephala T. III and 1957, for example) also had niches in the chamber. Finally,
EIA chamber tombs were often somewhat shallowly dug, often into hillsides or slopes.
The stomia of EIA chamber tombs are, in many cases, just low, short rectangular or
circular openings (i.e., not really defined entrances). As a result, stomion measurements are
rarely provided in the publications; they are provided only at Knossos NC, Eleutherna, and
Astrikas. At Knossos NC, the average stomion width is 0.86 m and length 0.28 m, while at
Astrikas that of tomb II is somewhat larger than this average; the Knossian measurements are
presumably representative of tombs at other sites. In some instances, however, more
attention is paid to the carving/defining of the doorway (e.g., Knossos Kephala 5-arched
door, NC 106-carefully constructed façade, and apparently some tombs at Ag. Georgios have
more carefully carved entrances), with a few tombs having carved thresholds or door jambs;
only rarely do built entrances (i.e., separate stone jambs, thresholds, and/or lintels) occur.157
At Knossos NC, stone thresholds are found on two of the largest tombs in the cemetery; there
thus may be a tendency for stomion elaborations to occur, though not exclusively, on some of
the larger tombs within cemeteries, as with tholoi, though not nearly enough published
examples exist to confirm this. In addition, the presence of a step down into the chamber
from the stomion (with 0.5-0.6 m being perhaps roughly average step height) is common,
157
Carved jambs and/or thresholds are found in several Knossos NC tombs and Ambelakia (cut threshold).
Praisos T.53 had a built entrance, and also possibly some tombs at Phaistos Tou Phygiote; stone thresholds were
found at Knossos NC 19, 75, 219, Ligortynos, Atsalenio A, Vouves II; stone jambs at Ligortynos, Knossos
Ambelakia, NC 1991, T. 285; Astrikas; lintel at Ligortynos and Astrikas.
278
especially at Knossos though also found at Phoinikia and Vouves. Furthermore, the stomion
was usually blocked, either with a single, large stone, rubble, or even re-used ashlar blocks
(only at Knossos).
The dromos is a defining feature of the EIA chamber tomb; nearly all known
examples had one, except Phaistos Liliana C and possibly Kritsa Katharo. Unfortunately, the
full length of the dromos is only rarely preserved, with a great many examples, including
those in the NC, having been bulldozed (see table 16). Dromoi in the Knossos NC range in
length from <1-9.75 m, with an average of 4.39 m, and the longest preserved examples from
all sites were found at Kritsa T.C (~7 m), Knossos NC (T.75-9.75m; T.100-9 m; T.60-6.62
m), and also Phaistos Tou Phygiote (T.4-15 m; several other tombs 9-10 m). In general,
dromos width appears to vary from 0.85-1.6 m, with that at Knossos averaging from 1.131.02 m.158 Dromoi also often widen slightly toward the entrance, and they are frequently
wider than the entrance; the greatest variation in dromos width occurs at Vouves T. 2 (0.451.2 m width). Furthermore, EIA dromoi were typically filled in with earth or sometimes
blocked with stones. In some cases, they were also stepped, and they frequently descended
from the surface; a slight inclination is seen at Mastamba and Knossos Kephala 5. In
addition, some dromoi (at Herakleion, Knossos and possibly Eleutherna) contained niches,
which were frequently used for the latest burials, though also potentially for earlier burials
removed from the main chamber, or were well-cut with straight, parallel sides (Knossos
North Cemetery 18, 28, 45, 219). Finally, only a very few examples exist with inward
leaning sides, all of which are apparently from Knossos; this type of dromos appears to be
typical of LM III, and some of the Early Iron Age examples may actually be re-used LM III
tombs.
158
Coldstream and Catling 1996, 653.
279
Table 16 (Chamber tombs – shape/size, dromos, other)
Site
Ag. Georgios
# of
tombs
1 (T.C)
2 (only
T.2EIA)
>1
1
(IIIB/C)
~15
Krya (T.25)
1
Praisos T.53
Ag. Marina
Tylissos:Atsolou
Ligortynos
1
1
1
1
Aitania:Phonia
1 or 2
Aitania:Gridia
Elia
1
1 or 2
Kato Vatheia
Kounavoi
1
9 (#1,35, 1216)
Phaistos:Kalyviani
1
Phaistos:Liliana
4
Phaistos:T. 1954
Phaistos:Tou Phyg
1 or 2
12
Herakleion:
Atsalenio
3
Herakleion:
Mastamba
2
ellipsoidal; 1970-1.25 x
0.9 m; H-0.9 m
yes; both blocked;
1970-1.5x0.74-0.88
m; slight inclination
to entrance; 1976wide
Knossos: Ag.
Ioannis (KS #6)
8 (+1-4
poss
rect (II, VII); oval (I,
III,V,VIII); circ (VI);
some yes (V-VIII;
VI-2.10 L; VII-1.35-
Kritsa: Lakkoi
Kritsa:Katharo
Milatos:plain
Adromyloi:KK
Chambershape/size
square, 1.82 m
T.2-square, 1.80 m;
smaller than T.1
Dromos
Other information
yes, >7 m long
possibly no
T.1 dates LM IIIA2-B/C
?
?
?
horseshoe
circular; rect; range-1x1
m to 2-2.5 m
elliptical (2.16x1.7 m)
H-1.65m
small, rect?
circular, 1.6 m
ellipsoidal
roughly circular; large
one larger than the
other
yes; 2.0-5.5 m L; 11.5 m W
?
some more attention to
carved doorway
yes
yes
built entrance
poss tholos, not chamber
?
?
?
?
?
?
ellipsoidal
circular, 1.80 m
ellipsoidal, horseshoe
(#5), circular, average
~1x1 m; T.151.15x0.93m
rectangular; 9.5 x 10 m
irreg, circular (A-2m
dia; B; D); rectangular
(C- 3x1.2 m); H of A2m
?
T.1-circular (~6 m
dia.); T.2-rect (2
chambers #1-1.8x
2.8m; #2-3m wide);
T.3-irreg; most rect
ellipsoidal; A-1.7 x 1.1
m; B-sim dimensions
280
?
yes, oft blocked by
rubble wall; T.13L=1.4m; W-1.10m;
T.14-L-2.6; W-1.05m
yes, blocked w/
fieldstones
yes (A,B,D); D-3m
long and 1.2 m wide
?
yes (all?); T.3-1.4 m
wide; T.4-15 m long;
several 9-10 m long
1962-yes (A-1 x 0.9
mremaining)
built ent. w/ mono lintel;
jambs (~1 m H x 1.5 W);
threshold
’54 tomb def chamber;
’97 rock-cut chamber or
poss pit
report of 2 tombs but
only traces of one found
T.4 divided in half; T.4
cut into T.5; T.3 cov. w/
stone heap
A+D-entrances blocked
with stones
roofs of some tombs
were domed (rock-cut);
some apparently with
stone-built doorways
A-threshold (2 large
slabs); step down into
chamber; 5 irreg slabs
with vases on floor
1970-gravel floor; step
down into chamber;
hollow in W side of
dromos;
1976-0.25 m step down
into chamber
stomia oft blocked with
ashlar blocks; VIII-oval
from
1980)
quad (IV); typical 1.41.7 x 1.3-2.3 m)
Knossos:
Ambelakia
1
oval, ~2.15 m
Knossos:Kephala
(Payne 1927;
Hogarth T.2-5;
1957)
7-9 or
more
oval (2.4x1.9-Payne;
2.1; 2.8x2.4); square
(2.2x2.3 m) circ (19574.2 m)
Knossos:Kallithea
?
Knossos:NC
2 or
more
>125
yes; Payne 1927 w/ 2
niches; (T.5) 4.8-5.4
L; (T.3) 2.5 L; 2 w/
leaning sides;
sloping; T.5 inclined;
oft stepped
?
circ; oval; rect; irreg
(<1-2.7 m); some w/
side chambers (largestG;N;Q; Π;48;75;
82;106;218;219); H1.1; 1.3 m
(T.2; 55 pits in floor);
sq/rect (T.14;40;55;75;
106;207;218; 283)
yes (0.85-1.6 W; <19.75 L); (T.75-9.75 m
L; 100-9 m; 60-6.62
m) oft stepped; freq
niches; most sloping;
straight parallel sides
(T. 18;28;45; 219);
inward sloping sides
(T.44); deep (T.285)
Knossos: Fortetsa
17-18
oval; circ; 1-2.5 m dia.;
III+OD square (0.751.0 m)
yes; average W-1m;
L-1->5m;
descending; some
have niches
Knossos: Lower
Gypsades
Knossos:Upper
Gypsades
1
oval; 2.6x1.5 m
yes; 0.9 W; 4 m L
2 (PG)
and 5
IIIB
1
irregular
Phoinikia:
Drakouliari
Phoinikia: TEI
1
1.5 W; declines from
surface
?
?
round, 1.39 m
H-0.78 m
?
yes, short; 3 steps
?
Eleutherna
1
irregular, 2x 1.8 m;
H~1.8m
yes
Astrikas
2
I-irregular; 3.15x2.15m
II-elliptical; 2.2x2.6 m
yes, I (1.8 pres L;
1.15 W); II (2.3 pres
281
side chamber; VII-0.55
step down into chamber;
II dug into dromos of
VI; III cut into dromos
of V; IV below II
blocked by big stone;
floor poss paved with
plakas; mono jambs;
threshold cut into
bedrock
T. 3; 1957 chambers
with niche; T.5 arched
door;
some poss LM III
construction
?
typ blocked entrance;
stomion-av. W-0.86; L0.28 m; typ step down
into chamber; a few w/
carved or stone
thresholds (stone19;75;219; raised-13);
floors of bedrock or
gravel, pebbles; some w/
carved jambs (T.285-1
built; 1991-built);
T.106-carefully const.
façade; well-cut
chamberT.13;28;219;306
usually step down into
chamber; entrance-low
rectangular opening;
blocked ent.; III-walls of
dromos converge
slightly at top; VII extra
S wall across dromos
step down into chamber
’97 (T.5) divided in two
by section of wall
step down into chamber
(0.6 m)
poss. peribolos wall
~400m away w/ pyre
near wall
blocked entrance; below
A1/K1 bldg; 1 low
niche; st-0.75W; ~0.4 L
stomion of II1.2x0.58m; both-
L; 0.9 W)
Gavalomouri
7
irreg; ellipt; SP-IV1.85x2.18; V-1.2-1.68x
2.06m; L-T.II2.5x2.25m; I-1.4x2.9m
yes, short (V-0.92;
IV-1.85 L); V-0.56
W; full of earth
Kavousi
3
yes, but destroyed
Vouves
2
irregular?; 1 preserved1.75x1.2 m
II-elliptical; 3.65 x 2 m;
H-1.4 m
Modi
Vryses: Timios St
2
2
?
?
yes, 3.2L; 0.45-1.2
W; descending
?
?
limestone plaka jambs
and lintel; limestone
stele fell into T.I
blocked entrance;
chamber H-0.75-1.6 m;
carved into earth (eroded
schist), not kouskouras,
into sides of hills
chamber H-0.85m
plaka threshold; step
down int chamber;
blocked stomion; floorsea pebbles
?
?
A few EIA chamber tombs also show signs of burial ritual, funerary meals, offerings,
etc. (see table 17). Pyres for cremation or burnt offerings have been identified at Kounavoi
(T. 4, 16), Mastamba 1970, and possibly Phoinikia TEI, and the chamber tomb at Eleutherna
is beside a possible crematorium Ash was found in the dromoi of Mastamba 1970 and
Phoinikia Drakouliari, and evidence of food offerings and animal sacrifice was found in
several of the NC tombs, including Tomb F-pit in dromos with two horses and two dogs and
T. 152-horse bones in dromos. In addition, possible altars were found in Knossos Kephala T.
2 and 1927, and burned animal bones, food remains and ash were found in front of a burial
niche in Knossos Ag. Ioannis IV. Iron spits were also found in tombs at Kounavoi, Knossos,
and Eleutherna. Finally, a few KNC tombs (T. 75, 218, 219, 283, 285) contained two-three
stone stands, possibly for offerings or as bases for burial vessels. Particularly significant was
the possible evidence of LG/EO ancestor worship found in an LM IIIA2 chamber tomb at
Mochlos (T. 27).
Table 17 (Chamber tombs – offerings, evidence of burial ritual, etc.)
Site
Mochlos
Information
T.27-LG/EO offerings in LM IIIA2 chamber tomb (oval-0.9x1.45x1.05m); in EIA,skeletal
remains, upper part of burial pithos and schist cover, as well as grave goods, were removed
from the tomb; rest of pithos then filled with earth and an alabastron and small hydria placed
inside; tomb was closed and cover slab positioned upright in dromos near entrance with
section of pithos, skyphos and aryballos on either side; irreg stone platform/altar (1 x 0.55-
282
Kounavoi
Herakleion:
Mastamba
Knossos:
Ag. Ioannis
Knossos:
Kephala
Knossos:
NC
Knossos:
Fortetsa
Phoinikia:
Drakouliari
Phoinikia:
TEI
Eleutherna
Vouves
0.8x0.5 m) constructed on top; Sole says=ancestor worship
T. 4 irregular pyre (1x0.3m) by entrance, poss. for offerings (bones and sherds found); T. 16
pyre in front; iron spits found in T. 4 and 14
1970 tomb-evidence of 2 pyres found in dromos just north of 2 burials; further north, a cup,
sherds, ashes, and burned earth were found
Tomb IV-burned animal bones (bird?), food remains, and ash found in front of burial niche
Payne 1927 tomb-3 pits in chamber and possible altar found; T. 2 also possible stone altar
T.2 and 55 pits in chamber; ev. of food offerings in several tombs; animal sacrifice (4 ex.); Fpit in dromos w/ 2 horses and 2 dogs; horse bones in dromos of T.152; ostrich eggs-T.30, 56,
219, 294; iron spits-T.24, 75, 100, 107, 218, 219, 283, 285, 1994-T.4-6; firedogs-T.219, 283,
285; stone stands-T.75, 218, 219, 283, 285
P and II burning in dromos; iron spits-T.VI? and P
dromos full of ash, possibly from offerings
burned soil above tomb, ~400 m away found possible peribolos wall and pyre
iron spits found
pit on right and left side of chamber
The majority of Early Iron Age chamber tombs contained between one-five burials;
while multiple burials were most common, numerous examples do exist with only a single
burial (see table 18).159 Tombs with six-ten burials occurred at Knossos NC, Astrikas I, and
possibly Elia, and only Herakleion (Atsalenio A and Mastamba 1970), Knossos (Ag. Ioannis
I, Fortetsa P, VII, F, X, II, Lower Gypsades, some NC tombs, and possibly Upper Gypsades),
and probably Eleutherna had tombs with more than ten burials. In fact, most tombs at
Knossos NC contained 10 or fewer burials, and many of the high burial estimates at Fortetsa
and NC are based on counts of possible cremation vases, not on confirmed cremations; by far
the highest estimate of total burials is Fortetsa P (with 78), followed by II (with 28). Most
tombs were therefore limited to few individuals and according to Cavanagh likely represent
family tombs serving a narrow kin group (in Knossos at least).160
159
Tombs with single burials were found at Tylissos Atsolou, Aitania (all 3 tombs), Knossos Ag. Ioannis
(possibly II, III, VII), Fortetsa V, Phoinikia Drakouliari, some tombs at Kounavoi, Gavalomouri II, IV, V, and
Astrikas II.
160
Coldstream and Catling 1996, 664.
283
The most common form of burial in EIA chamber tombs was cremation in urns,
pithoi, kraters, and amphorae, though bronze basins/bowls were also used in a few instances
(Tylissos Atsolou, Knossos Fortetsa). The majority of tombs contained cremation burials
only, though inhumation did occur at some sites. In the east, inhumations were found in
larnakes and basins at Kritsa (together with cremation) and Adromyloi, both of which are
early in date (LM IIIB/C-IIIC). In central Crete, inhumation was predominant at Kounavoi
(PG-PGB), Phaistos Liliana (LM IIIB-SM) and Tou Phygiote (IIIC-PG?), while it also
occurred at Knossos Ag. Ioannis, Kephala, NC, and possibly Upper Gypsades; cremation was
also practiced in most of these cemeteries, however. With the exception of Kounavoi, the
adult inhumation burials in the other central cemeteries date primarily to LM IIIC or SM, and
at Knossos it has been noted that inhumation may have been the typical practice of SM, with
cremation occurring during this period only in the NC.161 All western sites, on the other
hand, have inhumation burials, though most also have cremations. The continued use of
adult inhumation in these western tombs is noteworthy, however, as all appear to be
somewhat late in date (PG or G). Finally, child burial (often in pithoi, other vessels, and
larnakes) has been confirmed from some EIA Cretan chamber tombs; evidence of child
cremation was found at Kritsa Katharo, Phaistos Liliana D, and Eleutherna, while inhumation
was found at Knossos NC, Gavalomouri, and Vouves. In addition, at Knossos NC it appears
that LM IIIA-B larnakes were sometimes re-used for child/infant inhumations from PGB on,
and most Geometric inhumations in the NC are of children.162
Table 18 (Chamber tombs – burial information)
Site
Total #
EIA
161
Coldstream and Catling 1996, 643.
162
Coldstream 1998.
Type
Vessel
284
Other
Kritsa:Lakkoi
Burials
4-5
4 inh; 1-4 crem?
Kritsa:Katharo
5
2 inh; 3 crem
2 larnakes; 1 pithos;
pyxis (crem?)
basin; 2 pyxides
?
inhumation
larnax
?
?
cremation?
cremation
cremation
cremation
?
?
?
in bronze basin
urns
skyphos-like urn
cremation
cremation
urn
urns
cremation
most inh; some
crem
urns
crem were in urns; inh
oft on floor
cremation
urns
most inh; 1
partial crem
15-16 larnakes (3-5 per
tomb; some w/ multip
burials)
?
?
Milatos:plain
Adromyloi:KK
?
?
Ag. Georgios
Krya
Praisos T.53
Ag. Marina
Tylissos:Atsolou
Ligortynos
Aitania:Phonia
?
?
?
?
Aitania:Gridia
Elia
Kato Vatheia
Kounavoi
Phaistos:Kalyviani
Phaistos:Liliana
1
multiple
’54 -1
burial
’97-1
1
7 (? # of
LG/EO)
multiple
>15
3 or
more
>17 (? #
of IIIC)
?
larnax w/ 5 skeletons (?
how many IIIC)
1 ex had only one burial
Phaistos:T. 1954
Phaistos:Tou Phyg
?
>20
?
inh; T.9 had
partial crem
Herakleion:Atsalenio
>20
cremation
urns; pithoi
Herakleion:Mastamba
22
cremation
pithoi, kraters, urns
Knossos:Ag. Ioannis
17-23
krater, urns
Knossos:Ambelakia
Knossos:Kephala
>6
8 inhumation
(I,II, IV,VI,
VIII); 9-15
cremation (I,III,
IV, V,VIII?)
VI-infant
prob cremation
inh (T.5); crem
(1927, T.3,
?
pyxis found inside
larnax, one inh on floor
inh in basin; 1 pyxiscrem youth and
secondary burial of inh
adult; other-cremated
adult and child;
possible clay bier
285
?
some c in urns
’97 tomb contained one
burial pithos
most tombs contained
1-3 inh; T.4 had 2 crem
+T.16 had ~3 crem;
child cremation in vase
(D); (Watrous-some
larnakes poss later
reuse)
T.1-7 inh; T.2-3 inh;
T.4-1 inh (apparently in
stone covered pit in
floor); T.9-poss 2 pits
(1 with male other with
female)
A-17 pithoi with
cremation
1970-17 cremations (of
which 2 in dromos);
1976-5 crem urns
IV-inh in niche of NE
wall; all have 1-4
burials, except I, up to
11 burials
1927-2 niches in
dromos, each with c urn
1957)
inhumation?
most crem; some
early ex. inhum
+infants
/children
Knossos:Kallithea
Knossos:NC
a few
est.
422-671
for all
NC (inc
pits+sha
fts)
Knossos:Fortetsa
poss
~180
cremation
pithoi,kraters; bronze
dinoi
Knossos:Lower Gyp
35 (21
PGBLG)
’97-11
skulls
1
cremation
pithoi
inhumation?
larnax
cremation
pithos
at least
4
10s or
100s
8
cremation
kalpai
cremation
urns
7 inh; 1 crem
pithoi; kraters;
amphorae; c in urn
Gavalomouri
SP-2; L4
SP-cremation; L1 crem; 3 inh
pithoi; crem in urns
Kavousi
Vouves
2
5
inh and crem
3 inh; at least 2
crem
Modi
Vryses:Timios Stav
>2
c in urn
2 shallow pits with inh
(m+f); crem in
amphorae
pithoi
?
Knossos:Upper
Gypsades
Phoinikia: Drakouliari
Phoinikia: TEI
Eleutherna
Astrikas
?
inhumation
?
?
crem typ in urns
infant/child inh in
pithoi, larnakes (some
reused LM IIIA-B);
majority of tombs have
10 or fewer urn burials;
T.107 >33 c pithoi; 2-3
stone stands found
(T.75;218;219;
283;285) for offerings
or base for burial vessel
burials also in dromoi
and niches; many tombs
1-5 burials; but P-up to
78; and VII+F (12-14);
X,II (21; 28)
burial pithos placed on
large plaka and mouth
closed w/ plaka
layer of burned soil just
above tomb
also a few child crem;
urns also in dromos
I-6 inh (inc. 1 female in
corner w/o
vase)+1crem
II-1 inh
II;VII-possibly each w/
child inh (II also adult
inh); IV+V-each only 1
MG crem in pithos
inh on floor
23 O vases on ledge in
rubble=burial/offering;
1 child inh in pithos
T. I- 2 burials
?
New chamber tombs were dug throughout the EIA, with the earliest eastern and
central examples dating to LM IIIC and SM; the first Knossian examples are SM and the
earliest western examples PG (see table 19). The five confirmed LM IIIC tombs (at four
sites) do not continue beyond SM, though the construction date of Phaistos Kalyviani
remains uncertain, while the new SM cemeteries and tombs all continue at least until PG,
286
some even to O. The greatest period of construction and use of chamber tombs, as well as
the beginning of new cemeteries/sites, throughout the island appears to be PG; at Knossos
from PG on nearly all adult burials are in chamber tombs. This tomb type, however, also
appears at many sites for the first time in G and continues to be used at many others during
this period; the chamber tomb thus appears to have been almost/equally as popular in the
Geometric as in PG. At Knossos, new chamber tombs appear to have been dug through MG,
while in LG-O only pre-existing tombs were re-used.163 New tombs were constructed in LG
or LG/EO only at Elia, Phoinikia TEI, and possibly Vouves, though tomb use continued until
EO at some eastern, central, and western sites. No tomb has evidence of burials dating later
than Late Orientalizing, though at Herakleion, Knossos, Elia, and Eleutherna some tombs
continued in use during this period. Thus, while burial took place only for a short period of
time in some tombs/cemeteries, a few sites show much longer periods of use (SM-EO at Ag.
Georgios, Knossos Kephala and NC and PG-O at Mastamba and Eleutherna). At Knossos
NC in fact, the greatest number of tombs were utilized for fewer than 50 years, though 50100 and 100-150 yrs. were also common, and two tombs were used for up to 400 years.164
There does appear to be a slight correlation between certain architectural features and
date. For example, square/rectangular chamber shape may have been an early feature; it
appears that most (non-Knossisan) tombs of this shape were carved in LM IIIC or SM (PG at
the latest, though Ag. Georgios and Phaistos Kalyviani remain unpublished). Stomion
elaborations, on the other hand, may have a tendency to be later in date, as most tombs with
these features were constructed in PGB and G; some Knossos examples are PG. It is
difficult, however, to determine any possible link between chamber size and date, though the
163
Coldstream and Catling 1996, 659-666.
164
Coldstream and Catling 1996, 659-666.
287
two largest known tombs were both constructed in PG, or dromos length and date. Finally,
single burials occur in all periods, while the tombs with the greatest number of burials tend to
have been constructed in PG or PGB.
Chamber tombs also frequently occur in cemeteries, both large and small, as well as
in groups (e.g., Phaistos Liliana, Herakleion, Knossos Ag. Ioannis, Kephala, NC and
Fortetsa, Gavalomouri); for example, in the North Cemetery, rows of four-six tombs are
especially common. In addition, chamber tombs are often found in association with tombs of
other types, such as tholoi (Kritsa, Krya, Kounavoi-later tholos) and pits (Liliana, Kounavoi),
or with chamber tombs of earlier date (Ag. Georgios). Furthermore, multiple chamber tombs
are typical at a site, though a few somewhat isolated examples may have existed (possibly
Tylissos Atsolou, Kato Vatheia, Phaistos Kalyviani, Astrikas, Vryses).
Chamber tomb orientation appears to be primarily related to topography, as in LM.
Tombs are found oriented in all directions (N, E, S, W, NW, NE, SE, SW), though west
occurs most commonly overall, followed by south and southeast. The east Cretan tombs
have orientations of S, SE, and NW; the north central tombs face all eight possible directions;
the south central tombs E and SE, and the western tombs E, NE, S, and W. Early Iron Age
chamber tombs are also positioned in all directions (except SE) from their associated
settlements, and frequently at multiple locations within a single site; tombs of this type do,
however, tend to be grouped more regularly in cemeteries (i.e., less scattered) than tholoi and
caves/rock shelters. Among the chamber tombs overall, the distribution is evenly divided
among the various directions. Minor distinctions are observable, though, within the different
regions (eastern tombs are found to the E, NE, N, S, and SW of their settlements; north
288
central sites to the N, S, W, NW, SW (none to E, SE or NE); south central sites to N, E, NE,
SE; Eleutherna to the W; western sites to the NE and NW).
In addition, most burial sites are located <1 km from their associated settlements
(especially between 500 m-1 km), while only a few tombs/cemeteries are at a distance of
between 1-1.5 km;165 a small number of sites were possibly found at greater distances,
though none can be confirmed. While the tholos tomb appears to be especially characteristic
of defensible settlements, the chamber tomb is more evenly divided between sites of different
types. Chamber tombs occur at six defensible sites (and two of these are only somewhat
defensible) and six non-defensible sites, making it perhaps a more characteristic type for nondefensible sites, though non-defensible sites are more characteristic of central and western
Crete in general, where the majority of chamber tombs are found. Furthermore, at least half,
and probably more, of the settlements with associated chamber tombs later became poleis or
large towns.
Table 19 (Chamber tombs – location, orientation, relation to settlement)
Site
Date
Orientation
Location; Isolated/
group
Relation to
settlement
Kritsa:Lakkoi
IIIB/C trans
IIIC/SM
T.2-IIIC
(T.1IIIA2B/C)
G (MGLG/EO)
SE
~150 m SW of tholoi
E~2 km (?)
(Kastello)
?
~1km SW of Lakkoi
NE~1 km (?)
(Kastello)
?
in plain near sea
N ~500-600
m (Kastellos)
Kritsa:Katharo
Milatos:plain
Adromyloi:KK
IIIB/C
?
Ag. Georgios
SM-EO
S; SE
Krya
in IIIC-PG
NW
?
in groups; same type as
nearby LM III
examples
~80m SE of Isopata
165
SW
?
E/NE <300 m
Settlement
type
and date
large defen;
IIIC-SM;
PG?
poss also
Kastello
def; becomes
polis (IIICH)
IIIB-C
settlem to NE
?
defensible;
Settlements located less than 500 m away existed at Krya, Praisos and Eleutherna, while distances of
between 1-1.5 km were found at Knossos Kephala, Kallithea, NC, and Vryses. The tombs at Kritsa Lakkoi,
Knossos Ag. Ioannis, and Modi may have been ~2 km away from the settlement, and the Atsalenio and
Mastamba tombs 3 or 4 km, if no closer settlement existed.
289
cemetery
type
Praisos T.53
G-EO
Ag. Marina
Tylissos:Atsolou
SM; PG;
G?
IIIC-SM
Ligortynos
PGB-LG
?
?
Aitania:Phonia
Aitania:Gridia
Elia
Kato Vatheia
Kounavoi
G
G
LG/EO-LO
PG-G
PG-PGB;
(T.12-EG?)
?
?
?
?
Phaistos:Kalyviani
IIIC-PG
SW
2 tombs in same field
?
?
somewhat isolated?
all in same area; 12-16
group; 3-5 group; 1 by
large tholos
somewhat isolated?
Phaistos:Liliana
Phaistos:T. 1954
Phaistos:Tou Phyg
IIIB-SM
SM-PG
SM/PG;
G? prob
prim LM
IIIC
PGB-O;
esp EO-O
E
Knossos:Atsalenio
?
later tombs nearby
W
?
?
W
somewhat isolated?
group
?
S;E
?
T.1-5 on S slope of
hill; rest on E
N (T.A)
group (A+B ~6 m
apart)
(Ag.
Georgios)
S ~250 m?
(Praisos)
?
SW?
(Tylissos)
SW ~500-600
m (Kephala)
?
?
?
?
nearby
(ancient
Eltyna?)
E ~1 km
(Phaistos)
NE ~1 km
NE
N/NE? ~2 km
NW? (~3 km
from
Knossos) or
nearby at Ats.
S/SW (~2 km
Herakleion)
or NW~4 km
(Knossos)
Knossos:Mastamba
PG-O
N (’70); NW
(’76)
‘76 tomb ~600m N of
Atsalenio tombs; ‘70
tomb ~700 m N of ‘76
Knossos:Ag.
Ioannis
PG (8);
1980SM/PG
PG-G
W;SE;SW
cemetery; I-VI in
group; VII-VIII
E
iso?
most to W
in cemetery; groups
N-750-1.5 km
(Knossos)
Knossos:Kallithea
SM-O
(T.3-poss
const in
LM III)
1958-MG
PG
group
Knossos:NC
SM-LO
N;NE;E;SE;
NW? ~1.2
km; or NE
~1.5 km
NW~500m-
Knossos:Ambelak
Knossos:Kephala
?
groups (KMF typ rows
290
W (at foot of
hill) or NW
>2km
W or SW?
IIIC-PG; G?
EIA defen;
becomes
polis; IIIC-H
?
habitation,
poss IIIC-SM
re-use above
villas
PG-G def; OR town
?
?
?
?
EIA-R sett;
became
town/polis
large
settlement
(IIIC-O)
becomes
polis
“
“
“
local
settlement or
Knossos
harbor town
at Herakleion
or Knossos
or local
settlement
local
settlement or
Knossos
Knossos or
local Ag. I
sett
IIIC-O,R;
sett, becomes
polis
local G-H
settlement or
Knossos?
IIIC-O,R
W;NW;S
of 4-6); rel iso
Knossos:Fortetsa
EPG-LO
W; S (T.F)
Knossos:Lower
Gypsades
Knossos:Upper
Gypsades
Phoinikia:
Drakouliari
Phoinikia:TEI
Eleutherna
PGB-LO
SE
3 groups (I-IX+P;
OD,X,XI,LST+BLT;
F,θ, Q)
relatively isolated?
SM-PG
S
‘93 with IIIB tombs
LG
LPG-O
Astrikas
G
Gavalomouri
MG-EO
SP-to S
II to NE?
Kavousi
LPG-MG
W?
Vouves
G-EO
E
Modi
PG
?
2 nearby; ~1 km NE of
Gavalomouri L
in group
Vryses:Timios Stav
PG or
LG/EO
?
isolated?
EPG
?
?
?
?
beside enclosures A+
K; prob assoc w/; in
cemetery
?
isolated?; 2 tombs not
nearby
III-V SP group ~350 m
to SE of L I-II; VI-VII
(~50 m SW of I-II)
2 to N of 1
W
>1 km
(Knossos)
W ~500 m
(Knossos)
sett; becomes
polis
“
S>500 m
(Knossos)
S/SW <1 km
“
?
?
?
W <150 m
(Prines Hill)
?
“
?
PG-O; A-R
def sett;
becomes
polis
?
?
to SSE ??
?
NW >2 km?
(Ag. Georg.)
NE > 1km
(Ag. Georg.)
?
(Phalasarna?
?)
?
EIA
settlement
settlement,
poss def
Several Early Iron Age burials were also found in Bronze Age tombs (see table 20);
in fact, much of the evidence for LM IIIC burial in chamber tombs comes from LM IIIA-B
(or earlier) tombs. In many cases, this evidence consists solely of a few vases, primarily
stirrup jars, and it is difficult to confirm the existence of an LM IIIC burial, as opposed to a
later offering or cleaning out of the tomb (e.g., Nea Halikarnassos). Some of the LM IIIC
vases found in IIIA-B cemeteries, as at Milatos, Episkopi, Ag. Spyridon, Myrsini, Tourloti,
Tylissos, and Mesi, however, may signify the final burials in a Bronze Age cemetery, in
some cases potentially dating just after the abandonment of the settlement. The construction
dates, and degree of re-use, of certain tombs at Knossos (Ag. Ioannis, Kephala, Upper
Gypsades), though, still need to be clarified. Finally, significant re-use of chamber tombs
291
was identified at Mavro Spelio where multiple Geometric infant inhumations in pithoi were
placed in the MM-LM chamber tomb collapse.
Table 20 (Bronze Age chamber tombs with possible EIA burials)
Site
Milatos:
Ag.
Phanourios
Episkopi
Ag.Spyridon:
Kanene
Myrsini
Tourloti
Tylissos
Knossos:
Isopata
Knossos: Ag.
Ioannis
Knossos:
Kephala
(1958)
Knossos:
Mavro Spelio
Knossos:
Upper
Gypsades
Nea
Halikarnassos
Mesi
Information
5 chamber tombs (mainly LM IIIA-B) with dromoi excavated; T.2 (rectangular
2.68x1.80m; H-1.4m) was enlarged to N sometime after construction, for inhumation burial
in larnax, poss. IIIC; 3 IIIC early vases, mostly stirrup jars, recovered from this tomb;
cemetery located to SW <2 km of EIA def settlement at Kastellos
>4 chamber tombs (mainly LM IIIA-B) excavated in large cemetery; 1 tomb with IIIC
vases (2 stirrup jars, and one possible SM jug); tombs contained inhumations in larnakes;
number of IIIC burials unknown
Platon recovered finds from several destroyed LM IIIB tombs with inhumations in
larnakes; finds included 1 IIIC stirrup jar, possibly from an early IIIC burial; located to W
(~1-2 km) of possible associated settlement at Praisos
10 LM III chamber tombs with inhumations in larnakes and pithoi were excavated, of
which 4 contained IIIC vases, mostly early stirrup jars; tombs A,B, IB (LMIIIA-C); IA
(IIIB-C); number of IIIC burials is unknown; cemetery located to SW (~700m) of EIA def
settlement on Kastello
>5 LM III tombs mostly with inhumations in larnakes were excavated from extensive
cemetery; extent of IIIC presence unknown; one of 1984 tombs (IIIA-C) contained 2 IIIC
Pelop imports; sj; jugs; pyxis with cremation (all of these may be IIIC);also SM/PG fibula
found in IIIC larnax from robbed tomb in museum=re-use (tomb location unknown);
closest known EIA settlement is at Kastri (~3km to NW), Minoan settlement on hill above
cemetery
1 LM IIIB-C chamber tomb with 3 larnakes was excavated to the west of the Minoan villa;
number of IIIC burials is unknown; 3 (kalathos, krateriskoi) of 9 vases were IIIC
collapsed remains of chamber tomb (KS #3) found ~250 m S of Royal Tomb; date of tomb
unknown, either LM or EIA
one chamber tomb (KS #19) found ~550 m SE of main group of Ag. Ioannis tombs; dates
to LM I or II; appears to have been reused in SM for 2 inhumation burials (male and
female) found 0.15-0.2 m above the floor; 2 stirrup jars, an amphora, 2 large bronze pins
(one with ivory head), and bronze plate fragments were recovered; also ash deposit found
in front of door to chamber
one chamber tomb (KS #10) with rectangular chamber (2x1.6 m), dromos (~4 m L; 1.21.35 W) with inward leaning sides, and door jambs was excavated (~700 m S/SE of Isopata
Royal Tomb); possibly constructed in LM III but reused for single MPG inhumation burial,
which was accompanied by amphora, stirrup jar, bronze ring and bronze pin
Geometric pithoi with inhumed infant burials were found in fallen earth/collapse above
Minoan burials in chamber tombs IV (14 burials); VII (2) and XVII (1 or more); these are
larger eastern tombs of MM II-LM IIIB cemetery is located ~500 m east of EIA settlement;
a few cups and jugs recovered with pithoi
2 tombs (IX;VIa) from primarily LM IIIA-B cemetery possibly contain IIIC; total finds-IXlarnax w/ 3 skulls; stirrup jar, deep bowl; bronze earring; VIA-2 stirrup jars; jar; flask; VIIis latest from cemetery (IIIB2-SM), roughly circular 1.7x1.9 m with dromos, containing 3
inhumations, 1 larnax, 11 vases, 4 bronze pins, iron knife with bronze rivets, 2 sealstones,
t.c. spindlewhorl, 2 bronze rings, amber bead, 2 stone beads, faience bead
at some point finds from LM II or IIIA chamber tomb were placed in pit to left of entrance,
with an altar on top; a stirrup jars and jug may date to IIIC and could represent later re-use
or period of cleaning out/offering
one early IIIC amphora found in niche inside chamber of LM III tomb at Mourniani or
Nikitas; it is uncertain whether this represents an early IIIC burial or offering
292
In addition, see table 21 for possible EIA chamber tombs; these are only the uncertain
tombs which were most likely to have been chambers, less certain examples are in the
unidentified tomb type section.
Table 21 (Possible EIA chamber tombs)
Site
Myrsini:
Aspropilia
Tylissos:Petres
Malia:Ag.
Pelagia
Vatheianos
Kambos
Phoinikia
Kissamos
Information
on south side of hill were found remains of tombs, apparently Geo chamber tombs; finds
include 2 large kraters, a bronze vase, iron weapons and tools
near Minoan villas found remains of completely destroyed and robbed Geo tombs, poss
chamber tombs
1-LM III chamber tombs with larnakes were excavated near the church of Ag. Pelagia;
uncertain if vases include any LM IIIC (said to correspond to those from T.1 at Dreros but
also to Olous); 2-a few Geo vases, 1 cremation, and inhumations found in dromos of LM
III chamber tomb; unclear if EIA re-use for cremation or Geo vases=later offerings
Pendlebury noted SM/PG chamber tomb with dromos at this location, ~1 km northeast of
LM villa at Nirou Chani; Syriopoulos also ids tomb as SM, though Kanta prefers LM IIIAB; contained inhumation in larnax and a few vessels, inc. basket vase, krater, sj
Marinatos notes that 11 PG and 3 G vases were recovered from a vineyard on a small hill
near the village in 1925; vases come from 1 or more tombs, likely chambers with
cremations, though exact location remains unknown
Evans purchased male figure vase with accompanying Geo finds, including bronze fibulae,
plaques, beads, tripod fragment, iron nails, lead wheel, stone and bone spindle whorls,
faience, rock crystal, stone, lead, glass, terracotta and amber beads, and 1 skull, said to be
from chamber tomb
Grave good analysis
As with tholoi, great diversity occurs among the grave goods found in chamber
tombs. The sheer amount of material recovered and published from the chamber tombs at
Knossos, however, so greatly exceeds that from other sites that it is difficult to analyze the
goods (outside of the Knossian material) or to determine any specific overall trends regarding
grave goods found in tombs of this type.166 Furthermore, it is not my intention here to
provide a thorough mortuary analysis of the Knossian material, which has already been and
is currently being studied; rather, I wish to provide a basic overview of the types of grave
166
See Whitley 1991, 354-361, for further comments on Knossos. He notes that eclecticism characterizes the
burial assemblages at Knossos, and that no recurrent patterns exist in artifact types with relation to pottery style
and motif.
293
goods found in Early Iron Age chamber tombs, searching for any possible overall trends or
associations with certain tomb features or geographical regions.
The total number of ceramic vessels recovered from EIA chamber tombs varies from
only a few to ~380 (see table 22); only a small number of tombs, however, contained more
than 100 vases, and most are from Knossos.167 While the tombs at Knossos with many vases
did tend to be among the larger examples from the site, including some of the largest in the
cemetery, size and/or presence of architectural refinements do not appear to be directly
related to the number of vases; it is interesting to note, however, that all five NC tombs with
stone stands had ~100 vases or more. As in tholoi, the most common vessel types found in
chamber tombs are cups, skyphoi, jugs, and oinochoai, along with burial vessels (pithoi,
amphorae, kraters); krateriskoi, aryballoi, lekanai, flasks, stirrup jars, hydriai, feeding bottles,
pyxides, and kalathoi also occur relatively frequently.
Perhaps the most significant “new” vessel type is the skuttle or brazier; this form is
not a typical EIA tomb offering, and it appears to occur only (or primarily) in western graves
(chamber tombs at Astrikas, Gavalomouri, Vouves), thus possibly representing a grave good
characteristic of that specific region or area. Rare vases, such as open-work kalathoi (KNC
219, 292), tripods (KNC, Fortetsa, Eleutherna), and animal/anthropomorphic aryballoi (KNC
40, 106, 107, Fortetsa P), may also be important; LM (I) conical cups were also found at
Kounavoi T. 12 and KNC T. Q and a ‘san’ was found on the rim of a burial urn from
Gavalomouri, possibly a maker’s mark. In addition, imports occur somewhat more
frequently in chamber tombs than in tholoi, perhaps due to the fact that more chamber tombs
are found in central Crete, near Knossos, an arrival point for many imports; in the Knossos
167
Knossos Kephala 1927, KNC T. G, Q, 104, 218, 283, 285, Fortetsa II, X, Lower Gypsades, Gavalomouri I
and Vouves II contained ~100 or more vases; KNC 75, 107, 292 contained >200 vases, and Phaistos Kalyviani
held ~100 or 300; Fortetsa P ~380.
294
North Cemetery, Attic (also at Fortetsa), Argive, Thessalian, Euboean, Cycladic, Phoenician,
East Greek, Rhodian, Corinthian (also at Kephala and Fortetsa), and Cypriot imports (also at
Fortetsa) were found. Cypriot imports (Ligortynos, Kounavoi T. 12, Herakleion Atsalenio),
a Peloponesian import (Ag. Georgios), and Attic imports (Gavalomouri I) were recovered
from other sites.
The most common additional terracotta objects found in chamber tombs are beads (6
sites or 24 tombs, especially the western sites and Knossos), spindle whorls (3-4 sites or 8-9
tombs), animal figurines and loomweights, though a possible potter’s wheel (Kritsa Katharo)
and possible house model (Knossos NC 57) were also recovered. The presence of
loomweights is interesting, as no examples were found in either tholos tombs or caves/rock
shelters or at any eastern site; loomweights were, however found at Astrikas I, II, Vouves,
and Knossos NC T.G and 100. The most significant of the terracotta figurines were perhaps
the horses (with their potential aristocratic symbolism), and these were found at Phaistos
Liliana D, Mastamba, KNC 292 (possibly from an Attic pyxis), Fortetsa I, X, P, and possibly
Gavalomouri II (a female on horseback). In addition, bulls, birds, a ram, snake, tree, and
boat were found in a few Knossian tombs (especially Fortetsa X), while an ox on wheels was
recovered from Gavalomouri II and human figurines, possibly vessel attachments, from
Mastamba 1976, Knossos 1993 T.5, and Astrikas.
Overwhelmingly, the greatest degree of wealth and variation in grave goods are
observed in the tombs from Knossos.168 Gold objects were recovered at only 4 sites in 25-26
tombs, nearly all of which are at Knossos (~10% of tombs in the NC contained gold artifacts,
as did many of the Fortetsa tombs, and one tomb from both Ag. Ioannis and Kephala); gold
168
The wealthiest tombs (not including vases) from KNC are 75, 100, 107, 175, 218, 219, 283, 285, 292 and
from Fortetsa X, II, P.
295
was also found in one tomb at each of the three other sites (Adromyloi, Eleutherna, Astrikas).
The most common gold objects were rings, beads, foil/leaf, pins, and bands, while unusual
objects were a diadem, earrings, pendant, and daedalic head (all from Knossos). The tombs
with gold artifacts, at Knossos at least, are often not among the largest from the site or
distinguished architecturally. Silver, on the other hand, is very rare, found only at Knossos
and in nine tombs (though at multiple locations-NC 26, 45, 229, 292, Ag. Ioannis V, Fortetsa
II, Lower Gypsades), and these objects consist of rings, pins, tweezers, and an earring. In
addition, electrum pins were found at Fortetsa II, and lead was found in 4 tombs (NC 287,
292, Fortetsa XI, and Astrikas I).
Bronze jewelry was a relatively common find, recovered from at least half of the sites
(and >26% of NC tombs). The most common objects were fibulae (one from Phaistos 1954
is possibly imported), pins, and rings; one hair spiral (Phaistos 1954), a pendant (Fortetsa P),
two bracelets (Ag. Ioannis), and three earrings (NC) were also found, along with mirrors
(Kephala), a spoon (Praisos), and figurines (NC 229 and Fortetsa P2). Bronze vessels
represent additional significant artifacts (Tylissos, Knossos NC, Fortetsa and Kephala,
Phoinikia, Eleutherna, and Astrikas), and they were sometimes used for burial. Bronze
weapons, on the other hand, were quite rare, found at only five sites (in ten tombs);169 thus,
they were even rare in the NC, appearing in only three-four tombs. This may be primarily a
function of date, as many tombs date to PG or G, rather than LM IIIC (the date of most
tombs with bronze weapons). Only four tombs definitely had spears, one or two had knives,
one an adze/axe, and one a chisel (though the exact finds of Kritsa, Phaistos, and Knossos
169
Bronze weapons were found at Kritsa Lakkoi, Phaistos Kalyviani, Knossos Kephala IV, NC 14, 65, 292,
1993-5 and Fortetsa XI, Tylissos, and Phoinikia Drakouliari.
296
Kephala are unknown); unusual items were horsebits (NC 30, 219), possible shield bosses
(NC 219 and Eleutherna), and a small wheel (NC 285).
Iron jewelry was less common than bronze and it occurred at only nine sites. Fibulae
and pins were the primary finds, though a few rings, nails, tweezers, and a saw were also
recovered. In addition, iron fibulae appear to have been especially common in the west
(found at four sites); while this may just be a feature of recovery or preservation at these
sites, iron fibulae were found in only four tombs in the North Cemetery. Iron weapons
(swords, daggers, spears, knives), on the other hand, were much more common than bronze
weapons, especially at Knossos (found in 32 NC tombs).170 Arrowheads (NC 13, 107, 218,
292; Fortetsa II, X, P), chisels (NC 75, 292), double axes (NC 219, 285, Fortetsa P), and axes
(Mastamba 1970, NC 75, 285, 292, 306, Fortetsa F, P, Eleutherna, Vouves) were much rarer,
and possibly even more significant, occurring primarily in the wealthiest tombs (at least at
Knossos).171 Several tombs also contained iron spits (Kounavoi 4, 14, NC (11 tombs),
Fortetsa, P, VI?, and Eleutherna) and firedogs (KNC 219, 283, 285), likely remnants from
funerary meals.
Most of the stone objects found in chamber tombs were recovered from Knossos,
though finds of this material were also recovered at five other sites; the most significant stone
objects were sealstones (Adromyloi and Knossos), vases (Liliana and Knossos), whetstones
(Knossos, Gavalomouri V, and Vouves), obsidian (Praisos and Knossos), possible altars
(Knossos), pendants (Knossos) and a pebble gaming set (KNC 294), though beads, buttons,
170
Iron weapons were found at Kounavoi 4, 14, 16, Mastamba, Knossos Ag. Ioannis I, IV, V, VIII, Kephala III,
NC (32 tombs), Fortetsa (6 tombs), Lower Gypsades, Phoinikia Drakouliari, Eleutherna, Gavalomouri II, V, I,
Vouves, Modi, and Phaistos Kalyviani.
171
In addition, an iron razor was found in Kounavoi T. 4, an adze in Fortetsa P, and a horsebit in NC 292. In
the NC, iron obeloi were found in T. 24, 75, 100, 107, 218, 219, 283, 285, 1994-T.4-5.
297
and spindle whorls were also found.172 Bone artifacts, primarily pins and handles, were
recovered from Kounavoi and Knossos (NC and Fortetsa), as well as a boar’s tusk (NC 292)
and shells (including triton-NC 1996; oyster NC 40). In addition, eggshell fragments were
found at KNC (4 tombs) and Lower Gypsades. Finally, a small number of ivory (Knossos),
amber (Knossos), faience (Praisos, Kounavoi T.14, Knossos, Eleutherna, Gavalomouri II),
and glass/paste (Kounavoi T. 13, 14, 16, Liliana A, Knossos, Eleutherna, Astrikas?) objects
were also recovered from EIA chamber tombs, as well as scarabs (Knossos, Eleutherna).173
Table 22 (Grave goods from chamber tombs)
Site
Kritsa:
Lakkoi
Total
Cerami
cs
many
Kritsa:
Katharo T.2
14
Milatos:
plain
>2
Adromyloi:
KK
8-10
Ag.
Georgios
~200
Identified vessel
types
bird vase; pithos;
pyxis; jugs;
amphorae;
stirrup jars;
lekane; IIIB sj
import (chania,
mainland),
Cypriot jar
stirrup jars; jugs;
pyxides; basin;
kylix; krateriskos
flask w/ snake
attachment;
oinochoe
pithos; IIICstirrup jar, bird
vase; feeding
bottle
cups; jugs;
pithoi; hydriai;
oinochoai;
amphorae;
skyphoi;
aryballoi (one
from Pelop);
Other
terracotta
objects
?
Metal objects
Stone
objects
Other
objects
b-pin; fibula;
instruments/
tools
stone tools;
LM IIIA
seal
IIIB tin
covered
kylix (? or
Katharo)
possible
potter’s
wheel (or
lid?)
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
g-ring
b(?)-jewelry;
attachments
?
b-2 fibulae
sealstone
?
spindle
whorls
?
At Knossos, sealstones were found at NC J, 2, 18, 129 and Fortetsa II, θ, I; stone vases Ag. Ioannis II, V; NC
TFT, 106, 292, 2000 (kernos); whetstones at Ag. Ioannis I, II, NC 107, 294, Fortetsa X, II; obsidian at NC 75,
107, 129, G, 132, possible altars at Kephala 1927, 2, NC H; pendants at NC 26, J, F, II, VI, θ.
172
173
Ivory was found in NC 210, 219, 292 and Fortetsa XI; amber at NC 18, A/2, 82, 104, 229, 218; Fortetsa X,
VII; faience at Ag. Ioannis V, NC 75, 100, 207, 219, 285, 13, 26, 34, 56, Fortetsa IX, P2, I, VI, II, P; scarab NC
48, 107, 229, Fortetsa II, Lower Gypsades.
298
Krya
Praisos T.53
44
Ag. Marina
4
Tylissos:
Atsolou
2
Ligortynos
>12
Aitania:
Phonia
37
(195431;
1997-6)
>5
Aitania:
Gridia
Elia
?
>10
pyxides;
krateriskoi
?
pithoi; hydriai;
amphorae;
pyxides; lids;
oinochoai
amphoriskos;
krater; amphora;
imitation Attic
oinochoe
stirrup jars
(outside)
Cypriot
aryballos/
lekythos; 2
Creto-Cyp
lekythoi; krater;
cups; jugs; lids;
oinochoai; urns
pithos; skyphos;
prob. cup + jug
urn; lid; jug;
cups
urns; jugs;
aryballoi;
skyphos; lids
urns
Kato
Vatheia
Kounavoi
(some poss
unrobbed)
>5
>55
(T.1419
vases)
stirrup jars;
skyphoi; cups;
urns; jugs;
lekanai; flask;
krater;
krateriskos;
pithos;
amphorae;
hydriai;
aryballoi;
feeding bottles
(T.12- 2 LM I
conical cups;
Cypriot jug)
Phaistos:
Kalyviani
(unrobbed)
~100 or
300
amphorae; jugs
pithoi; cups;
amphoriskoi;
urns; stirrup jars;
krater
?
?
obsidian
frags
?
?
b-fibula;
tweezers;
spoon; disc
i-fibula
?
none
?
b-basin; spear;
knife (?); 4-5
fibulae
i-2 frags
(knife?)
?
?
none
none
?
blue faience
?
?
none
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
beads
(T.1;13;14)
?
299
b-4 rings
(T.5;13); 7
fibulae (T.4;
12;14); pin
(T.13)
i-spits (T.4;
14); razor
(T.4); sword
(T.16); 3
spears (T.4;
16); 3 daggers
(T.4; 14;16);
knife (T.14);
nail (T.13);
fibula+
handles (T.14)
bronze and
iron weapons
none
bone-3
pins(T.3;
13); obj
(T.4);
handle
(T.14)
glass-5
beads
(T.13;14;16)
faiencebeads (T.14)
?
beads
Phaistos:
Liliana
(most
unrobbed)
41 (A22; B-2;
C-1: D16)
Phaistos:
1954
13
Phaistos:
Tou Phyg
~20
Herakleion:
Atsalenio
~119
(A-60;
B-19;
1958~4
0)
Herakleion:
Mastamba
(poss
unrobbed)
~114
(197093;
197621)
Knossos:
Ag. Ioannis
122
(I-59;
V-26;
VIII-18)
Knossos:
Ambelakia
Knossos:
Kephala
cups; jugs;
stirrup jars;
krater; bowl;
hydria; kalathos;
krateriskoi;
oinochoai
stirrup jars;
amphorae;
kalathos;
skyphos;
amphoriskos
stirrup jars;
pyxis; bowl;
cylindrical vase;
unusual vase
horse (D)
?
spindle
whorls
A-4 spindle
whorls;
spool
sherds
pithoi; skyphoi;
cups; jugs (A-1
imported
Cypriot); lids;
aryballoi; hydria;
oinochoai;
kalathos
pithoi; kraters;
krateriskoi; cups;
pyxides; lids;
lekane; skyphoi;
jugs; kalathos;
aryballoi; plates;
tripod;oinochoai;
amphora;
hydriai; urns
stirrup jars; jugs
skyphoi;
kalathoi;
amphorae;
kraters (inc.
handle w/ goat
heads);
krateriskoi;
hydriai; pyxides;
pithos;
oinochoai; askos;
tripod; feeding
bottle; urns; tray;
cups
?
>172
(1927103;
pithoi; stirrup
jars; kraters; lids;
amphorae; plates
15 beads (HT.4)
1970-2
horses
1976-seated
human fig
w/ upraised
arms (prob
from
vessel); bull;
bird
>250 beads
(V); 3 beads
(I); spindle
whorl (V)
?
300
b-rings (A;D);
needle/chisel
(D)
alabaster
vase (D);
spindle
whorls (A,
D?); beads
(D?)
steatite
button
paste-beads
(A)
4 vases
(alabaster,
green stone,
other);
incised obj;
2 spindle
whorls; 2
sealstones;
beads
none
glass/ pastebeads; 2
handles
bone-mirror
handle;
plaque?
‘lapis lazuli’
obj
b-tweezers
(’70); 2 fibulae
(’70; ’76)
i-knife (’70); 2
spears
(’70,’76); 2
axes (’70)
none
none
g-4 rings (V)
s-2 rings (V)
b-7 rings
(I;IV;VI;
VIII); 2
bracelets
(II;V); 3
fibulae (II;
VIII); belt (I)
i-2 swords
(IV;VIII);
spears
(I;IV;V); 3
pins (IV,V)
?
whetstone
(II); rock
crystal frags
(poss
Minoan
vase-V);
amethyst
beads (V)
faiencebeads (V);
bones-bird ?
(IV)
?
?
g-bead (’57)
b-vessels
(’27); tripod,
limestone
block, poss
altar (’27);
b-2 fibulae
(poss from
Cyprus or
Argos); hair
spiral
g-leaf; rings;
beads;rosettes
s-ring
b-mirror; ring;
razors; knives;
pins; fibulae;
arrowheads;
sword; dagger;
vessels
b-2 tweezers
(A); pin (A)
i-2 pins (A)
?
none
Levantine
scarab (’57)
(Hogarth
T.5unrobbed)
Hogarth
T.3~50;
T.5-4
vases;
T.4-6)
hydria; aryballoi;
oinochoai; cups;
krateriskoi;
bowls; kalathoi;
pyxis; skyphos;
(’27 inc.
Rhodian and PC)
Knossos:
Kallithea
Knossos:
NC
few
stirrup jar
none
~3500
(some
O;LO)
(>200T.75;10
7; 292)
(>100G; Q;
104;
218;
283;
285)
amphorae;
pithoi; lids;
oinochoai;
lekythoi;
aryballoi (inc.
monkey; rooster;
hen-T.40; hare107); cups;
skyphoi; kraters;
stirrup jars;
kalathoi (openworkT.219;292); jugs;
pyxides; trays;
hydriai; bird
vases; bowls;
basins; lekanai;
urns; tripod;
amphoriskoi;
feeding bottle;
tripod cookpots;
strainers; flasks;
stands; anthropo
jug (T.106); ring
kernos (T.285);
bull protome
(T.14; animal
protomes
T.104;107) LM
conical cup (Q)
(vases inc. Attic;
Corinthian;
Argive;
Thessalian;
Euboean;
Cycladic; East
Greek;
Cypriot,Phoenici
an)
beads(D;J;Q;Π;
30;152;219;
283;294;
306;’94-5);
cube (D);
loomweight
(G;100);
bull (Q);
bird (‘93-5);
animal (283;
285;
292;294);
horse poss
Attic pyxis
(292); idol
(‘93-5);
spindle
whorls
(TFT;19;
107; 283?);
poss house
model (57)
301
fibula+ mirror
(H-T.3); 2
blades and
tweezers (HT.4); pins (HT.5)
i-knives,
spears (H-T.3);
sword, pin
(’57)
none
cylindrical
stone, poss
altar (H-T.2)
none
none
g-pins
(J;H2/A);
ornament
(N;26; 40; 48);
rings (Q); band
(L); bead (2/A;
285); diadem
(75); foil (75;
285; 292);
earrings (104);
pendant (107);
rosette (40)
s-earring (26);
pins (26; 45;
229); ring
(40;56;292)
b-fibulae (16
tombs); pins
(25 tombs);
sheet (22
tombs);
vessels (18
tombs); rings
(6 tombs;
chisel (T.14);
horsebit (T.30;
219); tweezers
(5 tombs);
earrings (3
tombs); shield
boss (T.219);
stag figurine
(T.229);
mirror?;
wheels (285);
spear (T.292);
knife (T.65);
adze/ax (’935)
i- (32 tombs
w/ weapons);
spears;knives;
daggers;
swords;
column (34;
292); mortar
(24); pestle
(75);
pendant (26;
J w/ double
axe) button;
14;16;107);
spindle
whorl (14;
292;’94-4);
steatite lid
(TFT); seal
stone(J;2;12
9); amethyst
bead (J);
beads
(J;14;218;22
9; 285; 306);
mini altar
(H); gem
(18); rock
crystal beads
(Q;34; 219;
285);
obsidian
blades (75;
107; 129
flakesG;132);
whetstone
(107;294);
vessel ?
(106; 292);
kernos (’00)
glass-beads
(14 tombs);
vessel
(T.292)
faiencebeads (75;
100; 207;
219; 285);
vessel (13;
26; 34; 56;
219); lion
(100)
scarab(48;107;
229)
bone-plaque
(J); pin (40);
handle (45;
292); bead
(75)
shell-triton
(’96); egg
(30, 56, 219,
294); oyster
(40); cockle
(132); fossil
(285)
pebble
gaming set
(294)
ivory-inlay
(219);
handle (210;
292); on fib
(285)
amber-bead
(A/2; 18; 82;
104;229);
pin head
(218)
goat horn
core Z);
boar’s tusk
in silver
Knossos:
Fortetsa
>1000
(P~380;
II-137;
X~120)
aryballoi;
oinochoai; cups;
krateriskoi;
multiple vases;
flasks; kalathoi;
stirrup jars;
pithoi; jugs;
amphorae;
kraters; bird
vases; feeding
bottles; skyphoi;
trays; bowls;
hydriai; pyxides;
lids; tripods; inc.
Cypriot; Attic;
Corinthian
imports; monkey
bottle (P)
horses
(I;X;P);
birds (X;P);
trees; boat;
basket;
snake in
bowl (all X);
ram (P);
beads
(VI;F?);
spindle
whorl (XI)
302
arrowheads
(T.13;107;
218; 292);
axes (T.75;
285; 292;
306); double
axe (219; 285);
chisel (75;
292) pins (19
tombs); fibulae
(4 tombs);
obeloi (24; 75;
100; 107; 218;
219; 283;285;
’93-4-6);
horsebit (292),
rings; nails;
firedogs (219;
283; 285); fire
basket (219)
lead-strip
(287;292)
weight (292)
g-leaf (VI;XI;
OD;X; I);
rings (VI;XI;
VII?;II; I);
pins (VI;II);
bee (I); beads
(XI;II); disc
(VIII);daedalic
head(I)
s-pins (II);
tweezers (II)
b-vessels
(VI;XI;X;II;P);
fibulae (VI;
VIII; IX;XI;X;
I;II;P); pins
(θ;VIII,III;
OD, Q;X;F);
rings (VIII;F);
spear (XI);
tweezers
(X;II); relief
girdle (P); ram
(P2); head (II);
pendant (P)
i- pin (VIII;
X;F;VII;II;P);
swords
(X;II;P);
spears (X;F;
VII; XI;II;P);
dagger (F;II;
P); knife (F;P);
mount (292)
steatite,
crystal,
carnelian
pendants
(II;VI,θ);
sealstones
(II;θ;I);
whetstones
(X;II);
spindle
whorl
(VII?);
beads (II;I)
faiencefigurines
(IX; P2;I);
rings (VI);
beads
(VI;II;I);
vessel
(P2;P)
amberbeads (X);
frag (VII)
ivorypendant and
pin head
(XI)
paste/glassbeads
(VI;XI;X;F;
II; LST;I) ;
bowl (P)
bone-bead
(VIII); pins
(VI;XI)
scarab- (II)
shell cov in
gold leaf
(XI)
Knossos:
Lower
Gypsades
116
Knossos:
Upper
Gypsades
Phoinikia:
Drakouliari
>3
11
Phoinikia:
TEI
27
Eleutherna
(unlooted)
multiple
Astrikas
Gavalom.
pithoi; cups;
pyxides;
skyphoi; jugs;
oinochoai;
aryballoi; krater;
amphora; tray;
lids
feeding bottle;
jug
axes (F;P);
obeloi (VI?;P);
adze (P); saw
(P); tweezers
(P); arrowhead
(II;X;P);
double axe (P)
lead-lion (XI)
electrum-pins
(II)
s-2 pins
b-tweezers
i-3 spears; 2
swords; 2
knives; dagger
1 rock
crystal bead
faience
scarab
eggshell
glass-bead
?
?
?
?
pithos; stirrup
jars; amphorae;
jug; oinochoe;
krateriskoi
?
?
?
skyphoi; jugs;
aryballoi; kalpai;
cups; hydria
aryballoi;
lekythoi; askoi;
kraters; tripods;
cups; krateriskoi;
pithoi;
amphorae;
lekanai;
oinochoai
?
b-2 phialai;
spear
i-fibula;
spears; sword;
dagger
?
?
?
?
faiencevessels;
Sekmet fig;
scarab;
beads (or
glass)
~63 (I);
12 (II)
skyphoi;
amphorae;
pithoi; kraters;
cups; bowl;
braziers/skuttles;
oinochoe; tripod
jug; hydria;
lekane;
krateriskos; urn
3 human
figs (prob
vase attach;
7 loom
weights (1
from II); 2
spindle
whorls; bead
(all I)
Sphaka
~50
cups; skyphoi;
pyxides; jugs;
II-female on
horse; ox on
g-bands from
dromos
b-lotus
handles from
cauldron;
tripod stand;
phialai;
lekanai;
cauldrons;
pins; fibulae;
shield?
i-obeloi; axe;
swords;
daggers;
spears; knives
g-ring; 2 hair
spirals
b-tripod
cauldron;
fibulae (4 from
II); pins;
rosettes; sheet
i-fibulae; nails
lead-obj (all
from I)
b-2 fibulae
(II); pin (II); 5-
?
303
1 stone
object –
bead? (I)
1 glass
object-bead?
(I)
whetstone
(V)
faience bead
(II)
Long>1
33
(T.I~10
0)
Kavousi
T.III-36
Vouves
T.II>110
Modi
>17
Vryses
multiple
oinochoai;
feeding bottle;
flasks; lekane;
dinoi; pithoi;
kraters; urn w/
goat handles;
krateriskos;
aryballos;
amphorae;
amphoriskoi;
skuttles; urn w/
‘san’ on rim;
cookpots
(I-inc. 3 Attic; 1
Cycladic)
amphorae; cups
amphoriskoi;
oinochoai; jugs;
skyphoi; pithos
amphorae;
pithos; feeding
bottles; cups;
skyphoi; jugs;
oinochoai; flask;
hydriai; dinoi;
kraters; bowl;
aryballoi; tripod
jug; skuttle;
amphoriskoi;
cookpot
pithoi; prob.
jugs; cups;
amphoriskoi, etc.
poss. krater;
pithos; oinochoe;
cups
wheels
beads (IV;II)
6 rings (II;VII)
i-3 fibulae
(IV+I); 3
spears (III;V);
3 knives
(V+II);
weapons (I)
beads
i-fibulae
?
?
3 beads; 3
loomweights
i-2 spears; axe;
dagger(s)/
sword; nail; 7
fibulae
whetstone(s)
?
?
i-spears; knife
?
?
?
?
?
?
Brief summary
Rock-cut chamber tombs with dromoi were especially characteristic of north central,
Knossos in particular, and western Crete in the EIA. Considerable variation occurred in
shape (typically irregular circular or elliptical), size (usually ~1-<3 m diameter), and dromos
length. While the stomion was often nothing more than a low, circular or rectangular
opening, in some cases it was cut into the shape of a doorway, with carved or even stone
thresholds, jambs, and/or lintels; such architectural refinements, however, may be primarily
later features, dating especially to PGB and G. The greatest periods of construction and use
304
of chamber tombs were PG and G, and tombs (PG and later) typically held a small number of
urn cremations; inhumation was predominant in LM IIIC and SM, and its continued use
together with cremation in the western tombs in PG and G may be significant. Distinctions
in wealth and type of grave goods are also observable both within and among the various
sites. One of the most significant grave goods is the skuttle/brazier, and also possibly the
loomweight, which appears to be a particularly western offering.
4. PITS, SHAFT GRAVES, AND PIT CAVES
Pit graves
The basic pit grave first occurred on Crete as early as the Neolithic period, and this
tomb type continued to be used, though infrequently, in EM (e.g., Ag. Photia where some of
the tombs were oval pits).174 In EM III and MM, larnax and pithos burials were often placed
in simple pits cut into the earth or bedrock (e.g., Olous, Pacheia Ammos, Pseira, and
Gournia).175 This form of burial was always, however, a minor type, though examples also
existed in LM, especially LM II-III Knossos where pit graves were relatively common.176
The pit grave is distinguished from other forms of burial in that it was typically, though not
exclusively, used for a single interment and usually an inhumation.
According to Dickinson, the pit grave is defined simply as a hole cut into the earth or
bedrock, of more or less rectangular shape, but also oval or even round.177 The term ‘shaft
174
Davaras and Betancourt 2004.
175
E.g., Hall 1912, for Gournia; Seager 1916, for Pacheia Ammos; Betancourt and Davaras 2003, 128-129, for
Pseira.
176
Pini 1968, 82-85; Dickinson 1994, 215.
177
Dickinson 1983, 56-57.
305
grave,’ however, has been used in several different ways and its exact meaning has been
somewhat confused in the scholarship.178 In some instances, the more regularly cut
rectangular pits are referred to as shafts, while in others, the terms ‘pit’ and ‘small shaft’ refer
to the same tomb type, only “applied to softer and harder ground, respectively.”179 Tombs
fitting these descriptions which were called shaft graves by the excavators will be considered
here with the pit graves; in addition, tombs referred to as trenches, as at Phaistos Liliana, will
also be included among the pit graves. Furthermore, burial pits which were found within
chamber tombs, tholoi, and caves will be analyzed within their respective tomb types, as will
pithos burials for which the presence of a pit is unknown.
The pit grave was a relatively common burial type in the Early Iron Age, occurring at
a minimum of 21-22 sites (or 17-18% of sites – fig. 173) and probably more (especially if
pithos burials which may have been placed in pits are added); somewhere between 80-100
confirmed EIA pit graves have been found on the island thus far (figs. 172, 181). Most
tombs of this type consist of elliptical or circular pits cut into the earth or bedrock; the
remaining examples were usually only roughly square/rectangular in shape (see table 23).
Diameters range from 0.5-1.5 m (the length of SP9 at Itanos may have been ~2 m), with ~11.5 m being the most common, and the pits were sometimes wider at the base than at the top,
as at Prinias (Tomb BA). The depth of the pit is rarely provided in publications, though it
was typically quite shallow (with examples of 0.3-0.55 m at Knossos NC and 0.65 m at
Prinias). The tomb at Petrokephali is distinguished from the other pit tombs in its rectangular
shape and depth (~1 m), as are the Liliana tombs (rectangular or trapezoidal trenches for
178
For more information on pits and shaft graves (both Minoan and Mycenaean), as well as additional
bibliography, see Pini 1968, 3-4, 44-46; Dickinson 1983, 1994, 230-231; Rutter 2000, Lessons 6, 13, 16.
179
Snodgrass 1971, 142.
306
larnakes). At Prinias, the pits were sometimes covered with a stone slab, while at KNC T.
182, the tomb was lined with mudbrick on one side. In addition, Arkades P.102-103 and
Kounavoi T.2 were covered with stones, but apparently not in the shape of a pseudotholos,
and some tombs at Eleutherna were marked by a large stone or stele.
Pit graves typically contained a single pithos or amphora, placed on its side; the
smaller vessels such as cremation urns and kraters were often upright. In fact, the size of the
burial vessel frequently determined the size of the pit (i.e., slightly larger than the pithos).
The pithoi were sometimes held in place by stones at the base, neck, and/or mouth, and the
mouth was often closed by a stone or sometimes a terracotta sherd. Furthermore, the mouths
of the burial vessels appeared to have faced all directions, especially N, NE, and E, though
this information is rarely provided by the excavators. Only Myrsini T.I (inhumations),
Prinias (cremations), and Kounavoi (T.8-9, the tombs with inhumations), as well as Phaistos
Liliana (inhumations in larnakes), did not contain burials in pithoi or urns.180
Typically, each grave contained a single burial, or sometimes two (see table 23); only
three known exceptions exist – Petrokephali (at least five), Phaistos Liliana E (three), and
Kounavoi T. 2 (seven possible). Both inhumation and cremation occur, with cremation
especially prominent in the central part of the island; only inhumation was found in the small
number of far western examples. Inhumation, however, occurs in pit graves throughout the
EIA. In fact, around half of the LG burials appear to have been inhumations; inhumation is
more common in LM IIIC, while cremation is predominant in PG and earlier G. One of the
most significant features of the pit grave is the fact that a greater number of child and infant
burials appear to have been of this type; child/infant burials have been identified from seven
180
Sophianou and Saliaka’s recent paper (2006) would seem to indicate that at least one LG cremation burial
was placed inside a cylindrical pyxis.
307
sites, and all examples seem to have been inhumations. Especially interesting is the recent
evidence from Eleutherna, which indicates that the pithos burial in a pit grave may have been
a type specific to certain sections of society at this particular site; this form of burial appears
to have been primarily for infants, children, youths, and adults >55 years old (especially
males), and the adult burials appear to have been among the poorer at the site.
Complementary evidence from other sites has not yet been found, however.
Table 23 (Pit graves – burial information)
Site
# Tombs
Shape, size
Burial vessel
Vrokastro:
Chavga
1
circular pit cut in earth
Meseleroi:
Petrou181
7-10
(T.2-5; 89; 13,
poss. 1;
10;12)
shallow ellipsoidal pits cut into
bedrock; slightly larger than
pithos; typically >1-1.5m
2 pithoi; upper-on side and
closed by 2 large stone
discs; lower-inverted and
held in place by large stones
all contain pithos on side
(T.1;3 have two pithoi
mouth to mouth); pithoi
often held in place by
stones; pithos mouths
oriented N;NE;E; SW?
Itanos
a few
oval pits/hollows, cut in
bedrock; SP9- approx. 1x2 m
cylindrical pyxis (poss from
pyre not grave)
Myrsini
2 (I-IIIC
Γ-IIIB/C
small rock-cut pits
Γ-pithos; I-no burial vessel
Ag. Deka
Gortyn:
Armi
Petrokephali
1 or 2
multiple
simple pits
simple pits
1
pithoi; urns
Krousonas:
Koupos
Prinias182
1
rectangular pit, 1.5 x 1.45 m; 1m
deep
shallow pit
a few (AI,
BA)
oval, rock-cut pits, typ. cov. with
stone slab; BA-0.6-0.8 m base
dia; 0.5-0.44 m top; H-0.65m
typically not in urns
2 (P.102103)
oval rock-cut pits; cov. with
stones
each with single burial in
krater or pithos on side
(mouth to N)
Arkades
181
?
?
urn
Burial type
and #
upper-1
child inh
lower-1
adult inh
most with
single inh
(skulls
toward
bottom of
pithos); T.5poss. infant
cremation,
pyres found
nearby
Γ-poss inh
infant
I-2
inhumations
cremation?
cremations
at least 5
cremations
1 cremation
cremations
(typically
one per
grave?)
cremation
The remaining pithos burials from Meseleroi are considered with the pseudotholoi.
182
The other pit burials (K, 207, 232) from Prinias are considered with the tombs of other types, and the phase 3
burials are considered with the pithos/urn burials.
308
Erganos
Kounavoi:
Kastrinaki
1 (?)
1
pit grave
small pit cut in bedrock
Kounavoi
5
(T.2;6-9)
Stamnioi
2
shallow elliptical pits; 2-cov. by
stones; 6-kidney bean shaped; 7small pit w/ upright pithos
(pierced lekane on rim) below
rect hole (1.10x0.9 m) with
paving above; ev. of liquid
offerings-black earth in hole
shallow sq and elliptical pits, 11.5 m diameter
Phaistos:
Liliana
Archanes:
Synoikis.
4 (E-H)
Knossos:NC
at least 9
(T.59,63,
78,79,86?,
163, 176,
182, 280)
Knossos: TT
Pantanassa
1
1
Eleutherna
‘a few
tens’
shallow pits cut in earth; location
sometimes marked by grave
stele or large stone
pithoi and amphorae on
sides; mouths cov. by single
stone or terracotta sherd
Aptera
2
shallow, rock-cut pits
Modi
4
rectangular shafts/pits
pithos (0.75x0.5; 1x0.7m)
on side in each pit; mouths
to E;W
?
Vryses:Log
1
pit
pithos on side
1
E-trapezoidal; F-H rect pits/
trenches
pit
oval, round, irreg rect (182)
shallow pits; T.63-0.3 m dia. 0.3
depth; T.79-1.34x1.4m, 0.55
depth; T.176 ~1x1m; T.1821.2x0.5m; T.280-1.3x1m; T.182lined on one side with mudbrick
pit
shallow pit
?
1 burial krater w/ folded
iron sword, poss. ritually
killed
cremations in amphorae,
pithoi; inhumations not in
vessels
?
cremation
pithos; urn on sides; mouth
to NE;SE; ellip- stone slab
at mouth; sq-stone at base
F,G,H-each 1 larnax; E-3
larnakes (4;3;1 skulls)
pithos on side, held in place
by stones at neck and mouth
urncremation;
pithos (?)
inhumation
pithoi (on sides); urns
?
pithos on side with stones
around; mouth to S
cremationT.2 had 7;
T.7 had 1;
inh-T.8-1;
T.9-1 child
2 skulls +
bones in
pithos
(inh?),
though poss
pyre nearby
typ.
cremation;
T.78-inh
infant; T.79also 2 horses
and 2 dogs
prob. crem
single crem;
pyre (0.9x
0.57 m)
immed to
SW
inh (prim
infants,
children,
adolescents,
and >55
yrs.); typ. 1
per vessel
(some w/ 2
burials)
2inhumations
app single
inhs
child inh
Pit graves occur in all periods of the Early Iron Age, though they are especially
common in LG (see table 24). Pits occur along with tombs of other types, including tholoi,
309
chamber tombs, and burial mounds, though they are sometimes isolated or scattered,
especially the earliest examples. In LG, pit graves are frequently found in established
cemeteries, often with other pithos burials. Another significant aspect of the pit grave is its
apparent connection, in LG at least, with the sites that become poleis. Four-five out of six
sites with LG pit graves become poleis, and Stamnioi’s associated settlement is unknown;
this grave form may thus be a characteristic type of the polis on Crete, or at least indicative
of the changing political structure of the end of the EIA. Finally, pit graves are found in all
directions from their associated settlements, except N, with W and NW being the most
common and S, SW, and NE the least common. In addition, the tombs are most frequently
placed <500 m from the settlement (and nearly all are less than 1 km, except possibly
Petrokephali, Modi, and Vryses).
Table 24 (Pit graves – date, location relative to settlement)
Site
Vrokastro:
Chavga
Meseleroi:
Petrou
Itanos
Date
LM
IIIC/SM
LG
LG
Iso/group
isolated?
Location relative to settlement +type
just east of summit (IIIC-LG/EO); defensible
most in group/cem; T.4
isolated
apparently in cem/group
to SE ~500-800 m (OL4-possible EIA-A
habitation); Oleros-polis in vicinity
to NW ~250 m from EIA habitation area on E
acropolis; becomes polis (G-H), ctr. on W
acropolis
to SW? ~700 m (Kastellos-IIIC-G defensible
settlement)
Ag. Deka
ΓIIIB/C;
I-IIIC
G
Gortyn
G
?
Petrokephali
SMPGB
G
?
Myrsini
Krousonas:
Koupos
Prinias
Arkades
Erganos
Kounavoi:
Kastrinaki
LM
IIICSM
PG?
IIIC (?)
PG
with IIIA-C chamber
tombs; 2 groups
?
to E ~800m-1 km (Prof. Ilias and Armi-PG+G
habitation), poss. assoc. with Gortyn
to W~300 m(Prof. Ilias and Armi-PG+G hab) or E
~600 m (Gortyn-EIA defen.; IIIC-R-becomes
polis)
to SE? (Phaistos) or NE?(Siva) ~ 2km
?
scattered throughout the
area and usually isolated
at N end of cemetery by
tholoi A-C
near tholoi
~200 m east of other
burials
310
W <300 m (IIIC-A-R sett on Koupos Hill) EIA
def; becomes rel large town
NW~500 m (Patela; defensible; IIIC-H; becomes
polis)
W~500 m (Prof Ilias; defensible; IIIC-H; becomes
polis)
W~300-400 m (Kephala, large def IIIC)
?
Kounavoi
PG
Stamnioi
LG
Phaistos:
Liliana
LM
IIIC
(+IIIB?)
PG
Archanes:
Synoikismos
Knossos:NC
pits
Knossos: TT
PGB,
esp.
LG-O
LG?
Pantanassa
PG
Eleutherna
(L)G-A
Aptera
Modi
Vryses
LG-EO
PG-G
G
near chamber tombs and
tholoi, though somewhat
more scattered
2 tombs beside each
other; poss others in area
E near chamber tombs
nearby (Eltyna ?); EIA-R, poss polis
isolated?
SW (habitation above Minoan palace in ctr of
modern town)
NW~500 m (IIIC-O, R settlement, becomes polis)
in cemetery with chamber
tombs
by NW corner MMIIILMI Temple Tomb
near SM tholos
?
NE~1 km (Phaistos-large settlement IIIC-O,
becomes polis)
SE?~600 (Knossos)
SE ~200 m? (Veni-large settlement IIIC-H, poss
becomes polis)
W<150 m; PG-R (Eleutherna-def sett, becomes
polis)
in cemetery, esp S+W
areas; in groups and
isolated
in LG-R cemetery
near chamber tombs
~1km from Modi cem
immed to W; LG-R city (Aptera)
NW>2 km?; settlement (Ag. Georgios)
NW >1 km (Ag. Georgios settlement)
Little evidence for burial ritual, funerary meals, etc. has been found with pit graves
(see table 25). The one notable exception is Kounavoi T. 7 in which the pithos was placed
upright below a rectangular hole with paving above, and evidence of liquid offerings were
found in the hole. In addition, the bones of two dogs and two horses accompanied the
deceased in KNC 79; horse burials in pits were also found at Prinias, though these appear to
have been associated with the SM-PGB tholos tombs. Furthermore, likely pit graves or
tombs of possible EIA date are found in table 25. The most unusual find comes from
Kounavoi in which a skull, hydria, kernos, and lekane were placed in a shallow pit; also
significant are the two LG vases (offerings) found placed above one grave in the EM I-II
cemetery at Ag. Photia.
Table 25 (Pits with possible EIA burials or offerings)
Site
Olous
Ag. Photia
Information
LM IIIA-B cemetery of larnakes (inh) and pithoi (most crem) placed in hollows and pits in
bedrock and earth; Davaras 1972 pithos burial (mouth to NE; vessel H-1.02 m) with 10 vases
and LM I seal possibly dates to SM (‘hollow in bedrock’); no definite LM IIIC or SM yet id
up to 3 graves (T.198, 211, 231) from EM I-II cemetery (oval pits and primitive chamber
tombs) re-used in LM III; also, 2 LG vases (askos and jug) found placed above one grave in
311
Prinias
Kounavoi
Archanes:
Vromonero
cemetery, likely represent later offerings
18 animal burials (inc. 12 with horses and 2 also with dogs) were found in rock-cut pits
(circular, oval, rectangular, 0.9-1.85 m in diameter), most located in center of necropolis; date
to phase 2 of necropolis (SM-PGB) with tholoi; possibly type of horse sacrifice
a little to N of tombs, shallow pit with skull, hydria, kernos, and lekane with attached figures
(inc. animals, birds, seated female mourner); secondary burial, removed from orig burial
place
PG-EG; LG-EO tombs (apparently 2 ex.), poss. unlined pits, were exc. in 1936; contained 3
or more cremation urns; 36 other vases (amphorae, oinochoai, jugs, aryballoi, pyxides, cups,
pithoi, amphoriskos, skyphos, hydria, tray, lids), and an iron pin and fragment of cloth;
possibly associated are a bronze ring, terracotta spindle whorl, and worked stone
Shaft graves
Following Dickinson, the term ‘shaft grave’ will here be used to refer exclusively to
tombs which resemble those found at Mycenae (e.g., Grave Circle A and B); tombs of this
type are considered essentially to be an elaboration of the basic pit grave, and they consist of
a pit cut into the earth or bedrock with a roof (made of timber, reeds/twigs and clay or flat
stone slabs) supported on ledges or walls (i.e., the upper edge of the shaft is cut back to form
a ledge).183 The space above the roofed pit grave is the true shaft, and after burial, it is filled
with earth or the bedrock removed while digging the grave. This is a relatively rare tomb
type on the mainland (also found at Lerna, Tiryns, Argos, Ag. Stephanos, especially late
MH-LH I), as well as on Crete, and most scholars consider the Minoan examples to have
been inspired by Mainland prototypes.184 On Crete, shaft graves of this type were found
primarily at LM II-III Knossos (Zapher Papoura, Mavro Spelio, and Ag. Ioannis, for
example), and they were typically used for single burials.185 Unfortunately, the term ‘shaft
grave’ has also been used to refer to built cist graves or enclosures as at Kavousi Vronda;186
tombs of this type will be analyzed in a separate section.
183
Dickinson 1983, 56-57.
184
See supra n. 177.
185
See Evans 1906, 11-15; Coldstream and Catling 1996, 643.
312
True shaft graves are very rare in the Early Iron Age (see table 26); their presence has
been confirmed only at Knossos (up to four tombs). According to Catling, the EIA shaft
graves at Knossos are much smaller and shallower than the LM examples, which range from
2-3.5 m deep with an additional meter for the grave itself;187 furthermore, the lower pits of
the Knossos burials, in all periods, were also typically covered by stone slabs. In addition,
the EIA shaft graves at Knossos all appear to date to SM, and each may have contained a
single male inhumation.
Tomb C from Praisos is somewhat of an anomaly, not really a pit, shaft, or cist grave,
though it is perhaps more like a shaft (or cist) grave than a chamber tomb. Its relatively large
size (2.6 x 2.3 m), rectangular shape, depth (3 m), construction (walls and floor carefully
carved), and raised bench covered with stone slabs distinguish it from all known pit graves,
however. In addition, it held two-three inhumations; the original occupant was placed on the
bench.
Table 26 (Possible shaft graves)
Site
# of Tombs
and Date
1 (PGB-O,
esp EO)
Praisos
T.C
Knossos:
NC
up to 4
(T.149;153;
160;282)
-SM
Shape, size, other tomb info
rectangular, 2.6x2.3 m; 3 m deep, walls and floor carefully cut
into bedrock; raised bench (0.7x0.5) covered with thin stone
slabs; in cemetery, ~75 m NW of tholos A; to S~150 m from
settlement
rect or trapezoidal pit cut into bedrock, 1.84x1 (T.282) to
1.38x1.08 m (T.153) and 0.4-0.8 m deep; smaller rect or oval pit
within, 1.38x0.86 to 1.15x0.62 and 0.24-0.6 m deep; inner pit
cov. by (3) stone slabs side by side supp. by ledge of upper pit
(refilled with removed bedrock); among chamber tombs (T.153
and 160 side by side); NW ~500 m from settlement
Burial
Information
2-3 inh (1 on
bench; 1above that on
bench)
each
apparently
contained
single inh
(poss. male)
Pit cave
An additional tomb type, really more of a cross between the shaft grave and chamber
tomb, is the pit cave. Dickinson defines this form as consisting of a small chamber cut into
186
Kanta and Davaras 2004, 151, for example.
187
Coldstream and Catling 1996, 639-640, 643.
313
one side of a vertical shaft.188 Pit caves are typically small in size and used only for a single
burial; they are also usually found with tombs of other types, not isolated. A few tombs of
this variety were found at Knossos in LM II-III, primarily from Zapher Papoura and Upper
Gypsades, and they also occurred in small numbers on the mainland (Nauplia, Tiryns, Argos,
Athens).189 Early Iron Age pit caves have been identified only at Knossos NC with two-four
known examples (see table 27), all apparently SM; in fact, these tombs comprise some of the
earliest burials in the North Cemetery. According to Catling, the LM tombs were up to 4.35
m deep and had relatively large caves for inhumation burials which were sealed with walls of
drystone masonry.190 The EIA pit caves, on the other hand, contained cremation burials and
were smaller in scale than the LM examples; their small chambers were also blocked with
stone slab(s). In addition, both LM and SM pit cave burials are considered to be warrior
burials, though two females and a child accompanied the male burial in T.200-202.
Table 27 (Pit caves)
Site
# Tombs
Tomb information
Knossos:
NC
2 to 4
(98?,186,
200-202,
208??)
-SM
sq/rect pit with 1 (T.186) to 3 (T200+) chambers; T.186-pit
1x1m; 0.78 deep; ch-0.6x0.4m; H-0.55; T.200-202-pit
1.34x1.34m; ch-0.7x0.7; 0.55 ch H; 0.45 opening H; 2010.54x0.5; 202-0.55x 0.62m; ch openings blocked with
slab(s); some of earliest graves in cemetery, all in same area
Burial
information
T.98-crem; 186male crem; 200female crem+201male, female, and
child cremations
(cons. warrior
burials); not in
vessels
Grave goods (pit graves, shaft graves, pit caves)
In all periods of the EIA, pit graves tended, for the most part, to be relatively poor in
grave goods (see table 28). At many sites (Vrokastro, Meseleroi, Itanos, Myrsini, Krousonas,
Arkades, Kounavoi T. 8 and 9, Stamnioi, Phaistos, Eleutherna, and Pantanassa), the grave
188
Dickinson 1983, 57.
189
Evans 1906, 15-21; Pini 1968, 46; Coldstream and Catling 1996, 642-644; Rutter 2000, Lesson 13.
190
Coldstream and Catling 1996, 639-640.
314
goods consisted solely of one or two vases, in addition to the burial vessel, and sometimes
also a bronze or iron pin (Archanes, Meseleroi T. 3). A few tombs had a greater number of
vessels but still no other significant grave goods, as at KNC (T. 63, 79, 165) and Aptera.
Gold objects were rare, found only at Kounavoi T. 6 and 7, KNC T. 59, 78, 182, and
Eleutherna (?), while silver was recovered from Kounavoi T. 7 and Knossos T. 78. Bronze
jewelry was present at Kounavoi T. 6, KNC 78, 86, and Vryses (including miniature double
axes), and bronze vessels (Prinias, KNC 59) and a spear (Kounavoi T. 7) were also among
the finds. Iron weapons (Petrokephali, Prinias BA, Kounavoi Kastrinaki, T. 1, 2, 7, KNC
86), terracotta (beads-Kounavoi T. 6; spindle whorl KNC 59) and glass/paste (beadsPetrokephali, KNC 78, 280) objects were also relatively rare. Unusual items recovered from
pit graves include an obsidian blade, rock crystal pendant, faience figurines, scarabs, and
amber beads (all KNC 78), an incised bone handle (Kounavoi T. 6), knucklebones
(Eleutherna), and shell beads (Vryses). Thus, only a small number of pit graves had
relatively wealthy grave goods (Petrokephali, Kounavoi T. 6-7, and KNC 78). Among these,
the Petrokephali grave is distinguished by its rectangular shape, size and depth, as well as
number of burials, and Kounavoi T. 7 by its small paved area and evidence of libations; also,
Knossos NC 78 contained an LG-EO infant burial.
The true shaft graves at Knossos were poor or robbed, with only a single stirrup jar
preserved from T. 160; T. 153 was apparently undisturbed but without grave goods. The
unusual grave at Praisos, however, was relatively wealthy, with >33 vases, terracotta beads
and spindle whorls, bronze tweezers, an iron sword, obsidian razors, and three slate palettes.
The pit caves, on the other hand, were unusually wealthy for SM graves, though with few
vases, especially T. 200-202 which contained gold, silver and bronze jewelry, bronze and
315
iron weapons, obsidian flakes, stone, glass, and faience beads, ivory objects, and a possible
boar’s tusk helmet.
Table 28 (Grave goods from pits, shafts, and pit caves)
Site
Vrokastro:
Chavga
Vrokastro:
Summit
Meseleroi:
Petrou
Itanos
Myrsini
Praisos T.C
Ag. Deka
Gortyn
Petrokephali
Krousonas:
Koupos
Prinias
Arkades
Kounavoi:
Kastrinaki
Kounavoi
Total #
vessels
3
pithos; stirrup jar
Other
terracotta
none
3
pithos; cup; jar
13-16
(typ. 1 or
2 vessels
per
pithos)
sherds
8-10 (4
IIIC)
>33
?
?
77
few
multiple
3
?
35 (T.825)
Vessel types
Other
none
Stone
objects
none
none
none
none
none
cups; skyphos;
amphora; pithoi;
aryballos; hydria
none
b-1 pin
i-1 pin (both
T.3)
none
none
especially cups;
skyphoi
IIIC-stirrup jars;
kalathos
cups; lekythoi,
krater; skyphoi;
krateriskos;
stamnos; tripod
stand; basin;
hydriai; amphora;
bird vase; PC
aryballos; pyxis
?
?
skyphoi; kraters;
amphorae;
oinochoai;
kalathoi; pithoi;
cups; tripod
vessels; openwork stand;
stirrup jars;
pyxides; jug;
hydriai; bowl; lid
krateriskoi; tray;
alabastron
urn and small
vases
stirrup jars;
oinochoe
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
10 beads;
2 spindle
whorls
b-tweezers
i-sword
3 slate
plates (poss
palettes); 2
obsidian
razors
none
?
?
i-weapons
?
?
krater; cup; pithos
krater
none
amphorae; pithoi;
skyphoi; kraters;
kalathos; plate;
28 beads
(T.6)
?
?
none
Metal objects
none
none
?
?
glass/paste
beads
?
?
?
?
?
b-bowl
i(?)-rod,
axe,spear,
sword (all BA)
none
i-sword
?
?
?
316
g-2 rings
(T.6,7)
s-ring (T.7)
none
none
?
none
?
incised bone
obj-poss
scepter
cups; feeding
bottle; stirrup jar;
lekane
Stamnioi
3
Phaistos:
Liliana
4 (T.E)
Archanes: S
Knossos:NC
pits
2
54 (some
post EO)
(T.78;
280 w/
10
vases)
Knossos:NC
shafts
Knossos:NC
pit caves
Knossos:
Strat
Knossos:TT
Pantanassa
pithos; oinochoai;
kalpis
jug, bowl, feeding
bottle
b-3 fibulae
(T.6); spear
(T.7)
i-sword(T.2);
razor (T.2,6);
dagger (T.7)
none
none
spindle
whorl (E)
none
pithos; stirrup jar
oinochoai; cups;
aryballoi (1 LPC);
pithoi; lids; tray;
skyphoi; pyxides;
jugs; kalathos;
hydria; amphora
T.78-bull protome
none
spindle
whorl (59)
1
stirrup jar
none
b-pin
g-ring (59); foil
(78); lion’s
head pendant
(182)
s-ring, hair
spiral, pendant
(78)
b-bowl (59);
leaf (59); sheet
(59); fibulae
(78); graver
(86); pin (86)
i-knife (86);
pins (163)
electrumearrings (78)
none
11
skyphos; stirrup
jars; amphorae;
amphoriskos
none
?
multiple
4
lekane
?
pithos; feeding
?
g-leaf (200,
98), band (98);
rosettes (200);
81 beads (200);
ring (200-201)
s-pin (208)
b-fibula (98),
frag (98, 208);
spear (186,
201); shield
boss (186, 201);
pin (200); stand
(201); 6 arrow
heads (201);
sword (201);
strip (201)
i-knife (186,
201, 208),
dagger (186,
208); pins (201,
208)
?
?
none
317
handle (T.6)
none
none
spindle
whorls (E);
beads (?)
none
obsidian
blade (78);
rock crystal
pendant and
inlay (78)
none
none
none
obsidian
flake (98,
208); 2
whetstones
(186); bead
(200)
faiencebeads (200)
ivory-comb
(200); obj+
mounting
(201)
glass-beads
(200)
bone-boar’s
tusk (186?,
201-helmet
plates);
inlays (201)
?
?
?
none
none
glass-beads
(78, 280),
pin (78)
faience-3
figurines
(Ptah,
Nefertum)
and bead(78)
4 Egyptian
scarabs (78)
amber-bead
(78)
?
none
?
none
Eleutherna
multiple
Aptera
~32
Modi
?
Vryses:Log
2
bottle; oinochoai
pithoi; bird vase;
amphorae; small
vases
amphoriskoi;
skyphoi; cups;
oinochoai; flask;
jug; pithoi;
aryballos
amphoriskoi;
krateriskoi; jugs;
aryballoi ?
pithos; small vase
?
none
g-jewelry
none
?
none
?
none
?
b-2 mini double
axes; fibulae;
pin; needles; 4spoked wheel;
ring; bracelet; 4
small snake
heads
knucklebone
s; beads
none
?
none
?
34 shell
beads
5. PITHOS BURIALS, PSEUDOTHOLOI, INTRAMURAL BURIALS
Possible pithos/urn cemeteries
Pithoi were first used for (inhumation) burial on Crete at the end of EM/beginning of
MM, and their use was especially common in MM.191 In this period, pithos burials were
frequently found in tholoi, chamber tombs, caves, and rectangular ossuaries, though they also
occurred, placed on their sides, upright, or upside down, in simple pit graves or on the ground
covered by earth. The latter burials were both isolated and found in groups, sometimes
forming pithos cemeteries, as at Ag. Triada, Chania, Gournia Sphoungaras, Mochlos, Pacheia
Ammos, and Malia Christ Island.192 Pithos burial continued into LM I but was relatively rare
by LM III, having been replaced for the most part by burial in larnakes. In the Early Iron
Age, burial in pithoi (or urns) again became common, with the vessels placed in tombs of
various types, as in MM; EIA pithos burials in caves, tholoi, chamber tombs, pits, bone
enclosures, etc. are discussed within their specific tomb types. In a few instances (all in
191
See supra n. 177. See also Pini 1968, 12-13; Rutter 2000, Lesson 10.
192
Pini 1968, 12-13.
318
central or west-central Crete), cemeteries of pithos burials, some with a large number of
burials, such as Prinias ~200 and Arkades ~162, appear to have existed (see table 29 and fig.
182);193 although some of these pithoi were likely placed in pits (it is not always clear from
the reports), they are included in this section due to their apparent presence within a pithos
cemetery.
The exact placements of the burial vessels in the possible pithos cemeteries are
known only from three sites, and each site is different: at Atsipades, the vessels (pyxides,
skyphoi, amphorae, collared jars) were placed upright on the ground, with no evidence of
pits, and supported by stones around the sides; the Rethymnon burials may have been of the
same type; at Prinias, upright urns, and a few pithoi on their sides, supported by stones were
placed together under one large tumulus of stone/rubble, and in some cases a pyre was found
in a pit below the urn; at Arkades, the burial vessels (jars, lekanai, bronze cauldrons) were
placed above ground or in shallow pits, some surrounded by stones or on a stone base,
covered first by an upside down pithos and then by soil, thus forming a small tumulus.
Nearly all of the potential pithos/urn cemeteries were of Geometric or later date,
lasting at Prinias and Smari through the Orientalizing period and at Arkades into the Archaic;
the one significant exception is Atsipades (LM IIIC-SM). The typical form of burial at all
sites appears to have been cremation. At Prinias, a few pithoi contained inhumations, mostly
of youths, and in some the skull had been retained but the rest of the body cremated. At
Atsipades, on the other hand, all burials were cremations, including those of children and
infants. In addition, the pithos cemeteries are typically located near (<500 m from) their
associated settlements, though Smari may have been ~1.5 km to N or 2.5 km to SE of its
193
Many of the pithos burials from both sides post-date the EIA, however.
319
settlement. Furthermore, the sites that become poleis (Prinias, Arkades, and Rotasi) have
their cemeteries to the NW, W, and N, while that of Atsipades is to the SE.
Grave goods from these pithoi were generally few in number, typically consisting of
only one-three vases, especially aryballoi, oinochoai, and cups (amphoriskoi, stirrup jars,
jugs, and an askos at Atsipades). A small number of additional items, however, were
sometimes recovered, such as fibulae (Atsipades and Arkades, one of which was possibly
Attic/Boeotian), a bronze pin, bracelet, spear, awl, and vessel (Atsipades), daggers
(Rethymnon), stone (Atsipades), glass/paste (Arkades and Atsipades), and faience (Arkades)
beads, gold sheet and a pendant, an ivory object, and terracotta figurines (Prinias).
Unfortunately, the finds from nearly all of these sites have not yet been published.
Table 29 (Possible pithos/urn cemeteries)
Site
Arkades
Arkades
Prinias:
phase 3
Rotasi
Smari
Information
~162 mostly O-A (but also some G) cremation burials found in cemetery in groups and
scattered; burials typically placed in jars, lekanai, or small bronze cauldrons (each of which
was closed by terracotta or bronze lid/plate) placed either above ground or in small shallow
pits; jars then, along with grave goods, covered by large upturned pithoi; some pithoi covered
with soil, creating small tumulus; some vessels supported by stone slabs or placed on stone
base, others placed inside large lekane and then covered by pithos; urns typically held one
cremated individual; poss. 1 infant; ~500 W of settlement (becomes polis SM-H); grave goods
typically consisted of only one or two vases, typically aryballoi, oinochoai, cups, though MGLG Cycladic vases, an Attic/Boeotian fibula, iron horse, Corinthian pottery, and faience and
paste beads were also recovered from; burnt soil often found around burials; cemetery itself
poss has enclosure wall; double bldg H-H1 with many vases poss votive depository for nearby
tombs
at Sto Selli, at least 15 single pithos graves (primarily O) several hundred meters to W of large
cemetery
<200 PGB-O urn cremations supported by stones and carefully placed under rubble so as to
form one single uniform tumulus/mass of stones; most urns upright, though some on sides,
mouths of vessels closed with bowls or stone slabs; sometimes pyre in pit below urn; also
pithoi (most with youth inhumations-T.122 with terracotta figurines, including a possible
charioteer, a sea horse, pair of horses; T.93 head removed and put in pithos which rest of body
cremated with bronze fibula, glass/paste bead, gold earring (?); some pithoi with 1-3 skulls);
other finds inc. gold sheet with double axe, gold pendant, ivory items, many terracotta
figurines; to NW ~500 of settlement (becomes polis, IIIC-H)
extensive Geometric cemetery found Pharmakara; consisted mostly of pithos and urn burials
with cremations, accompanied by cups and aryballoi; said to be analogous to Arkades;
probably to N of associated settlement (PG-R, poss. becomes polis)
to N-NE of village at Riza were found fragments of G and O pithoi and cinerary urns; ChatziVallianou considers there to have been large SM-O cemetery, possibly with burials similar to
those at Arkades; site is ~2.5 km to SE of Prof. Elias and ~1.5 km to N of Spitakia (G-O
habitation)
320
Rethymnon
Atsipades
a group of ‘Geo’ burials was excavated in 1929 ~6 km along road from Rethymnon to
Herakleion; burials consisted of ash urns surrounded by small walls of stones; grave goods
typically included 2 or 3 smaller vases, and apparently bent bronze daggers
25 LM IIIC-SM upright jar burials (pyxides, skyphoi, amphorae, and collared jars) at
Pezoulos; no pits; many supported by stones on either side; rims of most vases covered by
stone slabs, some with large pot sherd; typ. contained one or more smaller vases as offering,
and finds include amphoriskoi, stirrup jars, jugs, an askos (some pottery with Cypriot links;
one Mycenaean form of cooking jar), incised terracotta disc, 3 bronze fibulae, a bronze pin,
bronze bracelet, spear, dagger (?), awl, vessel handle, stone and glass/paste beads; adult, child,
and infant cremations; cemetery in dense area (21 burials in 9x5 m area) likely associated with
IIIC settlement ~300 m to SE at Phonises Hill
Pseudotholoi
A variation on the pithos burial is the pseudotholos tomb, which consists of a pithos
laid on its side, sometimes in a shallow pit, with rough stones built closely over it, typically
forming an ellipsoidal tomb resembling a tholos; in addition, some pseudotholoi (as at Krya)
have paved floors. At least five sites appear to have had tombs of this type (see table 30),
though it is often difficult to identify true pseudotholos tombs from the brief reports; in some
cases, pithoi are described merely as being covered with stones, and it is thus unclear
whether or not they were of this type (some of these are listed with the pit graves).
Pseudotholos tombs typically held a single inhumation (at Prinias typically youths
and at Eleutherna children, adolescents or adults over 55), and most examples, with the
exception of Krya (LM IIIC-PG), date to G-O (especially LG). At Krya, the pseudotholoi
were found among tholos tombs, while at other sites they were placed among pithos and pit
burials; those at Arkades were also near tholoi. Finally, the grave goods found in these
tombs tended to be sparse; one bronze object was found from the Krya tombs, and iron
tweezers were found from one tomb at Meseleroi. Arkades T.E was perhaps the ‘wealthiest’
of the pseudotholoi, though it contained only a cup, bronze ring, two iron arrowheads, and a
glass/paste fragment.
Table 30 (Pseudotholos tombs)
Site
Information
321
Krya
Meseleroi
Prinias
Arkades
Eleutherna
13 LM IIIC-PG tombs (T.2,3,8,10,12,13,16,18-21,23,24) in groups and isolated, among tholoi;
to E,NE,SE <300 m from IIIC-PG def settlement; typically ellipsoidal, though some more
rectangular; ext. range 0.6-2 m x 0.5-1.9 m; H-0.4-1.5 m; pithoi (one with krater) on sides with
plaka blocking mouth; covered with boulders and small stones; paved floors, some with great
care; orientation-SE,E; typically inhumations one per pseudotholos (T.13-2 burials?), at least
one child (T.10); rarely had grave goods (T.10-skyphos found outside tomb; T.13-bronze obj.);
many robbed
at Petrou Phrameno; some LG pithos burials (T.6,7,11, poss. 1,10, 12) may have had
appearance of pseudotholos; jars on sides in ellipsoidal pits, held in place by stones, covered
with stone plakas; mouth typ to E,NE; typ. one inhumation per burial; few finds found with
burials (T.6-other vase and iron tweezers; T.7-frag of other pithos; T.11-aryballos); burials to
SE ~500-800 m from sett/hab; later polis Olerus in vicinity
among third phase burials (under rubblemound) PGB-O were a few examples (such as T.W) in
which burials were placed in pithoi (mouth covered by slab) which were surrounded and
covered by elliptical mound of rubble, like pseudotholoi; typically with individual inhumation
of youths; loc.to NW ~500 m from def sett which becomes polis
T.E (located just to SW of T.A), and also possibly T.G with paved interior and fragment of
bronze found, apparently consisted on an urn on side, covered by an elliptical mass of stones
(~1 m in diameter), possibly resembling pseudotholos; finds from E include cup, bronze ring or
pin, 2 iron arrowheads, and a glass/paste fragment; loc to W ~500 m from def sett which
becomes polis
some of urn burials (on sides in shallow pits with mouth covered by stone or terracotta slab)
covered by stones, resembling pseudotholoi; for child, adolescent or >55 adult inhumations,
LG-O; small vases, knucklebones, and rarely gold jewelry or beads recovered from pithoi in
general; loc. to W ~150 m from def sett which becomes polis
Other pithos burials
Many additional burial pithoi/urns, for which the associated tomb type is unknown,
have been recovered from across the island (see table 31 and fig. 182); while the majority of
these vessels likely came from chamber tombs or pit graves, it is possible that some were
from pithos cemeteries or tombs of other types.
Table 31 (Tombs of unknown type with pithos burials/cremations urns)
Site
Anavlochos
Vrokastro
Kavousi
Chandras
Makriyialos
Krousonas
Stavrakia
Information
Pendlebury reports Geometric pithos burials at Kako Plai (to N and NW <100-300 m from LM
IIIC-A settlement/town)
at Amigdali to SW of settlement, Hall excavated one pithos burial with inhumed adult, cup
and two perforated steatite fragments, somewhere near tholos
in 1999 at Kako Mouri was found a Geometric cremation burial in a pithos with no grave
goods
Tsipopoulou found fragments of a burial pithos, probably LM IIIC; possibly located <500 m
W of LM IIIC-PG settlement at Kastri
burials in pithoi with relief decoration, probably EO, were found near the shore, a little west of
Katovigli
at Chalepa was found a child burial in a pithos with PG jug, cup, and triple vase (poss.
kernos), stone beads, and fragments of a pin; fragments of other PG burial pithoi were found
nearby
~1895, 2 large LG cinerary urns and an amphora (also with cremation) recovered from
mountain slopes near village
322
Arkalochori
Alitzani
Anopolis
Episkopi
Kato
Vatheia
Kounavoi
Koxari
Smari
Kamares
Kamilari
Chania
Modi
Mousouras
Geometric cremation urns, along with 3 aryballoi, were found at Pano Kalives in 1957
Geometric pithos burial with inhumation was found at Petra; no accompanying grave goods
Halbherr reported PG and G burials from small hill near the village; at least 15 cremation urns
(primarily pithoi) have been recovered, along with other vases, including a stirrup jar, cups,
jug, bowl, krater, amphorae, and lekythos; associated settlement possibly to E
in 1952 at Kavousi was found a small Geometric burial pithos with possible cremation; a
small jug and cup were found nearby
in 1959 an EO burial pithos, krater, and jug were found near the chamber tomb at Kaminia
near or within the cemetery were recovered 2 Geometric urn burials, 3 small vases, 2
terracotta beads, and a possible isolated skeleton
1-fragments of G-O cinerary urns, many with cups, were found at Riza in 1965; 2-a G pithos
was found at Ali Choraphi in 1959, possibly from a burial
pithos sherds were found all over plain between Prof. Elias and Lenika (to W), possibly from
burials
at Kambes a small PG burial pithos with vases was reported in 1964
at Alisandraki a PG tomb with burial pithos and associated vases, including a tripod, 3 jugs,
oinochoe, aryballos, and cylindrical vase, was uncovered
1-one LG/EO pithos burial (on side) with a child inhumation, ~13 vases (including jugs,
amphoriskoi, krateriskoi), an iron knife, and 8 bronze rings, was found in the excavations in
Park of Peace and Friendship (Minoan-Roman cemetery); LG settlement <750 m to NW; 2-at
Pelekapina, remains of two PG pithos burials with inhumations (one apparently female) were
uncovered ~2.5 km SW of settlement at Kastelli; finds include an imported ‘Aegean’ pyxis
and lid, two gold disks, and a bronze fibula
1-in 1952 Platon noted isolated pithos burials with inhumations in the vicinity of other tombs
at the site; 2-in 1991, SM pithos burials (on sides, W-E orientation) with inhumations
accompanied by small pots were uncovered on the SE part of Ag. Gerasimos hill
Moody identified a possible SM or PG pithos burial at this location (AT3) on Akrotiri
Intramural burial
Another rare form of burial is the interment of infants or children below the floors of
houses; this burial type occurs at only two sites during the Early Iron Age (see table 32),
Vrokastro and Knossos. At Vrokastro, Subminoan child inhumations (one in a pithos and the
other below a jar) were found below the floor in the corners of two rooms, while at Knossos
LM IIIC and SM infant burials were apparently found under the floors of rooms all over the
site in the settlement behind the Stratigraphical Museum. Warren states that this practice was
commonly observed in mainland Mycenaean burials and that it was also found in the LM II
Unexplored Mansion at Knossos.194 There is, however, earlier evidence on the island for this
194
Warren 1983, 73, 80.
323
funerary practice, as infant and child burials have been found in pits below house floors at
Knossos from the aceramic, EN II, and MN periods.195
Table 32 (Intramural burials)
Site
Vrokastro:
Summit
Knossos:
Strat.
Information
prob. SM; in NE corner below floor of Room 12, where rock sloped away found pithos
covered with flat stone, with child inhumation and cup; in SW corner room 26 below floor
found inverted jar with child inhumation
LM IIIC and SM infant burials found under floors of rooms in settlement area behind the
Stratigraphical Museum; apparently found all over the site; 1 ex. infant placed under large
lekane
6. CIST GRAVES AND BURIAL ENCLOSURES
Cist graves
Dickinson defines a cist grave as “box-shaped” in appearance, a single, square or
rectangular tomb, lined on all four sides, typically with upright stone slabs, though the walls
can also be constructed of rubble, slabs, shaped stones, or mudbrick, and usually covered
with a stone slab.196 A true cist grave is merely an elaboration of the basic pit grave, and it is
placed completely below ground. Tombs of this basic type first appeared on Crete in the
Early Minoan period, though relatively rarely and especially in the northeastern part of the
island (as at Mochlos, Pseira, Zakros, and Ag. Photia); these early examples are considered
by many to show Cycladic influence.197 With the exception of cist graves cut into the floors
of tholoi or chamber tombs as in the Royal Tomb and Isopata tomb I at Knossos, the only
known Late Minoan examples of this type were child burials from Malia (probably Late
Minoan III).198
195
Evans 1964d, 136, 140-142.
196
Dickinson 1983, 57.
197
Pini 1968, 9; Rutter 2000, Lessons 6, 13; Betancourt and Davaras 2003; Davaras and Betancourt 2004.
198
Dickinson 1994, 215; Rutter 2000, Lesson 13.
324
True cist graves were very rare in the Early Iron Age, and many of the tombs which
have been called cist graves are actually more like pit graves or the so-called “burial
enclosures” (fig. 183). Possible EIA cist graves have thus far been identified at only four
sites (see table 33). A single stone-lined cist grave was found in the vicinity of other EIA
burials at both Meseleroi and Krya; the dates of these two tombs are unknown, however, as
that at Krya was empty and that at Meseleroi contained only bone fragments. The tombs at
Archanes Phythies (LMIIIC-PG, possibly until EO) were described as cists by workmen (i.e.,
built of cut plakas and covered with plakas), though their type has not been confirmed. The
most likely example of a true cist grave (PG-G) comes from Malia Trochaloi where five
cremation urns were found in a grave constructed of large stone slabs.
Table 33 (Possible cist graves)
Site
Meseleroi:
Petrou
Phrameno
Krya (T.15)
Malia:
Trochaloi
Archanes:
Phythies
#Tombs
+ Date
1 (date?)
1 (SMPG?)
1 (PG-G)
up to 6
(IIICPG, poss
until
EO ?)
Tomb Information
rectangular cist grave, ~2 x 1 m; cut into bedrock, lined with
plakas; near LG pithos burials; E-W orientation
square stone-lined cist without top; 0.4 x 0.4 m; smallest tomb
in cemetery of tholoi and pseudotholoi
cist grave (0.75-0.9 x 0.85 m); shallow depth; const. with large
stone slabs; isolated (?)
tomb type described by workmen (i.e., not necessarily cists),
average possibly ~1.5x0.6 m, 0.5 m depth; built with cut plakas
(0.8x0.7) and covered with plakas; 1 apparently rock-cut and
covered with plakas like pit; one distinctly roofed (“like a
bridge/arch”=tholos?); tombs roughly in group
Burial
Information
bones
recovered
(inh?)
?
5 cremations
urns
cremations in
urns
Burial enclosures
The burial (or bone) enclosure is similar in form to the cist grave and it is often
difficult to distinguish between the two types based on the limited information presented in
the site reports; this tomb type has also been called an ossuary by Pendlebury.199 As defined
by Hall, at Vrokastro the bone enclosures consist of a series of small and irregularly shaped
rooms, separated by low walls (especially made of rubble) of shallow depth, like a house in
199
Pendlebury 1939, 308.
325
appearance but smaller and shallower and typically without doorways.200 The primary
distinction between cist graves and burial enclosures is that the enclosures are at least
partially above ground and usually unroofed. The EIA burial enclosure has also sometimes
been compared with the EM-MM (and LM) ‘house’ tomb complexes as seen at Mochlos,
Gournia, and Palaikastro.201 While some scholars such as Stampolides consider that the EIA
form may have developed from these earlier examples, Tsipopoulou considers a direct
relationship between the two to be unlikely.202
Early Iron Age burial enclosures of the type defined by Hall appear to be a primarily
eastern feature, occurring at Anavlochos, Dreros, Vrokastro, Kavousi, Praisos, and possibly
Arkades and Meseleroi (fig. 183); in addition, all of these sites, with the exception of
Vrokastro (and possibly Anavlochos) develop into poleis.203 Furthermore, all of these sites
have tombs consisting of a single chamber or room, while only Vrokastro has tombs with
multiple rooms; multiple burial enclosures, however, were typically found at a single site,
usually in the same area and sometimes in groups. The compartments of most burial
enclosures were roughly rectangular, with dimensions of a single side ranging from 0.7-2.6
m. The walls of the tombs were low (H-0.35-0.9 m), typically 1-3 courses, built of cut stone
or rubble, and the lowest part of the tomb was sometimes rock-cut, as at Anavlochos, Dreros,
and Praisos. Some of the tombs at Vronda used existing house walls as part of the tomb
construction, and occasionally the floor of the tomb was paved with stones or pebbles
(Dreros T. 2, Vronda G. 6). Burials at Vronda were also often covered with a cairn of stones
200
Hall 1914, 155.
201
Branigan 1970a, 155-159; Soles 1992; Dickinson 1994, 215-220
202
Stampolides 1990; Tsipopoulou 1984, 243. Hall 1914, 155; Pendlebury 1939, 308; Snodgrass 2000, 169 all
noted the similarities between these tomb types.
203
See table 5 (tholos tombs) for settlement info.
326
and marked with a pithos or amphora, though some tombs contained evidence of funerary
meals and toasts – sheep/goat bones and many cups. Burial enclosures usually contained
only one-two cremation burials, sometimes in jars, though at Vronda most contained multiple
burials, as many as eight in one case. While many enclosures were also the site of the burial
pyre, a few inhumations did exist, primarily of infants and children. Finally, the enclosure is
a late form of burial, with the earliest examples dating to PGB, and most examples dating to
LG-EO; in fact at several sites, the burial enclosure is the primary tomb type during this
period.
The “enclosures” at Eleutherna and Prinias, however, differ somewhat from those
mentioned above. Enclosures A and K at Eleutherna were first used in LPG, are much larger
than other examples (5 x 3.5 and 2.3 x 4.4 m), surround rectangular trenches that were
covered by a mound of rough stones and earth, and may have served solely as crematoria for
the adjacent chamber tomb rather than as tombs themselves. Furthermore, evidence of burial
ritual (cups, food, animal bones) was found inside enclosure A, and a temenos with courtyard
was located just to the east. At Prinias, 15 or more PGB-O rectangular/trapezoidal chambers
(2-2.5 x 1-1.5 m) with low, well-built walls were added to the large stone tumulus, which
covered many of the pithos/urn burials, and then filled in with rubble to become part of the
tumulus. These chambers contained cremations, some in pithoi and urns, and they may also
often have been the site of the pyres. Furthermore, these rooms at Prinias are more
reminiscent of the ossuaries/annexes added to some large Minoan tholos tombs, as at
Kamilari, than the burial enclosures seen at other Early Iron Age sites.
Table 34 (Burial enclosures; possible examples marked by *)
Site
Anavlochos
#Tombs
+Date
7 (PGBLG, 1
Tomb Information
Burial Information
single small chambers (estimated range 0.852.0 m), circular (A-1.2 m dia) + rectangular
no bones found, assume
cremation, poss 1 per
327
tomb poss
earlier)
Dreros
23 (G-LG/
EO)
Vrokastro:
Karakovilia
5 (I-V)
(G-EO)
Vrokastro:
Kopranes
6 (VIIXII)
(G-EO)
1 (VI)
(PGB-G)
Vrokastro:
Mazichortia
Vrokastro:
possible
up to 4
Kavousi:
Chondrovolakes
4 (LGEO)
Kavousi: Vronda
20 (LGEO)
(G.3,5-6,
910,12,1617, 19-21,
23,25-28,
30,32,34,
36)
*Meseleroi: PI4
1 (date?)
plans; partially rock-cut w/ low built walls
above; crowded around top of small hill and
possibly open on one side; to N~500-800 m of
settlement
single rectangular trenches, fairly regular in
plan, on average 2.1x1.2 m with urns, 2.4x1.3
without; av. wall H-0.75-0.9 m; some built
with cut stone slabs (T.2, 11), others with
small walls of dry stone; some w/ paved floor
(T.2); graves w/in rect circuit wall, some in
possible groups of 2-3, organized around poss.
SM tholos; outside wall-Depot R=poss
funerary chapel or place for votive offerings;
graves-NE~200 from settlement
1-4 roughly rectangular chambers; I-2.1x1.8,
1.4x1.7,1.5x0.7m; small, poorly built rooms,
low walls of 1-3 courses, shallow depth;
slightly isolated but in vicinity of each other;
to S~200 m from sett; one-room bldg.
adjacent to b.e’s const of cut-stone blocks
with carefully dressed limestone jambs, poss.
assoc with burial cult (contained tripod and
krater, outside terracotta figurines)
1-5, poss. 7 chambers; VIII-2.6x0.7m; H0.35m; average depth 0.6 m; same type as
Karakovilia; near tholoi; W~400 m from sett.
same type as Karakovilia; near tholos III
survey found possible bone enclosures at
Amigdali (VK12); Karakovilia (VK 14);
Mazichortia; and APh 12.2 (small rooms of
poorly built rubble walls ~1-1.5 m per side)
single rectangular graves, acc. to Hall of same
type as at Vrokastro; average 2.6x 0.7m; H0.35 m; 0.5 m wall thickness in group; poss
located ~700 m to SW of sett (Azoria)
typical is single rectangular stone-lined grave,
~2x1 m; G6-pebble floor; in some cases used
existing walls of houses; other walls of 2
limestone courses or single one of boulders;
others in ctr of room in rubble; oft covered
with cairn of stones +/- marked with
pithos/amphora; beside G3,9 paved area for
pot stand; some bedrock shelf for goods; bldg.
H built with T.6; in groups/clusters; burials
found in nearly all former houses
Hayden ids possible bone enclosure (locus 5);
group of small built compartments/ rooms
328
tomb
9 tombs with crem in
pithoi and urns; 11cremations w/o vessels;
some graves also site of
pyre; typ only 1-2 burials
per grave; T.18 adult crem
and infant inh; T.2 poss. 1
inh; T.8-female crem; in
b/w certain tombs ashes,
carbon, small animal
bones=poss other pyres+
funerary sacrifices/ meals;
2 tombs with goat+pig; 1
w/ dog bones
>8 cremations, sometimes
in jars; some enclosures
also contained pyre
6 burials (cremations and
1 child inhumation in
pithos)
>4 burials (cremations
and 1 child inhumation in
pithos)
presumably cremations,
though not confirmed as
tombs
cremation; poss also site
of pyres
most w/ multiple crem, as
many as 8 (G28); 69 total
crem; 6 inh (typ later date
or infant); some pithoi/
amp (16,21,28 surrounded
by stones); cist also often
site of pyre; some
sheep/goat bones 24),
many cups (prob from
meals, libations); rabbit
bones with some children;
child/infant inh + crem
presence of tomb not
confirmed
Praisos
T.1953-4
*Krousonas:
Rizoplagies
2 (EO)
Prinias
15 or
more
(PGB-O)
*Rotasi: Kephala
1 (LGEO)
Arkades
3 (G-O?)
(F1-3)
Eleutherna
2 or more
(LPG-O)
(A;K)
1?
(LM IIIC)
single rectangular, rock-cut tombs;
Tsipopoulou says of same type as Anavlochos
poss enc, sounds similar to Vronda?; corner of
LM I rectangular bldg enclosed with plaka; ~2
km SW of settlement
rect/trapezoidal chambers (2-2.5x1-1.5m)
added to stone tumulus; low well-built walls
(0.4-0.6 m thick); 0.9 pres. H; filled with
rubble to become part of tumulus
remains of walls, poss from burial enclosure
(rect ~3x8m?) or just for offerings (?); found
on NE side of Kephala Hill (settlement on
summit)
single rectangular; 2.2x1.6; 4x2; 1.6x1.8m;
open on one side; by pithos burials in middle
of cem
rectangular trench inside (A-3.5x2.2x 0.6m);
rect enclosure (A-5x3.5m); A-east side of
ashlar masonry rest with fieldstones; K2.3x4.4m; trenches covered by mound of
rough stones and earth; poss marked by stone
stele; beside each other and chamber tomb;
temenos w/ courtyard to E of A poss for
rituals; [poss other smaller pyres w/in other
enclosures]
?
remains of skeleton and 3
skulls (not certain if
burial)
some cremations in pithoi
and urns; some poss
location of pyres
?
cremations; poss pyres/
crematoria rather than
burials
A+K poss both crematoria
w/ pyres in pits/trenches;
A-ritual-inverted cups;
figs, grapes; ev. of
sacrifice and meal (ox,
pig, sheep/goat, fowl);
burials poss in adjacent
chamber tomb
Grave goods (cists and burial enclosures)
Of the possible cist graves, two (Krya and Meseleroi) were empty, the tomb at Malia
contained 5 cinerary urns and 20 additional vases (including a skuttle), as well as a steatite
lid, and the tombs at Archanes were highly robbed (see table 35). The burial enclosures,
however, display a wider range of grave goods. With only a few exceptions (e.g., Vronda G.
9), the associated vases tend to be few in number; imports are also rare, with possible
Cycladic vases found at Anavlochos and Protocorinthian from Kavousi Chondrovolakes and
Praisos. Additional ceramic objects are uncommon, with a spindle whorl (Dreros T. 8),
beads (Vronda four tombs), and two female figurines (Arkades) representing the only finds.
Beads of gold (Vrokastro, Arkades, Eleutherna), faience (Vrokastro, Eleutherna), ivory
(Vronda), and glass/paste (Dreros, Vrokastro, Arkades, and glass bowl at Eleutherna) were
sometimes recovered, and items of silver (Prinias and Arkades) and lead (Vronda) were also
329
unusual. Bronze jewelry and other instruments (tweezers, saw) were found at Dreros,
Vrokastro, Vronda, and Arkades, while a single bronze spear and two cauldrons were
recovered at Dreros and Eleutherna. Iron jewelry was uncovered at Vrokastro, Vronda, and
Arkades and iron weapons at Dreros, Vrokastro, Vronda, Praisos, Prinias (?), and
Eleutherna.204 Finally, stone beads (Dreros, Vrokastro, Vronda, Eleutherna), a pyxis
(Dreros), lid, seal and pendants (Vrokastro), obsidian blades (Vronda), and a spindle whorl
(Arkades) were also present in the burial enclosures.
Table 35 (Grave goods from cists and burial enclosures)
Site
Anavlochos
(Aunrobbed)
#
Vessels
>10
Vessel Types
krater (poss
Cycladic);
cups; jugs;
amphoriskoi;
pithos;
oinochoe;
stirrup jar
stirrup jars;
jugs; cup;
aryballoi;
pithoi; urns;
hydria;
amphorae;
amphoriskoi;
skyphos;
feeding bottle
Terracotta
objects
?
Metal objects
spindle
whorl (T.8)
b-3 fibulae (1 Attic, 1
Attic/Boeotian)
(T.11,13,18); pin
(T.13); spear (T.12)
cauldron and applique
(T.9,14)
i-spits (T.9,13, 18);
sword (T.11), 2
scrapers (T.11), axe
(T.11,12,14)
b-8 fibulae (I,II,III); 3
pins (I,IV); wire (I, IV);
tweezers (I)
i-fibulae (I,II); pin (III);
knife (V?); 2 swords
(I,II); 3 spears (I)
Dreros
~30
(T.8-13
vases)
Vrokastro:
Karakovilia
>12
jugs; cup;
amphorae; lid
none
Vrokastro:
Kopranes
15
cups; jugs;
flask; bowl;
pithos; krater;
amphorae
none
Vrokastro:
Mazichortia
5
jug; oinochoe;
hydria; bowl;
none
?
g-bead (VIII)
b-8 fibulae (VII,VIII,X,
XI;XII); 2 pins (XI);
saw (VII)
i-3 knives (VII, IX);
saw (VIII)
b-2-3 fibulae
i-fibula; spear; button ?
204
Stone
objects
?
Other
rock
crystal
beads
T.8); stone
beads
(T.10,25);
stone
pyxis
(T.13)
glass/
paste
bead
(T.10);
sheep/
goat, pig
bones one
tomb; dog
bones in
other
glass/
paste
beads
(II,III);
faience
bead (II)
sealstone
(II); 2 rock
crystal (II)
pendants;
rock
crystal
button (I)
1 rock
crystal and
1 steatite
bead
(VIII)
lid; rock
crystal
?
none
none
Iron weapons and tools were especially prevalent at Vronda. Also, spits were found at Dreros, Vronda and
Eleutherna, and axes at Dreros and Vronda.
330
Kavousi:
Chondrovol
8
Kavousi:
Vronda
>170
(G.980
vases)
Meseleroi
Krya
Praisos
0
0
9
Krousonas:
Rizoplagies
Prinias
5
Rotasi
~18
?
Arkades
?
Malia
25
Archanes:
Phythies
>15
pithos
pyxis lid;
Protocorinth
lekythos
cups; skyphoi;
aryballoi;
trays; lid;
oinochoai;
amphorae; jug
pithoi;
strainer;
kraters; bowls;
amphoriskos
none
none
jug; aryballoi;
phiale; lids;
bird vase; PC
kotyle
stirrup jars;
cups; skyphoi
pithoi; urns;
lid; kalathos;
jug; hydria
ring vases;
aryballoi;
cups; trays; lid
handle w/
ram; skyphos
?
urns; stirrup
jars; bowls;
jugs; trays;
lid; cups;
skuttle;
lekanai;
aryballos
cups; hydriai;
oinochoai;
bead
none
none
none
beads
(12,26,30,
36)
b-fibulae (9,12,23,26,
28,30); pins (3,5,12,
17,23,30); sheathing
(9,17,20,30); earring
(3)
i-fibula (6); pins
(3,6,12,16,17,30, 36);
spears (5,6,9,12,
16,17,21,26,27,28, 30);
daggers (6,9,12,
16,21,26,30); knives
(5,9,12,28); sickles
(5,9,12,17, 27,30); axes
(6,9,28,30); tongs (6);
chisel (6,12,16, 30);
scrapers (5,9); tweezers
(5); poss spit
(9,12,27,28); saw (12);
arrowheads (12);
needle (16,23,30)
lead-obj (21)
none
none
i-spears, other weapons
and tools
none
none
?
none
obsidian
blades
(5,6,16);
beads
(23,36)
ivory
bead
(20)
none
none
?
none
none
?
?
?
?
?
?
silver, bronze, iron obj
?
?
b-fibula
?
?
animal
figurines
(fish; 3
bulls;horse);
disc w/ tree
of life
2 female
figurines
none
model (poss
of tomb)-
331
g-bead
s-item
b-tweezers; pins
i-pins
none
?
spindle
whorls
paste
beads
steatite lid
none
?
2 blue
beads
Eleutherna
?
jugs; kalathoi;
urns; lids;
pithoi; pyxis;
amphorae
cups
from poss
tholos
?
g-beads
b-cauldron; vases
i-weapons/tools; obeloi
rock
crystal
beads
faience
beads;
glass
bowl
7. TOMBS OF OTHER TYPES
A few remaining burials do not appear to fit into any of the other categories (see table
36). For example, at Vronda in the area of the burial enclosures, some Late Geometric- Early
Orientalizing cremation (or inhumation) burials were placed in the corner of a room,
doorway or cleft in the rock and merely covered by a pile of stones; these burials tended to be
quite poor in grave goods, often containing none or only a few vessels. Similarly at
Eleutherna, a small number of mostly EO or later ‘open burials’ were recovered; these
burials apparently consisted of inhumed women and girls who were covered with burial
shrouds and laid on wooden stretchers (with no evidence of pits), and vases, pins, and fibulae
were the most common finds. Certain adult males at Eleutherna were buried in a distinct
fashion as well (in EO-A); these burials were comprised of pyres, placed in rectangular
trenches or on the ground, sometimes on a base of mudbricks, which were covered with a
large or small mound of earth and/or stones (often surrounded by mudbricks) with large and
small pebbles placed on the upper surface and sometimes marked with a stele or cippus.
These cremation burials often contained numerous grave goods, as well as evidence of
funerary meals and burnt offerings, and in one case a probable human sacrifice. Also, Krya
T. 26 was apparently some form of ossuary (an ‘uncanonical chamber’) which contained six
skulls, one with apparent trauma to the head. Finally, at Prinias among the LM IIIC-SM
tombs were pit graves K, 207, and 232, which were placed inside a large circular stone
332
enclosure and tumulus, with tombs 207 and 232 each first having been surrounded by their
own smaller enclosure or tumulus of large stones; finds from these tombs included stirrup
jars and bronze pins.
Table 36 (Tombs of other types and burials without structure)
Site
Kavousi:
Vronda
Krya T.26
Prinias:
phase 1
Eleutherna
Eleutherna
Information
7 LG-EO tombs (1-2,4,7-8,14-15,24) most placed on room floor in corner, doorway, or cleft in
rock and covered with a pile of stones; 1-3 cremations per burial; most poor in goods, with none
or just a few vessels, except G.1 (for which is some confusion in sources-bronze fibula, 18
arrowheads, stone bead, much pottery); G.24 had 1 inhumation without goods and the
individual apparently died of a deadly disease
an ‘uncanonical chamber tomb’ (1.25 L; 0.7 max. W; H-1.5 m) was formed from a large natural
hollow at the base of a raised piece of bedrock; the bottom was closed with stones and earth,
forming the floor of the tomb; a wall was built on N side; entrance on E (<0.4 m) blocked with
boulders; recovered 11 vases (stirrup jars, krateriskoi, feeding bottles, jug, cup, pithos), 2
bronze rings and 6 skulls with apparent trauma to head (poss some form of ossuary); ~80 m N
of cluster of tholoi and pseudotholoi
among LM IIIC-SM tombs, simple cremations in oval, rock-cut pits covered with stone slabs;
T.K (0.44x0.5 m), 207, 232 were pit graves inside a large, stone circular enclosure, which
apparently supported a tumulus (circular mass of stone possibly ~6 m in diameter), with 207
and 232 each first surrounded by their own smaller enclosure/tumulus of large stones; T.K
(earliest in cemetery) was in middle of tumulus; contents of these three tombs included stirrup
jars and bronze pins
single independent mounds/pyres (EO-A) within cemetery primarily to N+E, though often
relatively isolated; in rectangular trench 2-3x1-2x0.5-1 m or on ground (oft on base of
mudbricks); sometimes white bones collected from fire and placed in amphora by pyre, then all
covered with large or small mound of earth and/or stones; mounds oft surrounded by mudbricks
with large and small pebbles placed on upper surface; typically only for adult male cremations
(ex. KK; LL); some marked with stele or cippus; offerings and food remains (figs, olives,
grapes, cow, pig, sheep, goat bones, shellfish); often beside or above; LL (2.4x1.8m) with
evidence of human sacrifice and finds include iron axe, dagger, sword, knives, whetstone,
bronze spear, pyxis, bronze and iron tongs
small number of ‘open burials’ most apparently EO or later; primarily women, covered with
burial shrouds and laid on wooden stretcher; no indication of pit or tomb of any sort; some poss
w/in large mound; one ex was inh of ~6-7 year old girl with pair of gold earrings/hair pins
(dating to mid 7th c); other ex with oinochoe and lion-shaped vase; vases, pins and fibulae were
most common finds; some near pithoi
8. TOMBS OF UNKNOWN TYPE AND POSSIBLE BURIALS
In addition, table 37 shows all remaining tombs of unknown type and possible tombs.
The most interesting of these are from Kavousi Kastro, Archanes Phythies, and Mt. Juktas
Kato Lakkos. At both Archanes and Mt. Juktas, a single LM IIIC-SM cremation burial in a
lidded stone urn/larnax was recovered, while remains of LG-EO secondary cremations were
333
found in some rooms in the settlement at Kastro (and fetal/infant bones were found in two
domestic dump deposits).
Table 37 (Tombs of unknown type and possible tombs)
Site
Kaminaki
Lagou
Mesa Lasithi
Vrachasi
Kavousi:
Kastro
Adromyloi
Ag. Georgios
Koutsouras
Praisos
Sklavoi
Zakros
Ampelouzos
Kavrochori
Krousonas
Tylissos
Episkopi
Lyttos
Nipiditos
Smari
Information
Watrous id prob. cemetery at Pigadistria based on fragments of Geo pithoi, as well as larnax
and limestone slabs, observed during survey; located <500 m to NW of possible Geometric
settlement at Ag. Paraskevi
Watrous id poss. cemetery at Kephali on basis of G pithos sherds observed during survey
(and previously found PG conical cup and miniature pithos)
Pendlebury observed LM IIIC or SM larnax burials at Nikiphordo/Vlikystra; ~200 m to E of
LM settlement at Armi
Tsipopoulou reports that SM/PG vases from robbed tomb are in Herakleion Museum
1-LG-EO cremated remains of adults (from secondary burials) were recovered from some
room deposits on West Slope, including one amphora with adult crem from bottom of deep
fill above floor in Room 35; up to 7 adults found in total (though some bones found in rock
cavities); fetal/infant bones were also found in two domestic dumps, including Room 29; 2a few scattered pieces of cremated bone were also found in the wall collapse of Bldg. A on
the East Slope
1-finds from Geometric tomb (inc. feeding bottle, 2 spears, and bronze fibulae) in area of
Kandemi Kephali were brought to museum in 1960; 2-at Kandemi Kephali or Anginara,
villagers excavated a tomb in 1902, which contained 101 PGB-EO vases, including cups,
bowls, amphorae, oinochoai, and a vase in the form of a nude seated woman with hydria on
her head, possibly tholos tomb
11 LG-EO vases from a plundered tomb were give to the Herakleion Museum in 1918,
possibly from tholos or chamber tomb
Faure reports LM III, SM, and PG tombs and harbor installation at locations of Kypourou,
Lenika, and Spiliaridia; Haggis reports LM III burials at Kypourou
1-Platon excavated a tomb somewhere “near the Acropolis” in 1959; finds include many
sherds, fragments of iron tools and weapons, most of which appear to date to EO-O; 2Tsipopoulou reports that 2 LG and 6 EO vases (including 1 Corinthian cup) from a tomb at
Pyrgos were taken to the Siteia museum in 1961
63 LM IIIC-EO vases from a tomb at Aveliakos were given to the Siteia Museum
Davaras reports that 2 stirrup jars (one with cremation and gold ring) and a pyxis with
cremation were found in the valley near the western mouth of the gorge (at Palaimylos)
~400 m of the settlement at Ellinika; vases are said to be of LM III/SM type
Kanta reports that in 1958 3 LM IIIC late-SM/PG vases (stirrup jar, deep bowl, oinochoe)
were found, apparently from a tomb, near the modern cemetery behind the church of Ag.
Georgios (~2 km W of Gortyn)
1-~1 km NE of the LM habitation at Tylissos were found remains of greatly destroyed
Geometric tomb; remaining finds include a large steatite bowl and 2 small oinochoai; 2-a
krateriskos and 2 stirrup jars, likely SM/PG, were found at Xepetra, possibly from tomb
at Livadiotis (~1 km to SW of Chalepa) found LG-EO pottery, iron spears, and iron dagger,
possibly from tombs
at Petres near Minoan villas, were found remains of completely destroyed and robbed
Geometric tombs, probably chambers or pits
Hartley published PGB-LG vases, including pithoi, aryballoi, skyphoi, and lids, from
robbed tombs at unspecified locations
Taramelli indicates that the necropolis of ancient Lyttos was likely located near the
vineyards in the valley of Askoi to the northeast of the settlement; no tombs have yet been
recorded in this area
a small Geo oinochoe, iron fibula, and two beads found in 1960 may come from a tomb
on the northwest edge of the site, just outside of the acropolis of the LM IIIC-O settlement
334
Zinda
Phaistos
Sivas
Ag. Syllas
Ag. Vlasis
Archanes:
Phythies ‘69
Katsamba
Knossos
Mt. Juktas
Nea
Halikarnassos
Prof. Elias
Tsangkaraki
Arvi
Viannos
Pantanassa
Thronos
on Profitis Elias, was excavated an apsidal building (3.5x3.9 ext; 1.62x2.4 m int); this may
have been a funerary building, possibly a pyre or bone enclosure, as it contained LM IIICSM kylikes and burnt bones (possibly human)
according to Platon in 1954, Geo vases were found which confirm the existence of a
necropolis in the area of the modern village
1-in 1958 ~1km SE of Ag. Ioannis (at Ambeli) PG vases were found in a “hole in the
ground surrounded by a circle of stones;” vases include basket vase, 2 feeding bottles,
amphoriskos, jug, 2 cups, amphora (poss. cinerary urn), and hydria; 2-Western Mesara
Project reports off-site LM IIIC pottery just S of Ag. Ioannis, poss. from burial; 3-Western
Mesera Proj. reports PG-G burials at Ag. Onouphrios; 4-Western Mesara Project identified
LM IIIC gravesite somewhere on slope of Ieroditis (NE of Phaistos) and refer to known PGG burials on ridge (poss refer to Mulino or Tomb 1954?); 5-Pendlebury reports surface
sherds from Geo burials at Kalyviana, and other traces of burials of the “same period as
Liliana” were also reported from this area; 6-trial excavations revealed traces of tombs with
cremations and a group of late “Mycenaean” vases (possibly PG) from Logiadi (site 89); 7in 1957 a PG tomb or tombs was found at Mulino (site 59), likely pit or chamber tomb(s);
finds included 3-4 urns/pithoi with partially cremated remains and 24 vases, as well as
fragments of iron weapons and a bronze fibula; 8-a kalathos, amphoriskos, skyphos, stirrup
jar, and jug (SM/PG) were recovered from somewhere around the street near Phaistos, poss
from tomb
Western Mesara Project id cemetery site (B37=site 92) with associated shereds LM IIIA1PG/G at Monasteriako Pigadi; associated settlement MM I-G found ~200 m to SE
Sakellarakis reports that LM, PG, G pottery was found in association with tombs at Sochoro
Sakellarakis reports that G pottery was found in association with tombs near village
LM IIIC/SM rectangular (0.44x0.31) lidded stone larnax/cist with cremation was recovered
from the site in the vicinity of other cist graves; finds include krateriskos, cup, stirrup jars,
iron arrowhead, and lump of iron; uncommon burial vessel; in pit (?)
Marinatos reports that one Geo tomb was found in 1936 at this site
1-fragments of a cinerary urn and Geo amphora, likely from a tomb, were found at Isopata
near the church of Ag. Nikolaos; 2- in 1958, 12 LPG vases were discovered ~150 m SW of
the Villa Ariadne, possibly from a tomb; 3-an ‘oven-shaped’ tomb (KS#223) possibly EIA
was found immediately N of palace; 4-~150-200 m south of Temple Tomb was recorded a
possible EIA tomb (KS#325); two other possible EIA tombs (KS#328) were exposed during
WWII,~300 m SW of Temple Tomb; 5-in 1897, Orsi published one large EIA cinerary urn
and two lids, said to come form burials at Knossos
1-Sakellarakis reports remains of Geometric cemetery at Kastro (~300 m SW of Stravomyti
Cave); 2-SM cremation burial in lidded limestone ash urn found at Kato Lakkos; grave
goods included one stirrup jar, a bronze spear, iron spear, and two iron swords; 3-Geometric
pottery was found in association with tombs at Krya Vrysi; 4-Pendlebury reported
fragments of SM/PG (possibly LM III) larnakes from Kambariane, just west of Stravomyti
one Geo grave was reported in 1936, and Pendlebury refers to a G cemetery at this location
Xanthoudides excavated a tomb at Riza, said to have included many vases, esp. G but also
PG; poss. associated with PG-G settlement on Rokka
Marinatos reports PG and G tombs at this site (>2 km N of Prof. Elias)
Hood et al. and Nowicki identified remains of larnax fragments just beyond E edge of LM
IIIC settlement in Area C (Fortetsa)
in 1956 a few G vases (3 urns, cup, 2 aryballoi) and a bronze pin were found on the slope of
Keraton/Vigla Hill in vicinity of acropolis, likely from tomb; Evans previously noted
pottery and larnax fragments from site
in 1988, 2 stirrup jars, 2 bronze pins, and a fragment of a terracotta figurine were uncovered,
likely from destroyed tomb, in vicinity of tholos and pit grave
1-according to Belgiorno, traces of G-A finewares were discovered in area of Ag.
Theotokos hill, poss from tomb; 2-23 PG-G vases, 3 spindle whorls, a terracotta human
figurine (prob. vase attachment), figurine of two joined horses with riders, and 10 bronze
335
Modi
fibulae, apparently from tomb, are in Neonakis collection; 3-G-A sherds from Ghristo may
also indicate location of tombs; 4->60 LM IIIC-G pits, possibly of ritual nature, were
uncovered during excavations on summit of Kephala hill; pit 54 contained LM IIIC finds
(fragments of 38 vases, 1 bronze blade, 2 stone tools, two dog skeletons, tortoise shell, and
small amounts of goat and human bones); function of pit unknown
in 1967, a tomb of unknown type was uncovered, and it contained 9 LG/EO vases
(krateriskoi, oinochoai, aryballoi, skyphos, cup); possibly a child burial
336
CHAPTER 5
SYNTHESIS AND DISCUSSION
In previous discussions of the Early Iron Age on Crete, the island has been divided
into two large regional groups (west/central and east) on the basis of pottery styles;205 this
basic division has been maintained in recent investigations of EIA settlement patterns206 and
cult dedications.207 As mentioned in Chapter Two, scholars such as Pendlebury, Nowicki,
and Sjögren have used geography as a means of identifying settlement patterns or cultureregions.208 The mortuary data presented and analyzed in the previous chapter serve to
supplement these recent studies, in particular those on settlement patterns; they further show
that distinct regional, and sometimes local, burial patterns are visible in Early Iron Age Crete
205
Coldstream (1977, 275), for example, notes that the pottery from the east shows little resemblance to that
from central Crete, and he (1968, 258) considers the western-most limit of the eastern style to be at Vrokastro.
Snodgrass (1971, 164), on the other hand, states that the division between the eastern “Eteocretan” style and
central occurs near Neapolis at the mountain passage on the road from Malia to Dreros. Tsipopoulou (2005,
547) also considers the pottery of Lasithi Eparchia to show more affinities with central Crete than eastern, and
thus does not include it in her new book on the “Eteocretan” pottery style. See also, Desborough 1972, 234.
206
Borgna (2003, 172-173) identifies two distinct environments at the end of LM IIIB and early IIIC. The
central plains and the north coasts (including the western part of the island) were “dominated by nucleated
settlements oriented toward industrial activities and seaborne long-distance trade,” while the inland and upland
regions (from the Lasithi plain to the east coasts) were “characterized by a dispersed population, sometimes
clustered around some main defensible settlements.” Further, she (158 n. 21) considers the district of Pediada
to be a “buffer area, affected by aspects typical of both central and eastern Crete, though more deeply involved
within the settlement dynamics of the lowland coastal plains.”
207
Prent (2003, 95-97) notes how the variations in settlement patterns and presence of different people in
eastern and central Crete affected the development/rise of the sanctuary and methods of cult practice in each of
the two areas; for example, ruin cults were more evident in central Crete than in eastern. See also Wallace
2003, for regional identities and regionally based-communities in EIA Crete.
208
See n. 15 in Chapter 2. Also note Boardman (1960, 143) who states that “there are, however, many strong
regional peculiarities in Iron Age Crete, not only in matters of burial, and each major site or district is best
considered in isolation.”
(fig. 184). In this chapter, seven distinct burial regions and four border zones are identified
on the island; in some instances, a region is divided into smaller subregions. Within each
section, the burial data are summarized and also related to the identified settlement patterns
for that region. In addition, whenever possible, comments on social-political organization,
social stratification, and cultural identity are presented within the sections where evidence for
their identification is most clearly revealed.
Lasithi (area 4 on fig. 184)
This area consists of Ag. Georgios Papoura, Karphi, Krasi, Kastri, Zenia, and
Adrianos, and over 35 tombs have been identified at approximately 10 locations.209 All
known burials in this region were found in small tholos tombs, which were typically
scattered over a vast area on the slopes around the settlement, rather than being organized in
defined cemeteries, and all tombs appear to have held a small number of inhumations.210 In
addition, the majority of, and possibly all, Lasithi tholoi shared a characteristic feature, the
masonry enclosure, which is also seen at the nearby sites of Panagia and Arkades in western
Lasithi. While some relatively minor variations occur in grave goods and tomb construction,
as at Karphi where certain tombs are distinguished in chamber shape or size, dromos length
or presence, stomion style, orientation, or construction technique, the overall similarity of all
the Lasithi tombs and their contents, is the most prominent feature.
With the exception of Papoura, all of the Lasithi burials were associated with short
term (LM IIIC and sometimes into SM) defensible settlements. No polis developed in this
209
Gonies, for which no tombs have yet been identified, may also belong with these sites, as would Kaminaki
and Lagou, at which burials have been assumed on the basis of survey pottery. While Krasi is technically in
Nomos Herakleion (just barely) it really belongs with these other sites and is thus included here.
210
See also Nowicki 2000, 240.
338
area, though Papoura became a relatively large town in the later part of the period. The
Lasithi mountain region was characterized by a dispersed settlement pattern throughout the
Early Iron Age; increasing centralization occurred by the end of the period with Papoura
appearing as the main town, though a few hamlets continued to exist in the vicinity.211
Nowicki suggests that in LM IIIC the defensible settlements in this area in general show
indications of very little or no social stratification. “Their architecture represents typical
village organization with the houses slightly different in size, which may have resulted from
the size and prosperity of particular families rather than from a higher position within the
community;”212 while the distinctions in the sizes of houses and tombs do not appear to mark
clear social diversity, they may lead to that in the future.213 For much of LM IIIC-SM Crete,
in fact, a relatively loose ‘egalitarian’ social-political organization is assumed to have
existed, with the household or extended family forming the basic unit, though with some
differentiation of wealth possibly present.214
The overall similarity in tomb type, construction, and grave goods observed in the
Lasithi region, as well as the low number of burials per tomb and groupings of tombs in pairs
211
Sjögren 2001, 123-124. According to Nowicki (2000, 245), Karphi itself became a relatively large town,
likely comprised of people who previously lived in scattered hamlets and farms in the area, with its own
territory and satellite villages (Kera Vigla and Siderokephala).
212
Nowicki 2000, 237. There is, however, evidence of two different architectural types at Karphi (and also
Chalasmenos), possibly indicating different groups of people (traditional “Minoan” architecture vs. architecture
of “Mycenaean” influence = old inhabitants of the area vs. possible Cretans from the lowlands, not necessarily
Mycenaeans) who were under strong Mycenaean influence). This would provide one possible explanation for
the existence of two separate burial areas, Ta Mnimata and Astividero, at Karphi. See also Tsipopoulou and
Nowicki 2003, 565-566, for Chalasmenos.
213
While Whitley (1991) has used the “big man model” for analyzing the EIA settlement pattern on Crete,
Nowicki (2000, 238-239) states that no evidence has yet been recovered from the archaeological record to
support this, though he does not reject the possibility. Regardless, big man societies are relatively egalitarian in
their organization. See also Prent 2005, 118-126, for good summary of the relevant issues and additional
bibliography. Cf. Borgna (2003, 164-168); Day and Snyder 2004.
214
Prent 2003, 118-126; 2005, 615-623; Haggis 1993, 151; Nowicki 2000, 226-227, 250.
339
and clusters, rather than in a bounded necropolis area, would thus seem to support the idea
that limited social diversity existed in this area at the beginning of the Early Iron Age.215
Borgna, on the other hand, sees increasing social complexity, as well as evidence of social
ranking and the emergence of chiefs, in the east as early as LM IIIC. As evidence she cites
the switch from multiple burials to a focus on larnakes with only one or two individuals per
tomb and the presence of weapons, especially bronze swords and spearheads.216 While
larnakes were often used for burials at these sites, at Karphi, for example, all tombs contained
between one and five individuals, and contrary to Borgna’s expectations, those examples
which were slightly distinguished from the other tombs at the site tended to have a greater
number of burials than the other tombs. In addition, there is a very limited presence of
weapons from the Lasithi sites; only Tomb A from Krasi had a true weapon, a bronze dagger,
and this tomb may pre-date the period.217 Although minor differences in wealth may be
observable in some of the Lasithi tombs, the funerary evidence thus still appears to support
the identification of limited to no social stratification, with the household or extended family
forming the most prominent element in the socio-political organization of this region at the
beginning of the Early Iron Age.
Far Eastern (area 1 and border zone on fig. 184)
215
The use of the tholos form itself does not appear to have been particularly significant in this area during LM
IIIC-SM, though it is possible that it reflected a conscious local or community effort to retain or create a certain
cultural identity, rather than a method of distinguishing certain groups of people or elite families within the
community. Retention of traditional practices may also be visible at Karphi and Papoura in the frequent ‘later’
offerings of terracotta animal figurines, primarily bovine, above tombs, rather than items of military or
aristocratic character. See Prent 2003, 93; 2005, 615-623, for this practice in LM IIIC-SM central Crete.
216
Borgna 2003, 164-168.
217
Tomb M.11 from Karphi also contained a single iron knife. The Papoura tomb had an iron knife, bronze
vessel fragments, and a small iron double axe, though this tomb is much later in date than the others from the
area, and its finds and slightly larger size may reflect some changes in socio-political organization not visible in
LM IIIC-SM.
340
While the remaining areas of Nomos Lasithi (far eastern, west Siteia mountains,
Mirabello and Ierapetra isthmus) are joined by a common ceramic tradition in the Early Iron
Age, clear variations in mortuary practice are identifiable.218 The far eastern area consists of
the sites found along the current north-south road from Siteia to Ierapetra and the region
further east (east Siteia plateau). Over 20 tombs have been identified from more than 25
locations in the far eastern area.219 The easternmost part of this region contains many sites at
which burials have been found thus far only in caves and rock shelters (Karydi, Palaikastro,
Zakros, Zou). The caves and rock shelters are rarely altered (i.e., given architectural
features), the method of interment is normally inhumation, and the grave goods are typically
poor, though Zakros Koukou Kephali is a noted exception. In addition, the use of this tomb
type does not appear to be confined to any particular phases within the Early Iron Age. The
final burial site in the easternmost part of this region is coastal Itanos, from which a few LG
cremation burials in pits have been identified.
Itanos is exceptional for this region in that it was founded at a late date, sometime in
the Geometric period, and later became a polis. Its associated burials were also pit graves, an
unusual type for this area, and they were apparently placed in a clearly designated cemetery
near the settlement; this same necropolis was used until the Hellenistic period. The
associated settlements of caves and rock shelters, however, are often unknown, and the
burials themselves tend to be in relatively isolated locations.220 At Zakros alone, which held
218
See Tsipopoulou 2005 for fullest study of the pottery (“Eteocretan style”). See also n. 204 above.
219
The 25 locations were dispersed among 12 sites. Sites from this area include Ag. Georgios (Tourtouloi), Ag.
Photia (possible EIA offerings only), Ag. Spyridon, Chandras, Itanos, Karydi, Palaikastro, Piskokephalo,
Praisos, Sklavoi, Sphakia, Zakros, and Zou.
220
Jodi Magness (personal communication) has suggested that the cave/rock shelter burials may have been
associated with a transhumant population, which could explain their frequent placement in relatively isolated
locations.
341
a defensible settlement, this form of burial appears to have been typical, while at other sites
these burials may have been associated either with similar inaccessible sites or else with
small farms or hamlets. In addition, Sjögren has identified the Early Iron Age settlement
pattern for far eastern Crete, in the 8th c. at least, as consisting primarily of small villages and
a few coastal sites. By the end of the period, however, these small villages may have been in
some way dependent upon a larger settlement in the region, possibly Praisos.221
Burial in caves and rock shelters was a traditional “Minoan” practice in this area; like
the Lasithi plateau with its small tholos tombs, the far eastern region may have held on to
traditional practices for the longest time, perhaps being an area for refugees from other
locations after new people or outside influences came, especially from the mainland.222 In
far eastern Crete throughout much of the Early Iron Age, as in the Lasithi plateau area, it
would thus appear that limited social diversity existed among those individuals using caves
and rock shelters for burial. It is thus particularly significant that this tomb type tends to be
found away from known settlements and in relatively isolated locations, possibly associated
with farms or hamlets; it is also noteworthy that in central Crete during LM IIIC-SM and
later, caves are used primarily for religious or cult practices and not for burial.223
A somewhat different meaning may be ascribed to the Late Geometric askos and jug
which were placed as possible offerings above one of the graves in the EM cemetery at Ag.
Photia.224 The placement of these vases potentially illustrates, at the end of the period, a
renewed interest in the “Minoan,” or “ancient,” past and desire for association, real or
221
Sjögren 2001, 129.
222
Nowicki 2000, 235-241.
223
Prent 2005, 615-623.
224
The ‘Geometric’ pottery found in the LM IIIA tholos B at Praisos may also reflect this practice, if not EIA
re-use for burial.
342
perceived, with it.225 This practice occurs more commonly further to the west in the Siteia
mountains and also in central Crete; for example, a few LG vases were found associated with
a single LM III tomb from both Mochlos and Achladia in the west Siteia mountains.
Although the exact significance of these ‘offerings’ remains uncertain, it is noteworthy that
the examples from east Crete all date to the Late Geometric period, the time when the polis
was developing in this area,226 and that offerings seem to have been made only once and at a
single tomb per site.227 Also, no known EIA settlement was located in the close vicinity of
any of these three sites. The formation of a new, larger and shared identity within the polis
may have created a need to fashion new, smaller ‘group’ identities, or assert old family ones,
accomplished by forming a connection to the local, ‘ancestral’ past.228 These offerings,
possible examples of ancestor or tomb cult, could also reflect competition for authority
among the emerging elites at the end of the EIA; in other words, elites may have attempted to
legitimize their authority by claiming links with the past (an actual kinship or knowledge of
the deceased was not necessary) (see also below, central Crete).229 Asserting a link with the
past at a location distant from a settlement could have been especially significant for
emerging elites at sites such as Itanos which were founded at the end of the period.
Unlike most sites in the easternmost area, those located on or near the modern northsouth road from Siteia to Ierapetra show a variety in tomb and settlement types. The modern
225
Prent 2003; Wallace 2003, 268-271; Tsipopoulou 1995, 126; Davaras 1971b, 396.
226
Whitley, Prent, and Thorne (1999, 252-253) consider the basic form of the city to have been established at
Praisos by LG.
227
The presence of only a single offering/visit, rather than continuous, long-term use, would seem to associate
this practice more with that of tomb or ancestor cults, as observed on the mainland during this period, and not
with hero cults, which tended to be continuously venerated over a longer period of time. See Antonaccio 1994;
1995.
228
Wallace 2003, 271.
229
Antonaccio 1994, 410. See also Morris 1992, 8-15.
343
road is placed along one of the traditional communication routes for this area; its location
was primarily dictated by the natural topography, and the associated sites are thus notable for
their close proximity to this transportation or communication route. Small tholos tombs were
the primary form of burial at defensible settlements in the area (Sphakia and Praisos),230
though Praisos also had burials in rock shelters and caves, bone enclosures, chamber tombs, a
pit or shaft grave, and a large tholos.231 Of all the sites in the area of the traditional
communication route, only Praisos developed into a polis, likely incorporating the adjacent
defensible site of Kypria. The tradition of cave burial commonly observed further east also
existed at Piskokephalo, the associated settlement of which remains unknown; this site is
unusual, however, in that both inhumation and cremation were practiced and the grave goods
were relatively wealthy (by cave standards at least). Finally, the burials at Ag. Georgios
were placed primarily in chamber tombs and a small number of tholoi, and the associated
settlement remains unidentified. The use of the chamber tomb was unusual for east Crete in
the Early Iron Age, though it was the primary form of burial at this site in LM, and the late
construction date of the small tholoi is also atypical for Crete in general.
While the sites in the easternmost part of the region are characterized throughout the
EIA primarily by the traditional form of burial in caves and rock shelters, the sites closer to
the main north-south transportation route show a greater variety in tomb types, method of
interment, and wealth of grave goods. This diversity might represent a confluence of
traditions, perhaps various peoples or extraregional cultural influences. For example, while
no definite imports have been recovered from the eastern cave and rock shelter burials, many
230
The tomb type from which a burial pithos was recovered at Chandras is unknown, though it was likely
associated with the nearby defensible settlement.
231
The rock shelter at Ag. Spyridon may have belonged to the settlement at Praisos.
344
imports are present among the grave goods from the sites near the main transportation route,
as would be expected. Also, even in LM III, the population living in the vicinity of the
transportation routes and elsewhere on the island was likely mixed and heterogenous, with
Minoan, Mycenaean, and possibly Cypriot elements influenced by factors such as trade,
travel, immigration, native population, etc.232 The border sites of the far eastern region were
thus influenced by the possibly “Minoan” tradition of the Siteia mountains to the west where
small tholos tombs occurred most commonly, the “Minoan” traditions further east where
caves and rock shelters formed the primarily burial type, as well as the mixed Minoan and
Mycenaean tradition of the area along this primary transportation route, as illustrated for
example in the continuation of the LM tradition of rock-cut chamber tombs at Ag. Georgios.
West Siteia Mountains (area 2 on fig. 184)
This area includes the sites found on the east and west slopes of the Siteia mountains;
thus far, over 137 EIA tombs have been identified at over 29 locations.233 Chamber tombs
and pit graves were the only types of tombs found at Tourloti and Myrsini during the Early
Iron Age. Most of these burials, however, date to the final phases of use in an LM IIIA-C
cemetery, thus representing the end of the old, pre-EIA tradition, rather than EIA-constructed
tombs for a new defensible settlement.234 Also, a single burial cave or rock shelter was found
at Lastros and Ag. Stephanos, a tomb type commonly observed in the far eastern part of the
island.235 As in the Lasithi plateau, many sites in the west Siteia mountains are characterized
232
See Borgna 2003, 156 for additional references.
233
These tombs were identified from at least 16 sites, including Adromyloi, Ag. Ioannis, Chalasmenos,
Kavousi, Schoinokapsala, Achladia (offerings only), Ag. Stephanos, Chamaizi, Koutsouras (?), Krya, Lastros,
Makriyialos (?), Mesa Mouliana, Mochlos (offerings only), Myrsini, Orino, Pefkoi, Skopi, and Tourloti.
234
At Myrsini, the specific location and type of burials attributed to the Geometric period have not been
published.
345
by the presence of small tholos tombs located near their associated defensible settlements.236
Only small tholoi have been identified near the defensible settlements of Ag. Ioannis,
Chalasmenos, Schoinokapsala, Chamaizi, and Skopi. The small tholos is also the only
known tomb type from Mesa Mouliana, though the settlement location for this site is
uncertain, possibly Kastello Myrsini. In addition, this tomb form comprises the primary
burial type for Orino and Pefkoi, both of which also had an LM IIIB/C rock shelter, Krya,
which also had pseudotholoi and one possible chamber tomb, and Adromyloi, which also had
one possible chamber tomb; furthermore, these four sites were associated with defensible
settlements. Several of the defensible settlements to which the west Siteia mountain tholos
tombs belonged remained inhabited for longer periods of time than sites in the Lasithi
plateau. Indeed, some settlements lasted into the Archaic period, though no known polis
existed at any of these sites.
The majority of small tholos tombs in the west Siteia area show limited diversity in
tomb construction or grave goods, a condition also observable in the Lasithi plateau. A few
tombs at only a handful of sites, however, stand out in the wealth of grave goods. The Mesa
Mouliana tholoi, for example, are especially noteworthy in the richness of their contents.
Nowicki notes that the owners of these tombs may have been warriors or local chieftains,
though the early LM IIIC date of the burials may reflect the final phase of the previous (LM
IIIA-B) “Mycenaean” hierarchy, rather than complex social stratification at the beginning of
the EIA.237 Furthermore, one or possibly two tombs from Adromyloi and a single tomb from
235
The exact nature of EIA burials at Koutsouras and Makriyialos remains uncertain.
236
Nowicki 1990, 2000, 2004.
237
Nowicki 2004, 277-279. This may also be the case with the relatively wealthy IIIC tomb at Praisos
Photoula. See also Kanta 2003, who considers these tombs, as well as Praisos Photoula, to be warrior graves.
346
Chamaizi appear to have been significantly more wealthy than the other tholoi at the site.
The individual tombs from both of these sites, however, have not been adequately published
and their chronology and contents remain poorly understood. Although the evidence is
limited, these particular tombs appear to date to the Protogeometric period or later. The
cemeteries of both sites also remained in use for a much longer period of time than those
found in the Lasithi plateau area. It is thus possible that the apparent increase in grave good
diversity at these sites, longer continuity of tomb use, and the later date of the most
noteworthy tombs may provide one indication of the early phases of the increasing social
complexity, changing socio-political structure, and increasing population which eventually
led to the development of the polis at other sites.238 As the evidence is limited, it is also
possible that the finds in these tholoi do not indicate clear distinctions in social status, but
merely greater wealth for an individual or family.
A significant exception in the west Siteia region is the site of Kavousi, which has
several distinct burial areas,239 containing among them one large and several small tholos
tombs, burial enclosures, cairns of stone, and a pithos burial. Varying degrees of wealth are
observed in the grave goods, which considered along with the presence of distinct burial
areas and tomb types, may be indicative of a changing socio-political structure, perhaps
becoming more complex; this variability would seem to provide a good predictor of the
changes to come – the eventual urban nucleation at Azoria in the Archaic period.240 A
similar diversification of tomb types at LM II Knossos, as well as on the mainland in LH I
238
Cf. Hägg 1983, who sees changes in LG burial customs at Argos as related to the emergence of the polis.
For example, by EG some larger sized cist graves existed with richer contents than observed in PG.
239
Distinct burial areas are also visible at Adromyloi and Pefkoi, and possibly Chamaizi/Skopi and Krya.
240
Haggis et al. 2004, especially 390-393; 2006. Azoria may, in fact, have become a polis in the Archaic
period.
347
and II, is interpreted by Preston as reflecting or even contributing to the social changes
occurring at the time, with mortuary practices beginning to be employed as a forum for status
display.241 Some of the burial distinctions at Kavousi are primarily chronological; for
example, most small tholoi pre-date the burial enclosures and the large tholos, as well as the
wealthiest tombs, appear to be late in date. Although the use of distinct burial areas may, on
the one hand, reflect the presence of different family groups, originally associated with
different hamlets or villages in the vicinity (Vronda, Kastro, Azoria, and perhaps Panagia
Skala), there may also have been distinctions in status for burial at certain locations.242
Skouriasmenos, and possibly Plai tou Kastrou and Aloni, may have served as elite cemeteries
in the later part of the period, as indicated by the fact that their grave goods tend to be
wealthier than those of other tombs, as well as the continued use in LG of the tholos form at
these locations after the majority of the population had switched to interment in burial
enclosures. Although the household or extended family may have remained the most
significant unit for social organization at Kavousi throughout the Early Iron Age, the
diversity in burial practices appears to reveal the beginnings of differentiation in social status
by the end of the period.243
241
Preston 1999.
242
Haggis (1992, 1993, 1996) has identified the EIA settlement pattern of the Kavousi area as comprised of site
clusters; hamlets within the cluster would have been socially and economically dependent, and probably
originally comprised of extended families. This type of site pattern appears also to have existed at Pefkoi
(Nowicki 1994).
243
In addition, movement between Kavousi sites occurred throughout the EIA, though connection to traditional
hamlets (old community identity) is clearly illustrated by the Vronda burials, especially the LG burial
enclosures constructed within the old houses, which post-date the abandonment of the village. An additional,
though perhaps slightly different example of the desire for connection with the past can be seen in the offerings
or dedications observed at a single pre-EIA tomb at Mochlos and Achladia, both also in the west Siteia
mountains.
348
The sites in the west Siteia mountains thus show an overall similarity in their
adherence to old traditions, manifested especially in the predominant use of the small tholos
and the limited use of caves or rock shelters; it is possible, however, that the limited presence
of cremation at some sites but not at others is significant. That said, influences are visible at
certain sites, ostensibly coming from the two major transportation routes flanking the
mountains on both the east (in the area of the Ierapetra isthmus) and the west (the north-south
route from Siteia to Ierapetra). In addition, factors such as increasing differentiation in
wealth, greater continuity in tomb use, and variation in tomb type may reflect the beginnings
of increasing social complexity, possibly as early as PG or G, at certain sites in this area.
Mirabello and Ierapetra Isthmus (area 3 and border zone to east on fig. 184)
Catalogued sites from this area include Anavlochos, Dreros, Kritsa, Milatos, Olous,
Vrachasi, Vrokastro, Braimiana, Episkopi, Kalamafka, Meseleroi, Parsa, Vasiliki, Viannos,
and possibly Arvi, and over 93 Early Iron Age tombs have been uncovered from at least 25
locations. From the area designated as 3b on fig. 184, the majority of known sites were of
the defensible type, characterized by small tholos tombs, the use of which would appear to
indicate a connection with the more traditional areas to the west, especially the east Lasithi
mountains.244 Kritsa may also belong with this group of sites, or with the Lasithi burials,
though the presence of both chamber tombs and tholoi distinguish it from the other sites in
both areas. An unusual potential burial site is the PG-G cave at Parsa; although burial caves
and rock shelters are relatively common throughout the EIA in the far eastern part of the
island, this is the only known example from this region.
244
Although Kalamafka may have developed into a polis, the known EIA tholoi were found much closer to
Anatoli than Kalamafka. Also, the associated settlements of Braimiana and Vasiliki Kamaraki (possibly either
Vasiliki Kephala or Chalasmenos) remain unknown.
349
The border zone (Ierapetra isthmus) between Mirabello and the west Siteia mountains
is located in the plain at the narrowest point of the island. Although this area represents a
major transportation route, both modern and ancient, the few known burials are perhaps less
distinct from those of the neighboring regions than those observed in the border zone
between the west Siteia mountains and the far east. The relatively large size, presence of
Attic imports, and location potentially far from an associated settlement and in the plain,
rather than on a hillside, of the Vasiliki Kamaraki tholos, however, differentiate it somewhat
from the typical examples of the small tholos found in the surrounding areas; these features
may be representative of the communication or movement of peoples likely taking place in
this area. While the nearby small tholoi of both Vasiliki Kephala and Chalasmenos may
more properly belong in this border zone, neither displays any features which distinguish it
from the other examples found in neighboring regions. The final site from the Ierapetra
isthmus is Episkopi. The limited EIA funerary evidence from the chamber tombs at this site
seems to represent the final activity in the LM III cemetery, belonging to a former settlement
of the previous tradition rather than a new EIA one; this same practice was also seen at
Tourloti and Myrsini in the west Siteia mountains.
A different tradition is observed with the remaining sites of this region – Anavlochos,
Dreros, Vrokastro, Milatos, and Meseleroi (see area 3a on fig. 184).245 The Early Iron Age
burial information at Milatos is unclear; the limited LM IIIC remains in chamber tombs
belong with the IIIA-C settlement, not the EIA, and nothing is known of the Geometric
burials. The relation of Milatos to the other sites of this region thus remains unknown.246 At
245
Evidence for EIA burials at Olous remains uncertain, and the only evidence from Vrachasi comes from vases
brought to the museum.
246
Nowicki (2000, 247) has suggested that Anavlochos may have served as the acropolis of Milatos.
350
Dreros, Anavlochos, and Vrokastro, on the other hand, the earliest tombs appear to have been
small tholos tombs, though only one possible example was found at Dreros. As early as
PGB, a change occurs at these locations to primarily burial enclosures, though none of the
above sites has a tholos of the large type.247 In addition, the shift from small tholoi to burial
enclosures was accompanied by a change in interment practice from primarily inhumation to
cremation. The burial enclosure may, in fact, represent an eastern regional type for northern
Mirabello in the second half of the Early Iron Age; this same tomb type then later appears
further east at Kavousi in MG or LG and possibly at Praisos in EO.248
Although the burial enclosure became the primary form of burial at these sites at the
end of the EIA, its use and significance may have varied from site to site. At Dreros, the
graves were organized in one clearly defined cemetery and typically consisted of single
compartments with only one or two individuals per tomb. At Vrokastro, on the other hand,
the enclosures were comprised of one-five compartments, often with multiple burials, and
they were scattered around the settlement, frequently placed near older tholos tombs. The
number of burials per tomb is unknown at Anavlochos, though seven tombs were placed
together on top of a small hill. The Vrokastro, and possibly Anavlochos examples, like those
at Kavousi Vronda, actually show little distinction from the basic practices observed in the
former small tholos tombs, aside from the obvious new tomb form and widespread use of
cremation. In other words, the presence of multiple burials in most tombs, as well as the
association with earlier tholos tombs and even former houses at Vronda, implies that no
247
It is still possible that a large tholos could remain to be discovered at these sites. Burial enclosures may also
have existed at Meseleroi, though their identification has not been confirmed. In addition, the extent of pithos
burial at Anavlochos is unknown; in fact, their presence has not been confirmed.
248
It is not clear, however, how Meseleroi with its LG pits with pithoi and pseudotholoi fits into this picture.
Meseleroi, along with Milatos, continued beyond the Archaic period, while the other sites, including Kavousi
Azoria were all abandoned or destroyed by the end of the Archaic period.
351
significant change in ideology has yet taken place. The extended family still seems to have
been the most significant element socially. These tombs thus show no signs of developing
the larger ‘group’ or community identity often attributed to the polis, though the apparent
overall, widespread adoption of a new burial method and form may be indicative of the fact
that things are changing.249 At Dreros, however, the presence of a single, defined cemetery
area and lower number of burials per tomb could signify the beginning of an ideological
change, with the focus becoming more on a larger group or community, possibly even the
clan, as the site develops toward the polis.250
The settlements in the northern Mirabello area were placed on the outer edge of the
mountainous area in high commanding inaccessible locations, as also in the southern area.
Sjögren states that in the Mirabello region a true nucleated pattern developed only in the
Dreros mountains.251 Meseleroi was comprised of dispersed sites of different size in the
Early Iron Age and may not have become an urban center until the Classical period. In
addition, the settlement pattern of the Vrokastro area consisted of main settlements with a
halo of ancillary sites, rather than a cluster of equal sized sites as at Kavousi, which explains
the wide-distribution of EIA tombs.252 All of the sites in the Mirabello area, however, show
some signs of nucleation by the end of the period, with Anavlochos, Dreros, Milatos, and
Meseleroi eventually becoming poleis or at least large towns.
249
See for example, Morris 1987; Whitley 2001, 185-188. See also Wallace 2003, 268, who states that while
the extended lineage may have become more important during the PG-A periods, as a result of the formation of
larger-scale authorities based at the nucleated settlements, these family groups still felt a need to preserve their
own specific identities. This practice can be illustrated by the use at Vronda of old houses for some burial
enclosures.
250
As other contemporary burial types have not yet been found at Vrokastro, Dreros, or Anavlochos, it is not
possible to confirm that the burial enclosure was not restricted to a certain group of people.
251
Sjögren 2001, 124-127.
252
Hayden 1995, for Meseleroi; Hayden 2004, 146, for Vrokastro.
352
The Mirabello (north and south) and Ierapetra isthmus areas were important border
zones, and they thus exhibited the mixed traditions typical of such areas. The tombs in the
southern part of Mirabello are characterized more by their adherence to tradition, exhibited
especially in the continued use of the small tholos tombs. Those from the northern area,
however, show a greater degree of diversity in tomb type and burial practice; in fact, this may
have been the first area of the east to acquire new traditions and adapt to the changes which
first began occurring in central Crete, as perhaps seen in the early use of the burial enclosure
at Vrokastro, Anavlochos, and Dreros.253
Conclusion for East Crete
In eastern Crete, the majority of LM IIIC-SM burials were associated with
settlements located in relatively inaccessible mountainous locations. While the small tholos
was the characteristic tomb form in this early period for most sites in the Lasithi, west Siteia
mountain, and Mirabello regions, caves and rock shelters were most commonly used for
burial in the far eastern area. In general, the tombs dating to the beginning of the Early Iron
Age show little variety in type, construction, or manner of burial. Regional and local
differences are observable in the funerary material, however, such as the use of the masonry
enclosure on small tholoi in the Lasithi region. Also, the grave goods from these tombs do
not appear to show significant variation in degrees of wealth, with a few possible exceptions.
For the majority of sites, therefore, the overall similarities would seem to indicate the
presence of limited social diversity during the LM IIIC-SM period. Furthermore, these sites
were likely characterized by a typical ‘village’ organization based on lineage, with the
253
In addition, some sites in this region, such as Vrokastro, due to the proximity of a port, may have had direct
contacts with many areas of the Aegean, especially with mainland Greece, through small scale trade, exchange
of gifts, movement of population, etc. This may partially explain the presence of more elaborate (wealthier)
grave goods in several tombs (but especially Vrokastro T.I). Tsipopoulou, Vagnetti, Liston 2003, 110.
353
household or extended family forming the basic unit. In addition, certain sites, such as
Kavousi, Vrokastro, and Pefkoi, were characterized at this time by the presence of clusters of
villages or hamlets, attested partially by their multiple and scattered burial areas.254
Many of these defensible sites were abandoned by or during the Protogeometric
period, as nucleation started occurring at some of the remaining sites. Although changes
toward the development of the polis occurred later in the east than in central Crete, with the
city-state apparently not being established at any site before the Late Geometric period,255
potential signs of increasing social complexity are visible in some burials as early as PG; for
example, a limited number of tombs, as at Adromyloi, Chamaizi, Vrokastro, and Kavousi,
begin to stand out in wealth of grave goods during this period. As early as PGB, the switch
from inhumation in small tholoi to cremation in burial enclosures begins at Anavlochos,
Dreros, and Vrokastro in the northern Mirabello region, though the practice does not appear
to reach Kavousi in the west Siteia mountains until MG or LG. While the introduction of
new burial practices does not in and of itself necessarily indicate a changing socio-political
structure, the organization of these new burial enclosures within a specific cemetery area
may, as at Dreros and possibly at Kavousi. An additional indicator of increasing social
complexity at certain sites can be observed in the use of a single, large tholos at Kavousi and
Praisos in LG; at the time that these large tholoi were in use, the small tholos was no longer
the primary form of burial at either site, and settlements at both sites appear to have become
poleis in LG or A. In addition, Kavousi and especially Praisos are characterized by a
diversity of tomb types during this period.
254
E.g., Haggis 1996, 414; Prent 2005, 118-121. See also Wallace 2003, 268-271.
255
E.g., Whitley, Prent, and Thorne (1999, 252-253) consider the basic form of the city to have been established
at Praisos by LG. See also Haggis et al. 2004; 2006, for Azoria, where major changes did not occur until the
beginning of the Archaic period.
354
The late development of the polis at eastern sites may be partially attributable to the
nature of the village organization present at sites such as Kavousi and Vrokastro. This type
of socio-political organization appears to have created a much more stable environment than
that observed in central Crete, the result of which may thus have been a relatively smooth, or
at least slower, transition towards urbanization and the development of poleis-like towns,
with socio-political changes and new traditions being more gradually assimilated.256
Regardless of the rate of transition, a clear increase in social diversity and complexity is
visible at some sites by the end of the period; this is observed primarily in the appearance of
the large tholos, as well as greater diversity in tomb type and wealth of grave goods.
Central (area 5 on fig. 184)
Northern Area (zone 5a on fig. 184)
The northern area of central Crete contains burials at over 60 locations and with a
minimum of 525 tombs.257 The current evidence suggests that the majority of those sites
utilized only a single form of burial in the Early Iron Age; only chamber tombs have been
found at Elia, Phoinikia, Aitania, Tylissos, and possibly Kavrochori, Ag. Marina, and Kato
Vatheia, while only pits or pithos burials were found at Stavrakia, Stamnioi, Arkalochori,
256
There may also have been fewer outsiders (mainlanders, Dorians, etc.) in this area than in central Crete, or
else their arrival or influence was later, making any competition or power struggles less intense. Cf. Whitley
1991, who believes that such sites were “unstable.” See also Voutsaki 1998, who compares burial practices of
Messenia and the Argolid in the Mycenaean period. Cf. EIA east Crete development of the polis with MH-LH
Messenia, where a much smoother transition to emergence of palatial system appears to have occurred than in
the Argolid.
257
Tombs have been identified from approximately 31 sites. The sites considered to be in this region are Ag.
Marina, Ag. Pelagia, Kavrochori, Krousonas, Prinias, Stavrakia, Tylissos, Arkalochori, Aitania, Alitzani,
Anopolis, Elia, Episkopi, Kato Vatheia, Kounavoi, Koxari, Malia, Smari, Stamnioi, Vatheianos Kambos (?),
Zinda, Ag. Syllas, Ag. Vlasis, Archanes, Herakleion, Katsamba, Knossos, Mt. Juktas, Nea Halikarnassos,
Phoinikia, Prof. Ilias, and Tsangaraki. Lyttos is also considered to be in this regions, though it may belong
more with Lasithi, but no burials have yet been found.
355
Alitzani, Anopolis, Koxari, and possibly Episkopi, Smari, and Krousonas.258 It is possible,
however, that some of the sites had burials of both types; these tombs are often poorly
described in the sources and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between them (chambers
versus pits; pithoi in pits versus not in pits). Nearly all of these tombs contained cremation
burials, the pithoi and pits typically with only one individual per tomb and the chamber
tombs with one or multiple burials. Furthermore, chamber tombs were used throughout the
Early Iron Age, while the pit graves and pithos burials tended to be later in date, especially G
(LG), though there is some overlap. The extent of EIA burial at these sites is difficult to
determine, however, as none has been completely excavated, the majority of remains derive
from old excavations, and most of the finds and tomb information have not been published.
In addition, burials at certain other northern sites have been identified solely on the basis of
pottery observed in survey or brought to museums, such as Ag. Syllas, Ag. Vlasis,
Tsangaraki, Zinda, as well as most of the evidence from Mt. Juktas, and their tomb types thus
remain unknown.
For the majority of the above-mentioned sites, the settlement has not yet been located.
The large number of sites and scattered distribution of these tombs may, however, reflect the
settlement pattern for this region, as identified by Sjögren (for the 8th century at least), of
small, widespread villages and farmsteads.259 In addition to the presence of numerous small
villages, Nowicki has identified a few defensible settlements on hills in the area, including
Smari, Prinias, Krousonas, Profitis Ilias and Lyttos. The defensible sites in this area were far
258
The evidence from Ag. Pelagia seems to indicate that only chamber tombs were found, though the EIA finds
may actually represent the final phases of use of the LM IIIB cemetery.
259
Sjögren 2001, 111-114. In fact, Sjögren (2001, 112) states that the identification of densely scattered
habitation sites in the lowlands of this area is “mainly illustrated by the number of burial sites that must have
belonged to habitation sites which have yet to be discovered.”
356
less inaccessible than those sites found in the east, though geographically they still dominated
the areas around them.260 Furthermore, as opposed to the pattern observed in eastern and
western Crete, no defensible settlements were abandoned at the end of LM IIIC in central
Crete, and many expanded their borders rapidly during PG.261 The strongest sites of this type
became “the centers of a new settlement system,” as well as modified and put into place in
PG the foundations of the later system of the city-state; nucleated centers developed much
faster in central Crete than in the east, possibly because the cluster-type settlement pattern
identified at several eastern sites did not exist in this area.262 Among these sites, Knossos,
Prinias, Lyttos, and possibly Kounavoi eventually become poleis, while Krousonas, Ag.
Pelagia, and Profitis Ilias become large towns.
As a result of the nucleation process and population growth rapidly occurring at
certain north-central sites, more complex social structures were developing, one aspect of
which was the rise of emerging elites. This rapid development of new social and political
structures thus likely involved attempts by individuals or families to gain new dominance or
maintain old authority. The power struggles that occurred during this developmental period
may be reflected in some instances in an increasing distinction in burial types, grave goods
(especially at Knossos), and funerary rituals.263 Those sites with the greatest number of (i.e.,
260
Nowicki 2000, 241-242.
261
Nowicki (2000, 241-247) states that outsiders dominated central Crete first, with a quicker assimilation than
in the east.
262
Nowicki 2000, 246-247.
263
Cf. Preston 1999, 143, where a diversification of tomb types (at LM II Knossos, as well as on the mainland
in LH I and II) is interpreted as a response (and contributor) to social changes. Also Preston 2004, for LM I-IIIB
Crete. Coldstream and Catling (1996, 715-720) prefer to view the use of distinct grave types and goods in SM
Knossos to relect different elements of the population, though they also consider the wealthy pit cave burials to
provide evidence of a hierarchical society. For the most part, however, they see no real evidence for social
hierarchy within the North Cemetery, stating that with few exceptions “offering types repeat themselves almost
monotonously.” “The overwhelming impression of the North Cemetery’s Dark Age population is of individuals
357
variety in) tomb types (Knossos, Prinias, Kounavoi), for example, tend to be those which
develop into poleis at some time during the Early Iron Age, or at least make significant
developments towards the city-state during that period. This diversity in tomb type may, in
fact, be a possible indicator of social organization becoming increasingly complex at these
sites, though it could also show the presence of a mixed population.
The three sites with the greatest variety in tomb types all also contained tholoi of both
the large and small variety; the tholos is not the primary form of burial at any of these sites,
though it does appear to represent the second phase of burial at Prinias rather than a few
isolated examples.264 In fact, new tholoi appeared in north-central Crete during the Early
Iron Age at only these three sites (Knossos, Prinias, Kounavoi). The use of the tholos form
in this area of Crete appears to show some connection to old ideologies or a desire to be
associated with them; the re-use of BA tombs at both Knossos and Archanes, as well as the
Geometric re-use of or offerings in an LM III chamber tomb at Malia, may have served a
similar function.265 An elite distinction, or desire to be perceived as such, seems in particular
to have been associated with tholoi of the large variety in all areas of Crete in which they
appear. In contrast to eastern Crete, in the north-central part of the island there may also
have been a special meaning or significance attached to the tholos tomb in general, especially
when used late in the period. The fact that tholos tombs were so rare in this area in the Early
Iron Age may indicate that they were used by emerging, and potentially competing, elites as
who had much in common, not least their status, not all of whom were either able or willing to advertise their
success in life by the same degree of consumption in death as some of their peers.”
264
The widespread use of tholoi at Prinias may also be due to its location on the border with Rethymnon
Nomos, possibly indicating the influence of different traditions. In addition, Prinias was located on one of the
natural passages from the north coast to the south.
265
The apparent use of a true cist tomb at Malia is very unusual for the Early Iron Age on Crete. See also
Coldstream 1998, for evidence from the EIA Knossos North Cemetery of a reviving interest in the Minoan past.
358
a source of, or justification for, power or socio-political status, drawing on old symbols in
order to show a connection (real or perceived) with the past and/or old authority; this would
thus appear to provide a clear reflection of the increasing social diversity and complexity that
were occurring at certain sites during the period.266
Southern Area (zones 5b-c and border zones with Lasithi to the east and with Rethymnon to
the west)
The area to be discussed in this section consists of the Mesara, southern Lasithi
(included in the border zone with Lasithi to the east), and the border zone with Rethymnon to
the west. Early Iron Age burials have been identified from 17-18 sites, at approximately 30
locations with over 250 tombs.267 In terms of settlement patterns, while many rural
settlements of south-central Crete were abandoned in LM IIIB, settlement in the western
Mesara became polarized into two types in LM IIIC: large settlements in the plain (Phaistos
and Gortyn) and smaller sites (Vigla, Kourtes, Kophinas) in defensible mountain locations.268
Sjögren suggests that in the eighth century, and likely much earlier, a single site dominated a
part of the plain and various small sites in their vicinity; each of these sites eventually
developed into a polis or large urban center: Phaistos for the west, Gortyn for central, and
Arkades for the east.269 In addition, Nowicki states that while defensible settlements existed
266
See also Borgna 2003; Prent 2003; Wallace 2003, 268-271, 275-277. Also cf. Preston 1999, 143, for LM II
burials at Knossos. Prent (2003, 90, 97) indicates that ruin cults were more prevalent in central Crete than
eastern. These cults represented deliberate attempts at forming an association with the BA past, and they
“provided instruments for articulation and legitimization of the claims to power and authority of rising
aristocratic groups.”
267
Area 5b consists of Ag. Deka, Ampelouzos, Gortyn, Petrokephali, Valis (?), Ag. Triada (possible offerings),
Kamilari, Phaistos, and Sivas, and area 5c includes Ag. Paraskies, Ligortynos, and Rotasi. The eastern border
zone has Arkades, Erganos, Nipiditos (?), and Panagia, though Arvi and Viannos could arguably be included
here instead of with south Mirabello, and the western border zone contains Kamares and Kourtes.
268
Watrous et al. 2004, 307-314. They further suggest that the smaller sites may have been perioikic
communities dependent on the polis of Phaistos or Gortyn.
359
in this area, as in the northern area, they were far less inaccessible than in the east, and a less
dramatic shift in settlement occurred during the Early Iron Age, with inhabitants often
moving only from the summit to foothills of same hill.270 From among the EIA sites in the
southern area, defensible settlements existed at Kourtes, Ligortynos, Gortyn, Arkades,
Erganos, and Panagia, and poleis eventually developed at Phaistos, Gortyn, Arkades, and
possibly Rotasi.
The sites in southern Lasithi tend follow the same pattern as that observed within the
Lasithi plateau further east, in that they were short-term defensible settlements with small
tholoi containing a few inhumation burials. Arkades, which is located on the border between
southern Lasithi and central Crete, differs from this pattern slightly. While the earliest tombs
at the site, and also at Panagia, consist solely of small tholoi, the later tombs are comprised
mainly of pithos burials and a few large tholoi; a large percentage of tombs of both types,
however, appear to be of post-EIA date.271 Arkades began as a small defensible settlement
like other sites in Lasithi, but following an increase in its size and population, after the
abandonment of other settlements in the area, it apparently developed into a polis by the end
of the EIA. Clear distinctions are visible at Arkades in the small number of large, wealthy
tholoi (with multiple burials, imported grave goods, and elaborate architectural constructions)
and the typical covered pithoi with single burials and few grave goods. While tombs of both
types occur in a single, large cemetery, the large tholoi are concentrated in a specific area of
the site; furthermore, these tholoi, as at certain northern sites, may have represented an
attempt by current aristocratic families or members of the ruling class to assert their authority
269
Sjögren 2001, 115-116.
270
Nowicki 2000, 241-247. Nowicki further states that no LM IIIC sites were abandoned in the Mesara.
271
Two pit graves, two pseudotholoi, and three possible burial enclosures have also been identified at Arkades.
360
or status, or else a desire by old notable families, not necessarily currently in power, to
present an image of retained influence and authority. Such distinctions, however, are really
just beginning to appear at the end of the Early Iron Age at this site, as at the few polis sites
in the eastern part of the island, and they become more pronounced in the period immediately
following.
The sites in the mountainous border zone with Rethymnon to the west show many
similarities to those observed in southern Lasithi and other areas in eastern Crete, as well as
certain locations in the Rethymnon region, especially the Amari area. Kamares and Kourtes
were both characterized by the use of small tholos tombs, which were likely associated with
defensible settlements. Each site, however, has features which distinguish it slightly from
other sites with small tholoi. Kourtes is unusual in its primarily PG date and the possible
presence of one large tholos. The Kamares tholoi, on the other hand, appear to date primarily
from LM IIIA-C, and one PG pithos burial has also been recovered from the area, though its
tomb type is unknown. Kamares and Kourtes provide good examples of border zone sites, in
that the small tholos form is like that commonly found to the west in the Amari area, while
the possible large tholos and pithos burial are more reminiscent of tomb types found
immediately to the south in the western Mesara.
As at Arkades and other future polis sites in north-central Crete, the largest and most
dominant sites of the Mesara also show variety in tomb type and location; Gortyn (with Ag.
Deka) contains a single large tholos and pits/pithoi and Phaistos (with Petrokephali) has pits,
chamber tombs, and one large tholos. The burials from these sites were mostly cremations
and their general features show many similarities with examples found at sites in the northern
area. Notably, each of these sites contained a single, large tholos tomb, containing many
361
cremations, and Phaistos also had one unusually large rock-cut chamber tomb. As previously
mentioned with the northern burials and Arkades, the large tholos tomb may be illustrative of
the emerging elites at these sites; in particular, the presence of a single or limited number of
relatively wealthy, large tombs with many burials, as opposed to small pit or pithos burials
typically with only one or two individuals, may indicate the emergence of elite groups or
families, rather than just individuals. The importance of establishing a link, real or
perceived, with the Bronze Age past is illustrated not only by the extremely limited use of the
tholos form in this area, but also by the potential EIA offerings found at a single Bronze Age
tomb at both Kamilari and Ag. Triada.272
The sites of Rotasi, Ag. Paraskies, and Ligortynos may form a small subregion within
the larger area of central Crete (area 5c on fig. 184). Each of these sites contains a single
tomb which shares many features with the large tholoi of the nearby Mesara but on a smaller
scale. Rotasi and Ag. Paraskies each had a single, well-built small tholos with circular
chamber of PG-EO/O date, and both tombs contained a large number of cremation burials.
Although two other small tholoi are known from Rotasi, the majority of burials from the site
appear to have been in a pithos cemetery, and the only other known burial from Ag.
Paraskies was found in a rock hollow. A single chamber tomb has also been excavated at
Ligortynos, but it had many features of the large tholoi, namely monolithic jambs and lintel,
a circular chamber, late date (PGB-LG), and probably a large number of cremation burials.
The selected tombs from these sites thus show more similarities in style, construction, date,
and manner of burial with the large tholos tombs of the central Mesara and its northern
border than with any other area. It is possible that the presence at each of these sites of a
272
See also Prent 2003, for ruin cults at old palace sites.
362
single, noteworthy tomb may reflect an imitation, albeit on a smaller scale, of the ‘elite’
practices observed at the larger, more dominant sites in north and south central Crete.
In addition, of the remaining sites in south-central Crete, the burial evidence from
Ampelouzos, Sivas, and Nipiditos derives solely from survey or pottery brought to the
museum, at Kamilari the type of PG tomb found with a pithos burial remains unknown, and
EIA burial in the BA tomb at Valis has not been confirmed.
Conclusion for Central Crete
While distinctions exist in mortuary behavior and settlement patterns between the
northern and southern areas of central Crete, overall the similarities between the two regions
are most noteworthy. In both areas, a limited number of sites appears to have become
dominant, or at least larger than most other sites in the area, relatively early in the period.
The limited use of the large tholos tomb, as well as the presence of offerings at certain
Bronze Age tombs and former palatial ruins, appear to have served the same function
throughout central Crete, namely deliberate association with the past. These tombs, and
perhaps the offerings as well, were potentially used as a means of acquiring or justifying
authority or status in the midst of the developing social and political structures of the Early
Iron Age. Furthermore, this tomb type was particularly associated with those sites which
eventually became poleis. Changes occurred much more swiftly in central Crete than in the
east, thus making the use of such symbols potentially even more significant or influential in
this area. Although the majority of sites in central Crete show an overall similarity in
funerary tradition, some sites, especially those found at the southwest and southeast border
zones of the region, show characteristics more typical of the immediately adjacent areas
363
(namely, the traditions of the Amari region to the west and of the Lasithi Mountains to the
east).
Far Western (area 7 of fig. 184)
Relatively few Early Iron Age burials, and relatively few EIA sites of any type for
that matter, have been identified thus far from the westernmost region of Crete, and all
known tombs have been found in the northern part of the area. Only a total of 10 possible
burial sites at up to 14 locations and more than 31 tombs have been uncovered in the Chania
Nomos.273 No Early Iron Age tholoi have yet been found in this area of the island, and the
majority of sites contain only a single type of tomb, either chamber tombs or pithos graves,
similar to the pattern seen in the northern Herakleion region. Astrikas, Gavalomouri,
Kavousi, Vouves, and possibly Kissamos are currently known to have had only chamber
tombs; these tombs range in date from LPG-EO, and inhumation appears to have been the
primary form of burial, though some cremation did occur. Pithos burial in pits is the sole
form of interment found thus far at Aptera (LG-EO), Chania (PG, LG), and possibly
Mousouras (SM/PG), and inhumation also appears to have been the primary funerary rite at
these sites. Both burial types (chamber tombs and a child burial in a pithos) were found at
Vryses, while Modi (PG-G) showed the greatest variety in tomb type, with chambers, pits,
burial under overhanging rock, and pithos burials. Unfortunately, none of these sites has
been well-published, making an analysis or identification of patterns in burial practice
difficult for this region.
Settlements in the westernmost region of Crete are located primarily in the lowland
and are in general not of the defensible type; in fact, according to Nowicki, Ag. Georgios
273
Sites in this area include Aptera, Astrikas, Gavalomouri, Kavousi, Kissamos, Vouves, Chania, Modi,
Mousouras, and Vryses.
364
Vryses (LM IIIC-A) is the only possible defensible site in this area, located between two
plains for which it could have controlled communication.274 For this region, Sjögren has
identified a dispersed settlement pattern, comparable to that found on the north coast of
central Crete, which persisted in the area until nucleation began in the 6th century B.C.
Furthermore, she considers a pattern of possible urban agglomerations with access to the sea
to have characterized certain areas in the north beginning by the end of the 8th c., while small,
scattered habitation sites characterized the interior; this pattern differs from that of central
Crete where urban sites were found at strategic, inland locations.275 Of the known sites with
burials in the westernmost part of Crete, Aptera and Chania were relatively large towns in
LG, and both would eventually become poleis.276 In addition, Andreadaki-Vlasaki has
identified a possible large village settlement pattern for several of the other sites in the
region, in which neighboring settlements, such as Modi/Vryses and Gavalomouri/Vouves,
together eventually formed one autonomous city or belonged to a polis.277
Those sites at which only chamber tombs were found thus appear to fit into the
category of dispersed habitation sites, with Gavalomouri/Vouves perhaps being of the type
identified by Andreadaki-Vlasaki; the limited available information suggests that these tombs
contained few imports, and that loomweights, skuttles, weapons, and whetstones may have
been significant or characteristic grave goods for this area. Of those sites with pithoi in pits
274
Nowicki 2000, 214. See also Moody 1987, 2004.
275
Sjögren 2001, 118-119.
276
Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1991, 405-410, 415. The main settlement at Chania appears to have been abandoned
sometime in LM IIIC and may not have been re-inhabited until LG. See also Borgna 2003, 168.
277
Andreadaki-Vlasaki (1985, 12-14, 30, 33; 1991, 420) states that Vryses and/or Modi may have been ancient
Pergamon, while the city of Gavalomouri/Vouves is unknown, possibly Polichna. She also states that Kavousi
may have belonged to Phalasarna, which was probably founded around this time, though the distance between
the two is somewhat large.
365
only, both Aptera and Chania were large towns which later became poleis and may not have
been founded until LG. In addition, the two sites with the greatest variability in mortuary
practices (Vryses and especially Modi) appear to have been associated with each other,
perhaps belonging to the defensible settlement at Ag. Georgios Vryses, which may later have
become the ancient city-state of Pergamon.
The lack of tholoi in the Chania region during the Early Iron Age would seem to
represent a continuation of the predominant LM tradition in the area of using primarily large
and small rock-cut chamber tombs for burials. The poor dating and lack of publication of the
EIA tombs, however, makes any identification of a switch from predominately chamber
tombs to predominately pithos burials at the end of the period tentative. Furthermore, it
remains unclear whether the paucity of sites and tombs, especially in the southern part of this
region, is due primarily to a depopulation or movement of people, the changing political
situation at the time, difficulty in identifying sites due to the type of vegetation found in
many areas, or destruction caused by previous exploration in the area.278
In conclusion, many similarities exist between the burials of the westermost region
and those found in central Crete; these similarities are perhaps due to the level of previous
“Mycenaean” presence or influence in the area, as partially illustrated by the elements of
continuity in the burial tradition. One of the primary factors distinguishing the westernmost
burials from those of central Crete is the persistence of inhumation throughout the period,
though cremation does occur; the presence of certain unusual grave goods, such as skuttles
and loomweights, may also represent significant variations in the funerary tradition between
these two areas. While such distinctions do exist, overall the mortuary traditions of north
central and far western Crete exhibit many similarities; far more differences in funerary
278
See for example, Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1991, 42.
366
tradition are visible, however, between the westernmost region and the west-central region
(Rethymnon).
West-Central (area 6 on fig. 184)
This region includes the sites of Atsipades, Koxare, Orne, Mesonisia, Pantanassa,
Thronos, Eleutherna, Mesi, and Rethymnon with approximately 50-100 known Early Iron
Age tombs.279 The small tholos may have been the primary tomb type at several sites: Orne,
Pantanassa, where a pithos burial was also found, and possibly Koxare, though the burials
from this site may have been associated with the Atsipades settlement. None of these has
been fully excavated, however, and so the presence of other tomb types remains unknown.
In addition, the burials at these sites may represent a continuation of the Amari tradition of
small tholos tombs, as also seen at Kamares and Kourtes in the border zone with southcentral Crete.280 Furthermore, all of the known tholoi from this area are LM IIIC-SM in date
and associated with defensible settlements; Pantanassa does eventually become a large town,
possibly the polis of Veni or Phalanna.
An Early Iron Age date for the burials in the rock shelter at Mesonisia is by no means
certain, and any potential EIA presence at Mesi (a single LM IIIC amphora) would merely
reflect the final phase of burial in an LM III cemetery. Furthermore, the burials at Thronos,
which becomes a large town or polis, are of an unknown type. In addition, cremation urn
cemeteries were found at Atsipades, which is unusual in its early date (LM IIIC) and early
use of cremation, and Rethymnon, which is said to be Geometric in date, though this has not
been confirmed. While the associated settlement of the Rethymnon burials has not yet been
identified, the Atsipades cemetery belonged to a nearby defensible settlement. Finally,
279
The number of excavated tombs of this date at Eleutherna remains unpublished.
280
Kanta 1997, 2003. The Pantanassa burial is somewhat unusual in its contents, however.
367
Eleutherna is the most striking site of this region in its unusual burial types, consisting of a
large chamber tomb, burial mounds, open burials, pithoi, and enclosures; this site also
belonged to a defensible settlement in the Early Iron Age, though it later became a polis. The
Eleutherna cemetery is unusual in its apparent distinctions of burial type and grave goods
based upon age and sex. It is unclear, however, exactly what percentage of the burials from
the Orthe Petra cemetery date to the Early Iron Age; in fact, the majority appear to date just
after this period.
The area of west-central Crete was thus characterized throughout much of the Early
Iron Age by the presence of defensible settlements; in fact, Nowicki mentions the
continuation of LM IIIC defensible settlements in this region, and substantial growth during
PG, at both Thronos and Pantanassa, while Atsipades was abandoned at the end of LM IIIC,
and Orne early in IIIC, followed by a dispersion of settlement through the valleys below the
site.281 Similarly, Sjögren describes this area, in the 8th century at least, as being
characterized in both the coastal areas and the mountain interior by a dispersed pattern of
small village settlements of fairly equal status.282 Polis development does occur, however, at
Eleutherna, Thronos, both of which were on the main route from the north to the Mesara, and
possibly Pantanassa.
Based on the limited available information, west-central Crete in the Early Iron Age
thus appears to have been a mixed area, influenced simultaneously by several different tomb
types and burial traditions. For example, a few early sites in the southeastern part of the
region appear to have been influenced by the previous LM tradition of small tholos tombs, as
also seen slightly further east at Kourtes and Kamares. On the other hand, the LM IIIC
281
Nowicki 2000, 191-194.
282
Sjögren 2001, 119-121.
368
cremation urn cemetery at Atsipades is unique for the entire island, as are certain later burial
practices from Eleutherna. It is difficult, however, to determine any regional patterns in the
funerary information, due to the small number of known and published sites.
Overall conclusion
The Early Iron Age on Crete was a period of transition, comprising the years after the
final collapse of the palatial system in LM IIIB up to the development of the polis by the
Archaic period. Over the course of this period, significant changes occurred in settlement
patterns, ritual contexts, as well as in mortuary practices. EIA burial practices varied
considerably throughout the island, as illustrated by the presence of numerous different tomb
types, including the tholos, chamber tomb, pit grave, cave and rock shelter, pithos, pit cave,
shaft grave, burial enclosure, cist grave, pseudotholos, intramural burial, mound/pyre burial,
and cremation under a cairn of stones. An analysis of these tomb types, as well as the burial
and grave good information, reveals new evidence regarding the extent of cultural diversity
on the island during the Early Iron Age.
In this period, Crete was characterized by profound regionalism, as clearly indicated
by the mortuary practices. Many of the variations in funerary tradition seem to follow
geographical boundaries; for example, sites in the vicinity of transportation routes and other
border zones often show the greatest degree of diversity from site to site, while traditional
burial practices tend to be preserved for the longest in the most mountainous areas.
Relatively distinct identifiable mortuary regions are: 1. Lasithi, 2. far eastern, 3. west Siteia
mountains, 4. Mirabello (especially northern), 5. north and south central, 6. far western, and
7. west-central Crete. The most prominent transitional zones are the western and eastern
369
(especially southwestern and southeastern) edges of central Crete, the area around the northsouth transportation route from Siteia to Ierapetra, and the Ierapetra isthmus.
The regional variability in Cretan burial practices can also be seen as reflecting the
settlement patterns observed in the different areas of the island; this study thus serves to
supplement recent works on Early Iron Age settlement patterns and cult practice. One of the
most significant aspects of the EIA is that it comprises the formative period for the
development of the polis, with the city-state potentially existing at several sites by the end of
the period or shortly thereafter. The funerary evidence from the majority of sites, especially
in the east, appears to reflect limited social stratification and a relatively ‘simple’ sociopolitical organization at the beginning of the period. Over the course of the Early Iron Age,
however, movement is made toward the development of the polis or large nucleated centers;
this was accompanied by, or resulted from, population growth, increasing social complexity,
and a more hierarchical socio-political organization. These changes may be indicated in the
mortuary record by features such as variations in tomb type at a single site, increasing
diversity in wealth of grave goods, and the use of the large tholos tomb (in central and
eastern Crete). Socio-political developments, as well as the concomitant changes in
settlement patterns and burial practices, however, did not occur consistently throughout the
island; some areas adopted new features at a slower rate than others, and outside or new
influences were manifested in a variety of ways, depending upon location and previous
tradition in a region.
One of the goals of this study was to assemble all of the known Early Iron Age Cretan
burials and to provide an initial analysis of the funerary material. It is hoped that this
analysis will contribute to future studies of this transitional period. Many related areas of
370
research were beyond the scope of this dissertation. Areas for future research include an
analysis of the relationship between Early Iron Age Cretan burials and those from the
mainland and nearby islands, especially Rhodes and Cyprus. Also, a detailed analysis of a
specific region of Crete may allow for more definitive conclusions with regard to grave
goods. Furthermore, re-dating and publishing the pottery from many old burial excavations
on the basis of recent finds and ceramic analyses may allow for more precise sequencing of
the tomb material; this information would then allow for more detailed or accurate
conclusions about mortuary practices over the course of the Early Iron Age. Finally, the role
of “Minoan” and “Mycenaean” symbols in the changing socio-political structure on EIA
Crete should be explored in greater detail.
371
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Tsipopoulou and L. Vagnetti (eds.), Achladia. Scavi e ricerche della Missione GrecoItaliana in Creta Orientale (1991-1993). Rome, 115-128.
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Aerial Atlas of Ancient Crete. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 272-275.
----------. 1993. “Φαδ σμ.” ArchDelt 48 (B’2):445.
----------. 1994-1996. “ ΰ. ΙπΪθθβμ Φαδ κτ.” Kritike Estia 5:334-336.
Viviers, D. 1997. “Itanos.” ArchDelt 52 (B’3): 1052-1053.
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409
----------. 2003. “The Perpetuated Past: Re-use or Continuity in Material Culture and the
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411
Figure 1. Map of Aegean with study area
Figure 2. Districts of Crete
412
Figure 3. Early Iron Age chronology
(Whitley 2001, 62)
413
Figure 4. Map of burial sites (site numbers correspond to numbers used in Chapter 3)
414
Figure 5. Section and plan of Papoura tholos
(Watrous 1980, 274, fig. 5)
Figure 6. View of Papoura tholos
(Watrous 1980, plate 23b)
415
Figure 7. View of Papoura tholos (wall of masonry enclosure)
(Watrous 1980, plate 23c)
Figure 8. Map of Karphi
(Nowicki 2000, 160, fig. 90)
416
Figure 9. Plan of Ta Mnimata cemetery at Karphi
(Nowicki 1996, 46, fig. 10)
417
Figure 10. Plan of Karphi tombs
(Pendlebury et al. 1937-1938, plate XII)
Figure 11. Plan of Karphi tombs
(Pendlebury et al. 1937-1938, plate XIII)
Figure 12. View of Karphi tomb M.17
(Photo by author)
418
Figure 13. Interior of Karphi tomb M.17
(Photo by author)
Figure 14. View of Karphi tomb M.16
(Photo by author)
419
Figure 15. View of Karphi tomb M.8 and enclosure
(Photo by author)
Figure 16. View of Karphi tomb M.A and enclosure
(Photo by author)
420
Figure 17. Plan of Adrianos tholos tomb
(Nowicki 2000, 119, fig. 56)
Figure 18. Map of Anavlochos
(A-area of settlement; B1-Lami burial enclosures; B2-tholoi; C-Kako Plai)
(Demargne 1931, 369, fig. 4)
421
Figure 19. Drawing of Anavlochos tholos on hill B2
(Demargne 1931, 375, fig. 10)
Figure 20. Plan of Anavlochos burial enclosures on hill B1
(Demargne 1931, 375, fig. 11)
422
Figure 21. Plan of Dreros cemetery
(van Effenterre 1948, plate V)
Figure 22. Plan of Dreros tomb 8
(after van Effenterre 1948, plate XLII)
Figure 23. View of Dreros tomb 11
(van Effenterre 1948, plate XLIII)
423
Figure 24. View of Dreros tomb 11 (?)
(photo by author)
Figure 25. Plan of Kritsa tomb A
(Belli 2006, 281, fig. 2b)
Figure 26. Section of Kritsa tomb A
(Belli 2006, 281, fig. 2a)
424
Figure 27. View of Kritsa tomb A
(Belli 2003, 329, fig. 16)
Figure 28. Plan of Kritsa tomb B
(Belli 2006, 280, fig. 1b)
Figure 29. Section of Kritsa tomb B
(Belli 2006, 280, fig. 1a)
425
Figure 30. Map of Vrokastro
(Hall 1914, plate 17)
Figure 31. Plan of Vrokastro tholos tomb I (Karakovilia)
(Hall 1914, 124, fig. 74)
426
Figure 32. Plan of Vrokastro burial enclosure 3 (Karakovilia)
(Hall 1914, 155, fig. 94)
Figure 33. View of Vrokastro tholos I (Karakovilia-VK2)
(photo by author)
Figure 34. Plan of possible burial enclosure 7 at Vrokastro Kopranes
(Hayden 2005, fig. 20)
427
Figure 35. View of tholos tomb at Zenia
(Eliopoulos 1998c, plate 389b)
Figure 36. Plan of Chalasmenos tholos tomb
(Coulson and Tsipopoulou 1994, 83, fig. 17)
428
Figure 37. View of Chalasmenos tholos
(photo by author)
Figure 38. Map of Kavousi area
(Gesell et al. 1983, 392, fig. 2)
429
Figure 39. Plan and section of Kavousi Aloni tomb I
(Gesell et al. 1983, 411, fig. 10)
Figure 40. View of Kavousi Aloni tomb I
(photo by author)
430
Figure 41. View of Kavousi Aloni tomb IV
(photo by author)
Figure 42. Map of Kavousi Aloni and Plai tou Kastrou
(Gesell et al. 1983, 410, fig. 9)
431
Figure 43. View of Kavousi Azoria tholos
(photo by author)
Figure 44. Interior of Azoria Tholos
(photo by author)
432
Figure 45. Plan and section of Kavousi
Skouriasmenos tholos
(Boyd 1901, 144, fig. 8)
Figure 46. Interior of Skouriasmenos
tholos
(photo by author)
Figure 47. Interior stomion of Skouriasmenos tholos
(photo by author)
433
Figure 48. View of Kavousi Skouriasmenos tholos
(photo by author)
Figure 49. Map of Kavousi Vronda
(Gesell et al. 1983, 395, fig. 3)
434
Figure 50. View of Kavousi Vronda tholos IV
(photo by author)
Figure 51. Interior of Vronda tholos IV
(photo by author)
435
Figure 52. Exterior of Vronda tholos V
(photo by author)
Figure 53. View of Vronda tholos II
(photo by author)
436
Figure 54. View of Vronda tholos III
(photo by author)
Figure 55. Plan of Vronda with location of burial enclosures
(Gesell et al. 1995, 69, fig. 1)
437
Figure 56. Plan of Vronda building J with burial enclosures
(Gesell et al 1991, 149, fig. 2)
Figure 57. View of Vronda building J
(photo by author)
438
Figure 58. Plan of Meseleroi Petrou Phrameno burials
(Apostolakou 1994, 751, fig. 3)
Figure 59. View of Meseleroi burial 7
(Apostolakou 1994, plate 175e)
Figure 60. View of Meseleroi burial 3
(Apostolakou 1994, plate 175d)
439
Figure 61. View of Schoinokapsala tholos
(Apostolakou 1986, plate 153b)
Figure 62. Plan of Vasiliki Kamaraki tholos
(Tsipopoulou et al. 2003, 89, fig. 3)
Figure 63. View of Kamaraki tholos
(photo by author)
440
Figure 64. View of Adromyloi tholos
(BCH 1955, 309, fig. 4)
Figure 65. Plan of Ag. Georgios chamber tombs
(Tsipopoulou 1987, figure 1)
Figure 66. View of Ag. Georgios chamber tomb
(photo by author)
441
Figure 67. Plan of Ag. Spyridon cave
(Tsipopoulou 1987, fig. 2)
Figure 68. View of interior stomion of Chamaizi tomb V
(photo by author)
442
Figure 69. Plan of Itanos north necropolis (SP9=EIA pit grave)
(Greco et al. 1997, 815, fig. 3)
Figure 70. Keel-vaulted tomb (“Isopata type”) at Krya
(Kanta and Davaras 2004, 151, fig. 3)
443
Figure 71. Pseudotholos from Krya (in Ag. Nikolaos Museum)
(photo by author)
Figure 72. Plan of Mouliana tomb A
(Xanthoudides 1904, fig. 5a)
Figure 73. Section of Mouliana tomb A
(Xanthoudides 1904, fig. 5b)
444
Figure 74. View of Mouliana tomb A
(photo by author)
Figure 75. Interior of Mouliana A
(photo by author)
Figure 76. View of Mouliana tomb B
(photo by author)
445
Figure 77. Map of Orino (4-IIIB/C rock shelter; 5-Evans’ tombs)
(Nowicki 2000, 74, fig. 26)
Figure 78. Map of Pefkoi (6, 9, 10-location of tholoi)
(Nowicki 2000, 65, fig. 20)
446
Figure 79. Plans of Pefkoi tholoi 1-2
(Nowicki 1994, 264, fig. 19)
Figure 80. Plans of Pefkoi tholoi 3-5
(Nowicki 1994, 265, fig. 20)
Figure 81. View of Pefkoi tomb 10 (?)
(photo by author)
Figure 82. View of Pefkoi tholos tomb
(photo by author)
447
Figure 83. Tholos tomb at Pefkoi
(photo by author)
Figure 84. Map of Praisos area
(Whitley et al. 1999, 219, fig. 2)
448
Figure 85. Map of Praisos
(Whitley 1992, 257, fig. 37.1)
Figure 86. Plan/section of Praisos A
(Bosanquet 1901-1902, 241, fig. 8)
Figure 87. Plan and section of Praisos Photoula tholos
(Platon 1960a, 304, fig. 1)
449
Figure 88. View of Praisos Photoula tholos
(Orlandos 1960, 211, fig. 240)
Figure 89. Plan of Praisos C
(Bosanquet 1901-1902, 249,
fig. 20)
Figure 90. Plan of Praisos Skales Cave
(Papadakis and Rutkowski 1985, 130, fig. 1)
450
Figure 91. View of Skopi tholos
(Davaras 1972, plate 604b)
Figure 92. Plan and section of Sphakia tholos
(Platon 1965, 295, fig. 2)
451
Figure 93. Map of Gortyn
(DiVita 1992, 98, fig. 12.1)
Figure 94. Exterior view of Gortyn tholos
(Daux 1967, 793, fig. 1)
452
Figure 95. Interior view of Gortyn tholos
(Daux 1967, 793, fig. 2)
Figure 96. Kourtes tholos (#1)
(Halbherr 1901a, 290, fig. 18)
Figure 97. Kourtes tholos (#2)
(Halbherr 1901a, 291, fig. 20)
Figure 98. Plan and section of Kourtes tholos (large type?)
(Taramelli 1901a, 298, fig. 2)
453
Figure 99. Plan of eastern sector of phase II necropolis at Prinias
(DiVita et al. 1984, 154, fig. 268)
Figure 100. Section and plan of grave F at Prinias
(DiVita et al. 1984, 155, fig. 270)
454
Figure 101. Plan of Prinias tomb D
(DiVita et al. 1984, 158, fig. 275)
Figure 102. Interior of Prinias D
(DiVita et al. 1984, 158, fig. 276)
Figure 103. View of Prinias tomb AN
(Rizza 1973b, plate 548c)
Figure 104. View of Prinias AQ
(Rizza 1973b, plate 548d)
455
Figure 105. Plan of enclosure, tumulus and pit graves (K, 207, 232) at Prinias
(DiVita et al. 1984, 153, fig. 267)
Figure 106. View of Prinias burial enclosures
(photo by author)
456
Figure 107. Section of Prinias tomb BA
(Rizza 1978, 121, fig. 33)
Figure 108. View of Prinias K
(Rizza 1978, 120, fig. 32)
Figure 109. View of Prinias tomb W
(DiVita 1984, 165, fig. 294)
Figure 110. View of Rotasi 1958 tholos
(Daux 1959, 733, fig. 3)
Figure 111. Plan/section of Rotasi 1994
(Galanaki 1993, 467, fig. 12)
457
Figure 112. Plan and section of Ag. Paraskies tholos
(Platon 1945-1947, 48, fig. 1)
Figure 113. Plan of Arkades necropolis
(Levi 1927-1929, plate IV)
458
Figure 114. Plan of Arkades tomb B
(Levi 1927-1929, 179, fig. 198d)
Figure 115. Plan of Arkades M
(Levi 1927-1929, 304, fig. 404)
Figure 116. Plan and section of Arkades tomb R
(after Levi 1927-1929, plate V)
459
Figure 117. View of paved roof of Arkades R
(Levi 1927-1929, 206, fig. 229)
Figure 118. Types of Arkades pithos burials
(Levi 1927-1929, 81, fig. 57)
460
Figure 119. Map of Erganos area (tombs marked with +)
(Nowicki 2000, 144, fig. 77)
Figure 120. Plan of Erganos tholos
(Halbherr 1901a, 272, fig. 6)
461
Figure 121. View of Erganos tomb 3
(photo by author)
Figure 122. View of Erganos tomb 4
(photo by author)
Figure 123. View of Erganos tomb 5
(photo by author)
462
Figure 124. Plan of Kounavoi cemetery and section of tholos 10
(Rethemiotakis and Demopoulou 1993, 464, fig. 11)
Figure 125. View of Kounavoi T. 10
(Rethemiotakis and Demopoulou 1993,
plate 146b)
Figure 126. View of Kounavoi Pit
(Galanaki 1993, plate 147a)
463
Figure 127. Plan of Krasi tholos B
(Eliopoulos 1998b, 92, fig. 3)
Figure 128. View of Krasi tholos B
(photo by author)
464
Figure 129. Plan of Panagia cemetery
(Levi 1927-1929, 390, fig. 500)
Figure 130. Section of Panagia tholos
(Halbherr 1901a, 285, fig. 12)
Figure 131. View of Panagia tholos
(Halbherr 1901a, 286, fig. 13)
465
Figure 132. Plan of Stamioi pithos burials
(Platon 1952a, 630, fig. 11)
Figure 133. View of Stamnioi pithos
(Platon 1952a, 630, fig. 10)
Figure 134. Plan and section of Kamares tholos
(Taramelli 1901a, 441, fig. 2)
466
Figure 135. Map of Phaistos area (1-Phaistos; 2-Ag. Triada; 51-Petrokephali;
59-Mulino; 89-Logiadi; 92-Sivas cemetery; 103-Liliana; 104-Kalyvia)
(Watrous et al. 2004, 312, fig. 11.3)
Figure 136. Plan and section of Phaistos Ag. Ioannis tholos
(Vasilakis 1993, 447, fig. 2)
467
Figure 137. View of Phaistos Kalyviani tomb
(Chatzi-Vallianou 1979, plate 193)
Figure 138. Plan of Phaistos Liliana
tomb D
(Gerola 1902, 327)
Figure 139. Stone burial urn from
Archanes Phythies
(Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1987, 35 fig. 9)
468
Figure 140. Map of Archanes and Juktas area
(Sapouna-Sakellaraki 1990, 69, fig. 2)
Figure 141. Plan of Herakleion
Atsalenio tomb A
(Davaras 1968, 134, fig. 1)
Figure 142. View of Atsalenio tomb A
(Davaras 1968, plate 30a)
469
Figure 143. Map of Knossos area
(Coldstream 1994, 107, fig. 1)
Figure 144. Plan of Knossos Ambelakia tomb
(Alexiou 1950, 295, fig. 1)
470
Figure 145. Plan of Knossos North Cemetery
(Coldstream and Catling 1996, fig. 1)
Figure 146. Plan of TFT tomb
at Knossos Fortetsa (NC)
(Brock 1957, plate 152)
Figure 147. Plan of tomb VII
at Knossos Fortetsa
(Brock 1957, plate 157)
471
Figure 148. Plan of Knossos North Cemetery T.283
(Coldstream and Catling 1996, fig. 49)
Figure 149. Plan of Knossos Teke tholos and chamber tombs
(Hutchinson 1954, 215, fig. 1)
Figure 150. Plan of KNC pit T.280
(Coldstream and Catling 1996, fig. 48)
Figure 151. Plan of KNC pit cave
T.200-202
(Coldstream and Calting 1996, fig. 43)
472
Figure 152. Plan of KNC shaft
grave T.153
(Coldstream and Catling 1996, fig.43)
Figure 153. Stone ash urn from Juktas
Kato Lakkos
(Orlandos 1978, 61, fig. 70)
Figure 154. View of Atsipades burials
(Petroulakis 1915, 50, fig. 3)
473
Figure 155. Plan of Orne tholos
(Kanta and Stampolidis 2001, 98, fig. 3)
Figure 156. Interior view of Orne tholos
(Kanta and Stampolidis 2001, 99, fig. 4)
Figure 157. View of Pantanassa tholos
(Tegou 2001, 123, fig. 4)
474
Figure 158. Plan and section of Pantanassa tholos
(Tegou 2001, 125, fig. 5b-c)
Figure 159. Plan of Eleutherna necropolis
(Stampolidis 2004, 119, fig. 3)
475
Figure 160. View of Eleutherna chamber
tomb (A1K1)
(Stampolidis 2004, 123, fig. 8)
Figure 162. Reconstruction of earth
tumulus of pyre A (tomb ΛΛ) at
Eleutherna
(Stampolidis 1996, 91, fig. 151)
Figure 161. Plan of Eleutherna
chamber tomb
(Stampolidis 2004, 123, fig. 9)
Figure 163. Reconstruction of cover of
earth pyre A (tomb ΛΛ) at Eleutherna
(Stampolidis 1996, 145, fig. 193)
Figure 164. View of entrance of Astrikas tomb 2
(Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1993, plate 149d)
476
Figure 165. Map of Gavalomouri and Vouves tombs
(Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1987, 331, fig. 1)
Figure 166. Plan of Gavalomouri tomb II
(Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1987, 332, fig. 2)
477
Figure 167. View of Gavalomouri T.II
(Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1997, plateI1)
Figure 168. View of Gavalomouri T.IV
(Tzedakis 1977, plate 201c)
Figure 169. View of Vouves tomb II
(Tzedakis 1978, plate 193b)
478
Figure 170. Plan of Vouves tomb II
(Andreadaki-Vlasaki 1985, plate 7, fig. 2)
Figure 171. View of Chania pithos burial from Park of Peace and Friendship
(Andreadaki-Vlasaki 2000, 33, fig. 35)
479
Tomb Type
Tholos
Cave/Rock Shelter
Chamber Tomb
Pit Grave
Shaft Grave
Pit Cave
Pithos Cemetery
Pseudotholos
Other Pithos
Intramural
Cist
Burial Enclosure
Other
Figure 172. Relative frequency of EIA Cretan tomb types (by total number of tombs)
Percentage of Sites at Which Tombs Appear
Ca
ve
/R Tho
oc
lo
Ch k S s
am hel
be ter
rT
o
P i mb
tG
Sh ra
ve
af
tG
ra
ve
Pi
P
it
th
Ca
os
ve
Ce
m
Ps
e
eu ter
do y
th
O
ol
th
er os
Pi
th
o
In
tra s
m
ur
al
Bu
ria
l E Cis
t
nc
lo
su
re
O
th
er
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Figure 173. Relative frequency of EIA tomb types (by % of sites at which they appear)
480
Figure 174. Map of sites with tholos tombs
481
Figure 175. Map of sites with small tholos tombs
482
Figure 176. Map of sites with large tholos tombs
483
Percentage of Square/Rectangular Chambers by
Diameter
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
<1.5 m.
1.5-2.0 m.
2.0-2.5 m.
>2.5 m.
Figure 177. Percentage of square/rectangular chambers for tholos tombs
Construction Date of New Tholos Tombs by % of Sites
With Tholoi
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Type 2
Type 1
LM IIIC-SM
PG
G-EO
Figure 178. Date of construction of tholos tombs by site
484
Figure 179. Map of sites with caves and rock shelters
485
Figure 180. Map of sites with chamber tombs
486
Figure 181. Map of sites with pit graves
487
Figure 182. Map of sites with pithos burials (cemeteries and other)
488
Figure 183. Map of sites with cists and burial enclosures (cist=open circle; b.e.=closed)
489
Figure 184. Map of potential burial regions
(1-far east; 2-west Siteia Mountains; 3-Mirabello, a-northeast zone, b-south zone?; 4-Lasithi
Plateau; 5-central, a-northern, b-southern, c-subregion?; 6-west-central; 7-far west;
unnumbered shaded areas represent border zones)
490