Junaid‑ur‑Rahman et al. Clinical Phytoscience
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40816‑022‑00342‑3
(2022) 8:14
Open Access
REVIEW
Rice: a potential vehicle for micronutrient
fortification
Syed Junaid-ur-Rahman1*, Muhammad Farhan Jahangir Chughtai1, Adnan Khaliq1, Atif Liaqat1, Imran Pasha2,
Samreen Ahsan1, Saira Tanweer3, Kanza Saeed1, Ayesha Siddiqa1, Tariq Mehmood1 , Ayesha Ali1,
Shoaib Aziz1 and Nimra Sameed1
Abstract
The choices of consumer towards food have been changed. Consumer prefers to eat food which is not only safe
but also nutritious. Now a day, they like to eat the food which promote their health and help in minimizing nutrition
related health hazards. Rice is a staple food in many countries, but most emerging issue is that rice is deficit in minerals. Rice ranks second among cereals in dietary uses around the world. Rice is deficit in iron (Fe) zinc (Zn) and these are
important micronutrients for infants, men and women. Fortification of rice with iron and zinc would help to minimize
nutrient deficient disorders among humans. Present study is aimed to introduce nutrients rich rice for consumers and
also to encourage food-fortification organizations for diverting their focus on rice fortification. In south Asian countries, micronutrient deficiency especially Fe and Zn deficiency is very common. The rice because of its use as a staple
food can be utilized as a carrier medium for transporting micronutrients from plants sources to human beings. Hence,
rice fortification with microminerals can prove as a miracle for the virtual eradication of nutrition related diseases in
humans.
Keywords: Rice fortification, Parboiling, Malnutrition, Health improvement, Fortification technologies, Milling
problems
Introduction
Cereals are consumed all over the world and are rich
source of vitamins. Majority of world population rely
on cereals to fulfill their energy needs. Cereals are staple
food for human consumption and are being processed in
a spectrum of products that are of great economic importance. Among cereals wheat, rice and corn are important in terms of dietary uses [1]. Incidence of numerous
age-related maladies such as diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular diseases can be prevented by the regular consumption of whole grains cereals coupled with sufficient
physical activity [2].
*Correspondence: junaid.rahman@kfueit.edu.pk
1
Department of Food Science and Technology, Khwaja Fareed University
of Engineering and Information Technology, Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
Wheat is most common cereal available all over the
world and has higher demand in whole world due to its
health benefits. It is most sustainable cereal crop and is
utilized in variety of food products. Wheat has been fortified with microminerals mainly with iron, especially
in developing countries to overcome malnutrition [3].
Likewise, rice is consumed in large quantities all over the
world and many countries are completely dependent on
rice to fulfill caloric need of people. Rice is staple food
for over half of the world population. Hence, both wheat
and rice are deficient in essential minerals and consumed
world widely. A lot of research work has been carried
out on wheat fortification with micronutrients. So, it has
become inevitable to boost up mineral content of rice in
parallel to wheat [4].
Rice is one of the leading crops of world and is second
only to wheat in term of production and food based uses.
About 90% of world’s rice is produced and consumed in
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Junaid‑ur‑Rahman et al. Clinical Phytoscience
(2022) 8:14
Asia [5]. About 870 million people are estimated to suffer from chronic undernourishment globally, the vast
majority of whom live in developing countries where rice
is closely associated with food security. Rice production
and consumption are among the highest in Asian populations. Therefore, rice is of special importance for nutrition of large reaches of population in Asia Pacific region
and Africa [6]. A variety of food products are made from
rice such as noodles, cakes, bread and other commercial and traditional foods nearly all over the world. It is
a valuable source of nutraceutical and nutritional substances for human health. Due to higher consumption of
rice in terms of different products a serious kind of health
related issues has become visible on human health [7].
Due to its dietary uses, higher digestibility and commercial importance; rice is considered as queen of
cereals. But, due to its limited mineral profile, the introduction of fortification techniques is an effective strategy
to engage communities which are at higher level of health
risks. There is a big need for joint effort on fortification
program and dietary diversification to increase micronutrient share among staple foods [8]. Rice is a source of
vitamins profoundly thiamine; but, thiamine is lost during processing and leads to beriberi in rice consumers.
Rice has been found effective in a number of diseases i.e.
hypertension and lowering of blood cholesterol level. On
nutritional basis, rice is a rich source of carbohydrates,
but moderate in protein and is good source of vitamins,
namely thiamine, niacin and riboflavin [9]. Minerals play
a key role in body regulatory and metabolic functions but
during processing a tremendous loss of micronutrients
occur leading to different medical complexities [10, 11].
Micronutrient deficiencies particularly for vitamins
probe severe diseases and symptoms in human beings.
These micronutrient oriented alterations leads to impairment in energy metabolism, cognitive functions, bone
deformations and immune system related disorders. The
most common vitamin oriented insufficiencies in different communities of world are for folate (in pregnant
women), vitamin D, Vitamin C in children, adults and old
age individuals [12].
Moreover, rice fortification would boost up overall
health potential by optimizing micronutrient needs of
end users. Among population, pregnant and lactating
women, infants, young children and adolescent girls are
tried to be targeted. An outstanding product’s performance differing from other products made be available
in market in future. Fortification of rice is an effectual
strategy to tackle micronutrient imperfection. Fortification is considered as one of realistic, cost effective and
result oriented approach. Fortification is an intentionally/deliberate addition of useful ingredients in limited
amount with the aim to improve nutritional profile. This
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fortification program has been executed to address threat
of mineral and vitamin insufficiencies in targeted areas
[13, 14].
Rice is vehicle for fortification of micronutrients and
holds its own position among cereals, as diet among
Pakistani population. It is also second one after wheat
in production and consumption in Pakistan. Its contribution to GDP of Pakistan is about 0.7%. In Pakistan,
consumption of rice especially in urban communities is
increasing day by day [15].
Worldwide food fortification scenario
By going in past but not more than two decades; every
private organization, national authorities and international agencies were talking about food security to
address shortage of food which was in prediction among
coming years. They made great achievements in this
regard and remain succeeded in their aims to prevent
food shortage. To bring tremendous increase in production they move towards intensive agricultural practices
which resulted in more production but leaving agricultural land exhausted in nutrients which leads to decrease
in mineral content in food commodities. Talking about
present scenario ample quantity of food is available but
its nutritional quantity diminished alarmingly. So, in
recent decade focus of private organization, national
authorities and international agencies is to produce
nutrient rich food. Same outcomes can be repeated as in
past with strong commitment and collaboration with different agencies belonging to different school of thoughts
[16, 17]. The impact of malnutrition is described in Fig. 1.
Food fortification & malnutrition
Numerous food items are being subjected to fortification namely cereals, vegetable oils, beverages and dairy
products. Presently, 87 countries have made legislation
to mandate fortification for every milling and processing
industry. Main fortificants which are being focused are
minerals and vitamins and they have gain great socioeconomic importance due to their immense benefits. Different kind of acceptable, feasible and economical strategies
are used to increase mineral content of food. The term
food fortification is the deliberate addition of micronutrient in food to increase nutritional stature of food to
address nutritional deficiency disorders which occurs
due to poor diet. It is most productive, effective and long
term approach used to enhance micronutrient status of
malnourished communities [18, 19]. The fortified food
is economically feasible and is in ample access for poor
people. Hence, fortification can alter their habits without altering their habits. Wheat, rice and maize are the
most commonly used cereals and they are popular with
respect to fortification significances among researchers
Junaid‑ur‑Rahman et al. Clinical Phytoscience
(2022) 8:14
Page 3 of 14
Fig. 1 Harmonization of Products and Standards for fortification
and stakeholders due to recognition, affordability and
availability [20]. Fortification of food is a subset of food
processing. According to Codex Alimentarius, food fortification is defined as addition of one or more essential
nutrients in food whether these nutrients are present
in food or not in the specific or targeted, voluntary and
mandatory communities [21] Mass fortification or universal fortification refers to fortification of foods that
are consumed by entire segments of the population e.g.
fortification of rice or wheat flour. It is most preferred
approach when majority of people is at highest risk for
a scrupulous nutrient deficiency. Targeted fortification
is for specific group of population. For example, infants
have a severe kind of risk for becoming susceptible to
nutrient deficiency diseases. So, when we are targeting
infant then there is a need to set nutrient requirements
keeping infant formulas in consideration [22, 23].
Mass fortification is usually denoted as voluntary
fortification and is not mandated by government agencies for fortification of food but some private companies add nutrients voluntarily to facilitate nutrition e.g.
breakfast cereals which are fortified in many countries.
Governments make mandatory food fortification in
certain areas which are of severe need for fortification
program. In this type of fortification technique no concern is made that fortification targets infants, men and
women. Mass fortification never requires any statistical
support for verification whether fortification is needed
or not [24].
Market-driven fortification is a third kind of fortification
which is adopted by private organizations mainly industries keeping business point of view and only to maximize
their profit by campaigning that we are adding minerals
and vitamins etc. They also support their fortified foods
by describing and advertising their benefits of usage. The
only concern in this type of fortification is marketing but
health concern is second one in this regard [25].
From technical point of view food fortification is quite
feasible and simple for most foods. However, for gaining
effective results it is not mandatory to hire trained and
technical personnel for fortifying food. The only and only
key for successful and consistent fortification program
is that it must be centralized, cost effective and feasible.
For a sustainable and long term fortification there should
be an efficacious program. Public communities must be
educated about fortification benefits [26].
Fortification as a technique has the potential to significantly improve nutritional value of large number of
susceptible populations. The World Bank has published
a report on food fortification program; that there is no
substituent technology which provides such an ample
opportunity to elevate nutritional status of consumers at a very low cost. Fortification is an ideal technique than other technologies because of its long term
Junaid‑ur‑Rahman et al. Clinical Phytoscience
(2022) 8:14
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Fig. 2 Malnutrition Vs Balanced Nutrition
benefits, worldwide applications and acceptance among
researchers [27].
Multiple-fortification is more effective tool in
improving nutritional status than supplementation with single micronutrient. Fortification of rice
with more than one micronutrient simultaneously is
effective strategy for combating micronutrient deficiencies. Rice is a vehicle for fortification of micronutrients and holds great promise for alleviating
micronutrient deficiencies in populations that consume rice based diets [28].
Numerous studies have been conducted to evaluate
the fortify rice with mineral but sole and sole objective was to boost up rice’s nutritional profile which is
consumed in immense amount as a traditional food in
many countries. For children micronutrients powder
is being formulated which are single dose packets containing multiple minerals and vitamins. This micronutrient powder is sprinkled over semi-solid or solid food.
Formulation of micronutrient powder is a big intervention in food fortification program for home usage but
it has one drawback that it has some kind of acceptability issues i.e. taste preferences in some consumers.
Micronutrient powder finds good results in infants ageing below two years because at this age infant have no
taste likes and dislikes. So, there is a big need to nourish our future mentally and physically because in turn
we can see prosperous future of our country [29]. The
Junaid‑ur‑Rahman et al. Clinical Phytoscience
(2022) 8:14
approaches for facilitating fortification programs are
explained by following Fig. 2.
Methodology De‑hulling of rice
The de-hulling and polishing are important operations
in rice processing. The de-hulling and polishing extent,
effect nutritional status of rice particularly on minerals
(iron, phosphorus, zinc, magnesium and copper etc.) and
distribution of nutrient within the kernel [30]. During
milling, rice is subjected to high pressure and abrasion to
remove brown layer of bran. Milling losses, during milling are approximately 5–10% [31]. Milling of brown rice
is main cause of loss of nutrient and affect nutritional
properties of rice’s kernel. During milling process loss of
magnesium, phosphorus and iron is observed [32]. The
proportion of bran in rice is 6–7% by weight and amount
of endosperm is about 2–3%. Commonly, white rice is
named as milled rice and during production of white rice
approximately 8–10% of weight losses occur [33]. Extent
of milling leads to changes in nutrients, lipids, protein,
physical, pasting properties and sensory qualities of rice.
Rice is low in mineral and vitamin content and losses
occur during milling process [34].
Milling of rice
Rice go through different stages and forms during processing. The normally found forms of rice are brown
rice, rough rice, white rice and polished rice. Rough rice
is composed of 20% hull which is removed during dehulling. The proportion of bran and germ is about 10%
and 70%, does starchy endosperm constitute the major
part of rice’s kernel. Brown rice is derived from paddy
rice which is de-hulled to remove extraneous portion of
hull. The layers of bran or germ remain intact on brown
rice surface therefore; brown rice is more nutritious than
white or polished rice. Rice can be grinded into flour
which is used in different food products such as snacks,
breakfast cereals and as a thickener for baby foods. Rice
flour functional properties strongly influence process
ability and quality attributes of end product. The extent/
degree of milling strongly influences pasting properties
of rice which are quantified by using Brabender Amylograph and a Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA). The estimation
of removal of bran during milling is denoted as degree
of milling. Mostly, rice is consumed in milled or white
form which is produced by removing husk and bran
layers. Usually, rice protein and lipid content resides in
bran portion; whereas, starch is located in endosperm
[35, 36].
In Asia, it is assumed that consumption of brown rice
is associated with poverty and in old age it was only consumed by sick and elderly people. Whereas, white rice is
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consumed in abundance with pride and honor of superiority but; in fact, white rice is very low in nutrition.
White rice can be produced by removal of outer covering
of hull and bran layer. Bran layer is rich source of vitamins and fiber content which is essential part of daily
intake. Sometimes, white rice is blended with glucose and
talc powder which is fatherly processed into rice flour to
form different rice products [37].
During milling immense losses of minerals and vitamins are reported. Milled rice contains approximately
4–8 mg of iron per kg which is not sufficient to meet
human body requirement. Unfortified rice consumed as
a diet is not able to provide adequate amount of dietary
iron. It is a challenge to develop effective and suitable
method to reduce iron deficiency. Rice kernel is mostly
consumed in intact form; so, proper techniques and
methods are devised to solve fortification issues [38].
On the average, milling of 100 kg paddy rice yields
approximately 60–65 kg white rice. Out of which 10% are
broken grains, 10 kg is broken germ and bran and 20 kg is
hull. Milling of paddy rice is highly desirable unit operation to impart organoleptic properties to rice but in turn
a lot of nutritional losses are observed due to removal
of bran. The concentrations of different vitamins which
are residing in outer layer of rice kernel are 2–10 times
higher than white rice. In some developed countries
including United States America (USA) enrichment of
white rice is being carried out with iron, thiamine, niacin
and other minerals and vitamins to fulfill losses during
milling process [39].
Rice fortification technologies
To fortify rice different technologies are being employed.
Micronutrients addition in rice depends on type of fortification and strategies that are involved in fortification.
The types of fortification technologies are parboiling,
dusting and extrusion technology. These techniques are
found effective in increasing mineral content of rice and
are discussed below;
a) Parboiling
Parboiling process is a hydrothermal technique which
involves three main steps; soaking steaming and drying. Approximately, 15% of milled rice is parboiled world
widely. The leading countries of parboiled rice producer
are Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand and West
Asia. The contribution of these countries in production
and consumption is about 90% of the total parboiled rice
[40]. The prevalent cause of micronutrient deficiency is
the limited use of variety of foods which is main concern
for many individuals in developing countries [41].
Junaid‑ur‑Rahman et al. Clinical Phytoscience
(2022) 8:14
Parboiling of paddy is most important postharvest process of rice which is normally used to maintain quality. A
variety of factors are responsible for determining quality
related attributes of parboiled rice. Prolonged parboiling
itself is a leading cause of loss in essential constituents in
paddy rice. Parboiling has good and advantageous effects
on physiochemical properties of rice because it cause
reduction in breakage during handling but remarkable
increase in water absorption, cooking time and thiamine
content has observed [42, 43].
Parboiling of rice is developed to improve quality
characteristics for consumers because parboiled rice
has superior aroma, texture and cooking qualities as
compared to brown and white rice. To address essential micronutrient deficiency different techniques are
introduced. Among fortification’s techniques parboiling
is prominent one which is being used at domestic and
industrial level for a long time as a primitive technique.
Fortification of rice during parboiling process is found
suitable to contribute significant increase in iron content
upto 140 mg/kg of dry weight [44].
Parboiling can be advantageous for improving milling, nutritional, organoleptic and quality characteristics
of rice. Moreover, it also increases head rice yield and
reduces nutritional losses during polishing process [45].
During soaking process contaminants associated with
rice’s kernel are removed. Parboiling prevents the development of undesirable flavor and yellow color during
processing and storage [46]. The role of water in parboiling process is to soften the endosperm of rice’s kernel
and steaming cause gelatinization of rice’s starch which
is ultimate and leading cause of rice texture development.
Parboiling not only facilitate easy milling but also results
in beneficial increase in taste and aroma of rice which
makes the parboiled rice more palatable to eat. But, parboiling has one limitation that mycotoxins may develop
in paddy rice due to prolonged soaking [47].
b) Dusting technology
Dusting or coating is an important technique to preserve minerals which are lost during milling and washing operations. Suspension of nutrient is sprayed on rice’s
surface which sticks on outer layer of bran. But, before
cooking excess washing results in loss of micronutrients.
Another problem or disadvantage, which may arise are
alterations in color and taste of dusted rice. However,
some commercial premixes are available which claim that
they are stable against washing and cooking conditions.
Dusting technology has advantage because of lower
investment as compared to extrusion technology [48]. In
dusting technology tempering of rice is done for about
30–40 min at ambient temperature (20–25 °C). After this,
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sample is dried at 50 °C for 30–60 min. The fortificant is
applied on rice surface by spraying fortificant solution.
This process has been adopted in a few countries. This
process has a limitation that dusted rice must be subjected to minimum washing before cooking [49].
iii) Extrusion technology
Extrusion is a versatile, feasible and very efficient
technology in food processing. During extrusion process raw flour undergo many chemical and structural
modifications, such as starch gelatinization, complex
formation between lipids-amylose, protein denaturation and degradation reactions. The trend of extrusion
cooking technology is increasing tremendously in the
production of many food products such as breakfast
cereals, flat breads, baby foods, meat snacks and modified starches. Minute variations in processing conditions can affect quality of end product. The factors
affecting product quality are extruder type, feed moisture, screw configuration, temperature profile, screw
feed rate and screw speed. The rice flour is being utilized as an attractive ingredient in extrusion industry
because of its remarkable characteristics such as appealing white color, bland taste, hypoallergenicity and ease
in digestion [50, 51].
In Extrusion Technology extruder is being used having
hammer mill, single or double screw, mixer and drier at
a temperature of (70–100 °C) which gradually increased
to 100–140 °C. High pressure is applied as dough passes
through the screw of extruder. Extrusion technology is a
rather expensive technology as compared to parboiling
and dusting because it involves few disadvantages as preparatory operations namely, milling, dough making and
extrusion process. But, this loss can be compensated to
some extent by utilizing broken rice’s kernels which are
damaged during threshing and other processing operations as they are available in market at considerable lower
price. In short extrusion technology has some limitations like high cost of extruders which results, 15–20%
increase in price of extruded rice [52]. The vitamins and
minerals fortifications trends on worldwide basis are discussed below in Table 1.
Rice fortification
Micronutrient deficiency is caused by inadequate
intake of minerals in diet and other factor which is necessary to describe is that; some food constituents act
as inhibitors. These inhibitors bind minerals and make
unavailable for human use. The examples of inhibitors
are phytates, drugs and other chemicals that develop
interactions with minerals and decrease their bioavailability [73].
Junaid‑ur‑Rahman et al. Clinical Phytoscience
(2022) 8:14
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Table 1 Cereals Fortification with Vitamins & Minerals
Sr. No. Cereal
1
Rice
Fortification
Mineral
Vitamin
Iron, Zinc
Vit A, B1, B12
Fortification
Method
Hot Extrusion tech.
Country
Citation
Bangladesh
[53]
Nepal
[54]
2
Rice
–
Vit A, B9,
Parboiling (Soaking with limited water) USA
[55]
3
Rice
Iron,Zinc
Vit A, B3, B6, B9, B12
–
Nepal
[56]
4
Rice
Zinc
–
Parboiling
Bangladesh
[57]
5
Rice
Iron
Vit B9, Beta-carotene Parboiling
Sydney, Austrailia
[58]
6
Rice
Calcium, Iron
–
Parboiling (Soaking with limited water) USA
7
Rice
Iron, Zinc
Vit A, B1, B3, B6, B12
Cold, Hot Extrusion
South Asia (Cambodia, Vietnam) [60]
8
Rice
–
Vit B5
Sonication
Philippines
[61]
9
Rice
–
Vit B9
Ultrasonication
Philippines
[62]
10
Wheat Flour Iron, Zinc
–
Fe and Zn Sulphate Fortificants
California, Davis
[63]
11
Wheat Flour –
Vit B 9
–
Chile
[64]
12
Wheat Flour Calcium, Iron, Zinc –
Mixing with fortificant salts
Pakistan
[65]
13
Wheat Flour Iron
–
Mixing with Fortificant salt
Northern China
[66]
14
Rice, Wheat
Vit A, B9
Forticant mix
India
[67]
15
Wheat Flour Iron, Zinc
Vit B9, B12
Forticant mix
Yaoundé, Douala, Cameroon
[68]
16
Maize Flour
Iron
–
Iron Fortificant mixes.
Kenya
[69]
17
Maize flour
–
Vit A, B1, B2, B6
Vitamin Fortificants
South Africa
[70]
18
Wheat Flour –
Vit B9
Vitamin fortificant
Australia
[71]
19
Wheat Flour Iron
Vit A
Fortificants mix.
India
[72]
Iron
In south Asia, approximately 95.4% people are suffering from zinc deficiency. The existing food commodities
require dietary modifications to alleviate Zn deficiency
[74]. Zinc has a significant effect on immune system of
human beings. In zinc deficient persons, resistant against
pathogen is decreased and they are more prone to diseases. The persons who are susceptible to zinc deficiency
show symptoms of impaired taste and smell, depressed
immunity, frequent infections, dermatitis, diarrhea and
mental disturbances [75, 76].
Fortification of iron results in considerable increase in
iron concentration in rice. In experimental studies rice
was fortified with 250–450 mg/kg of iron the optimum
level of iron which suggested for fortification is 250 mg/
kg. At this level of fortification rice possess maximum
consumer acceptability, pre-cooking appearance, cooking
quality and sensory attributes [77].
Zinc fortification during parboiling process results in
considerable increase in zinc concentration in polished
rice and its bioavailability increases. Zinc is required
for different biological functions including DNA synthesis, cell division and gene expression. It is required
for activity of many enzymes in biological systems [78].
Whole paddy rice is fortified with 50–400 mg/kg which
resulted in 1.3–4.5 times increase in zinc concentration
as compared to unfortified rice [79, 80]. The outcomes
[59]
of minerals and vitamins deficiencies are explained in
Table 2.
Cooking and textural properties of rice
Main factor influencing the liking and disliking of rice
among consumers in many countries is rice’s kernel
shape, whiteness, flavor, aroma, amylose content, taste
and other properties of cooked rice. The properties of
rice’s starch like gelatinization, gelling ability and amylose
content strongly influence the eating habits and cooking
characteristics of rice [115]. To assess cooking quality
of rice an analysis can be performed to measure gelatinization temperature of rice’s starch. Normally, gelatinization temperature of rice’s starch ranges from 55-79o
C depending upon starch granule size, shape, structure
and rice variety. There is existence of strong relationship
between cooking attributes and amylose content of rice’s
starch. Environmental conditions can strongly influence
the cooking quality and starch behavior of rice [116].
Cooking time and gelatinization temperature
have positive correlation with each other. But, there
is no evidence to support or describe relationship
between gelatinization temperature and texture of
cooked rice. Hence, gelatinization temperature and
amylose content have negative correlation with each
other i.e. when amylose content will increase then
Junaid‑ur‑Rahman et al. Clinical Phytoscience
(2022) 8:14
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Table 2 Mineral & Vitamin Deficiency Consequences
Sr. No Micronutrient
Consequences
Citation
1
Iron deficiency anemia (IDA), fatigue, neuromuscular
symptoms, mental illness, epithelial manifestations,
and cardiopulmonary symptoms
[81] (Soliman, Amer, & Soliman, 2019)
Anemia in hemodialysis patients
[82] (Motonishi, Tanaka, & Ozawa, 2018)
2
Iron
Zinc
Negative symptoms in schizophrenia patients
[83] (Kim et al., 2018)
Anemia,
Plummer Vinson syndrome, angular stomatitis, pica,
glossitis and restless leg syndrome most commonly
in pregnant females
Cognitive impairment and behavioral problems in
infants
[84] (Moll & Davis, 2017)
Neuronal dysfunction, growth retardation, skin
lesions (Acrodermatitis enteropathica, poor appetite,
cell-mediated immune dysfunction and neurosensory disorder
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Mood Disorders, such as depression, anxiety and
aggression,
Schizophrenia (SCZ), and Spinocerebellar ataxia type
2
Hypogonadism in males
[85] (Hagmeyer, Haderspeck, & Grabrucker, 2015;
Pfaender & Grabrucker, 2014; Prasad, 2013; Yasuda &
Tsutsui, 2016)
Impairment, sexual dysfunction, cutaneous lesions,
inflammatory and gastrointestinal disorders
[86] (Maxfield & Crane, 2020b)
Alopecia, diarrhea and impaired immune function in
infants and children
[87, 88] (Ackland & Michalczyk, 2016; Kambe, Fukue,
Ishida, & Miyazaki, 2015)
3
Calcium
Ca Paradox Disease that leads to muscular dystrophy, [89] (Fujita & Palmieri, 2000)
hypertension, diabetes mellitus, malignancy, arteriosclerosis and alzheimer’s disease
4
Vitamin D
Rickets, osteoporosis and osteomalacia
5
Selenium
Keshan disease, Keshin-Beck disease and myxedema- [91] (Westermark, 2021)
tous cretinism
[90] (Glorieux & Pettifor, 2014)
Epilepsy, multiminicore disease and cardiovascular
disease (CVD)
[92] (Amankwah & Han, 2018)
Immune system disorders, inflammatory disorders,
impaired fertility, cardiovascular diseases, cancer and
diabetes mellitus
[93] (Sarwar et al., 2020)
[94] (Kieliszek, Bano, & Zare, 2021)
6
Iodine
Endemic goiter
Mental manifestation, growth retardation and
increased miscarriages during pregnancy
Hypothyroidism
[95] (Cakmak et al., 2017 [96]; Tulyathan, Laokuldilok, &
Jongkaewwattana, 2007)
7
Vitamin A
Night blindness (nyctalopia)
Keratomalacia
Impaired immune functions
[97] (Norsa et al., 2019) [98] (Godswill, Somtochukwu,
Ikechukwu, & Kate, 2020)
Lung dysfunction, pulmonary disease and respiratory [99] (Timoneda et al., 2018)
diseases
Increased risk of asthma and severe wheezing
8
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
Beriberi (Korsakoff syndrome and Wernicke encepha- [100] (Wiley & Gupta, 2019)
lopathy)
9
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
Normocytic anemia,
Angular cheilitis
Eye irritation and itching
Increased eye sensitivity to light
Watery eyes
[101] (Godswill et al., 2020)
10
Vitamin B3
(niacin)
Pellagra (4Ds: Dementia, Dermatitis, Diarrhea and
Death)
[102] (López & Otero, 2021)
11
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid Its deficiency is very rare
Apathy, fatigue and itchiness
[103] (Godswill et al., 2020)
Junaid‑ur‑Rahman et al. Clinical Phytoscience
(2022) 8:14
Page 9 of 14
Table 2 (continued)
Sr. No Micronutrient
Consequences
Citation
12
Vitamin B6
Its deficiency is very rare
Electroencephalographic abnormalities
Impaired immune function and convulsive seizures
Depression
[104] (Parra, Stahl, & Hellmann, 2018)
13
Vitamin B7
(Biotin)
Its deficiency is rare
Detrimental effects on skin health and hair growth
[105] (Godswill et al., 2020)
14
Vitamin B9 (Folate)
Neural tube defects (NTDs) in infants
[106] (Moll & Davis, 2017)
15
Vitamin B12
(Cobalamins)
Megaloblastic anaemia
Neuropsychiatric manifestations
Ataxia, and cognitive decline
Atrophic glossitis
Infertility and persistent spontaneous abortions
Pernicious anaemia
[107] (Moll & Davis, 2017; Xie et al., 2021)
16
Vitamin C
(Ascorbic Acid)
Scurvy
[108] (Maxfield & Crane, 2020a)
17
Vitamin D
Rickets
[109, 110] (Allgrove & Shaw, 2015; Lin et al., 2020)
18
Vitamin E
Progressive neurologic disorder
Spinocerebellar ataxia
Heart muscle cardiomyopathy
[111, 112](Euch-Fayache, Bouhlal, Amouri, Feki, &
Hentati, 2014; Traber, 2014)
19
Vitamin K
Fat malabsorption diseases (bleeding gums, nosebleeds, heavy menstrual bleeding in women, and
sensitivity to bruising)
[113] (Haddadin et al., 2019)
Chronic kidney disease (CKD)
[114] (Cozzolino et al., 2019)
gelatinization temperature would decreased and vice
versa. Some rice varieties have low cooking time but
high gelatinization temperature. There is no evidence to support that any single variety in which both
gelatinization temperature and cooking time are high
simultaneously [117].
In rice’s starch, ratio of amylose and amylose content
are very significant in influencing the eating and cooking properties of rice because amylose content is a main
factor in determining cooking and eating quality of
rice. Water absorption, volume expansion and elongation ratio are key factors for contributing rice cooking
quality. Although, physiological properties of rice are
greatly varies by amylose content. Different rice varieties are classified by scientist into three categories on
the basis of amylose content [118].
The quantity of amylose in rice’s starches fall in the
range of 15–35%. After cooking of rice flakiness and
stickiness appears which is due to high amylose content. The leading cause of rice becoming dry is high
amylose content which results in hardening and becoming less tendering of cooked rice. Moderate amylose
content is consider good for getting good quality attributes of cooked rice in the whole world [119].
The determining factors of cooking quality are amylose content, solubility of amylose and chain length
of amylopectin molecule and gelatinization, melting
temperature of amorphous and crystalline region of
amylopectin molecules. In rice, protein thought to be
influenced the stickiness and surface hardness. The
rice with high protein content is much firmer than low
protein content. The main protein in stored grain is
oryzenin and other proteins includes; prolamins, globulins and albumins. Oryzenin is primarily made up of
inter- and intra-molecular subunits which are linked by
disulphide bridges. During storage content of oryzenin
increases which inversely correlates the stickiness of
rice [120].
Sensory properties of rice
Sensory evaluation is defined as “direct assessment of
rice eating quality based on human five senses”. After
qualifying sensory evaluation test, rice sample attain
approximately 75% acceptance and preferences among
consumers. Sensory evaluation procedure is a scientific approach in which human senses like vision, smell,
taste and touch are brought in utilization to assess sensory properties of food. Post-harvest handling has strong
effect on sensory properties of cooked rice [121].
Good sensory properties are of great concern for consumer because it is consumed in bulk and is staple food
over half of the world population. Nowadays, consumer
marketplace and consumers are demanding rice of peculiar aroma and flavor for taste satisfaction and textural
attributes. To fulfill consumer needs enough knowledge
about similarities and differential about textural and
Junaid‑ur‑Rahman et al. Clinical Phytoscience
(2022) 8:14
flavor properties of rice is needed. Moreover, comprehension about these sources of similarities and differential is very important. Cooking attributes and sensory
properties are affected by different aspects mainly by
post-harvest conditions of paddy rice during drying and
storage conditions [122].
Agronomic practices, environmental conditions and
production conditions in field potentially influence flavor and textural properties of rice. Some cultivars’s
textural and flavor characteristics are stable against environmental alterations. To control variations in flavor
and textural properties for producer and processor is
tough job to do because they have to accumulate enough
knowledge about genetics of rice cultivars and different
post-harvesting factors which are affecting texture and
flavor [123].
To assess acceptance among rice consumers fortified
rice are compared with commercial rice. On comparison, it was found that there is no considerable difference
between conventional unfortified rice and fortified rice.
Non-definable difference was found in sensory and physical properties of fortified rice [124]. Extruded rice was
compared with unfortified rice and conclusion was made
that there is no difference between uncooked fortified
and unfortified rice. Similarly, to find distinction between
cooked fortified and unfortified rice is also difficult [125].
Post-harvest conditions are main contributing factor in
determining sensory properties of rice. These post-harvest conditions includes; storage duration, moisture and
temperature of rice. Sensory characteristics of cooked
rice include; mass cohesiveness, surface roughness, grain
hardness, stickiness, adhesion and chewability. Stickiness
of rice’s kernel decreases with increase in temperature
during storage. Different kinds of instrumentations are
being employed to determine the stickiness of rice [126].
Aroma is of great importance in eating quality of rice.
During storage a peculiar kind of aroma is developed
which is of great importance due to its acceptability
among rice consumers. In different Asian countries aromatic rice is preferred and fetch higher price as compared to non-aromatic rice [127]. It is assumed that in
some communities the rice without aroma is a liked food
without salt [128].
Mostly, basmati varieties of rice in Pakistan are aromatic. These varieties have moderate amylose content,
strong aroma long grains and moderate starch-gelatinization temperature. High temperature during storage
strongly influences the aromatic flavor of rice inversely.
Optimum moisture is a main contributing factor in
determining consistency in aroma of rice. When rice is
consumed at 12% moisture content possess good aromatic attributes as compared to moisture content either
low or high than optimum moisture content [129].
Page 10 of 14
Malnutrition consequences
On global basis, approximately two billions people are
affected by micronutrient deficiency which leads to
malnutrition. Malnutrition in human beings is caused
by minerals and vitamins deficiencies which are usually known as “Hidden Hunger” because many people
are affected by it, and does not show any physical symptoms. The lack of minerals and vitamins leads to anemia,
blindness and other severe maladies. It is not necessary
that hidden hunger is directly related to hunger but to
nutritionally incorrect foods. Diseases which are caused
by minerals deficiencies have no clinical symptoms but
cause many people to live below their physical and mental health. Hidden hunger is caused by excessive eating of starchy foods such as rice, wheat flour and corn.
Starch provides enough amount of calories but not able
to provide sufficient amount of minerals. Hidden hunger
is form of malnutrition which cause mental impairment
and stunted growth in infants and children. This undermines adults’ productivity and effect socio-economic
progress of nation [130].
Micronutrient deficiency is caused by inadequate
intake of minerals in diet and other factor which is necessary to describe is that; some food constituents act
as inhibitors. These inhibitors bind minerals and make
unavailable for human use. The examples of inhibitors
are phytates, drugs and other chemicals that develop
interactions with minerals and decrease their bioavailability [131].
The communities which cannot afford diversified diet
and rely on rice as staple food then fortification is a costeffective strategy to address micronutrient gap which is
experienced by poorer socioeconomic group. Presently,
food fortification program has garnered tremendous
interest and arguing for a significant micronutrientrelated interposing. Food fortification has been ranked
3rd among international developmental priorities with
respect to need and significance [132].
Malnutrition is due to distinctively underfeeding; but,
it is regrettable to say that it has still existence in developing countries. Major proportion of malnutrition is not
directly related to extreme hunger or shortage of food. It
can be caused by eating poor profiling foods which are
already deficient in essential constituents. Unfortunately,
mineral and vitamin deficiency have no clinical symptoms which leads to failure of diagnosis and ultimate
adverse consequences. A malnutrition person lives its life
below physical and mental potential [133].
The consequences of malnutrition are in the form of
impaired growth of brain and physical inabilities in
young children. It also induces fetus aberration; women
death during pregnancy or shortly after birth and it
severely affects productivity of adults. Children can
Junaid‑ur‑Rahman et al. Clinical Phytoscience
(2022) 8:14
easily fall victim to malnutrition causing stunted mental
and physical growth which found a solid base for restarting of poverty. The root cause of malnutrition is quite
simple. When daily meal plan is simply based on starchy
foods such as rice, corn and wheat flour then expectations about sustainable nutrition are not true to ensure
good health. The only and only, balanced diet can provide essential minerals and vitamins when variety of
foods are consumed including vegetables, fruits, pulses,
eggs, milk and possibly many foods of animal origin.
People do not consume such kind of foods because of
many reasons; cost, religious issues, regional traditions
and ignorance etc. To tackle this kind of situation when
a lot of factor conjoining at one spot then fortification is
the sole way to approach these severe issues and malnutrition [31, 134].
Conclusion
In Pakistan an alarming kind of situation has developed
in concern with micronutrients deficiencies which are
leading to severe sort of metabolic and medical incompatibilities among nation. Rice does not provide enough
micronutrients for optimal health. The authors suggest
to help to minimize nutrient deficient disorders among
humans by fortification of rice with iron and zinc, in
rice-consuming countries like Pakistan that can seize
the momentum and lead the way in building effective
and sustainable rice fortification programs, by parboiling, dusting/coating and extrusion technologies. The
evolution of cost-effective technologies, combined with
supportive results on effective nutrient fortification
levels, makes rice fortification safe, feasible, effective,
and sustainable. Strong advocacy is needed further to
drive the public-private partnerships and the government mandates that help to ensure long-term success of
fortification program. Moreover, nutrition, health and
general well-being should receive priority after rice fortification. The potential impact of improving micronutrient health in Asia, particularly in Pakistan would be
a landmark. The time is right – there is a great momentum and need to move forward with rice fortification
techniques for a growing number of national health
organizations.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my supervisor whose help has been a source of light for
me. Moreover, authors also acknowledge this paper is not published or under
consideration in any other journal.
We all authors declare that this work is not under consideration in any journal.
Conflict of interest
We authors of that research paper have no conflict of interest.
Authors’ contributions
The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript.
Page 11 of 14
Funding
No funding agency is involved in completion of this work.
Availability of data and materials
Data sheet is available and should be provided on demand.
Declarations
Competing interests
We all authors declare that we have no competing interests.
Author details
1
Department of Food Science and Technology, Khwaja Fareed University
of Engineering and Information Technology, Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan.
2
National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture
Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan. 3 Department of Food Science and Technology, The Islamia University Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan.
Received: 18 June 2021 Accepted: 4 February 2022
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