Ministère de l’Education Nationale
L’Université Valahia Târgovişte
Faculté de Sciences Humaines
D’UNIVERSITÉ VALAHIA
TARGOVISTE
SECTION
d’Archéologie et d’Histoire
TOME XVI
Numéro 1
2014
Valahia University Press
Târgovişte
Annales d’Université Valahia Targoviste Section d’Archéologie et d’Histoire publie des mémoires
originaux, des nouvelles et des comptes-rendus dans le domaine de l’archéologie préhistorique, de
l’histoire du moyen âge, de l’environnement de l’ho mme fossile, de l’archéologie interdisciplinaire
et de patrimoine culturel.
Rédacteur en chef:
prof. univ. dr. Marin Cârciumaru
Secrétaire général de rédaction:
C.S.II dr. Elena-Cristina Niţu
Secrétariat de rédaction:
prof. univ. dr. Ioan Opriş, conf. univ. dr. Corneliu Beldiman, dr. Denis Căprăroiu, dr. Radu
Cârciumaru, dr. Monica Mărgărit, dr. Marian Cosac, dr. Roxana Dobrescu, dr. Ovidiu Cîrstina, , dr.
Daniela Iamandi, dr. Adina Elena Boroneanţ.
Comité de rédaction:
prof. dr. Eric Boëda, prof. Marcel Otte, prof. dr. Răzvan Theodorescu, prof. dr. Alexandru Vulpe, prof.
dr. Victor Spinei, prof. dr. Sabin Adrian Luca, prof. dr. Gheorghe Lazarovici, dr Marylène PatouMathis, dr Marie-Hélène Moncel, dr. Cristian Schuster, dr. Dragomir Nicolae Popovici, dr. Adrian
Bălăşescu,
Correspondants:
Prof. Jacques Jaubert, prof. Jean-Philippe Rigaud, prof. Árpád Ringer, prof. Alain Tuffreau,
dr. Aline Averbouh, dr. Alain Turq, prof. Ivor Iancovič, prof. Ivor Karavanič,
prof. dr. Ştefan Trâmbaciu, dr. Eugen Nicolae, dr. Emilian Alexandrescu, dr. Sergiu Iosipescu
Technorédacteur:
drd. Remus Constantin Dumitru Dincă
Revue indexée B+ par CNCSIS et B par CNCS - Roumanie
Indexée dans:
AWOL, FRANTIQ,
LAMPEA, SCRIBD,
DAPHNE
Tout ce qui concerne la Rédaction des Annales d’Université Valahia Targoviste Section
d’Archéologie et d’Histoire doit être envoyé à:mcarciumaru@yahoo.com, www.annalesfsu.ro
ISSN: 1584-1855; ISSN (online): 2285–3669
Sommaire
ARTICLES ET ÉTUDES
SAVA VICTOR, IGNAT ANA, ACQUIRING SIGNIFICANCE. CONSTRUCTING WARRIOR'S
IDENTITY AT THE LOWER MUREȘ VALLEY ............................................................................................. 7
ANTAL ADRIANA, VENUS CULT IN THE INSCRIPTIONS FROM DACIA........................................... 37
CARCIUMARU RADU, LES PREMISSES DE L’UNIFICATION POLITIQUE-TERRITORIALE DANS
L’AIRE ROUMAINE SITUEE AU SUD ET A L’EST DES CARPATES APRES LA GRANDE
INVASION MONGOLE DES ANNEES 1240-1241. BRÈVES COMPARAISONS THÉORIQUES .... 47
NOTES ET DISCUSSIONS
TĂNASE RAUL-CONSTANTIN, THE POSITIVE REPRESENTATION OF THE DIPLOMATIC
BYZANTINE CEREMONIAL IN THE WESTERN CHRONICLES OF THE FIRST FOUR
CRUSADES ........................................................................................................................................................ 57
ALEXANDER ALEXEYVICH KIM, THE PROBLEM OF UNDERSTANDING OF THE POLITICAL
STATUS OF BOHAI STATE ........................................................................................................................... 63
ION TUŢULESCU, CLAUDIU AUREL TULUGEA, CAROL TERTECI, NOTE SUR LA RECHERCHE
ARCHEOLOGIQUE DE PROIENI.................................................................................................................. 71
NORME DE REDACTARE................................................................................................................................ 79
PRINTING NORMES ........................................................................................................................................ 83
CERTIFICATIONS POUR INCLURE ANNALES D'UNIVERSITÉ VALAHIA TARGOVISTE, SECTION
D'ARHÉOLOGIE ET D'HISTOIRE DANS UNE SÉRIE DE BASES DE DONNÉES ................................... 87
Annales d’Université Valahia Targoviste,
Section d’Archeologie et d’Histoire,
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014, p. 7-35
ISSN: 1584-1855;
ISSN (online): 2285–3669
Acquiring significance. Constructing warrior's identity at the
Lower Mureș Valley
Victor Sava*, Ana Ignat**
*Arad Museum Complex, Arad, sava_vic@yahoo.com;
**Institute of Archaeology and Art History, Cluj-Napoca, annushka.ignat@gmail.com
Abstract. Acquiring significance. Constructing warrior's identity at the Lower Mureș Valley. The main purpose of
the present discussion is the identification of the evidences that bring into light the theme of war in the chronological
context of the disappearance of Bronze Age tells and the emergence of large fortified settlements on the Lower
Mureș Valley. Recent researches carried out in this area (for instance the settlement from Șagu “Sit A1_1” and the
Bronze Age cemetery from Pecica “Sit 14” allowed us to find out more things about the social identity of the
warrior, than the usual norms established by researchers. Moreover, the identity of the individual as a warrior during
lifetime could be demonstrated by a series of enthesopathies, identified at the level of the upper limbs muscles. The
individual activity of the deceased as a warrior could be also suggested by a closer analysis of the combinations in
which the object parts of its funerary inventory appear. In most of the cases the funerary inventory could give us
proofs related with the transformations that took place in the field of warfare. A closer look given at the weapons
discovered on the Lower Mureș Valley, allows some observations to be made. For instance, we observed that a very
small number of weapons are dating from Early Bronze Age, the majority of them are random discoveries and only
one weapon is part of a funerary inventory. The situation radically changed together with the emergence of tellsettlements. In this particular timeframe, most of the weapons discovered belong to funerary inventories. In the
Middle Bronze Age the number of the discovered weapons is increasing towards the end of the period. The deposits
from Satu Mare and Păuliș are an example for this chronological sequence. The end of the Bronze Age brings within
a significant number and variety of the discovered weapons. Specific for the chronological sequence discussed in the
present article, Bz. B2-C is a continuity of the Middle Bronze Age traditions. Moreover, most of the weapons belong
to a funerary context. In the same time, one could observe that a certain type of weapon (generally daggers and axes,
commonly used in close range combat) provides the perfect accompaniment for the deceased.
Keywords: Late Bronze Age, Lower Mureș Valley, warriors, weapons, enthesopathies, social identity
funerary inventory. Moreover, the anthropological
analyses shows the fact that three of these skeletons
presented several enthesopathies at the level of the
upper limbs. Unlike some other burials identified
in the necropolis from Pecica “Site 14”, the
weapons discovered in three burials appear in
Introduction
The main focus of our study is on four graves
(Cx. 067, Cx. 075, Cx. 092 and Cx. 098)
discovered in the Late Bronze Age cemetery from
Pecica “Sit 14”. The reason of choosing them for a
discussion is the presence of weapons in their
7
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
Victor Sava, Ana Ignat
extremely interesting funerary assemblages and in
a single case not accompanied by other goods (Cx.
075).
The infrastructural development, mainly the
investments in transport, water, energy resources
and administrative systems that were carried out in
the last years in the area of Lower Mureș, created a
proper background for acquiring information on the
Late Bronze Age society. In this context, due to
these investments, sites as the fortification from
Sântana “Cetatea Veche” (F. Gogâltan, V. Sava,
2010), the enclosure delimited by ditches from
Csanádpalota (P. Czukor et al., 2013) or the rich
settlement from Şagu “Sit A1_1” (V. Sava et al.,
2011; V. Sava et al., 2012) were carefully investigated.
The necropolis from Pecica “Sit 14” identified
on the section of the motorway Arad- Nădlac, is
part of the archaeological objectives that we
discussed above. The multilayered site is situated at
3.5 km NNE from the centre of Pecica Town (Fig.
1). The field surveys conducted in the area of the
site, together with the maps dating from the middle
of the XIXth century and the aerial photography
show us clearly that the site is situated on the
inferior part of a terrace. The research of 7762 m2
lead to the identification of 37 burials, 23 of them
were inhumation burials and the rest of 14 graves
had been cremated (Fig. 2) (V. Sava, L. Andreica,
2013).
In most of the inhumation burials, the deceased
was placed in crouched position. Some of the bu-
Fig. 1 - Aerial image of the northern area of Pecica, with the location of the cemetery
rials were disturbed by subsequent habitations and
therefore in some cases the original position of the
deceased could not be exactly determined. The
funerary inventory is formed mainly from bronze
objects as pins, bracelets, daggers and plaques as
well as from a series of ceramic vessels that were
placed around the legs and hips area. In the same
time, in a couple of graves, around the lower limbs
area, there were found animal bones, parts of the
same funerary inventory. According to the
typological characteristics of the funerary
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
inventory, there could be established two periods
marking the chronological evolution of the
graveyard. The inhumation burials as well as some
incineration ones (those which have a funerary
inventory similar to the first ones), belong to the
chronologic sequence Bz. B2-C. The majority of
the incineration burials contained different objects
as funerary inventory, mainly small bronze objects,
as multi-spiraled rings, loops and bracelets. The
rest of the incineration burials could be included in
Bz D/Ha A1chronological sequence.
8
Acquiring significance. Constructing warrior's identity at the Lower Mureș Valley
We can state almost certainly that the biritual
cemeteries, in which the inhumation burials
prevail, are a characteristic of the Lower Mureș
area. An example of this could be the necropolis
from Tápé (O. Trogmayer, 1975), the funerary
discoveries from Felnac (V. Sava, L. Andreica,
2013, p. 63, note 51), Sântana “Cetatea Veche” (F.
Gogâltan,V. Sava, 2010; V. Sava, L. Andreica,
2013, p. 68) and Pecica “Sit 14” (V. Sava, L.
Andreica, 2013).
Fig. 2 - Plan of the Late Bronze Age cemetery
Besides de Bronze Age cemetery the site also
includes an Early Bronze Age settlement, and
another one that belongs to the IIIrd and IVth
centuries A.D. There were also discovered traces
from of a XXth century habitation. The successive
settlements were demonstrated through the
identification of 61 archaeological features, most of
them pits, but also hearths or ditches. During the
archaeological investigation we identified a
depositional layer which goes from 0,4 m to 0,6 m,
pendant of the three settlements. In this way, we
could observe that the graves were placed in the
Early Bronze Age layer. Several graves were
disturbed by the IIIrd and IVth centuries A.D.
settlement as well as by the XXth century one.
One of the main traits of the Lower Mureș area
is the presence of the sites that begin their
existence in Bz B2-C and continue during later
periods as Bz D/Ha A1 (V. Sava, L. Andreica,
2013, p. 63). For instance, one of the best example
we could give is the necropolis from Pecica, the
one from Felnac “Complexul Zootehnic” (V. Sava,
L. Andreica, 2013, p. 63) and the settlements from
Şagu “Sit A1_1” (V. Sava et al., 2011), TápéKemeneshát (V. Szabó, 2004b, p. 152; G. Sánta,
2010, p. 521), Tápé-Szőlőföldek (V. Szabó, 2004b,
p. 152; G. Sánta, 2010, p. 521).
Description of the graves
Cx. 067; Fig. 3. The deceased was deposed in
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Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
Victor Sava, Ana Ignat
Fig. 3 - The funerary inventory of grave Cx. 067
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
10
Acquiring significance. Constructing warrior's identity at the Lower Mureș Valley
crouched position, having the inferior limbs flexed
towards his right side and the upper limbs brought
towards the thoracic cavity. The orientation is S-N.
At a first view it can be noticed that from the upper
limbs the left humerus is missing. On the other
side, the skull and the inferior limbs are very well
preserved. The funerary inventory consists in
several bronze artifacts placed together with two
ceramic vessels. In the forearm area (probably the
right one) a bronze dagger with two rivets,
horizontally disposed was identified. In the soil
around it there were found five more bronze rivets
which are probably part of the same dagger. At the
left wrist there were also identified two bronze
bracelets. Moreover on some bones there have been
identified traces of oxidation. Between the left
humerus and a mandible there was found another
bronze object, a pin. In the lower limbs area there
was found a ceramic vessel, sitting horizontally,
having the rim towards West. Right in front of the
rim, there were found three fragments of animal
bones. Also in the northern part of the pit, at
approximate 20 cm from the cup, there was found
another large vessel. During the anthropological
analyses there were identified a series of
enthesopathies at the level of Pectoralis major,
Deltoid and Latissimus dorsi muscles (humerus
area). In the same time the bicipital tuberosity of
the radius is very well-developed. At the level of
the supinator muscle (ulna area) was identified
another enthesopathy; adult male skeleton
belonging to the 40-50 years age group (L.
Andreica, 2014).
1. Roll-headed bronze pin (Rollenkopfnadeln)
(Fig. 3/1a-1b); the artifact is covered in a dark
green patina, corroded in patches; length: 26.4 cm,
head width: 0.7 cm, head thickness: 0.65,
maximum thickness: 0.45 cm, weight: 25 gr.
Fig. 4 - The funerary inventory of grave Cx 075
2. Dagger (Fig. 3/2a-2b); trapezoidal plate, has
a central midrib and two deep notches, the tip is
thinned and slightly rounded. It has two rivets (the
maximum diameter of the rivets is of 0,75 cm). The
artifact is very well preserved in a very good shape,
it has a dark green patina, and is slightly corroded
in patches; width of the plate: 3.08 cm; length: 17.4
cm, blade width: 3.07 cm; thickness: 0.6 cm,
weight: 90 gr.
- bronze rivet, it has randomly a dark green
patina and is strongly corroded. The diameter of
the head 0.65 cm, length: 1.1 cm, thickness 0.25
11
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
Victor Sava, Ana Ignat
Fig. 5 - The funerary inventory of grave Cx. 092
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
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Acquiring significance. Constructing warrior's identity at the Lower Mureș Valley
cm, weight 0.2 gr.
- bronze rivet, it has a dark green patina in
patches and is strongly corroded. The head is
rectangular with rounded edges, head length 0.7
cm, head width 0.5 cm; length 1.2 cm, thickness
0.3 cm, weight 0.2 gr.
- bronze rivet, it has a dark green patina in
pitches and is strongly corroded. The head is
rectangular with rounded edges, head length 0.65
cm, head width 0.5 cm; length 0.9 cm, thickness
0.35 cm, weight 0.2 gr.
- bronze rivet, the artifact is strongly corroded
and there can be observed a dark green patina. The
head is rectangular with rounded edges, head
length 0.7 cm, head width 0.5 cm; length 0.85 cm,
thickness 0.35 cm, weight 0.2 gr.
- bronze rivet, the artifact is slightly corroded
towards the base and there can be observed a dark
green patina. The head is rectangular with rounded
edges, head length 0.8 cm, head width 0.65 cm;
length 1.2 cm, width 0.35 cm, weight 0.2 gr.
3. Bracelet (Fig. 3/3); (fragmentary) made from
a triangular bar, with slightly rounded edges and
open endings. The casting traces are not visible;
it has a dark green patina preserved on a small
proportion of the body, while the rest of the
bracelet is covered in light green oxide; length:
11.2 cm, width: 1.5 cm, thickness: 0.4 cm, weight:
13 gr.
4. Bracelet (Fig. 3/4); (fragments) made from a
slightly triangular bar, with rounded edges and
open endings. Only one of the endings is well
preserved. This is thickened and it has a triangular
shape in section. The casting traces are not visible;
there could not be observed casting traces, the
object being very well smoothed; the dark green
patina is preserved only on one part of the body,
the rest of it being covered in a light green oxide;
length: 5.55 cm, width: 0.9 cm, thickness: 0.25 cm,
weight: 4 gr.
5. Biconical cup (Fig. 3/5); with slightly high
handle; everted rim, globular body, annular base
decorated with three circular prominences slightly
sharpened, dragged from the body, disposed on the
maximum diameter of the pot; The decoration
consists in several registers: on the neck, one could
distinguish two rows of fine incisions disposed in
arcades; up to the maximum diameter we could
identify ten rows of three fine incisions disposed
vertically on the vessel body; these rows of
incisions are delimitated on the lower part by two
rows of incisions disposed in garlands. Right under
the maximum diameter of each prominence and
under the handle the pot is decorated with a
vertically row of three incisions; reducing
combustion, black color, paste mixed with sand;
smoothed surface; rim diameter 8.2 cm; maximum
diameter of the pot 9.4 cm; thickness 0.6 cm;
height 10.6 cm; base diameter 5 × 4.9 cm.
6. Ceramic vessel; due to the soil conditions and
the high degree of fragmentation the restoration is
impossible.
Cx 075; Fig. 4. The deceased was deposed in the
dorsal decubitus position. Orientation of the grave
is W-E. The deceased has his upper limbs flexed,
the hands placed towards the chest, and the left leg
stretched, while the right one is flexed with the
knee towards the left side. At the level of the left
forearm there was found a very well preserved
bronze dagger. We couldn’t observe any
enthesopathies; adult male skeleton belonging to
the 35-45 years age group (L. Andreica, 2014).
1. Dagger (Fig. 4/1a-1b); semi-circular plate
and central midrib; straight blade and three rivets
from which only two are preserved; the tip is
thinned and slightly rounded. The artifact is very
well preserved. It has a dark-green patina and is
corroded in patches; length: 14.5 cm, width of the
supporting plate: 3.06 cm, thickness: 0.4 cm,
weight: 32 gr.
Cx. 092; Fig. 5. The deceased was deposed in
the dorsal decubitus position. Orientation of the
grave is S-N; the upper limbs were flexed, the
hands were put on the thoracic cavity, and the
inferior limbs were flexed with the knees towards
the right side. The funerary inventory consists in
several artifacts as: right next to the left scapula
there was identified a bronze axe (it was probably
held in the right hand as the left forearm passes
over the lumbar vertebrae but the right forearm
even thought passes over the lumbar vertebrae is
much more flexed); in the area of the clamping
tube of the axe there were identified wood traces.
Also, parallel with the maxillary there was
discovered a pin, having the head towards the right
humerus, and the tip towards the axe. In the
inferior limbs area there was discovered a big
quantity of animal bones.
At approximately 20 cm from the skull there
were discovered several potsherds belonging to a
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Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
Victor Sava, Ana Ignat
Fig. 6 - The funerary inventory of grave Cx. 098
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
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Acquiring significance. Constructing warrior's identity at the Lower Mureș Valley
cup and a goblet. The anthropologic analyses lead
to the conclusion that we are dealing with a male
skeleton belonging to the 40-44 years age group.
There were also identified a series of
enthesopathies at the level of Pectoralis major and
Deltoid muscles. The bicipital tuberosity of the
radius is extremely pronounced. In the spine area
there were observed Schmorl nodes, both on the
inferior and superior surfaces of the lumbar
vertebrae. On the posterior surface of the femurs
diaphysis there could be also observed a rough line,
strongly marked (L. Andreica, 2014).
1.
Disc
and
spin
headed
axe
(Nackenscheibenäxte) (Fig. 5/1a-1b); the artifact is
very well preserved, including the spin. On its
surface there are visible a few casting traces.
Almost the entire surface is covered in a dark green
patina but in some places it has light green
oxidation marks. The spin has conical shape,
height: 0.35 cm, the diameter of the disk: 4.95 × 5
cm, thickness 0.35 cm. The section of the bar
between the disk and the clamping tube is
rectangular, length 1.4 cm; The blade has two ribs
on each side, in section it has a rectangular shape,
the maximum width is 3.5 cm. The clamping tube
is thicker towards the edges; its maximum diameter
is 1.8 cm. The total length of the axe is 18.3 cm;
the weight: 279 gr.
2.
Pin
with
perforated
neck
(Trompetenkopfnadeln) (Fig. 5/2a-2b); thickness
0,3 cm. the upper part of the body is made from a
circular bar, 0,75 cm thick. The bronze pin has a
small perforation of approximately 0,1 cm in
diameter. The rest of the pin is made of a
rectangular bar, being thinner and sharper towards
the tip; the artifact is covered in a dark green
patina, corroded in patches; length: 19.9 cm; head
diameter: 1.8 × 1.6 cm; weight: 33 gr.
3. Cup (Fig. 5/3); (possible with slightly high
handle). The cup has everted rim and globular
body, decorated with circular prominences
disposed on the maximum diameter of the body,
intercalated by groups of three vertically disposed
grooves; reducing combustion, black color, paste
mixed with sand; smoothed surface; height: 7.5
cm; maximum diameter of the belly: 7.5 cm; base
diameter: 2.7 cm; thickness: 0.44 cm.
4. Biconical goblet (Fig. 5/4); globular body and
everted rim, having the handle disposed on the
neck. In between handles, the vessel is decorated
with two horizontally incised lines from which start
incised triangles with the tip directed down, the rest
of the body is decorated with two circular
prominences placed between incisions disposed in
triangular shape; reducing combustion, black color,
paste mixed with sand, the exterior surface
polished; approximate height: 30 cm; approximate
rim diameter: 25 cm; approximate belly diameter:
29 cm; base diameter: 9 cm; thickness: 0.9 cm. Cx.
098 (Fig. 6). The skeleton was identified in a
crouched position, having the head towards South,
facing East and the inferior part towards North.
Right after the identification we have noticed that
the deceased has a rich funerary inventory, several
bronze artifacts being discovered. For instance,
under the mandible there was discovered a bronze
pin, on the upper limbs there were found two
bracelets; moreover, a dagger was placed under the
arms; in the lower limbs area we have identified
several animal bones; a cup was diagonally
disposed under the tibia and next to the phalanges
there was placed a biconical vessel which had
another small cup inside; the north-western part of
the burial pit is cut by Cx. 038 (pit from IIIrd-IVth
centuries A.D.). The skeleton belongs to a male of
35-39 years old. As a result of the anthropological
analysis there were identified a series of
enthesopathies. At the level of the upper limbs
there could be observed some transformations,
which look like bone ridges and a bone erosion in
the insertion site of tendons of Deltoid, Pectoralis
major and Latissimus dorsi muscles. The general
image of this individual’s skeleton indicates a
strong man. On the posterior surface of femoral
diaphysis, there can be -observed a rough line
strongly marked. In the area of the spine there were
observed the Schmorl nodes both on the inferior
and superior surfaces of the lumbar vertebrae (V.
Sava, L. Andreica, 2013).
1. Seal headed pin (Petschaftkopfnadel) (Fig.
6/1a-1b); the superior part of the body is decorated
with two rib rows, on the edge of the head there
can be seen a circular rib; the artifact is covered in
a dark green patina, corroded in patches; length:
27.7 cm, head diameter: 1.8 × 1.7 cm, maximum
thickness: 0.74 cm, weight: 55 gr.
2. Bracelet (Fig. 6/2a-2b); made of a rectangular
bar with rounded edges, narrow, with thin and open
endings, the body of the bracelet is decorated with
12 groups of five-six symmetrically disposed
ridges; there are no casting traces, the artifact was
finely finished; it is covered in a light green patina
15
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
Victor Sava, Ana Ignat
almost on the entire surface, while the rest is
covered in a light green oxide; length: 16.9 cm,
interior diameter: 5.8 × 4.92 cm, exterior diameter:
6.5 × 5.38 cm, width: 0.48 cm, thickness: 0.4 cm,
weight: 30 gr.
3. Bracelet (Fig. 6/3a-3b); made of a rhombic
bar with spiraled endings (made from a round bar);
the artifact is decorated with six groups of seveneight ridges; the bracelet is finely finished; a dark
green patina is preserved almost on the entire body,
one of the endings is strongly corroded; length of
the bar : 22 cm; interior diameter: 5.7 × 4.5 cm;
exterior diameter: 6.42 × 4.8 cm; thickness: 0.4 cm;
weight: 14 gr.
4. Dagger (Fig. 6/4a-4b); trapezoidal hafting
plate, flat blade, with three rivets; the artifact is
strongly corroded; dimensions of the hafting plate:
4.1 cm; length: 19 cm, blade width: 3.08 cm,
thickness: 0.28 cm, weight: 61 gr.
5. Biconical cup with slightly high handle (Fig.
6/5); everted rim and globular body; reducing
combustion, black and reddish color, paste mixed
with sand, smooth surface; rim diameter: 7.6 × 7.3
cm; maximum diameter of the belly: 8.2 × 7.9 cm;
thickness: 0.4 cm.
6. Biconical cup with slightly high handle (Fig.
6/6); everted rim and globular body, decorated with
three circular prominences disposed on the
maximum diameter of the belly; reducing
combustion, black color, paste mixed with sand,
the exterior surface polished; rim diameter: 7.6 × 7
cm; maximum diameter of the belly: 8.7 × 8.6 cm;
thickness: 0.5 cm (discovered inside the biconical
vessel with everted rim).
7. Biconical vessel with everted rim (Fig. 6/7);
short neck, two handles and foot; the inferior part is
decorated with an incised four angled star motif,
the maximum diameter of the body is decorated
with narrow cannels diagonally disposed and with
four prominences, the neck has two registers,
decorated with incised arcades, separated through
ribs, the handles have a midrib, reducing
combustion, light-reddish color both on the interior
and exterior, the middle is black, paste mixed with
sand, smoothed; rim diameter: 24.2 × 25cm; belly
diameter: 31 × 30.2 cm; base diameter: 10.7 × 10.5
cm; thickness: 0.9 cm.
067 could be attributed to at least two different
species. A molar fragment which presents strong
traces of deterioration belongs to Equus. Other two
bone fragments, from a scapula and a humerus are
characteristic to Sus domesticus. The bone
fragments attributed to this species belong to an
adult more than 1 year old. The humerus there have
been identified the traces left by some rodents,
which probably appeared after deposition. There
are two bones are extremely fragmentary therefore
it is almost impossible to identify the specie they
belong to. On one of the fragments there were
identified cutting traces.
The animal bone fragments discovered in the
area of the inferior limbs of the deceased in Cx.
098, belong to Sus domesticus. The two bones
represent a radius and an ulna. Both of them belong
to the right side of a specimen that was maximum
42 months old. There is a big probability the two
bones to be part of the same individual because
they have the same morphologic traits. In the same
context there was found a fragmented femur which
probably to a big animal.
In both burials, Cx. 067 and Cx. 098, the food
deposition is characterized by the presence of Sus
domesticus. Another common trait is the fact that
in both cases there were selected anatomical parts
from the right side. The four Sus domesticus bones
belong to individuals between 1 year and 42
months old.
The Chronological Setting
The final stage of Bronze Age in the Lower
Mureş area, begins in the moment when the first
signs of the Tumulus Culture spread over wide
areas (Bz. B2-C), and continues during later phases
Bz D, Ha A1 (M. Gumă, 1993, p. 150; M. Gumă,
1997, p. 53; F. Gogâltan, 1993; F. Gogâltan, 1996;
F. Gogâltan, 1998, 184), probably until the Ha B1
period (V. Szabó, 2004a). The time frame
corresponding to the inhumation burials from
Pecica “Sit 14” (Bz. B2-C) is contemporary with
the disappearance of bronze age tells (Periam
“Movila Şanţului”, Pecica “Şanţul Mare”, Sântana
“Tell Nordic”) and the emergence of large fortified
settlements (Sântana “Cetatea Veche”, Munar
“Wolfsberg”, Corneşti “Iarcuri”).
Most of the bronze objects, found in these
burials represent very good chronological
indicators. Among the artifacts that are part of the
funerary inventory of the burial Cx. 067, there is a
rolled-headed bronze pin (Fig. 3/1a-1b)
Archaeo-zoological analysis (Fig 7)
The animal bones discovered in the inferior
limbs area, part of the funerary inventory of Cx.
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
16
Acquiring significance. Constructing warrior's identity at the Lower Mureș Valley
2005, kép. 1/12). The clearest chronological
framing is given by the spin and disc-headed axe
(Nackenscheibenäxte), type B1, variant Ighiel (Fig.
5/1a-1b-1c), which was discovered in burial Cx.
092. In this area there were discovered axes of the
same type at Cruceni in burial no. 55, together with
a seal-headed pin (Petschaftkopfnadeln) (Al.
Vulpe, 1970, p. 75; M. Gumă, 1997, Pl.
LXXXI/E.1-3). Other examples of similar burials
can be found at the site of Sombor (W. David,
2002, Taf. 340/12-13), Senta (W. David, 2002, taf.
342/5) and Kiskunmajsa (A. Mozsolics, 1973, taf.
5/1).
(Rollenkopfnadeln), which has a wide geographical
and chronological spreading, but they were also
found in the contemporary burials from Tápé (O.
Trogmayer, 1975, taf. 11/130.2; 27/306.1; 33/375;
43/495), Szentes “Nagyhegy” (M. Nagy, 2005,
kép. 2/12) and Kiskundorozsma (I. Foltiny, 1957
taf. X/1). In the same burial there were also found
two bracelets with triangular bar in section (Fig.
3/3-4), which have good analogies in the so-called
“ hoard Pecica I” (M. Petrescu-Dâmboviţa, 1998,
taf. 112/1515-1517) but also in the necropolis from
Kiskundorozsma (I. Foltiny, 1957, taf. X/10a-10b,
14a-14b) and Szentes “Nagyhegy” (M. Nagy,
Fig. 7 - Archaeozoological primary analysis
In this context there can be also mentioned the two
spin and disc-headed axes from the so-called
“hoard Pecica I”; as we mentioned with several
occasions (V. Sava, L. Andreica ,2013, 57-58),
through the content of discovery and the type of
materials, it can be stated that the bronze artifacts
from “hoard Pecica I” reflect the funerary
inventory of some burials. From a chronologic
point of view, the seal-headed pins can be found in
the middle and late part of the tumular-like
discoveries (M. Novotná, 1980, p. 73; F.
Innerhofer, 2000, p. 144-145). This is the reason
why the bronze pin discovered in burial Cx. 098
(Fig. 6/1a-1b) represents a good chronological
indicator. The bracelet made of a rectangular bar
with rounded endings (Fig. 6/2a-2b), discovered in
the same burial, Cx. 098, has a wide spreading
during the Late Bronze Age (M. Nagy, 2005, p.
14), but such artifacts are also present in the
tumular discoveries (T. Kovács 1975, p. 45); the
bracelet with spiral endings (Fig. 6/3a-3b) is a good
indicator for Bz B2-C, as well as the three daggers
(Fig. 3/2a-2b; 4/1a-1b; 6/4a-4b) (T. Kovács, 1975,
p. 45).
Regarding the ceramics, the biconical vessel
(Fig. 6/7) found in burial Cx. 098 has some special
features in comparison with the ones discovered in
the necropolis from Pecica and those from the
Lower Mureş. Its closest analogies in shape can be
encountered in the central-northern part of
Hungaria, in the Piliny culture (T. Kemenczei,
1984, taf. I/22; VII/26; XI/5). Other alike vessels
were found in the incineration necropolis from
Kozárd, Litke and Jászberény “Cseröhalom”; the
median area of the pot decorated with prominences
and cannels could be a characteristic of Piliny
culture, while the incised arcades from the neck
area have good analogies in the Lower Mureş area
and the North Banat area (Giroc “Mescal” (Al.
Szentmiklosi, 2009, pl. LXVII/1-2, 6, 8; LXVIII/617
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Victor Sava, Ana Ignat
9; LXXIII/4; LXXIV/10), Sântana “Cetatea Veche”
(F. Gogâltan, V. Sava, 2010, fig. 37), Şagu “Sit
A1_1” (V. Sava et al., 2011, fig. 147; 178; 180) or
Felnac “Complexul Zootehnic”. The decoration
made of arcades disposed in different registers
appears in the Lower Mureş area begins in the
Middle Bronze Age, being specific to the ceramics
in Vatina/Corneşti-Crvenka culture. This specific
decoration could be also found at Socodor (F.
Gogâltan, 1999a), Satu Mare (F. Gogâltan, 2004),
Macea (V. Sava, 2009), or Sântana “Tell nordic”
(this decoration which is specific to Vatina
ceramics can be found in time until the final period
of Bronze Age). In burial Cx. 067 there was
discovered a cup decorated with arcades under the
rim (Fig. 3/5); the most relevant analogies can be
found in burial 85 from Cruceni (M. Gumă, 1997,
pl. LXXXII/9) and in the settlement from Şagu “Sit
A1_1” (V. Sava et al. 2011, fig. 101, Cx_93; fig.
180/Cx_93). Other cups, still unpublished,
decorated in the same manner, were discovered at
Felnac “Complexul Zootehnic” and at Zimand. The
globular goblet (Fig. 5/4) from Cx 092 has
approximate analogies in burial 82 at Cruceni (O.
Radu, 1971, fig. 2; M. Gumă, 1997, pl. LXXXII/1)
and in the necropolis at Szeged “Bogárzó” (I.
Foltiny, 1957, taf. I/5); regarding the cup (Fig. 5/3)
from the same burial, there can be mentioned a
similar one discovered at the end of the XIXth
century at Zimand.
Fig. 8 - Early Bronze Age. Weapon distribution at the Lower Mureș Valley
The stratigraphical context and the typological
traits of the artifacts, part of the funerary inventory
of these four graves we are discussing on, are
straightening our dating of Pecica “Site 14” in the
chronological sequence Bz. B2-C.
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
18
Discussion
A recent study regarding the traces left by war
and warriors at the end of Bronze Age on the
Lower Mureș Valley (F. Gogâltan, V. Sava, 2012)
was also concerned with mentioning the most
Acquiring significance. Constructing warrior's identity at the Lower Mureș Valley
relevant inquiries on the subject. Hence, we are not
going to resume that discussion in the current
paper. Still, we would like to stress once again that
the topic on the war in the Bronze Age Societies
has been widely debated by a high number of
researchers (K. Kristiansen, 1998, p. 63-123; R.
Osgood, 1998; A. Harding, 2000, p. 271-307; K.
Kristiansen, T. B. Larsson, 2005, p. 142-250; A.
Harding, 2007).
From a theoretical viewpoint, most scholars
agree that the evidences of warfare inside a society
are given by the presence of fortified settlements,
the diversity of weapons (axes, spear heads,
daggers, swords etc.), as well as by some skeletal
evidences for trauma. Iconographic representations,
such as menhirs, frescoes, rock art etc., are also
taken into account as relevant evidences for war
related activities.
In this regard we will mention below the main
evidences of Bronze Age warfare on the Lower
Mureş and outline some specific features of the
area. A research upon the weapons that were
discovered in the Lower Mureş area was thought to
offer important evidences about the intensity of
Fig. 9 - Middle Bronze Age. Weapon distribution at the Lower Mureș Valley
catalogue and statistics the moulds used at casting
the weapons. Since no studies concerning the usage
traces were provided, we cannot state at this point
which of the 114 weapons, discovered on the
Lower Mures, were actually used in combat.
In what concerns the distribution of these types
of weapons up to this sequence Br. B2-C (Fig. 810) we would like to point to the fact that only a
few discoveries are representative to the Early
Bronze Age (Fig. 8) in comparison to other time
warfare during this period. For this purpose, we
also thought necessary to elaborate of a small
catalogue, comprising the Bronze Age weapons
discovered in this area that will continue the effort
of presenting the funerary discoveries specific to
Bz. B2-C from the necropolis at Pecica “Sit 14”.
However, we decided to exclude those weapons
that present doubts in what concerns their utility,
such as flat axes, the stop-ridge axes (Absatzbeile)
and the socketed axes. We also added to our
19
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
Victor Sava, Ana Ignat
Bronze Age weapons occur also in hoards, such as
those from Satu Mare and Păuliș (Fig. 13, 15).
Taking into account the fact that most of the
weapon moulds were discovered at Pecica “Şanţul
Mare” we can certainly state that this tell
settlement represented an important metallurgical
centre at the time, being most likely specialized in
producing
weapons
(daggers,
spearheads,
Hajdúsámson- type axes). Another mold fragment
for casting daggers was unearthed in a settlement
from Satu Mare.
Both axes and daggers have a wide spreading
during this timeframe (Fig. 9), but there are
periods (Fig. 11), respectively three axes and a
dagger (Fig. 12). Among these, only the dagger
from Kiskundorozsma was identified in a funerary
context, while the axes were random discoveries
(Fig. 13, 14).
There can be noticed a strong connection
between the emergence of tell-settlements (Semlac,
Pecica, Periam, Klárafalva etc.) and large
cemeteries (Mokrin, Battonya, Deszk, Szőreg etc.)
on the one hand and the increasing number of
weapons (Fig. 11), on the other hand. The vast
majority of these weapons were identified in
funerary contexts. Towards the end of the Middle
Fig. 10 - Late Bronze Age/Bz. B2-C. Weapon distribution at the Lower Mureș Valley
differences in what concerns the way the society
relates to each of these two types of artifacts. The
majority of the axes represent singular discoveries,
while few of them were found in funerary contexts.
On the other hand, most of the daggers were
revealed in funerary contexts.
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
These two tendencies can be traced up to the
Early Bronze Age. Thus, daggers are mostly found
in funerary contexts, while axes are part of singular
discoveries. Alongside these weapon discoveries,
we also note four spearheads, out of which, three
are part of the so-called “hoard from Păuliş”.
20
Acquiring significance. Constructing warrior's identity at the Lower Mureș Valley
contexts (Fig. 10). For the same sequence, we can
only mention one rapier discovered in the Tisa
river bed (T. Kemenczei, 1988, no. 159, taf.
14/159). According to the way in which the society
relates in Bz B2-C to the weapon deposition, a lot
of similarities can be found with the previous
periods. Instead, for Bz D-Ha A1 and Ha A2-Ha B,
since most of artifacts were found in singular
depositions, one can assume a major change in the
weapon deposition phenomenon. Several weapon
discoveries, dated in the first of these two periods,
namely Bz D-Ha A1, were made in the fortified
settlement at Sântana “Cetatea Veche”. We can
summarize that swords and spearheads prevail in
this chronological sequence, although we can also
mention four daggers and two arrowheads.
The emergence of fortifications represents an
Withal, a bone arrowhead was discovered in burial
35 at Battonya.
During the end of Bronze Age, the number of
weapons increases and their types diversify (Fig.
16-18). Despite the fact that during this period one
can notice a wide spreading of spearheads and
arrowheads, daggers maintain their prevalence
among weapon discoveries. At this point rapiers
and swords make their appearance alongside the
already mentioned weapon types. In order to
understand better Late Bronze Age, the discussion
should be divided in several well defined
chronological sequences (Bz B2-C, Bz D-Ha A1,
Ha A2-Ha B). Hence, for the Bz B2-C period the
daggers keep being the most frequent finds,
followed by arrow heads and axes; the vast
majority of them were discovered in funerary
Fig. 11 - Weapon distribution according to the period
Fig. 12 - Weapon distribution according to the weapon type and period
indirect proof of the state of conflict in a certain
society. For the Bronze Age period, the first
fortified settlement, according to archaeological
data obtained so far, is the tell-settlement at Semlac
“Livada lui Onea”. The recent field investigations
showed that the settlement was probably enclosed
by a ditch of large dimensions. From a
chronological viewpoint, the tell functioned during
the phases IIb-III of the Early Bronze Age (F.
Gogâltan, 1999, p. 203). Several excavations were
also led at the tell-settlement from Pecica “Şanţul
Mare” (E. Dörner, 1978), but unfortunately none of
them had as a purpose the investigation of the
fortification system. Taking into account the fact
that the Bronze Age tell was overlapped by a
dacian settlement the dating of the defensive ditch
becomes problematic (O'Shea et al., 2005). A
recent survey conducted on the Middle Bronze Age
tells from Periam “Movila Şanţului” and Munar
“Wolfsberg” let to the identification of ditches
surrounding the settlements. Given that none of
these mentioned tells ditches were investigated by
excavations we can not venture to draw further
conclusions about their purpose. Most likely the
end of the tell- settlements in the mentioned area
occurs around 1600 BC, at least for Pecica
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Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
Victor Sava, Ana Ignat
Fig. 13 - Weapon distribution according to the type of discovery and period
Fig. 14 - Early Bronze Age. Weapon distribution according to the type of discovery
Fig. 15 - Middle Bronze Age. Weapon distribution according to the type of discovery
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
22
Acquiring significance. Constructing warrior's identity at the Lower Mureș Valley
Fig. 16 - Late Bronze Age. Weapon distribution according to the type of discovery
Fig. 17 - Late Bronze Age. Weapon distribution according to the type of discovery
and chronological sequence
Fig. 18 - Late Bronze Age. Weapon distribution according to the type of discovery
and chronological sequence
23
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
Victor Sava, Ana Ignat
“Şanţul Mare” (J. O'Shea et al., 2011). The
following time frame, Bz B2-C, to which the
cemetery from Pecica “Site 14” (V. Sava, L.
Andreica, 2013), Tápé (O. Trogmayaer, 1975) and
the settlements from Şagu “Sit A1_1” or Păuliș
“Dealul Bătrân” belong to, are characterized by the
lack of fortification elements.
Things change radically in Bz D-Ha A1 period,
when there were build impressive fortifications that
surrounded hundreds of hectares. In the summer of
1939, J. Banner excavated a small trench in the
fortification from Orosháza “Nagytatársánc” (J.
Banner 1939), which surrounds more than 100
hectares. Banner considered that the earth vallum
was of 1.55 m height and the maximum depth of
the defensive ditch was of 2.06 m. During the same
year, 1939, M. Moga excavates a test trench in the
fortification from Corneşti “Iarcuri” (F. Medeleţ,
1993). Later, in 2007, multi-purposed researches
have been carried out (A. Szentmiklosi et al.,
2011). According to the result of the archaeological
researches, the fortification has four enclosures.
Only two of them being surrounded by an earth
vallum, ditch and palisade; the first enclosure
covers a 72 ha surface, while the second one 213
ha (D. Micle et al., 2006; D. Micle et al., 2008).
The other two enclosures where not been
researched by excavations and most likely the third
and the fourth enclosures are just ditches, like the
ones from Csanádpalota.
Another very important fortification is Santana
“Cetatea Veche”; here the archaeological
excavations began in 1963 as a consequence of the
field researches carried out by E. Dörner and M.
Rusu (M. Rusu et al., 1996; M. Rusu et al., 1999).
The main purpose of the newest research carried
out in 2009 was the excavation of the fortification
system of the third enclosure (F. Gogâltan, V.
Sava, 2010). In this area, the defensive ditch had a
maximum opening of 10 m and 2.86 m depth; the
width of the earth vallum is of 26.82 m and the
height of 2.44 m; in the area where there was
supposed to be the palisade, was identified a
massive structure, of approximately 1 m width,
with a preserved height of 0.40 m. The excavation
of the IIIrd enclosure, lead to the identification of an
area that may have been the subject of an attack (F.
Gogâltan, V. Sava, 2012, p. 68-69, fig. 7). Both
from the excavation and from several field surveys,
we could observe that the northern part of the IIIrd
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
fortification system was affected by a strong fire.
During the unveiling of the fortification elements
we have discovered a series of sling projectiles,
made of clay and disposed close to the wall.
Moreover behind the earth vallum we discovered a
bronze arrowhead. All these elements indicate a
massive attack upon the fortification from Sântana
“Cetatea Veche”, which lead to the fire that swept
at least its northern part.
Another fortification of this kind, smaller than
Sântana “Cetatea Veche”, is the Munar
“Wolfsberg”. This one encloses over 15 ha (F.
Gogâltan, V. Sava, 2010, p. 57-61). Recently,
archaeological researches were carried out at the
fortification from Csanádpalota. The earth vallum
from Csanádpalota surrounds approximately 8-9 ha
(P. Czukor et al., 2013; A. Priskin et al., 2013). The
excavations from 2013 lead to the discovery of a
defensive system made from an earth vallum
(destroyed by modern agriculture) and also from a
palisade, in front of which there were built two
ditches of approximately 3 m depth. Around this
fortified enclosure there were noticed a series of
ditches which surround a surface of approximately
400 ha.
Another important evidence in order to trace
warfare is the identification of skeletal trauma.
Evidences of this kind were found in the Middle
Bronze Age cemetery from Battonya. For instance
in grave no. 92, belonging to an adult male deposed
in the crouched position, holding an axe in his right
hand and a dagger in the left one, on the skull there
was identified a healed lesion (F. Szalai, 1999, abb.
5/2). Taking into account the fact that the male was
buried with weapons, we could interpret, whit
caution, the injury as the result of a violent conflict
he took part at.
Other traces of warfare can be encountered
among the burials from Tápé. For example, from
grave no. 26 (female skeleton) were recovered two
arrowheads; one of them was found between the
left humerus and the rib cage, while the other one
was found near the right wrist. Another example is
grave no. 307 (male skeleton); in the 3rd and 11th
vertebrae there were identified two bronze
arrowheads. Another possible case of violence
could be spotted at the individual nr. 508, in the
grave of which there were identified three
arrowheads, one of them being found under the left
mastoid. It is very difficult to identify the nature of
24
Acquiring significance. Constructing warrior's identity at the Lower Mureș Valley
to be mentioned that this burial was disturbed, this
is the reason why the dagger deposition is not
certain.
A more detailed analysis of the weapons
identified in burials together with the combination
they appear in, reveal information that would
support the recomposition of the warriors panoply
and their manner of fighting as well. According to
the information we have, one could observe that
the majority of weapons discovered in graves were
daggers or axes and just few with both types of
weapons. If we take into account these
observations, we could distinguish a tactic that can
be described as close range combat. It is very likely
that small-scale battles in this period were fought
by champions, probably the same individuals found
in the graves we have discussed above.
In order to understand better the cultural
changes that took place at the end of the Bronze
Age, the discussion should be divided in several
well defined chronological sequences. During Bz
B2-C, there are no identified fortification elements,
but there is an obvious persistence in Middle
Bronze Age traditions, through the presence of the
weapons in burials, generally daggers and axes.
This tradition of the close range combat disappears
starting with Bz D-Ha A1. The beginning of Bz DHa A1 marks a changing in tactics, the daggers,
axes and rapiers were replaced by swords and
spears. If before, the rapier or dagger obliged the
warrior to “stab” its opponent, by using the sword
the warrior has a larger movement liberty as he can
both slash and thrust his opponent (R. Osgood,
1998, p. 13-14). On the Lower Mureş were
discovered a large number of swords and
spearheads (Fig. 19). The changing in the tactics is
also reflected in the arrival of impressive
fortifications with several enclosures. The
archaeological excavations carried out at Sântana
and Corneşti revealed that both fortifications were
burned. Moreover at Sântana, we have identified an
area where we have evidences about a possible
attack upon the fortification.
The increasing number of weapons, arrival of
large fortifications, the wealth (reflected in bronze
depositions and gold hoards) and the rising
population density (reflected in the growing num
ber of settlements), represent possible causes that
determined the transformations of the type of
conflicts. If previously, the conflicts took place at a
smaller scale with a smaller number of participants,
the injuries suffered by the deceased individuals
found in the cemetery from Tápé, mostly because
O. Trogmayer, hasn’t made the necessary
observations in these cases.
A skull fragment and some other human bones
have been discovered in the defensive ditch of the
IIIrd enclosure of the fortification from Sântana
“Cetatea Veche”. The anthropological analysis
made by L. Andreica confirms that the skull
fragment, belonging to a male of 20-30 years old,
has two unhealed lesions, which occurred through
striking (F. Gogâltan, V. Sava, 2010, p. 36; V.
Gogâltan, V. Sava, 2012, p. 70, fig. 10).
According to the evidences from Early Bronze
Age, there are few traces of warfare. The small
number of weapons identified, the absence of
fortification systems, and the lack of the
paleopathologic evidences sustain this theory.
Towards the end of this period and the beginning
of Middle Bronze Age, together with the
appearance of tell-settlements and Mureş
cemeteries, the number of the discovered weapons
grows considerably. In the same time, there are
several tell-settlement enclosed by ditches. As an
observation worth mentioning, most of the
weapons were discovered in a funerary context (the
majority of them being daggers). Among the graves
which presented in their funerary assemblages
weapons, 14 of them contain only one dagger and
four of them (Battonya no. 122, Mokrin no. 208,
no. 211 and Szőreg no. 190) contain axes. Grave
no. 92 from Battonya and grave no. 2 from Deszk
contain both an axe and a dagger. An interesting
burial pattern displays grave no. 35 from Battonya.
In this particular case the funerary assemblage are
pointing to an interesting combination of weapons:
a dagger, a spearhead and an arrowhead. As for the
age and sex of the individuals that were buried with
weapons we can see that most of them are adults
and mature men. There are though certain
exceptions, in grave no. 122 from Battonya a male
belonging to the senilis age group, was buried with
an axe; at Mokrin grave no. 91 belongs to another
senilis male, having a dagger among his funerary
inventory; also at Mokrin, grave no. 211, male
skeleton, belonging to the maturus-senilis age
group, was deposed together with an axe. If we are
to discuss gender, a single female burial which
displayed weapons in her funerary assemblage was
discovered at Battonya (grave no. 116); the dagger
was discovered in the proximity of the skull; it has
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Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
Victor Sava, Ana Ignat
Fig. 19 - Late Bronze Age/Bz. D-Ha A1. Weapon distribution at the Lower Mureș Valley
Fig. 20 - Late Bronze Age/Ha A2-B1/B2-B3. Weapon distribution at the Lower Mureș Valley
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
26
Acquiring significance. Constructing warrior's identity at the Lower Mureș Valley
great muscular stress proved by pathological
alterations called enthesopathies, that occur at the
insertion of muscle tendons and ligaments (A.
Canci, 1998).
Taking into account the conclusions presented
by A. Canci by studying enthesopathies, we have
tried, together with the anthropologist L. Andreica
to follow possible pathological alterations that
might appear on the human remains discovered in
the cemetery from Pecica “Site 14” (V. Sava, L.
Andreica, 2013; L. Andreica, 2014). In order to
perform this study there have been examined 23
individuals. It could be determined the fact that
three of them display traces of a great muscular
stress (Cx. 067; Cx. 092; Cx. 098), reflected in
enthesopathies occurred at the insertion of tendons
of Pectoralis major, Deltoid and Latissimus dorsi
muscles. Moreover, besides these alterations, there
could be observed, at least in the case of the
skeletons found in Cx. 092 and Cx. 098, the
presence of the Schmorl nodes on the inferior and
superior surfaces of the lumbar vertebrae. In all
three individuals already mentioned (Cx. 067; Cx.
092; Cx. 098), there could also be noticed a rough
line strongly marked on the posterior surface of the
femoral diaphysis. A general view upon these
skeletons indicates the presence of strong
individuals.
The skeletons of the three individuals from
Pecica present traces of alterations (enthesopathies)
at the level of the upper limbs and shoulders, the
same as in the case of the ones at Daguzzo and
Madonna di Loreto, but also some pathologies at
the level of the spine. According to the information
presented, the location and dimensions of these
enthesopaties might offer us certain evidences
regarding daily activities that imply using certain
categories of muscles (C. Larsen, 1997, p. 188).
For example, Pectoralis major muscle develops
through rotation and abduction movements, by
bending the arm; the development of deltoid
tuberosity is explained as an answer of the bone to
constant exercise, which consists in circular and
abduction movements of arms above the head.
These transformations suffered at the level of the
Deltoid muscle represent not only the result of a
repeated launching movement, but they also can
occur as a result of using an instrument that can be
utilized in close range combat. (E. Gonzaléz, M.
Concepción, 2004, p. 189-190).
now, in the Bz D-Ha A1 period, we are dealing
with warrior groups, capable of following rigorous
tactics which had as purpose the defense or
conquest of certain fortifications as well as
organize expeditions in the neighboring regions.
This major transformation in Bronze Age
society is also reflected in the way in which
individuals relate themselves to weapons. Until the
Bz B2-C period, most of the weapons are deposed
in burials, closely related with their owners.
Furthermore, starting with the Bz D-Ha A1 period,
weapons are found in hoards or are singular
findings as we could also observe in Ha A2-B1/B2B3 (Fig. 20).
This situation encountered in the Lower Mureș
area might also reflect the individual’s attitude
towards his identity as a warrior. An obvious
connection can be noticed between, on one side,
the occurrence of weapons in burials and smallscale conflicts carried out by champions, and on
the other side, between the deposition of weapons
in hoards or singular discoveries and larger-scale
conflicts lead by groups of warriors.
*
If up until this point we have searched for
evidences in order to identify the traces of warfare,
we will try further to answer to the following
question: which is the modality of identifying
warriors, those who effectively took part in
combat? For a proper answer it is important to take
into account A. Harding’s opinion: A discussion of
warfare, however, needs to be able to identify
people, or groups of people, who might have taken
part in fighting, and this is usually taken to mean
people buried with weapons. At the start, we
should consider this question: how do we define
warriors in the archaeological record? The short
answer to this question is: by the weapons that
people were buried with, or, on occasion, that they
are depicted with. A warrior is someone who
fights; a fighter normally needs implements with
which to carry out his or her aggressive activity; so
those implements become known as “weapons”,
which by definition are items for fighting others
with (A. Harding, 2007, p. 57).
Anthropological analysis carried out upon the
human remains found in the Middle Bronze Age
cemeteries at Toppo Daguzzo and Madonna di
Loreto (Italia) revealed the fact that only the
persons buried with weapons presented traces of
27
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
Victor Sava, Ana Ignat
All these transformations that occur at the
shoulder level could be explained by the repeated
usage of the spear, and the hypertrophy of the
pectorals and back muscles, together with several
pathologies of the spine, can be a result of repeated
usage of arms and hips in close range combat (A.
Canci, 1998, p. 285).
According to these case studies presented by A.
Canci and by us, we could assert that in order to
identify individuals that took part in combats we
have to search for burials in which there were
deposed weapons and the skeletons present traces
of great muscular stress, reflected through
enthesopathies. This is why we can state that the
individuals from Cx. 067, Cx. 092, Cx. 098,
probably, participated during their lifetime in
combat and had a proper training, in order to use
the weapons they had at their disposal.
The pathological alterations identified on these
three individuals confirm the fact that they had
long term physical activities in which they used
certain parts of the body. For instance, the
enthesopathies identified at the radius level
appeared as a consequence of certain activities
which imply a flexed elbow. The position is similar
with the one determined by the usage of the bow.
On the other hand, the overdevelopment of the
spinal ridge (enthesopathy at the ulna level) reflects
an intense activity through the usage of certain
weapons as the spear.
Regarding the individual from Cx. 075, even if
he was buried together with a bronze dagger, he did
not show any enthesopathies, as the other three did.
Together with the lack of proofs of a great
muscular stress, this individual was buried without
other grave offerings. According to the arguments
exposed above, we could state that the deceased
from Cx. 075 did not have the same social status as
the rest of them.
Even if the Bz B2-C period on Lower Mureş is
not intensively researched, older studies, random
finds and recent discoveries might offer certain
answers on the sphere of warfare and on the
identification of possible warriors. Besides the
burials from Pecica “Site 14” there can be
mentioned several other burials that also had
weapon depositions. For instance in burial no. 92
from Cruceni together with two urns, there was
discovered a bronze dagger (O. Radu, 1973, pl. 4/6;
M. Gumă, 1997, pl. LXXXII/D. 13-15), while in
previous excavations led by M. Moga, there were
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
discovered three spin and disc headed axes of B1
type (Al. Vulpe, 1970, taf. 22/321; 23/330; O.
Radu, 1973, p. 506-507; M. Gumă, 1997, pl.
LXXXI/E.1-3). Phase I of the incineration
necropolis from Cruceni, on the basis of disc
headed axes together with other artifacts, can taken
as contemporary with the first phase of the
necropolis from Pecica “Site 14”.
The
cemetery
from
Tápé,
partially
contemporary with the ones from Cruceni and
Pecica, registered several graves in which there
were discovered weapons. Among the burials with
weapons we are mentioning no. 283 and no. 534,
each of them containing a dagger (O. Trogmayer,
1975, p. 65-66, taf. 25/293/2; O. Trogmayer, 1975,
p. 119, taf. 48/534/2). Together with these, we are
mentioning four more burials from the same
necropolis, in which there were found arrowheads,
no. 26 (O. Trogmayer, 1975, p. 15-16, taf. 4/26/34), no. 307 (O. Trogmayer, 1975, p. 71, taf.
27/307/1-2), no. 357 (O. Trogmayer, 1975, p. 80,
taf. 33/357), no. 508 (O. Trogmayer, 1975, p. 112,
taf. 45/508/4-5). The interesting side of this is that
the arrowheads found in these burials do not seem
to be part of their funerary inventory, but they
might indicate traces of violence.
The construction of a livestock farm from
Felnac in 1971, led to the discovery of a series of
important artifacts. The majority of them were
donated to the Arad Museum by S. Cociuba; the
other artifacts were donated to the museums of
Oradea, Baia Mare and Zalău. Several artifacts
were donated to the Arad Museum, among which a
bronze dagger (M. Petrescu-Dîmboviţa, 1977, p.
93, pl. 142/9). Generally speaking, the artifacts
discovered here seem to be part of several burial
assemblages, as C. Kacsó stated (C. Kacsó, 1992,
p. 97), and not part of a hoard.
During the construction of Arad-Cenad railway,
in 1882, there were discovered several bronze
artifacts; two spin and disc headed axes, type B1,
Bikács-Borlești (Al. Vulpe, 1970, taf 23/327; M.
Petrescu-Dâmbovița, 1977, pl. 6/1), respectively
Senta (Al. Vulpe, 1970, taf. 23/331; A. Mozsolics,
1973, taf. 4/5; M. Petrescu-Dâmbovița, 1977, pl.
6/2), a dagger (A. Mozsolics, 1973, taf. 4/4; M.
Petrescu-Dâmbovița, 1977, pl. 6/3), three bracelets
(A. Mozsolics, 1973, taf. 4/3; M. PetrescuDâmbovița, 1977, pl. 6/9-11), a seal headed pin
(M. Petrescu-Dâmbovița, 1977, pl. 6/8), two spirals
with round bar in section (M. Petrescu-Dâmbovița,
28
Acquiring significance. Constructing warrior's identity at the Lower Mureș Valley
individual as a member of the group and his
identity as a warrior is proved in a funerary context
by a series of artifacts that can offer a visual
expression of the natural order, revealing us
information related to gender, age, the social
position, the status during the time of death and
sometimes information related to the death itself.
1977, pl. 6/6-7) and two “decorated hair gold rings,
made from three boat-like blades” (A. Mozsolics,
1973, taf. 4/1-2; M. Petrescu-Dâmbovița, 1977, pl.
6/4-5). The majority of the publications that
brought into discussion these discoveries
considered that the artifacts discovered in 1882
were part of a hoard (Al. Vulpe, 1970, p. 74; M.
Petrescu-Dâmbovița, 1977, p. 41-42). The
researcher A. Mozsolics had certain objections to
the composition of the “hoard” and she considers
that the objects could be part of the funerary
inventory of two burials (A. Mozsolics, 1973, p.
168); we also recently presented a similar opinion
regarding this discovery (V. Sava, L. Andreica,
2013, p. 57-58). As we have mentioned before, the
artifacts were accidentally discovered, at the end of
the XIX-th century, without having any
informations about the context of discovery. This is
why we agree that the suppositions according to
which this discoveries are part of a hoard is not the
right one. If we are to take into account the objects
discovered and their types, we can suppose that
“hoard Pecica I” has in its composition objects
belonging to a funerary inventory.
Together with the funerary discoveries
mentioned above, there can be also added several
burials in which there were found weapons, placed
in the proximity of the Mureş Valley. Among
these, it has to be mentioned the cemetery from
Sombor, where there were discovered a sword and
two axes of B1 type (W. David, 2002, taf. 340), a
grave from Kiskunmajsa that had among other
objects as funerary inventory a disc headed axe, B1
type and two arrowheads (W. David, 2002, taf.
343/1-6). At Senta there was discovered a burial
that had contained among other objects, a sword
and an axe of B1 type (W. David, 2002, taf. 342).
If we are to look further than the typological
and chronological observations, which both
contribute to the framing of the funerary
discoveries at Pecica ,,Sit 14”, in the wider context
of the Bronze Age, there can be imposed a series of
observations of social order. The overcrossing of
scientifically borders, allow us to draw certain
assumptions concerning the identity of the
individual and the position that he gains in the
group that he is part of. The associations of
artifacts that appear as funerary inventory in the
burials we discussed above, show a specific
configuration of the warrior’s image during
lifetime. The very close relationship of the
Bronze Age weapon repertory of the Lower
Mureş Area
The repertory of discoveries is organized in six
main fields. This succinct way of presenting and
organizing the existing information corresponds to
the necessity of studying and presenting the Bronze
Age weapon discoveries in Lower Mures area. 1.
Place of discovery; 2. Conditions of discovery; 3.
Type of discovery; 4. Bibliography; 5. Dating; 6.
Observations.
Early Bronze Age (Fig. 8)
1. 1. Fibiș, Timiș county, Romania; 2. Isolated
discovery; 3. Axe; 4. F. Gogâltan 1999b, 94, no.
16, Fig. 15/3, 47/5; 5. EBA; 6. –
2. 1. Kiskundorozsma, Hungary; 2. Funerary
discovery, m. 66; 3. Dagger; 4. L. Bende, G.
Lőrinczy 2002, 80, kép 8/3; 5. EBA; 6. Adult male,
buried in crouched position, holding a dagger in the
right hand.
3. 1. Lipova, Arad county, Romania; 2. Isolated
discovery; 3. Axe; 4. F. Gogâltan 1999b, 94-95, no.
17, Fig. 14/4; 5. EBA; 6. –
4. 1. Păuliș, Arad county, Romania; 2. Isolated
discovery; 3. Axe; 4. F. Gogâltan 1999b, 99, no.
29, Fig. 15/1; 5. EBA; 6. –
Middle Bronze Age (Fig. 9)
1. 1. Battonya, Békés county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 35; 3. Dagger, spearhead ,
bone arrowhead; 4. Szabó 1999, Abb. 14/2, 4, 6; 5.
MBA; 6. Adult male; disturbed inhumation burial.
2. 1. Battonya, Békés county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 92; 3. Axe and dagger; 4. J.
Szabó 1999, Abb. 32/2, 4-5; 5. MBA; 6. Mature
male, deposed in crouched position, with an axe in
the right hand and a dagger in the left one; on the
frontal there could be observed a healed wound (F.
Szalai 1999, Abb. 5/2).
3. 1. Battonya, Békés county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 116; 3. Dagger; 4. J. Szabó
1999, Abb. 45/4; 5. MBA; 6. Disturbed burial of a
woman.
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Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
Victor Sava, Ana Ignat
4. 1. Battonya, Békés county, Hunagary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 122 3. Axe; 4. J. Szabó
1999, Abb. 49/1; 5. MBA; 6. Mature-senile male,
deposed in crouched position, holding an axe in the
right hand.
5. 1. Deszk A, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 2; 3. Axe and dagger; 4. I.
Bóna 1975, Taf. 92/10, 12; 5. MBA; 6. Inhumation
burial.
6. 1. Deszk A, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 34; 3. Dagger; 4. I. Bóna
1975, Taf. 89/18; 5. MBA; 6. Inhumation burial.
7.1. Deszk F, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 52; 3. Dagger; 4. I. Bóna
1975, Taf. 84/8; 5. MBA; 6. Inhumation burial.
8. 1. Földeák, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Dagger; 4. F. Gogâltan
1999b, 94, no. 15, Fig. 20/5; 5. MBA; 6. The object
has the tip broken.
9. 1. Hódmezővásárhely, Csongrád county,
Hungary; 2. Isolated discovery 3. Axe; 4. W. David
2002, Taf. 51/3; 5. MBA; 6. –
10. 1. Mokrin, North Banat District, Serbia; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 21; 3. Dagger; 4. M. Girić
1971, 51-52, T. X, GR. 21/3; 5. MBA; 6. Adult
male, buried in crouched position, holding a dagger
in the right hand.
11. 1. Mokrin, North Banat District, Serbia; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 40; 3. Dagger; 4. M. Girić
1971, 59-60, T. XIV, GR. 40/1; 5. MBA; 6. Adult
male, buried in crouched position.
12. 1. Mokrin, North Banat District, Serbia; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 91; 3. Dagger; 4. M. Girić
1971, 64-65, T. XXVIII, GR. 91/2; 5. MBA; 6.
Senile male, buried in crouched position.
13. 1. Mokrin, North Banat District, Serbia; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 125; 3. Dagger; 4. M. Girić
1971, 101-102, T. XXXVIII, GR. 125/3; 5. MBA;
6. Adult male, buried in crouched position, holding
a dagger in the right hand.
14. 1. Mokrin, North Banat District, Serbia; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 168; 3. Dagger 4. M. Girić
1971, 119-120, T. XLVIII, GR. 168/3; 5. MBA; 6.
Mature male, buried in crouched position.
15. 1. Mokrin, North Banat District, Serbia; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 187; 3. Dagger; 4. M. Girić
1971, 128-129, T. LI, GR. 187/2; 5. MBA; 6. Adult
male, disturbed burial.
16. 1. Mokrin, North Banat District, Serbia; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 208; 3. Axe 4. M. Girić
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
1971, 136-137, T. LVI, GR. 208/2; 5. MBA; 6.
Adult male, buried in crouched position.
17. 1. Mokrin, North Banat District, Serbia; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 211; 3. Axe; 4. M. Girić
1971, 138, T. LVII, GR. 211/1; 5. MBA; 6.
Mature-senile male, buried in crouched position,
holding a dagger in the right hand.
18. 1. Păuliș, Arad county, Romania; 2. Hoard?; 3.
Disc headed axe and three spearheads; 4. M.
Petrescu-Dâmbovița 1977, 49-50, Pl. 19/7-10;
20;/1; 5. MBA; 6. The discovery conditions are
unknown and this is why the provenience of these
artifacts can be doubted.
19. 1. Pecica ,,Șanțul Mare”, Arad county,
Romania; 2. Settlement; 3. Two dagger casting
moulds; two spearhead casting moulds; six casting
moulds for Hajdúsámson-type axes; a mould for
multiple casting, for at least three Hajdúsámsontype axes; two casting moulds, one side used for
casting flat axes, and the other used for casting
Hajdúsámson-type axes; 4. F. Gogâltan 1999b,
100, no. 31, Fig. 11/3; 16/1-4, 17/1-4; 18/1-6; 20/4;
22/4; 5. MBA; 6. –
20 1. Periam, Timiș county, Romania; 2.
Settlement 3. Dagger; 4. F. Gogâltan 1999b, 101102, no. 33; Fig. 20/1; 5. MBA; 6. Only the tip of
the artifact is preserved.
21. 1. Periam, Timiș county, Romania; 2. Funerary
discovery; 3. Dagger; 4. F. Gogâltan 1999b, 102,
no. 34; 5. MBA; 6. The burial was discovered
between the localities Periam and Satu Mare.
22. 1. Satu Mare, Arad county, Romania; 2.
Settlement; 3. A casting mould fragment for
daggers; 4. F. Gogâltan 1999b, 106-107, no. 42,
Fig. 20/6; 5. MBA; 6. –
23. 1. Satu Mare, Arad county, Romania; 2.
Funerary discovery; 3. Dagger; 4. F. Gogâltan
1999b, 106, no. 41, Fig. 20/3; 5. MBA; 6.
Although the information concerning this
discovery is few, the dagger was probably part of a
funerary inventory. The chronological framing of
the artifact raises certain problems, as it can also be
included in Early Bronze Age.
24. 1. Satu Mare, Arad county, Romania; 2.
Hoard; 3. Disc headed axe; 4. M. PetrescuDâmbovița 1977, 43-44, Pl. 4/14; 5. MBA; 6. –
25. 1. Szőreg, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 40; 3. Dagger; 4. I. Bóna
1975, Taf. 121/5; 5. MBA; 6. Inhumation burial.
26. 1. Szőreg, Csongrád county, Hungary;
30
Acquiring significance. Constructing warrior's identity at the Lower Mureș Valley
2.Funerary discovery, m. 67; 3. Dagger; 4. I. Bóna
1975, Taf. 125/13; 5. MBA; 6. Inhumation burial.
27. 1. Szőreg, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 137; 3. Dagger; 4. I. Bóna
1975, Taf. 125/6; 5. MBA; 6. Inhumation burial.
28. 1. Szőreg, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 190; 3. Axe; 4. I. Bóna
1975, Taf. 127/1; 5. MBA; 6. Inhumation burial.
Late Bronze Age /Bz. B2-C (Fig. 10)
1. 1. Felnac, Arad county, Romania; 2. Funerary
discovery; 3. Dagger; 4. M. Petrescu-Dâmbovița
1977, 93, Pl. 142/9; 5. LBA/ Bz B2-C/Bz. D-Ha
A1; 6. The artifacts that are part of the so-called
"Felnac hoard", are in fact the funerary inventory
of several burials.
2. 1. Felnac, Arad county, Romania; 2. Isolated
discovery Descoperire; 3. Disc headed axe; 4.
Unpublished; 5. LBA/ Bz B2-C? 6. –
3. 1. Orosháza, Békés county, Hungary; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Sword fragment; 4. T.
Kemenczei 1991, no. 435, Taf. 70/435; 5. LBA/; 6.
There is preserved only a blade fragment.
4. 1. Orosháza, Békés county, Hungary; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Dagger; 4. T. Kemenczei
1988, no. 117, Taf. 10/117; 5. LBA/ Bz B2-C; 6. –
5. 1. Pecica I, Arad county, Romania; 2. Funerary
discovery; 3. Two disc headed axes and a dagger;
4. M. Petrescu-Dâmbovița 1977, 41-42, Pl. 6; 5.
LBA/ Bz B2; 6. The artifacts that are part of the socalled "Pecica I hoard", are in fact the funerary
inventory of several burials.
6. 1. Pecica “Sit 14”, Arad county, Romania 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 067; 3. Dagger; 4.
Unpublished; 5. LBA/ Bz B2-C; 6. Mature male,
deposed in crouched position with the dagger
around the area of the right hand.
7. 1. Pecica “Sit 14”, Arad county, Romania 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 075; 3. Dagger; 4.
Unpublished; 5. LBA/ Bz B2-C; 6. Mature male,
deposed in dorsal decubitus position, with the
dagger around the area of the left forearm.
8. 1. Pecica “Sit 14”, Arad county, Romania 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 092; 3. Axe; 4.
Unpublished; 5. LBA/ Bz B2-C; 6. Mature male,
deposed in dorsal decubitus position, holding the
dagger in the right arm.
9. 1. Pecica “Sit 14”, Arad county, Romania 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 098; 3. Dagger; 4. V. Sava,
L. Andreica 2013, 54, Fig. 6/4a-4b; 5. LBA/ Bz
B2-C; 6. Adult male, deposed in crouched position,
holding the dagger in the left hand.
10. 1. Satchinez, Timiș county, Romania; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Casting mould for spin and
disc headed axe; 4. F. Gogâltan 1999b, 103, no.
37, Fig. 19/3; 47/3; 5. LBA; 6. –
11. 1. Szeged, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Sword fragment; 4. T.
Kemenczei 1991, no. 442, Taf. 70/442; 5. LBA; 6.
There is preserved only a small blade fragment.
12. 1. Szeged, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Rapier; 4. T. Kemenczei
1988, no. 159, Taf. 14/159; 5. LBA/B2-C; 6. It was
discovered in the bed of Tisa.
13. 1. Szeged, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Sword fragment; 4. T.
Kemenczei 1988, no. 199, Taf. 19/199; 5.
LBA/B2-C/Bz. D-Ha A1; 6. It is preserved only a
fragment from the hafting-plate and a fragment of
the blade.
14. 1. Szentes, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery?; 3. Two daggers; 4. M. Nagy
2005, kép 3/1-2; 5. LBA/B2-C; 6. The two
randomly discovered daggers are probably from a
necropolis.
15. 1. Szőreg, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Dagger; 4. Kemenczei 1988,
no. 89, Taf. 8/89; 5. LBA/B2 C/Bz. D-Ha A1; 6.
16. 1. Tápé, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 26; 3. Two arrowheads; 4.
O. Trogmayer 1975, 15-16, Taf. 4/26/3-4; 5.
LBA/B2-C; 6. Woman deposed in crouched
position. An arrowhead was recovered from
between the left humerus and thoracic cavity, and
the other one was found near the left hand wrist.
17. 1. Tápé, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 283; 3. Dagger; 4. O.
Trogmayer 1975, 65-66, Taf. 25/283/2; 5.
LBA/B2-C 6. Male deposed in crouched position;
the dagger was found around the hips area.
18. 1. Tápé, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 307; 3. Two arrowheads; 4.
O. Trogmayer 1975, 71, Taf. 27/307/1-2; 5.
LBA/B2-C; 6. Male deposed in crouched position.
In the 3-rd and 11-th vertebrae were identified one
bronze arrowhead in each.
19. 1. Tápé, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 357; 3. Arrowhead; 4. O.
Trogmayer 1975, 80, Taf. 33/357; 5. LBA/B2-C; 6.
Male deposed in crouched position. In the southern
31
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
Victor Sava, Ana Ignat
part of the pit there was discovered a bronze
arrowhead.
20. 1. Tápé, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 508; 3. Three arrowheads;
4. Trogmayer 1975, 112, Taf. 45/508/4-5; 5.
LBA/B2-C; 6. A bone arrowhead was discovered
in the filling of the pit; another bronze arrowhead
was found between the skull and the edge of the
pit; the third arrowhead was found under the left
mastoid.
21. 1. Tápé, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Funerary discovery, m. 534; 3. Dagger; 4. O.
Trogmayer 1975, 119, Taf. 48/534/2; 5. LBA/B2C; 6. Male, deposed in dorsal decubitus position
with a dagger under the right wrist.
Late Bronze Age /Bz. D-Ha A1 (Fig. 19)
1. 1. Comloșu Mic, Timiș county, Romania; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Sword; 4. T. Bader 1991, no.
99, Taf. 14/99; 5. LBA/ Bz D-Ha A1; 6. It lacks a
small fragment from the hafting-plate.
2. 1. Deszk, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2. Isolated
discovery; 3. Sword fragment; 4. T. Kemenczei
1988, no. 204, Taf. 20/204; 5. LBA/ Bz D-Ha A1;
6. It is preserved the hilt and a blade fragment.
3. 1. Csanádpalota, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Settlement; 3. Arrowhead; 4. P. Cuzkor et al. 2013,
14; 5. LBA/ Bz D-Ha A1; 6. The artifact was
discovered in a pit together with other bronze
objects.
4. 1. Martely, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Sword fragment; 4. T.
Kemenczei 1988, no. 341, Taf. 38/341; 5. LBA/Bz.
D; 6. It is preserved only the inferior part of the
blade.
5. 1. Pecica, Arad county, Romania; 2. Isolated
discovery; 3. Sword; 4. T. Bader 1991, no. 81, Taf.
13/81; 5. LBA/Bz. D-Ha A1; 6. According to the
inventory registry it is not part of Pecica IV hoard.
6. 1. Pecica II, Arad county, Romania; 2. Hoard; 3.
Three swords, two spearheads, two daggers; 4. T.
Kemenczei 1991a, Abb. 3/2, 5; 4/1 (swords); 3/4
(spearhead) 3/4; 6/32 (daggers); 4/3; 6/33
(spearhead); 5. LBA/Ha A1; 6. One of the swords
is complete, the other one is fragmentary and from
a third one it was preserved only a fragment from
the hilts hafting-plate of the hilt; from a spearhead
is preserved only the superior part, and from the
other the inferior one; one of the daggers has a
broken hafting-plate, while from the other there is
preserved only the hafting-plate.
Tome XVI, Numéro 1, 2014
32
7. 1. Pecica IV, Arad county, Romania; 2. Hoard;
3. Dagger and spearhead; 4. M. PetrescuDâmbovița 1977, 102, Pl. 177/1-2 5. LBA/Ha A1;
6. The dagger lacks the tip and a small fragment
from the hafting-plate.
8. 1. Sântana “Cetatea Veche”, Arad county,
Romania; 2. Settlement; 3. Two spearheads, a
dagger and an arrowhead; 4. F. Gogâltan et al.
2013, no. 14, Pl. 1/13a-13d; no. 15, Pl. 1/14a-14d;
no. 25, Pl. 5/8a-8b; no. 65, Pl. 10/3a-3b, 4; 5.
LBA/Bz. D-Ha A1; 6 . One of the spearheads was
discovered on the platform of a house, while the
arrowhead was found behind the fortification of the
III-rd enclosure. The other two artifacts were
discovered during field researches.
9. 1. Szőreg, jud. Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Sword; 4. T. Kemenczei
1988, no. 365, 40/365; 5. LBA/Bz. D-Ha A1; 6. It
lacks a small part of the hafting-plate.
10. 1. Zona Szeged, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Sword; 4. T. Kemenczei
1988, no. 229, Taf. 23/229; 5. LBA/Bz. D-Ha A1;
6. The tip is broken.
11. 1. Zona Arad, Arad county, Romania; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Sword; 4. T. Bader 1991, no.
150, Taf. 17/150; 5. LBA/Bz. D-Ha A1; 6. –
Late Bronze Age/Ha A2-B1/B2-B3
1. 1. Arad , Arad county, Romania; 2. Hoard?; 3.
Sword; 4. T. Bader 1991, no. 277, Taf. 28/277; 5.
LBA/Ha B1; 6. It was probably discovered together
with the hoard from Arad II; it lacks the tip and a
fragment from the hafting-plate of the hilt.
2. 1. Arad II, Arad county, Romania; 2. Hoard; 3.
Two spearheads; 4. M. Petrescu-Dâmbovița 1977,
125, Pl. 297/5-6; 5. LBA/Ha B1; 6. –
3. 1. Cenad, Timiș county, Romania; 2. Hoard; 3.
Three sword fragments and a spearhead; 4. T.
Bader 1991, no. 106, Taf. 15/106; no. 202, Taf.
21/202; no. 203, Taf. 22/203; M. PetrescuDâmbovița 1977, 121-122; 5. LBA/Ha A2; 6. One
of the swords lacks the tip and the hilt; from the
other two swords there are preserved only one
fragment of blade from each.
4. 1. Hódmezővásárhely, Csongrád county,
Hungary; 2. Isolated discovery; 3. Sword; 4. T.
Kemenczei 1988, no. 355, Taf. 37/335; 5. LBA/Ha
A2-Ha B1; 6. It lacks the hafting-plate of the hilt.
5. 1. Hódmezővásárhely, Csongrád county,
Hungary; 2. Hoard; 3. Sword; 4. T. Kemenczei
1988, no. 394, Taf. 45/394; 5. LBA/Ha B; 6. –
Acquiring significance. Constructing warrior's identity at the Lower Mureș Valley
6. 1. Orosháza, Békés county, Hungary; 2. Hoard;
3. Two swords; 4. T. Kemenczei 1991, no. 102,
Taf. 23/102; 24/1-2, no. 143, Taf. 35/103; 5.
LBA/Ha A2-Ha B1; 6. –
7. 1. Orosháza, Békés county, Hungary; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Sword; 4. T. Kemenczei
1991, no. 205, Taf. 46/205; 5. LBA/Ha A2-Ha B1;
6. –
8. 1. Orosháza, Békés county, Hungary; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Dagger; 4. T. Kemenczei
1988, no. 129, Taf. 10/129; 5. LBA/Ha A2-Ha B1;
6. –
9. 1. Variaș, Arad county, Romania; 2. Hoard; 3.
Spearhead; 4. M. Petrescu-Dâmboviţa 1977, 124125; Pl. 293/10; 5. LBA/Ha A2-Ha B1; 6. –
10. 1. Zona Szeged, Csongrád county, Hungary; 2.
Isolated discovery; 3. Sword; 4. T. Kemenczei
1991, no. 224, Taf.; 5. LBA/Ha B2-Ha B3; 6. It
lacks a blade fragment.
Driesch 1976, while for the morphologic
determinations it was consulted E. Paștea et al.
1985.
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Acknowledgements
Our acknowledgements are towards dr. Florin
Gogâltan, with whom we had several discussions
concerning this subject and who had the patience to
read this text. We want also to thank to MA
Luminița Andreica for the information that she
offered to us in the domain of physical
anthropology and for collaborating with us in order
to conceive this study. We are also grateful to the
editor of this publication, Dr. Marin Cârciumaru
who made possible the publication of this article.
This work was possible with the financial support
of European Social Fund, Operational Programme
Human Resources Development 2007 - 2013,
Priority no. 1 "Education and training in support
for growth and development of the knowledge
society", Key Area of Intervention 1.5 "Doctoral
and post-doctoral research support" Title:
"MINERVA - Cooperation for elite career in
PhD and post doctoral research", ID POSDRU
159/1.5/S/137832. This work was also supported
by a grant of the Ministry of National Education,
CNCS – UEFISCDI, project number PN-II-IDPCE-2012-4-0020.
Also, we present our acknowledgments to drd.
Mariana Prociuc (Babeș-Bolyai University, Faculty
of Environmental Science and Engineering, str.
Fântânele, nr. 30; mary_prociuc@yahoo.com), who
determined the provenance of the bones. For
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