The Pleistocene Epoch he Pleistocene Epoch and the Evolution of Man! and the Evolution of Man by Cesare Emiliani by Cesare Emiliani THE CALABRIAN STAGE was defined by Gignoux INQUA Congress in Denver, Colorado' in 1965 unandecided that the Plio-Pleistocene boundary (1913) as the last stage of the Pliocene Epoch, charac- imously INQUA Congress in Denver, Colorado in 1965 unanTHE CALABRIAN STAGE was defined by Gignoux (base of the Calabrian stage) be placed at the time in the Mediterranean by the presence of terized imously decided that the Plio-Pleistocene boundary (1913) as the last stage of the Pliocene Epoch, characbaltica (Schroeter) first appeared in Arctica (Cyprina) islandica and a dozen marine when (base Hyalinea of the Calabrian stage) be placed at the time terized in the Mediterranean by the presence of at Le the continuous Late Cenozoic marine section northern waters mollusks previously restricted to when Hyalinea baltica (Schroeter) first appeared in Arctica (Cyprina) islandica and a dozen marine Calabria, Italy. This section has been (North Atlantic, North Sea, and Baltic Sea). Arctica Castella, the continuous Late Cenozoic marine section at Le mollusks previously restricted to northern waters and thehas regional by Emiliani Italy. et al. (1961), islandica and the associated mollusks belong to a rather described Castella, Calabria, This section been (North Atlantic, North Sea, and Baltic Sea). Arctica stratigraphy is discussed by Roda (1964). According shallow facies (less than 150 m., according to Ruggieri islandica and the associated mollusks belong to a ratherdescribed by Emiliani et al. (1961), and the regional 1965) and are supposed to have entered the Mediter- to the decision of the INQUA Congress, the Lower shallow facies (less than 150 m., according to Ruggieri stratigraphy is discussed by Roda (1964). According ranean following a general temperature decrease. In Calabrian of Ruggieri should be placed in the Late 1965) and are supposed to have entered the Mediter- to the decision of the INQUA Congress, the Lower deeper-water facies, the climatic deterioration is evid- Pliocene. Calabrian of Ruggieri should be placed in the Late ranean following a general temperature decrease. In by the sudden and widespread appearance in enced The age of the Plio-Pleistocene boundary is undeeper-water facies, the climatic deterioration is evid- Pliocene. abundance of the northern benthonic foraminiferal known at present. The long-accepted equivalence of The age of the Plio-Pleistocene boundary is unenced by the sudden and widespread appearance in species fiyalinea (Anomalina) baltica (Schroeter). the marine Calabrian with the continental Villaknown at present. The long-accepted equivalence of abundance of the northern benthonic foraminiferal Although this foraminiferal species and the molluscan franchian should be considered questionable until subthe marine Calabrian with the continental Villaspecies Hyalinea (Anomalina) baltica (Schroeter). by absolute dating of the marine Pliospecies Arctica islandica are generally not found stantiated franchian should be considered questionable until subAlthough this foraminiferal species and the molluscan together because of their different habitats, Ruggieri Pleistocene boundary. An dating age of more than 3.3 million stantiated by absolute of the marine Pliospecies Arctica islandica are generally not found (1961, 1965) established that Arctica islandica entered years for the beginning of ofthe Villafranchian is Pleistocene boundary. An age more than 3.3 million together because of their different habitats, Ruggieri than Hyalinea indicated by K40j Ar 40 dating of French deposits the Mediterranean somewhat earlier years for the beginning of the Villafranchian is (1961, 1965) established that Arctica islandica entered and distinguished a Lower Calabrian charac- (Curtis baltica 1965). of The Lowerdeposits Villa1965; indicated by Obradovich K40/Ar40 dating French the Mediterranean somewhat earlier than Hyalinea terized by the occurrence of the former and the absence franchian may be the equivalent, least in part, of (Curtis 1965; Obradovich 1965).atThe Lower Villabaltica and distinguished a Lower Calabrian characofterized the latter. the Lower Calabrian of Ruggieri; and the later Villafranchian may be the equivalent, at least in part, of by the occurrence of the former and the absence The 18th International Geological Congress in franchian may be the equivalent, at and leastthe in part, the the Lower Calabrian of Ruggieri; later of Villaof the latter. London in 1948 removed the Calabrian stage from the Calabrian stage. franchian may be the equivalent, at least in part, of the The 18th International Geological Congress in Pliocene and redefined it as the first stage of the of the earth's climate, indicated by the Cooling stage. Calabrian London in 1948 removed the Calabrian stage from the of the 7th Pleistocene. Later, the General Assembly appearance islandica, Hyalinea baltica, Cooling of ofArctica the earth's climate, indicated by and the Pliocene and redefined it as the first stage of the other species of northern in and the appearance of Arctica islandica, invertebrates Hyalinea baltica, Pleistocene. Later, the General Assembly of the 7th the continuous Late Cenozoic sections of Italy, is but the the other species of northern invertebrates in the of the long trend of decreasing temculmination continuous Late Cenozoic sections of Italy, is but the CESARE EMILIANI is professor of marine geology at the Institute peratures during the long Tertiary demonstrated by temboth culmination of the trend of decreasing of Marine Science, University of Miami, Miami, Florida. He palaeontological and -geochemical analysis (Emiliani peratures during the Tertiary demonstrated by both CESARE aEMILIANI professor of marine geology at Institute received Ph.D. inis geology from the University ofthe Bologna, 1954, 1961a, and references' therein). The over-all of Marine Science, University of Miami,from Miami, He Italy, in 1945, and a Ph.D. i~ paleontology the Florida. University palaeontological and geochemical analysis (Emiliani Ph.D. in geology the University in the high latitudesThe wasover-all about temperature decrease ~950. He wasfrom research associate at of theBologna, Enrico ofreceived Chicagoa in 1954, 1961a, and references therein). Italy, in 1945, and Ph.D. in paleontology from the Fermi Instimte for a Nuclear Smdies, University ofUniversity Chicago, 12° C. during the past 75,000,000 years (Emili ani temperature decrease in the high latitudes was about of Chicago 1950. and He was associate from 1950 toin1956, thenresearch joined the facultyatofthe theEnrico Uni1961a). The cause of this decrease appears to have been 12? C. during the past 75,000,000 years (Emiliani Fermiof Institute University of Chicago, versity Miami. for He Nuclear has led Studies, several deep-sea expeditions in an increase earthofalbedo related appears to mountain-buildfrom 1950 and to 1956, and then the faculty Unithe Atlantic Caribbean, and joined has published aboutof50the papers 1961-a). Theincause this decrease to have been of Miami. He has led several deep-sea expeditions in ing and increasing continentality (Emiliani and Geiss inversity the fields of isotope geology, marine geology, and microan increase in earth albedo related to mountain-buildthe Atlantic and Caribbean, and has published about 50 papers paleontology. 1959; Emiliani 1961b). The observed temperature ing and increasing continentality (Emiliani and Geiss in thepresent fields of isotope geology, The paper, submitted 29marine IX 66,geology, was sentand formicroCA{:r decrease was probably interrupted by numerous pauses paleontology. 1959; Emiliani 1961b). The observed temperature treatment to 52 scholars, of whom the following responded and even significant reversals. However, the rapid The present paper, submitted 29 Ix 66, was sent for CA* with written comments: Emmanuel Anati, C. L. Brace, Karl W. decrease was probably interrupted by numerous p treatment scholars, of Coon, whomMalcolm the following responded temperature changes which occurred during the the PleisButzer, H. B.toS.52Cooke, C. S. F. Farmer, John and even significant reversals. However, rapid with written comments: Emmanuel Anati, C. L. Brace, Karl W. E. Frisch, Alexander Gallus, M. Gigout, R. Dale Givens, Roger tocene were shown, by oxygen isotopic analysis of temperature changes which occurred during the PleisB. James S. Cooke, C. S. Coon, F. Farmer, L. Holloway, Jr., W.John W. T.Butzer, Grange,H.Jr., J. Hester, RalphMalcolm deep-sea cores,shown, to haveby been absentisotopic during analysis the OligoE. Frisch, Alexander Gallus, M. Gigout, R. Dale Givens, Roger tocene were oxygen of Howells, Kenneth A. R. Kennedy, ]. Kukla, G. Kurth, Gabriel cene and Miocene (Emili ani 1956a). T. Grange, Jr., James J. Hester, L. Holloway, Jr., W. W. W. Lasker, John M. Longyear, III,Ralph M. A. MacConaill, Charles deep-sea cores, to have been absent during the Oligo- Kenneth A. R. Kennedy, Kukla,and G. Kurth, A.Howells, Reed, Karl H. Schwerin, Giinter J. Smolla, L. Van Gabriel Valen. W. Lasker, John Longyear, III,after M. A. Charles Their comments areM. printed in full theMacConaill, author's text, and A.followed Reed, Karl Schwerin, Giinter are by aH.reply from the author.Smolla, and L. Van Valen. Their comments are printed in full after the author's text, and 9. No. I Contribution No. 777 from the Institute of Marine Science, Uni- versity of Miami. are followed by a reply from the author. 9. No.1. February 1968 Vol. Vol. cene and Miocene (Emiliani 1956a). 1 Contribution No. 777 from the Instimte of Marine Science, University of Miami. 1 . February 27 1968 27 the past 425,000 years. With the single exc-epGlaciation eventually began. It seems logical to during Glaciation eventually began. It seems logical to during the past 425,000 years. With the single exc-eption of core stage 3, the amplitude is approximately speculate that the first land masses to become glaciated tion of core stage 3, the amplitude is approximately speculate that the first land masses to become glaciated same forfor all all cycles (1.6-1.8%0, equivalent to about were those occupying high latitudes and adjacent to the were those occupying high latitudes and adjacent to the same cycles (1,6-1.8%o, equivalent to about 0 C. 6_7 after the correction discussed in Emihani of water vapor. This means, of course, oceanic sources 6-7? C. after the correction discussed in Emillani oceanic sources of water vapor. This means, of course, Antarctica and Greenland, which probably became 1955b:543). The temperature cycles are believed to be Antarctica and Greenland, which probably became 1955b:543). The temperature cycles are believed to be of the carbonate cycles noticed in a the equivalent glaciated several million years ago (i.e., during the glaciated several million years ago (i.e., during the the equivalent of the carbonate cycles noticed in a suite of deep-sea cores from the eastern equatorial and have remained so ever since (Emiliani Pliocene) Pliocene) and have remained so ever since (Emiliani suite of deep-sea cores from the eastern equatorial (Arrhenius 1952). These cycles are especially 1957). Evidence for cool or cold episodes at lower Pacific Pacific (Arrhenius 1952). These cycles are especially 1957). Evidence for cool or cold episodes at lower latitudes during the Pliocene has been accumulating evident in some of the Pacific cores (nos. 59, 60, and latitudes during the Pliocene has been accumulating evident in some of the Pacific cores (nos. 59, 60, and marked low-temperature episodes were 61), but less evident in others (nos. 58 and 62). The recently. Thus, recently. Thus, marked low-temperature episodes were 61), but less evident in others (nos. 58 and 62). The cores are stratigraphically longer and include observed by 0 18/0 16 analysis of pelagic foraminifera latter observed by 018/106 analysis of pelagic foraminifera latter cores are stratigraphically longer and include containing Pterocanium prismatium and below the Plio-Pleistocene boundary in the type section sediments sediments containing Pterocanium prismatium and below the Plio-Pleistocene boundary in the type section atatLe Castella, Calabria, southern Italy (Emiliani et Discoaster brouweri. The age of the bottom of the Le Castella, Calabria, southern Italy (Emiliani et Discoaster brouweri. The age of the bottom of the al.al.1961); by pollen analysis of layers below the Plio- stratigraphically longest core, no. 58, is estimated at 1961); by pollen analysis of layers below the Pliostratigraphically longest core, no. 58, is estimated at cene Amphistegina limestone at Castellarquato, northabout 1,100,000 years, and the extinctions of D. about 1,100,000 years, and the extinctions of D. cene Amphistegina limestone at Castellarquato, north18/0 16 analysis of a brouweri and P. prismatium are estimated to have ern Italy (Lona 1963); and by 0 brouweri and P. prismatium are estimated to have ern Italy (Lona 1963); and by 018/106 analysis of a of Arctica islandica collected below the Am- occurred about 900,000 and 840,000 years ago respecspecimen specimen of Arctica islandica collected below the Amoccurred about 900,000 and 840,000 years ago respectively (Emili ani 1967). A strong carbonate cycle phistegina limestone at Castellanselmo, Pisa, Tuscany tively (Emiliani 1967). A strong carbonate cycle phistegina limestone at Castellanselmo, Pisa, Tuscany appears near'the bottom of core 58. The total number (Emili ani and Ruggieri, unpublished). These temperaappears near the bottom of core 58. The total number (Emiliani and Ruggieri, unpublished). These temperature changes, as well as the ones occurring during the ofofcycles occurring through core 58 (i.e., during the ture changes, as well as the ones occurring during the cycles occurring through core 58 (i.e., during the 1,000,000 years) probably numbered 20. Pleistocene, are clearly shown in the Mediterranean past past 1,000,000 years) probably numbered 20. Pleistocene, are clearly shown in the Mediterranean Arrhenius (1952) observed that the amplitude of (and probably elsewhere at similar or higher latitudes) Arrhenius (1952) observed that the amplitude of (and probably elsewhere at similar or higher latitudes) the carbonate oscillations in the upper half of core 58 by variations of planktonic foraminiferal assemblages the carbonate oscillations in the upper half of core 58 by variations of planktonic foraminiferal assemblages atatboth the specific and subspecific levels (Emiliani is greater than that of the oscillations in the lower half is greater than that of the oscillations in the lower half both the specific and subspecific levels (Emiliani (with the exception of the strong oscillation' near the etetal. 1961). The temperature oscillations of the al. 1961). The temperature oscillations of the (with the exception of the strong oscillationw near the mentioned above) and suggested that the Late Cenozoic have such high frequencies (about bottom bottom mentioned above) and suggested that the Late Cenozoic have such high frequencies (about 6.7 X 10-13 cps) that stratigraphic work of great oscillations in the upper half correlate with the major oscillations in the upper half correlate with the major 6.7 X 10-13 cps) that stratigraphic work of great out in order to obtain a clear glaciations of the Pleistocene. detail must be carried glaciations of the Pleistocene. detail must be carried out in order to obtain a clear picture Safe correlations between the oxygen isotopic of climatic change. Sampling intervals of less picture of climatic change. Sampling intervals of less Safe correlations between the oxygen isotopic in the Atlantic and Caribbean cores and than a foot are generaJly necessary. The "mixed" cold oscillations than a foot are generally necessary. The "mixed" cold oscillations in the Atlantic and Caribbean cores and and warm assemblages observed by Woodring et al. the carbonate oscillations in the Pacific cores, on one and warm assemblages observed by Woodring et al. the carbonate oscillations in the Pacific cores, on one (1946) probably resulted from inadequate stratigraphic side, and the glacial-interglacial stages of the (1946) probably resulted from inadequate stratigraphic side, and the glacial-interglacial stages of the (d. Emiliani et al. 1961:687). on the other, must necessarily rest with sampling continents, sampling (cf. Emiliani et al. 1961:687). continents, on the other, must necessarily rest with No especially strong temperature decrease was absolute dating. C-14 dating, of both continental absolute dating. C-14 dating of both continental No especially strong temperature decrease was noticed across the Plio-Pleistocene boundary at the materials andand deep-sea core core carbonates has shown materials deep-sea carbonates has inshown i noticed across the Plio-Pleistocene boundary at the type locality (Emili ani et al. 1961). Oxygen isotopic that core stage 1 is the postglacial; stage controvertibly type locality (Emiliani et al. 1961). Oxygen isotopic controvertibly that core stage 1 is the postglacial; s Main Wiirm or Main Wisconsin; and stage 3 the analysis of the section above the boundary, 45 m. 2 2the analysis of the section above the boundary, 45 m. the Main Wiirm or Main Wisconsin; and stage 3 t of an amplitude of the Alps and the Port Talbot-Plum Point thick, showed temperature oscillations Laufen thick, showed temperature oscillations of an amplitude Laufen of the Alps and the Port Talbot-Plum Point which, although consid,erable, was smaller than that of of North America. In addition, stage 4 appears to which, although consid erable, was smaller than that of of North America. In addition, stage 4 appears to the temperature oscillations (of later Pleistocene age) correlate with the Early Wiirm of Europe and Early the temperature oscillations (of later Pleistocene age) correlate with the Early Wiirm of Europe and Early detected by oxygen isotopic analysis of pelagic Wisconsin of North America (Andersen et al. 1960; detected by oxygen isotopic analysis of pelagic Wisconsin of North America (Andersen et al. 1960; Goldthwait et al. 1965). Foraminifera from the eastern Mediterranean core 189 Foraminifera from the eastern Mediterranean core 189 Goldthwait et al. 1965). (Emiliani 1955a). It is possible that these oscillations Earlier glacial deposits of the continents have not (Emiliani 1955a). It is possible that these oscillations Earlier glacial deposits of the continents have not been dated with sufficient accuracy to 'warrant a were caused by the growth and waning of relatively yet were caused by the growth and waning of relatively yet been dated with sufficient accuracy to warrant a small ice caps in Scandinavia, the Alps, correlation Labrador, and with the oceanic stages. For instance, small ice caps in Scandinavia, the Alps, Labrador, and correlation with the oceanic stages. For instance, deposits from the Laacher-See region of Germany, possibly elsewhere. possibly elsewhere. deposits from the Laacher-See region of Germany, While the section at Le Castella terminates about tentatively correlated with phases of the Giinz, While the section at Le Castella terminates about tentatively correlated with phases of the Giinz, 4545 m. above the Plio-Pleistocene boundary, other and Mindel/Riss stages of the Alps, have been Mindel, m. above the Plio-Pleistocene boundary, other Mindel, and Mindel/Riss stages of the Alps, have b sections in Italy, as in restricted areas of the Emilia- dated as ranging from 420,000 to 110,000 years ago sections in Italy, as in restricted areas of the Emiliadated as ranging from 420,000 to 110,000 years ago Marche region, extend much farther upwards with (Frechen and Lippolt 1965). The limits of error of the Marche region, extend much farther upwards with (Frechen and Lippolt 1965). The limits of error of the apparently continuous sedimentation. However, the individual measurements, however, are as large as, or apparently continuous sedimentation. However, the individual measurements, however, are as large as, or somewhat abnormal and probably variable oxygen larger than, the wave length of the climatic oscillations somewhat abnormal and probably variable oxygen larger than, the wave length of the climatic oscillations isotopic composition in the upper Adriatic Sea would (Frechen and Lippolt 1965, Tables 3-5), making it imisotopic composition in the upper Adriatic Sea would (Frechen and Lippolt 1965, Tables 3-5), making it immake results obtained by oxygen isotopic measurepossible to correlate unequivocally the deposits in make results obtained by oxygen isotopic measurepossible to correlate unequivocally the deposits in ments uncertain. Similar effects are to be expected in question with the established oceanic stratigraphy. ments uncertain. Similar effects are to be expected in question with the established oceanic stratigraphy. the Plio-Pleistocene sections of the Netherlands. Thus, On the other hand, the marine-epicontinental interthe Plio-Pleistocene sections of the Netherlands. Thus, On the other hand, the marine-epicontinental interto obtain a complete record of the Pleistoininorder glacial deposits of Alaska, belonging to the Worozonorder to obtain a complete record of the Pleistoglacial deposits of Alaska, belonging to the Worozoncene, it seems necessary to bore down from the floor fian, Middletonian stages, Pelukian, Kotzebuan and cene, it seems necessary to bore down from the floor fian, Pelukian, Kotzebuan and Middletonian stages, 230/U238 method ofofthe open ocean to a layer equivalent to the Pliodated by the Th (Blanchard 1963; the open ocean to a layer equivalent to the Pliodated by the Th230/U238 method (Blanchard 1963; Pleistocene boundary at Le Castella. This layer may Hopkins et al. 1965; Karlstrom 1965), afford a close Pleistocene boundary at Le Castella. This layer may Hopkins et al. 1965; Karlstrom 1965), afford a close orormay not have been reached yet, depending upon the correlation with the oceanic stages 3, 5, 7, and 9, may not have been reached yet, depending upon the correlation with the oceanic stages 3, 5, 7, and 9, actual respectively actualabsolute absolute age age of of the thePlio-Pleistocene Plio-Pleistocene boundary. boundary. respectively(see (seeFigure Figure 1). 1). Oxygen cores from from deep-sea cores cores The Oxygenisotopic isotopic analysis analysis of of deep-sea deep-sea cores The evidence evidence obtained obtained from from the the deep-sea the Caribbean and the equatorial Atlantic (Emiliani together wiuh theoretical considerations (Emiliani and the Caribbean and the equatorial Atlantic (Emiliani together witih theoretical considerations (Emiliani an 1955b, 1966a; Rosholt al.al.1961, 1959) strongly suggests that the glacial1 955b,1964a, 1 964a, 1 966a; Rosholtetet 1961,1962) 1962) revealreveal- Geiss Geiss 1959) strongly suggests that the glacialededthe temperature cycles cycles observed in the recent past are likely the occurrence occurrence of of eight eight major major temperature cycles interglacial interglacial cycles observed in the recent past are likely 28 28 CURRENT CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY totocontinue lengthof of continue in in the the future future for for an an indeterminate indeterminate length z '" time. Z time.Thus, Thus,the thename name "postglacial," "postglacial," commonly commonly used used <t ~ ~ z z u. past for the time since the last deglaciation (i.e., the z 0 z for the time since the last deglaciation (i.e., the past '" <t z 0 ;£ z C < m X 11,000 --' 11,000years), years),appears appears to to be be very very inappropriate. inappropriate. The The ~ 0 r LUJ _j a: :3 rJ OJ DcN U) C1 0 '" name "Holocene," also commonly used for the same :5 name "Holocene," also commonly used for the same C)~ uJ ~ C <t _j '" time timespan, span,appears appearsequally equally inappropriate inappropriate in in view view of of 30 the thenumerous numerousextinctions extinctionsof ofanimal animal species species during during the the U past past15,000 15,000 years, years,coupled coupled with, with, and and partly partly caused caused by, by, "Martin the theexplosion explosionofofHomo Homo sapiens sapiens sapiens sapiens (cf. (cf. Martin ~ ~ 1507 9 II 25013 15 ~ 17 202 20 100 200 50 0 50 loo 150 200 250 300 350 400 1965). 1938), conformconformX 16' YEARS B P 1965).The Thename name"Flandrian" "Flandrian" (Dubois (Dubois 1938), x 103 YEARS BP denoting ing ingtotoclassical classical stratigraphic stratigraphic procedure procedure and and denoting the thetime timesince sincethe thebeginning beginningofofthe thelast lastglacial-eustatic glacial-eustatic FIG. 1. Generalized palaeotemperature curve, obtained from dee!? marine (the marinetransgression transgression (thepast past18,000 18,000 years), years), would would FIG. 1. Generalized palaeotemperature curve, obtained from deepsea cores for the surface water of the Caribbean.equatorial Atlantic appear much better better choice. sea cores, for the surface water of the Caribbean-equatorial Atlantic appear to to be be aa much choice. region ;eferred to an absolute time scale based in part on C14 and region, referred to an absolute time scale based in part on C14 and The ThePleistocene, Pleistocene,with with aa likely likely duration duration of of millions millions of of Pa231/Th230 measurements andand in in part on extrapolation. Absolute Pa231/Th230 measurements part on extrapolation. Absolute years ages of me Alaskan interglacial stages obtained by Th230/U238 years(past (past and and future), future), bears bears some some resemblance resemblance to to the the ages of the Alaskan interglacial stages obtained by Th230/U238 Era, the the Permian, Permian, from from measurements. last lastperiod periodof ofthe thePalaeozoic Palaeozoic Era, measurements. of high high continentality, continentality, orogenesis, orogenesis, the thepoint point of of view view of the glaciation, glaciation,and and animal animal extinctions. extinctions. By By analogy, analogy, the Pleistocene the Pleistocenemay maybe be considered considered the the last last epoch epoch of of the Era may may be be more more conveniently conveniently Cenozoic Cenozoic Era. Era. This This Era became large, divided large,polytypic polytypicstock, stock,a a small small population population became dividedinto intoa aPalaeogene PalaeogenePeriod Period(Palaeocene (Palaeocene to to OligoOligoto Pleistocene) Pleistocene) separated, cene) separated,evolved evolved independently, independently,and and spread spread to to comcomcene)and andaa Neogene Neogene Period Period (Miocene (Miocene to pete (cf. petewith, with,and andeventually eventually replace, replace, the the original original stock. stock. (cf.Moore Moore1958) 1958) than thaninto intoaaTertiary TertiaryPeriod Period(Palaeo(PalaeoThe (Pleistocene The pre-Australopithecus pre-Australopithecus evolutionary evolutionary step step which which cenetotoPliocene) Pliocene)and and aa Quaternary Quaternary Period Period (Pleistoled Thus, the the names cene ceneand andRecent) Recent) (cf. (cf. Kummel Kummel 1961). 1961). Thus, names ledtotobipedal bipedal posture posture isis likely likely to to have have been been selective selective thethe ensuing improvement in perception and and «Tertiary," '"Tertiary,""Quaternary," "Quaternary,""Holocene," "Holocene,""Postglacial," "Postglacial," because becauseofof ensuing improvement in perception communication, a marked advantage for an animal and "Recent" should be used informally only. These communication, a marked advantage for an animal and "Recent" should be used informally only. These formal conspicuouslylacking lacking physical physical strength strengthand andspecialized specialized formalobservations observationsare are important important because because some some of of conspicuously mechanisms the mechanismsfor foroffense offenseand anddefense. defense.(In (In other other animals, animals, theconfusion confusionexisting existingininPleistocene Pleistoceneliterature literatureappears appears ananincrease the totoresult resultfrom fromsemantics semanticsalone. alone. increase in in the the length lengthof of the the neck neck has has served served the same The ofofthe samepurpose.) purpose.) Following Following the the acquisition acquisition of of bipedal bipedal Theclimatic climatichistory history theLate LateCenozoic Cenozoic has has aa direct evolution. posture, posture,Australopithecus Australopithecusafricanus africanusmay mayhave haveevolved evolved directbearing bearingon on the the problem problem of of human human evolution. from an an early stock of A. by developing a Unfortunately, Unfortunately,there thereisisan anextreme extremedearth dearth of of absolute absolute fromn early stock of robustus A. robustus by developing a that only through ages, ages,beyond beyondthe therange rangeofofC14, Ci4,for forevidence evidencedirectly directly taste tastefor formeat meatand andbybydiscovering discovering that only through human evolution. evolution. the related relatedtoto the the various various phases phases of of human theimaginative imaginativeusage usage of of tools tools and and the the employment employment of of 40 dating sophisticated of of Olduvai K4°/Ar K40/Ar40 dating OlduvaiGorge GorgeBed BedI I at at 1,750,000 1,750,000 sophisticatedstrategies strategiescould could other other animals, animals, including including A.A.robustus years primate cayearsago agoshows showsthat thatman man (defined (definedas as aa primate carobustusand and his his own own peers peers within within A. A. africanus, africanus, be be provide a meal. Indeed, cannibalism may persuaded to of systematically manufacturing tools) was pable pable of systematically manufacturing tools) was persuaded to provide a meal. Indeed, cannibalism may have very important important role during this already alreadyininexistence existenceatatthat thattime. time.(It (It will will not not come come as as have played played aa very role during this and and later a a great great surprise surpriseififititshould should appear, appear, when when the the PlioPliolaterstages stagesof ofhuman human evolution. evolution. The cranial capacity erectus is such that that he he boundary has been dated, that the genus Pleistocene Pleistocene boundary has been dated, that the genus The cranial capacity of of H. H. erectus is such had little difficulty in making for himself should Homo Homo dates dates from fromwell well back back into into the the Pliocene.) Pliocene.) In In shouldhave have had little difficulty in making for himself addition, the temperature temperature a a comfortable addition, Pa231/Th230 Pa23i/Th230dating dating of of the comfortable living living under under ordinary ordinary conditions. conditions. UnUnfortunately, H. erectus was not living under ordinary maximum of the last interglacial (Eemian) at about maximum of the last interglacial (Eemian) at about fortunately, H. erectus was not living under ordinary burunder thethe severe environmental stress 95,000 similar age for the the conditions, 95,000years yearsago ago indicates indicates aa similar age for conditions, but under severe environmental stress sapiens, if if the the FontecheFonteche- ofofmajor mentioned before, many speciation speciationof ofHomo Homo sapiens sapiens sapiens, major glaciations. glaciations. As As mentioned before, as as many occurred during during the vade this subspecies subspecies (rather (rather asas 20 vade remains remains are are assigned assigned to to this 20 glaciations glaciations may may have have occurred the past past than and if if they they indeed 1,000,000 erectus, which thantotoa a"praesapiens" "praesapiens" type) type) and indeed come come 1,000,000years. years.Populations Populations of of H. H. erectus, which had had with thethe Eemian maximum. from froma alayer layeridentifiable identifiable with Eemian maximum. spread spreadfrom fromeastern easternAfrica AfricatotoMorocco, Morocco,Asia Asia as as far far as as temporarily and repeatedly China, On remains are On the the other other hand, hand, if if the the Fontechevade Fontechevade remains are China, and and Europe, Europe, were were temporarily and repeatedly with "prae- separated assigned, assigned,together together' withSwanscombe, Swanscombe,totoaa "praeseparated from fromeach each other otherby bynewly newlycreat~d created ecological ecological sapiens" barriers. sapiens" type, type,H. H. sapiens sapiens sapiens sapiens would would appear appear to to have have barriers.The TheEuropean European and and western, western Asiatic Asiatic populapopulaspeciated (cf. tions, very difdifspeciatedbetween between100,000 100,000 and and 50,000 50,000 years years ago ago (cf. tions,ininparticular, particular, found found themselves themselves in in aa very Emiliani ficult Emiliani 1964b). 1964b). ficultsituation, situation,sandwiched sandwiched between between the the great great ice ice caps caps InIn spite present chronological chronological uncertainties, uncertainties, the totothe spite of of the the present thenorth northand andaa cold, cold, hostile hostile sea sea to to the the west west and and the robustus-A. africanusthe sequence Australopithecus and isolated by secondary ice caps in the south, the sequence Australopithecus robustus-A. africanussouth, and isolated by secondary ice caps in the Homo erectus erectus-H. erectus-H. erectus erectus Pyrenees, Homo erectus erectus habilis-H. habilis-H. erectus Pyrenees,the theAlps, Alps,Carpathians, Carpathians, Apennines, Apennines, Balkans, Balkans, pekinensis-H. sapiens neannean- Caucasus, pekinensis-H.sapiens sapiens"praesapiens"-H. "praesapiens"-H. sapiens Caucasus,etc. etc.The Thepalaeontological palaeontological and and palaeobotanipalaeobotaniderthalnsi~H. derthalensis-H.sapiens sapienssapiens sapiensappears appears to to form form aa cal cal record, record, together togetherwith withoxygen oxygen isotopic isotopic analysis analysis of of rather orderly temporal andand morphological succession pelagic rather orderly temporal morphological succession pelagic foraminifera foraminiferafrom fromthe theeastern easternMediterranean Mediterranean suggesting deep-sea 1955a) of littoral littoral suggestinga aphylogenetic phylogeneticlineage. lineage. According According to to modern modern deep-seacore core189 189 (Emiliani (Emiliani 1 955a) and and of views of marine viewson on speciation speciation and and evolution, evolution, however, however, none none of marineshells shells(food (foodrefuse) refuse)from fromthe theHaua Haua Fteah Fteah and and the Arene indicate thelarge, large,fully fullydeveloped developed populations populations belonging to the AreneCandide Candide caves caves (Emiliani (Emiliani et et al. al. 1964) indicate given rise rise directly directly to to that above-mentioned ages above-mentionedtaxa taxa can can have given thatthe theEuropean European summers summers during during the the glacial glacial ages the winters of today, were thenext nextone. one.Rather, Rather, we we must must assume assume that that from from each each wereeven evencolder colder than than the the European European winters UJ (!) ~ ~ ~ UJ N ~ ,. CO> CO> 30- Vol.Vol. 9. No.1. February 9 1968 . No. 1. February 1968 29 29 and andsuggest suggestthat thatthe theEuropean European winters winters must must have have been been very appears, therefore, therefore, that, that, very dreadful dreadful indeed. indeed. It appears, during western duringthe thepast past1,000,000 1,000,000 years, years, Europe Europe and western Asia typical evolutionary evolutionary mill, mill, Asia functioned functionedasas a typical manufacturing thethe"praesapiens," and manufacturing "praesapiens," sapiens, sapiens, and neanderthalensis scattered neanderthalensissubspecies subspecies from from original, original, scattered populations through aa populationsof ofHomo Homo erectus. erectus. Indeed, Indeed, only through brain and consummate skills could man capable capable brain and consummate skills could man survive ages, for for survivethe theharsh harsh winters wintersof of the the glacial glacial ages, surviving survivinga asingle singleglacial glacial night night must musthave have been been aa very very difficult difficulttask. task.While While the the fossil fossil finds finds of of AustralopiAustralopithecus thecusand andHomo Homo erectus erectus point point to to Africa Africa as as the the cradle cradle ofofthe the early early Homininae, Homininae, the the finds finds of of such such "prae"praesapiens" Steinheim, Swanssapiens"or or early early sapiens sapiens types types as as Steinheim, Swanscombe, to combe,Ehringsdorf, Ehringsdorf,and and Fontckhevade Fontechevade point point to Europe Europe as as the the cradle cradle of of modern modern man. man. The 'Theextinction extinctionof of the the highly highly successful successful NeanderNeanderthals remains aa mystery. mystery. thalsabout about 30-40,000 30-40,000 years years ago ago remains Some maintain that that the the Someauthors authors(e.g., (e.g.,Brace Brace 1964b) 1964b) maintain classic classicNeanderthals Neanderthalsevolved evolved directly directly into intoH. H. sapiens sapiens sapiens, sapiens,but but this thisseems seemsto to be be in in conflict conflict with with modern modern views assume that that viewson onspeciation speciationand and evolution. evolution. If If we we assume the theNeanderthals Neanderthals were were as as intelligent intelligent as as modern modern man man orormore their demise moreso, so,then thenwe we must must conclude conclude that that their demise resulted resultedfrom fromfactors factorsother otherthan thanthose those connected connected with with the been thebrain. brain.The The Neanderthals Neanderthalsappear appear to to have have been particularly perparticularlysubject subject to to deforming deforming arthritis arthritis and and perhaps, their larger haps, because because of of their, largersinus sinuscavities, cavities,also also to to colds, colds,flu, flu,and and other other diseases diseases associated associated with with cold cold weather. replaced them them more more weather.IfIf so, so, modern modern man man replaced because becauseof ofaaphysiological physiological advantage advantage than than by by warfare warfare ororother other means. means. climatic climatic conditions, conditions, from from tropical tropical to to sub-arctic. sub-arctic. the The Thepresently presentlyavailable available data data on on the hypothetical by TI* hypothetical"cannibalism" "cannibalism" of of PleistoPleistobyEMMANUEL EMMANUELANA ANATI* to cene cenemen men are are totally totally inadequate inadequate to Jerusalem, Jerusalem,Israel. Israel.21 21IIII 67 67 justify justifythe thestatement statementthat that"cannibalism "cannibalism After a very very important important Afterreading readingthe the appealing appealing title title of of may mayhave have played played a this to find find role thispaper, paper,I I was was disappointed disappointed to roleduring duringthis thisand and the the later later stages stages of of that human trust that that some some thatthe thetext textdeals deals primarily primarily with with geogeohumanevolutiun." evolution." II trust therefore the title other logical this asserasserlogical dating, dating, and and therefore the title othercolleague colleague will will qualify qualify this isisnot con- tion will comment comment only only notfully fullyappropriate. appropriate.I I shall shall contioninin detail. detail. II will fine that finemy mycomments commentsto tosome some of of the the views views thateven even should should the the scanty scanty evidence evidence expressed on expressedconcerning concerningthe the"evolution "evolution of of oncannibalism cannibalism turn turnout out to to have have been been Man." interpreted Man." interpretedcorrectly, correctly,we wehave have enough enough IfIf II interpret interpret the correctly, "uncooked unchewed" skeletal skeletal the author author correctly, "uncooked and and unchewed" by material affirm that anthroby"evolution" "evolution" he he means means "changes "changes in in materialtoday today to to affirm that anthrois cercer- pophagy average averagecranial cranial capacity." capacity." This This is pophagyhas has never never been, been, in in any any age age tainly ororinin any tainlynot notthe theonly only aspect aspect of of the the phyphyany prehistoric prehistoric culture, culture, aa comcomsical man. Furthermore, Furthermore, mon sical evolution evolution of of man. monpractice. practice. other .... .the The otheraspects aspectsof ofhuman humanevolution evolution and and Thestatement statementthat that" ". thefinds findsofof development, such early sapiens sapiens development,such suchasascultural cultural and and sososuch "praesapiens" "praesapiens" or or early the types cial cial change, change, are are not not considered considered in in the types... .., point point to to Europe Europe as as the the cradle cradle present ofofthe present paper. paper. themodern modernman" man" is is very very daring daring ininWhile claim deed. deed. The The statement statementwill will probably probably be be "WhileI Iaccept accept the the author's author's claim that received thatsome some of of the the current current terms· terms for for pepereceivedwith with reservations reservations bv by colleacolleathis field. field. riods creating misunderstandings misunderstandings gues riods are are creating gueswho who are are specialists specialists in in this belief that that The among amongscholars, scholars,itit isis my my belief The discoveries discoveries of of skeletal skeletal material material in in rather the Palestine ratherthan than drastically drastically changing changing the Palestineand and elsewhere elsewhereinin Asia Asia and and terminology-an unrealistic proposiproposiAfrica not seem this terminology-an unrealistic Africado· do-not seem to to agree agree with with this tion-anthropologists view, tion-anthropologists should should reach reach an an view,and and itit isisprobable probable that that future future disdisagreement terms continent will coveries agreementon on the the definitions definitions of of terms coverieson on the the Asian Asian continent will undertaken by by (a(a task prove task that that might might be be undertaken proveititto tobe be completely completely wrong. wrong. CA). The "the cranial ca-caCA). Thestatement statementthat thait "the cranial is is currently erectus isis such that he he Like Likehistory, history,prehistory prehistory currently pacity pacityof ofH. H. erectus such that little difficulty difficulty in in looked should looked at at from from the theparticular particular angle angle of of shouldhave have had had little the are living. living. making himself aa comfortable comfortable theperiod periodinin which which we we are making for for hims'elf Furthermore, living livingunder underordinary ordinary conditions" conditions" folfolFurthermore,both bothecologically ecologically and and culturally, lows rather simplistic evolulows aa rather simplistic and and evoluculturally,the theend endof of the the last last glaciaglaciationistic-minded cion cionmarked marked aa turning turning point point in in human human tionistic-mindedline line of of thought thought which which evolution. opinion, I Ihave evolution. Therefore, Therefore, in in my my opinion, have some some difficulty difficulty in in following. following. the The theterm term"postglacial" "postglacial" for for what what came came Thelast lastparagraph paragraph illustrates illustrates several several thereafter is fully justified. misconceptions: that the the thereafter is fully justified. misconceptions:"If "If we we assume assume that Nobody Neanderthals intelligent as Nobody will will disagree disagree with with Emiliani Emiliani Neanderthalswere were as as intelligent as when states that that "." .... climatic modern man orormore so so .... " It is when he he states -climatic modern man more ...." It is ... has has aa direct direct bearing bearing on on the the history high history... hightime timetotodiscard discard the the legend legend that that ininproblem but telligence problemof of human human evolution"; evolution"; but telligencedepends dependson oncranial cranial capacity. capacity. climatic considered ItItwould climaticchange change should should be be considered would be be like like stating stating that that the the power power probably ofofan asasone one of of many many causes, causes, and and probably an engine enginedepends depends on on its its size. size. The The n9t theory noteven eventhe themain mainone, one,asasman man appears appears theorythat thatNeanderthals Neanderthals may may have have toto have in widely widely different different disappeared consequence of of their their disappeared as as consequence have evolved evolved in Comments Comments 30 30 CURRENT tendency flu, inintendencytotocatch catch colds colds or or flu, as it be, be, is inisthe teresting teresting as may it may in present the present more than than state stateof of knowledge knowledge no no more science other mismissciencefiction. fiction.These These and and other and misuses of of terms make conceptions conceptions and misuses terms make ofofthe theauthor's author'squest quest for for more more semantic semantic rigor rigora arhetorical rhetoricalcommonplace. commonplace. Wherever Whereverit itisis accompanied accompanied by by aa logical logical and and scientific scientific understanding understanding of of the there is is nothing nothing theavailable available data, data, dhere dry,· detached, detached, narrowly narrowly against againstaa dry, technical of technicalapproach approachtoto the the study study of early our earlyman. man.On On the the other other hand, hand, our science sciencewould would not not suffer sufferfrom fromaabroadbroadminded mindedhumanistic humanisticapproach. approach. Let Let us us not notforget forgetthat that the the history history of of human human evolution own history. history. evolution is is our our own byBy C.C.L.L.BRACE* BRACE* Santa SantaBarbara, Barbara,Calif., Calzf.,U.S.A. U.S.A.17 17 III iii 67 67 disEmiliani's Emiliani'spaper paper consists consists of of two two distinct parts, andand these appear to be tinct parts, these appear to only be only slightly related to to each other. TheThe firstfirst slightly related each other. part the techniques techniques of of part deals deals with with the Pleistocene Pleistocenedating datingand and climate climate evaluevaluation with the the conclusions conclusions ationasas well well as as with that thatcan canbe bedrawn drawn at at present. present. Much Much of of the thework workhas hasbeen been done done by by Emiliani Emiliani as as hishis recently published sur- surhimself, himself, recenltly published vey veyindicates indicates(Emiliani (Emiliani 1966b), 1966b), and and represents representsa asolid solidand andwell-documented well-documented contribution contributionof ofgreat great value. value. The inThesecond second part part of of the the paper paper inon on the the course of ho-of hovolves volvesspeculations speculations course minid evolution, and, while these are minid evolution, and, while these are ofofgreat interest ,to scientists in general great interest to scientists in general and andanthropologists anthropologists in in particular, particular, they they remain remainsimply simply speculations. speculations. Emiliani Emiliani offers offersvirtually virtuallyno no documentation documentation in in support these speculations. Some of of supportofof these speculations. Some his hisstatements statementswould wouldbe bearguable arguable even even ififs4Pporting supportingevidence evidencewere were cited; cited; in in the theabsence absence of of references references they they should should as as thethe guesses of an beberegarded ,more regarded more guesses of an interested amateur. Interested amateur. The Thesuggested suggestedtemporal temporal sequence sequence of of robustus-a/ricanus-erectus is is confoundrobustus-africanus-erectus confoundwhere remains havehave edzdbybythe thefacts: facts: where remains CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY ANTHROP LOGY been dated, it appears that the sequEmiliani: PLEISTOCENE EPOCH Emiliani: PLEISTOCENE EPOCH been dated, it appears that the sequence is africanus-robustus-erectus (asence is africanus-robustus-erectus (assuming that the specific designations ecological epoch with great professional barriers that serve as isolat- stocene stocene epoch with great professional ecological barriers that serve as isolatthat the specific designations 1965a; Camp- ing mechanisms must be very different aresuming valid) (Robinson competence. It is to be regretted that ing mechanisms must be very different competence. It is to be regretted that are valid) (Robinson 1965a; Campbell 1965). The logic suggested for innot done the same for the from those which dictate the ha- hehehas has not done the same for the from those which dictate the habell 1965). The logic suggested for inevolution of man. terpreting the morphological succession bitation areas of those invertebrates. evolution of man. bitation areas of those invertebrates. terpreting the morphological succession should be much more extensively do- Certainly the claim that "newly creatshould be much more extensively do-Certainly the claim that "newly creatcumented in view of the disagreement ed ecological barriers" served to cut cumented in view of the disagreement ed ecological barriers" served to cut which currently exists (Robinson off human populations from others KARL W. BUTZER*" which currently exists (Robinson off human populations from others byby KARL W. BUTZER* 1963b, 1965a; Brace 1963a:90-91; deserves some documentation. The dis1963b, 1965a; Brace 1963a:90-91; deserves some documentation. The disChicago, Ill., U.S.A. 15 III 67 1963b:547; 1967). The argument that of Lower Palaeolithic artitribution Chicago, III., U.S.A. 15 in 67 1963b:547; 1967). The argument that tribution of Lower Palaeolithic artiafrican us evolved from robustus, ac- facts suggests that continuous cultural paper presents an interesting Emiliani's africanus evolved from robustus, ac- facts suggests that continuous cultural Emiliani's paper presents an interesting tually based on Robinson's dietary hy- exchange and not isolation characterizof Pleistocene chronology and tually based on Robinson's dietary hy- exchange and not isolation characteriz- outline outline of Pleistocene chronology and pothesis (Robinson 1961, 1962, 1963a), ededhuman existence, and where there problems, a apresentation that human existence, and where there related pothesis (Robinson 1961, 1962, 1963a), related problems, presentation that hashasbeen questioned on the basis of ,was cultural exchange, there must have should stimulate considerable discusbeen questioned on the basis of was cultural exchange, there must have should stimulate considerable discusboth fact and theory (Brace 1963a :90as well. It is been genetic exchange only general criticism is that, both fact and theory (Brace 1963a:90been genetic exchange as well. It is sion. My My only general criticism is that, 91;91;1967; Brace and Montagu 1965: possible to suggest that the wide-rang- insion. view of the many controversial 1967; Brace and Montagu 1965: possible to suggest that the wide-rangin view of the many controversial 225-28). ingingforaging activities of hominid touched upon, the paper is ex225-28). foraging activities of hominid topics topics touched upon, the paper is exfrom the Australopithecines on These are details, however, and, al- groups and incompletely docubrief These are details, however, and, al-groups from the Australopithecines on cessively cessively brief and incompletely docuhave prevented any kind of though they are not unimportant, the would This commentary will be conwould have prevented any kind of mented. though they are not unimportant, the mented. This commentary will be conissues relating to Emiliani's reference isolation of a major or protracted sort. ofofthe Pleistoto tocertain aspects issues relating to Emiliani's referenceisolation of a major or protracted sort. fined fined certain aspects the Pleistohas specialized in anything, it (repeated) to "modern views on spe- H Ifman stratigraphy discussed by Emiman has specialized in anything, it cene (repeated) to "modern views on specene stratigraphy discussed by Emihashasbeen ininadaptability. Even during ciation and evolution" are of much liani. been adaptability. Even during ciation and evolution" are of much liani. the Lower Palaeolithic, only major greater significance. A definition of Although Emiliani would accept the greater significance. A definition of the Lower Palaeolithic, only major Although Emiliani would accept the oceans and cold temperatures limited "modern views" should have been inappearance of H yalinea (Anoma"modern views" should have been in- oceans and cold temperatures limited first first appearance of Hyalinea (Anomadistribution, and since the archand an extended discussion human cluded, lina) baltica ininthe Calabrian marine human distribution, and since the archcluded, and an extended discussion lina) baltica the Calabrian marine aeological record provides us with a should have followed. Presumably at Le Castella as the Plioaeological record provides us with a sequence should have followed. Presumably sequence at Le Castella as the Plioofofcontinuous human occupEmiliani refers to the position of Val- picture Pleistocene boundary, this motion was picture continuous human occupEmiliani refers to the position of ValPleistocene boundary, this motion was of those parts of the Old World lois (1959:155) and perhaps that of ation placed before the General Asation of those parts of the Old World never lois (1959:155) and perhaps that of never placed before the General Asof the cold-temperate and arctic Mayr (1963a, b), but it should be south of the 7th INQUA Congress south of the cold-temperate and arctic sembly Mayr (1963a, b), but it should be sembly of the 7th INQUA Congress it is difficult to imagine how noted that opposition has been offered areas, for that matter, does it represent areas, it is difficult to imagine how (nor, noted that opposition has been offered (nor, for that matter, does it represent could have taken place. To which is no less modern (Brown and isolation of the Plio-Pleisa recommendation isolation could have taken place. To which is no less modern (Brown and a recommendation of the Plio-PleisWilson 1954; Brown 1958; Whyte bebesure, the northern boundary of Boundary Commission of tocene sure, the northern boundary of Wilson tocene Boundary Commission of 1965; Brace1954; 1966).Brown 1958; Whyte human occupation shifted with the INQUA [G. M. Richmond, Richmond, personal 1965; Brace 1966). human occupation shifted with the INQUA [G. M. personal fluctuations which EmiIi;tni To be more specific, why must we climatic Before such a aspeciclimatic fluctuations which Emiliani communication]). To be more specific, why must wedocuments, communication]). Before such specibut this cannot have afthat no fossil population as a believe ininfact, bebeat~ atredefinition could, documents, but this cannot have af- ficfic believe that no fossil population as a redefinition could, fact, human continuity to the south. whole can have given rise to the next fected tempted (and before continental or whole can have given rise to the next fected human continuity to the south. tempted (and before continental or one directly? Why must we assume Even during the last glaciation, the lithostratigraphic, mammalian, Even during the last glaciation, the littoral one directly? Why must we assume littoral lithostratigraphic, mammalian, that evolution only occurred when a assumption that the Neanderthals of palynological sequences are rethat evolution only occurred when a assumption that the Neanderthals of and and palynological sequences are resmall population became isolated? western Europe were isolated (Howell legated to to second place in qJ.atters of western Europe were isolated (Howell small population became isolated? legated second place in rwatters of 1952, 1957; most recently deWhy, indeed, must we assume that 1951, Pleistocene stratigraphy), an internally Why, indeed, must we assume that1951, 1952, 1957; most recently dePleistocene stratigraphy), an internally fossil hominid populations were poly- fended by Howells 1967 :243) is hard radiometric frameworkfended by Howells 1967:243) is hard consistent fossil hominid populations were polyconsistent radiometric frameworktypic? Presumably the idea that fossil to tomaintain. Why, for instance, if different isotopes (cf. maintain. Why, for instance, if employing typic? Presumably the idea that fossil employing different isotopes (cf. polytypic species isolation and speciation did not take hominids belonged to 1965) and substantiated by hominids belonged to polytypic species isolation and speciation did not take Broecker Brorcker 1965) and substantiated by is isderived from the assumption that place in either the mammoth' or the correlations (cf. Cox et derived from the assumption thatplace in either the mammoth or the paleomagnetic paleomagnetic correlations (cf. Cox et modern humans do (cf. Dobzhansky mouse (or any other mammal) should )-must be obtained for a mouse (or any other mammal) should al.al.1965 modern humans do (cf. Dobzhansky 1965)-must be obtained for a 1955:182,333; 1963:353-54); but even it it have done so in man? Human culnumber of potentially suitable have done so in man? Human cul- greater 1955:182, 333; 1963:353-54); but even greater number of potentially suitable this has been questioned (Brown 1958; tural adaptation should have been eflocalities. Only then can it be this has been questioned (Brown 1958; tural adaptation should have been ef- type type localities. Only then can it be Livingstone 1962; Brace 1964a, c), and fective enough to prevent isolation, whether continental or marine Livingstone 1962; Brace 1964a, c), and fective enough to prevent isolation, decided decided whether continental or marine there is certainly no justification for and it is significant that Mousterian should best be given prethere is certainly no justification for and it is significant that Mousterian sequences sequences should best be given preprojecting questionable assumptions tools show greater similarities in form ference, or a boundary definitools show greater similarities in form ference, whether projecting questionable assumptions or whether a boundary definiinto the unknown past. The small, and evident function in an area run- tion based on climatic change be ininto the unknown past. The small, and evident function in an area runtion based on climatic change be inpopulation model is necessary ning from western Europe through the isolated more practical than one based on isolated population model is necessary ning from western Europe through the deed deed more practical than one based on if genetic drift is considered to be Middle East and from southern Russia only evolution or conventional bioonly if genetic drift is considered to beMiddle East and from southern Russia organic organic evolution or conventional biothethe main force producing evolutionary all the way around the Mediterranean zones. The first appearmain force producing evolutionaryall the way around the Mediterranean stratigraphic stratigraphic zones. The first appearchange (Wright 1931 :150; 1943, 1946, shores (north and south) than the tools of erect bipedal hominids is by change (Wright 1931:150; 1943, 1946, shores (north and south) than the tools ance ance of erect bipedal hominids is by 1948 ; Cavalli-Sforza, Barrai, andE<J.- in inthis whole area do with their conmeans irrelevant for a consideration this whole area do with their con- nono means irrelevant for a consideration 1948; Cavalli-Sforza, Barrai, and Ed.wards 1964), but it is widely agreed temporaries in sub-Saharan Africa, such criteria. temporaries in sub-Saharan Africa, ofof wards 1964), but it is widely agreed such criteria. that natural selection is the principal India, and points east (Golomshtok Many of 'the problems of inference that natural selection is the principal India, and points east (Golomshtok Many of the problems of inference Clark evolutionary force (Dobzhansky 1962: 1938; McBurney 1958, 1960; and interpretation in the early Pleistoevolutionary force (Dobzhansky 1962: 1938; McBurney 1958, 1960; Clark and interpretation in the early Pleisto1959; Bordes 1961; Allchin 1963; and 128-61), and this can operate uncene stem from the lengthy twilight 1959; Bordes 1961; Allchin 1963; and 128-61), and this can operate uncene stem from the lengthy twilight hindered III the •total absence of Solecki 1963). Finally, the similarities zone and controversial hindered in the .total absence of Solecki 1963). Finally, the similaritieszoneofofincoherent incoherent and controversial isolation. in inform between La Chapelle-auxstratigraphy. Emiliani isolation. form between La Chapelle-aux- mid-Pleistocene mid-Pleistocene stratigraphy. Emiliani Monte Circeo (Sergi 1948), PeThis brings up the final major as- Saints, ignores or glosses over two of This brings up the final major as- Saints, Monte Circeo (Sergi 1948), Pe- either either ignores or glosses over two of (Kokkoros and Kanellis 1961; sumption that can be questioned. Why tralona the rather critical, dated sequences sumption that can be questioned. Whytralona (Kokkoros and Kanellis 1961; the rather critical, dated sequences must we assume that hominids of the Kanellis and Savas 1964), Shanidar for this time range, and it must we assume that hominids of theKanellis and Savas 1964), Shanidar available available for this time range, and it erectus species (I prefer to use the (Stewart 1958, 1961), and Jebel Iressential to evaluate these in (Stewart 1958, 1961), and Jebel Ir- seems erectus species (I prefer to use the seems essential to evaluate these in designation "Pithecanthropine stage") houd (Ennouchi 1962) are so great to demonstrate the present state designation "Pithecanthropine stage") houd (Ennouchi 1962) are so great order order to demonstrate the present state were temporarily and repeatedly se- that this alone would make claims for of our knowledge and of our were temporarily and repeatedly se- that this alone would make claims for both both of our knowledge and of our parated from each other long enough isolation most unlikely. Ignorance. parated from each other long enough isolation most unlikely. ignorance. forfor major differentiation to take place? Pleistocene epoch and the The first such sequence involves the major differentiation to take place? "The "The Pleistocene epoch and the The first such sequence involves the Human beings are neither foraminifera of man" is a very significant evolution alluvial terraces of the lower and Human beings are neither foraminiferaevolution of man" is a very significant alluvial terraces of the lower and nor Emiliani has treated the PleiRhine Valley, which are internormollusks, mollusks,and and consequently consequently the the subject. subject. Emiliani has treated the Plei- middle middle Rhine Vavlley, which are inter Vol. 9. No.1. February 1968 31 Vol. 9 . No. 1 . February 1968 31 regresglacial digitated with the remarkably comglacialcomplex complex of of at at least least two two regresdigitated with the remarkably complete Pleistocene continental stratiTyrrhenian II sional phases precedes the sional phases precedes the Tyrrhenian plete Pleistocene continental stratigraphy of the Netherlands. Frechen transgression (with several dates of transgression (with several dates of graphy of the Netherlands. Frechen and Lippolt (1965; also Frechen and "greater 300,000 "greaterthan" than"200,000 200,000 or or 300,000 and Lippolt (1965; also Frechen and Boom 1959), as I read them, provide years). A second glacial complex of years). A second glacial complex of Boom 1959), as I read them, provide a a suite of consistent and apparently four fourregressional regressionalphases phases("Penultimate ("Penultimate suite of consistent and apparently sound KI Ar dates for these Rhine Regression") Regression") precedes precedes the the Tyrrhenian Tyrrhenian sound K/Ar dates for these Rhine terraces: (a) upper terminus of the II, a complex regression generally II, a complex regression generally terraces: (a) upper terminus of the altere trombus bubonius bubonius characterized characterizedby by S Strombus ciltereHauptterrasse Hauptterrasse("older ("older Main Main Terrace") ca. 420,000-390,000 years and andother otherSenegalese Senegalese mollusks mollusks in in the the Terrace") ca. 420,000-390,000 years (5(5dates); (b) upper beds of the jungere western Mediterranean Basin. western Mediterranean Basin. AlAldates); (b) upper beds of the jiingere Hauptterrasse ("younger Main Ter- though thoughthe theTh/U Th/U dates dates for for the the TyrrTyrrHauptterrasse ("younger Main Terrace" ca. 350,000-340,000 years (4 henian II are not all consistent, they henian II are not all consistent, they race" ca. 350,000-340,000 years (4 (c) basal beds of altere Mittel- suggest dates); one suggest onetime timeunit unitofofca. ca. 165,000165,000dates); (c) basal beds of altere Mittelterrasse ("older Middle Terrace") ca. 120,000 120,000yeats yearsago, ago, with with aa number number of of terrasse ("older Middle Terrace") ca. earlier, and possibly significant, 300,000 years (1 date); (d) basal beds earlier, and possibly significant, dates dates 300,000 years (1 date); (d) basal beds ofof mittlere Mittelterrasse ("middle falling fallingbetween between230,000 230,000and and 190,000 190,000 mittlere Mittelterrasse ("middle years. Middle Terrace") ca. 220,000 years (1 It is curious that: eolianites did years. It is curious thateolianites did Middle Terrace") ca. 220,000 years (1 date); and (e) early downcutting phase not notdevelop, develop,except excepton onaa very verylocalizlocalizdate); and (e) early downcutting phase ededscale, following deposition of 'the mittlere scale, during during the the seemingly seemingly minor minor following deposition of -the mittlere regression between the Mittelterrasse, ca. 140,000-150,000 regression between theTyrrhenian TyrrhenianIIII Mittelterrasse, ca. 140,000-150,000 and The latter latter stage, stage, with entire sequence years andIII. III. The with equiequiyears(2(2 dates). dates). This This entire sequence valent beaches in the Caribbean and jungere Mittelterrasse predates the valent beaches in the Caribbean and predates the jiingere Mittelterrasse ("younger Middle Terrace"), which di- Pacific Pacificareas, areas,would woulddate date ea. ca. 90,00090,000("younger Middle Terrace"), which directly underlies the moraines of the 70,000 70,000Th/U Th/U years. years. rectly underlies the moraines of the Drenthe stadial of the Saale glaciation Comparing Comparingthe theRhine Rhine Valley Valley -and -and Drenthe stadial of the Saale glaciation (De 1961; Kempf Kempf Balearic BalearicIsland Island sequences, sequences, itit appears appears (De Jong Jong1956; 1956; Paas Paas 4961; 1966). Since German and Netherlands thatthe theTyrrhenian TyrrhenianI Iisisnot, not,as as once once 1966). Since German and Netherlands that workers now generally ascribe the the widelyassumed, assumed,equivalent equivalent to to the workers now generally ascribe the widely "older" and "middle" Middle Terraces Holstein Interglacial. Instead, dn Holstein Interglacial. Instead, dn "older" and "middle" Middle Terraces totostadia of the Elster Glacial, the present presentevidence, evidence,it itwould wouldseem seemto to be be stadia of the Elster Glacial, the Holstein Interglacial, as defined in Cromer ian, contemporarywith with the the Cromerian, Holstein Interglacial, as defined in contemporary northern Germany northern Germanyand and the the NetherNether- thus thussetting settingthe the"Penultimate "Penultimate RegresRegreslands, appears to have begun a little lands, appears to have begun a little sion" sion"ofofMallorca Mallorcaparallel parallel to to the the Elster Elster before 150,000 KI Ar years ago. Howbefore 150,000 K/Ar years ago. How- Glacial Glacialand and the the Tyrrhenian TyrrhenianIIII to to the the -ever, potential ever,Zagwijn Zagwijn(1963) (1963) gives gives substantial substantial Holstein HolsteinInterglacial. Interglacial. The The potential reasons why the upper units of the reasons why the upper units of the implications implicationsof ofsuch suchaa stratigraphic stratigraphic rere"younger" Main Terrace must be cormammalian "younger" Main Terrace must be cor- vision visionfor for mammalianand andarchaeologarchaeologwith the Weert Zone of the related related with the Weert Zone of the ical icalcorrelations correlationsbetween betweenNorth North Africa, Africa, uppermost Sterksel Formation, i.e., uppermost Sterksel Formation, i.e., Spain, Spain,and andcontinental continentalEurope Europe are are difdifwith anan early phase of the Elster Gla- Glaficult with early phase of the Elster ficulttotooverview overviewatat the the moment. moment. AsAscial. Thus the Elster complex, as that Th/U cial. Thus the Elster complex, as suming suming that Th/Uand andC14 C14 dating dating are' are defined in a critical area, appears to defined in a critical area, appears to temporally temporallyconsistent, consistent,the the Tyrrhenian Tyrrhenian date from a little before ca. 350,000 to date from a little before ca. 350,000 toIII Jllwould wouldappear appear to to be be correlated correlated with with a alittle before 150,000 KI Ar years ago. little before 150,000 K/Ar years ago.the theEem. Eem.But But this this immediately immediately raises raises ItItmight be remarked in passing that problem: might be remarked in passing that another another problem:why whythe theSaale SaaleGlaGlathese particular isotopic dates are no these particular isotopic dates are no cial, cial,occupying occupyingthe the interval interval between between less consistent or theoretically justiTyrrhenian II IIand less consistent or theoretically justi- the the Tyrrhenian andIII, III,should shouldhave have than the rather more scanty fied virtually fied than the rather more scanty left left virtuallynonoeolianite eolianiterecord record in in the the Pa/Th dates available from the CaribMediterranean region. Equally disturbPa/Th dates available from the Carib-Mediterranean region. Equally disturbbean deep-sea core A254-BR-C (see bean deep-sea core A254-BR-C (see ing ingis isthe theassignment assignmentofofthis, this,the thegreatgreatRosholt et al. 1962; Emiliani 1964a). estestcontinental Rosholt et al. 1962; Emiliani 1964a). continentalglaciation glaciationof of Europe, Europe, , On a variety of subtropical and trowithitsitscomplex complexof of several several major major On a variety of subtropical and tro- with pical coasts transgressive beach de- stadials, stadials,totoa atime timespan spanof ofonly only30,000 30,000 pical coasts transgressive beach deposits, years, i.e., with related molluscan faunas, ca. 120,000-90,000 Th/U years, i.e., ca. 120,000-90,000 Th/U posits, with related molluscan faunas, have been correlated with non-glacial Thurber, personal years(D. (D. L. L. Thurber, personal comcomhave been correlated with non-glacial years of the later Pleistocene, while - munication) or ca. 130,000-100,000 intervals intervals of the later Pleistocene, while munication) or ca. 130,000-100,000 regressional eolianites are attributed to Th years Pa/Th years(see (seeRosholt Rosholtetetal.al.1962; 1962; regressional eolianites are attributed to Pal periods of low, glacial-age sea level. Emiliani1964a). 1964a). periods of low, glacial-age sea level. Emiliani With the recent advance of Th/U IfIfwe With the recent advance of Th/U wenow nowattempt attemptto tocompare compare these these dating, a second chronology of sorts dating, a second chronology of sorts two twosequences sequenceswith withthe thedeep deepsea sea core core for the high, nonhas been developed of of Emiliani (1964a, has been developed for the high, non- stratigraphy stratigraphy Emiliani (1964a,1966; 1966; glacial (d.(cf. Stearns andand Rosholt et etal.al.1961, glacialsea-level sea-levelstages stages Stearns Rosholt 1961,1962; 1962; d. cf. also also Thurbet 1965; Thurbet 1965;Thurber Thurberetetal.al. 1965; 1965; Ericson Ericsonetetal.al.1964), 1964),we we seem seem to to reach reach and Thurber 1965; Richards Broecker Broecker and Thurber 1965; Richards ananimpasse impassebeyond beyondthe thecold cold maximum maximum and Thurber 1966). One of the more and Thurber 1966). One of the more ofofabout about115,000 115,000B.P. B.P. If If the the generalizgeneralizinstructive stratigraphic sequences of instructive stratigraphic sequences of ededpaleotemperature paleotemperaturecurve curveof ofEmiliani Emiliani this kind has been described from the this kind has been described from theproves provestotobebecorrect correctinindetail, detail,the the"in"inBalearic BalearicIslands Islandsby byButzer Butzerand andCuerda Cuerda terstadials" terstadials"ofofthe theMiddle Middle Pleistocene, Pleistocene, (1962a, (1962a,b)b)and andpartly partlydated datedby byTh/U Th/U asasthey theyhave havebeen beencalled called by by glacial glacial ononMallorca compare Mallorcaasaswell well as as on on the the Spanish Spanish geomorphologists, geomorphologists, compareininwavewavemainland but mainlandand andMorocco Morocco (Stearns (Stearns and and length length butnot notininamplitude amplitude with with the the Thurber 1965; also unpublished). A interstadial. Thurber 1-965; also unpublished). A mid-Wiirm mid-Wuirm interstadial.This Thiswould would 32 32 CURRENT render renderspecific specificmarine-continental marine-continental corcorrelations relationsdifficult difficultfor fordecades decadesto to come. come. One One might might speculate speculate that that Emiliani's Emiliani's four fourcold coldmaxima maximabetween betweenca. ca. 330,000 330,000 and (extrapolated) Pa/Th and 170,000 170,000 (extrapolated) Pa/Th years yearsago agorepresent representthe theElster Elstercomplex, complex, ororone onemight mightpropose proposeany anyofofa a dozen dozen other otherpossible possiblecorrelations. correlations. The The status status and the and nomenclature nomenclatureproposed proposed for for the earlier intervals earlier Pleistocene Pleistocene cold cold intervals would, would,accordingly, accordingly,be beliable liable to to almost almost arbitrary InInview arbitraryinterpretation. interpretation. view of of the theinadequacy inadequacyof ofthe the best best available available radiometric radiometricsequences sequencestoto bridge bridge the the stratigraphic chaos stratigraphic chaosofof the the Middle Middle Pleistocene, Pleistocene,I I feel feel quite quite strongly' strongly that that correlations correlationsofofdeep-sea deep-seapaleotemperapaleotemperature turecurves curveswith withcontinental continentalor or littoral littoral stratigraphies stratigraphiesare arepremature premature for for the the early-to-middle-Pleistocene early-to-middle-Pleistocene time time range. range. Two Two final, final, brief brief comments comments to to the the late latePleistocene Pleistocenechronology: chronology:ItIt isis disdisturbing that Emiliani's turbing that Emiliani'scold coldpeak peak of of ca. ca. 60,000 60,000Pa/Th Pa/Th years yearsago ago broadly broadly coincoincides cideswith withthe thecomplex complex of of interstadialinterstadialtype zones known as Broerup, type zones known as Broerup, AmersAmers4• foort, Rodebaek, foort, Rodebaek,asas defined defined by by 0C14. Are Arethere therein in fact fact systematic systematic inconsiinconsistencies stenciesbetween betweenour ourradiometric radiometric yardyard4sticks? The sticks? Thepoor poorfit fitof of the the one one 0 C14Pa/Th date in the A 254crossdated crossdated Pa/Th date in the A 254BR-C BR-Ccore core(Rosholt (Rosholt et etal. al. 1962) 1962) seems seems totosuggest suggestthis, this,asasdoes does the the aboveabovementioned mentionedtime timelag lagbetween betweenTh/U Th/Uand and Pal Th ininthe Pa/Th thelate late Middle Middle Pelistocene. Pelistocene. Although Althoughthere thereis isstill stillno no suitable suitable name namefor for the the mid-Wiirm mid-Wiirm interstadial interstadial complex complex("Paudorf"? ("Paudorf"? "Arcy"?), "Arcy"?), EmiEmiof the term liani's revival liani's revival of the term Laufen Laufen is is undesirable. undesirable.Originally Originally the the LaufenLaufenSchwankung Schwankungwas was thought thought to to represent represent ananAlpine Alpine interstadial, interstadial,but butinin 1922 1922 Penck Penckrelegated relegatedall all allied allied phenomena phenomena totothe theRiss/Wiirm Riss/Wiirm(Eem) (Eem) Interglacial. Interglacial. Despite Despitethe thepossible possible validity validity of of the the weathering horizon weathering horizondeveloped developed on on the the Laufenschotter LaufenschotteratatHormating H6rmatingasas midmidWiirm, useuseofofthe Wiirm, thename namewould wouldbe be aa of confusion. source source of confusion. bybyH.H.B.B.S.S.COOKE*' COOKE* Halifax, Halifax,Canada. Canada.18 18III III67 67 The Thedecision decisioninin1948 1948 by by the the 18th 18th InInternational Geological Congress to deternational Geological Congress to define finethe thebase baseofofthe thePleistocene Pleistoceneas as the the bottom ofofthetheCalabrian bottom Calabrianalso alsoincluded included that thisthis boundary should a astatement statement that boundary should bebeplaced placed"at "atthe thehorizon horizonofofthe thefirst first indication indicationofof climatic climatic deterioration." deterioration." The Thesubsequent subsequentdecision decisionby bythe the 1965 1965 INQUA INQUA Congress Congress to to place place the the boundboundary at at thethe first appearance of the fora-foraary first appearance of the Hyalinea minifer minifer Hyalinea(Anomalina) (Anomalina) baltica baltica section at atLeLeCastella ininthe thetype type section Castella has has the ofofprecision, themerit merit precision,but butthe theappearappearance of this foraminifer is not the first ance of this foraminifer is not the first deterioration. indication indicationofof climatic climatic deterioration. and Barbieri Barbieri andMedioli Medioli(1964), (1964), for forexamexample, ple,have have shown shown that that the the indigen9us indigenous foraminifera fluctuations foraminiferadisplayed displayed fluctuations of Pliocene cooling long besuggestive suggestive of Pliocene cooling long before thethearrival fore arrivalofofHyalinea Hyalinea baltica baltica CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY Emiliani: PLEISTOCENE EPOCH and its close associate, the mollusk Emiliani: PLEISTOCENE EPOCH and its close associate, the mollusk Arctica (Cyprina) islandica. The Arctica (Cyprina) islandica. The The only part of this wellwritten to resolve to some extent the apparent former favours a moderately deepThe only part of this wellwritten former favours a moderately deepto resolve to some extent the apparent water muddy environment and the lat- conflict between the KI Ar dates for paper on which I venture to go into paper on which I venture to go into water muddy environment and the latconflict between the K/Ar dates for ter a shallow-water sandy habitat, so terrestrial details is that in which he relies deposits and the time scale ter a shallow-water sandy habitat, so terrestrial deposits and the time scale is that in which he relies ondetails other people's conclusions. Here, if lithology must be borne in mind in important from oceanic cores. The lithology must be borne in mind in on other people's conclusions. Here, if from oceanic cores. The important interpreting the presence or the absence mammal-bearing deposits of East Afri- he is occasionally confused or even interpreting the presence or the absence deposits of East Afrihe is occasionally confused or even seem to be faunistically Villafran- wrong, of either form; indeed, local factors camammal-bearing he has only fallen into a wide of either form; indeed, local factors wrong, he has only fallen into a wide ca seem to be faunistically Villafranchian, yet the KI AT date of 1.75 X may control the order of first appearpit already inhabited, at one time or may control the order of first appearpit already inhabited, at one time or yet the K/Ar date of 1.75 X 6 years for Olduvai Bed I seems ance at different localities. There is 10chian, another, by almost everyone who has ance at different localities. There is 106 years for Olduvai Bed I seems another, by almost everyone who has evidence that Arctica islandica appear- great at broad interdisciplinary coverin relation to the glacial! interaimed evidence that Arctica islandica appearaimed at broad interdisciplinary covergreat in relation to the glacial/intered before Hyalinea baltica, and this glacial sequence in Europe and the age. ed before Hyalinea baltica, and this age. glacial sequence in Europe and the suggests that climatic deterioration was He dates Australopithecus robustus core data. The mammals in the Kaiso suggests that climatic deterioration was dates Australopithecus robustus core data. The mammals in the Kaiso of Uganda seem to be at least as first,He Australopithecus africanus secquite severe at a time before the Plio- Beds quite severe at a time before the PlioBeds of Uganda seem to be at least as first, Australopithecus africanus secPleistocene boundary as defined in old as those of Olduvai Bed I (Cooke ond, and "Homo erectus habilis" Pleistocene boundary as defined in ond, and "Homo erectus habilis" old as those of Olduvai Bed I (Cooke and Coryndon, unpublished; but see third in sequence, but where is his 1965. 1965. third in sequence, but where is his and Coryndon, unpublished; but see 1965) and the "Earlier Kaiso" evidence? He postulates scattered popAs these two "critical" elements of Bishop evidence? He postulates scattered popBishop 1965) and the "Earlier Kaiso" As these two "critical" elements of parallels some' of the ulations of Homo erectus in Europe the marine fauna normally inhabit assemblage ulations of Homo erectus in Europe assemblage parallels some of the the marine fauna normally inhabit Villafranchian" of sites in the before the appearance Of Homo sanorthern latitudes, it is clear that their "Lower before the appearance of Homo sa"Lower Villafranchian- of sites in the northern latitudes, it is clear that their but no such animal has yet been of North Africa. The lower piens, occurrence in the Mediterranean is the Maghreb piens, but no such animal has yet been Maghreb of North Africa. The lower occurrence in the Mediterranean is the found there. Vertesszolos II, with a beds pass downwards into reresult of cold water spilling in through Kaiso found there. Vertessz6lbs II, with a Kaiso beds pass downwards into reresult of cold water spilling in through thin passage beds and then cranial capacity reckoned at 1556 cc., the Straits of Gibraltar. Arctica is- latively cranial capacity reckoned at 1556 cc., latively thin passage beds and then the Straits of Gibraltar. Arctica isthe Kisegi Beds. The molluscan is called by Thoma (1966 ) Homo landica and Hyalinea baltica would into is called by Thoma (1966) Homo into the Kisegi Beds. The molluscan landica and Hyaltnea baltica would have been studied by Gautier (erectus seu !apiens) palaeohungaricus, not be likely to arrive at exactly the faunas (erectus seu sapiens) palaeohbngaricus, faunas have been studied by Gautier not be likely to arrive at exactly the 1966, 1967), who is puzzled by and on size alone it is fully sapiens. same time and, furthermore, their (1965, (1965, 1966, 1967), who is puzzled by and on size alone it is fully sapiens. same time and, furthermore, their Emiliani uses the term Homo sapiens fact that the characteristic midspread eastwards and northwards the the fact that the characteristic midEmiliani uses the term Homo sapiens spread eastwards and northwards Kisegi fauna passes up sapiens to designate all races of living through the Mediterranean would Miocene sapiens to designate all races of living Miocene Kisegi fauna passes up through the Mediterranean would into that of the lower Kaiso men, although the term has priority as depend to some extent on the different smoothly smoothly into that of the lower Kaiso men, although the term has priority as depend to some extent on the different without any sU!Jgestion of a major Linnaeus' trinominal for living Euroand rates of dispersal of beds mechanisms beds without any suggestion of a major Linnaeus' trinominal for living Euromechanisms and rates of dispersal of hiatus, and yet the mammalian evi- peans. He further states that the presthe respective embryonic forms. Dehiatus, and yet the mammalian evipeans. He further states that the presthe respective embryonic forms. De- dence has pointed to the Kaiso as ence of " ... Steinheim, Swans combe, spite these variables, the spread would dence has pointed to the Kaiso as ence of ". . . Steinheim, Swanscombe, spite these variables, the spread would There does not seem Ehringdorf, and Fontechevade point to be rapid enough for the first appear- "Villafranchian." There does not seem Ehringdorf, and Fontechevade point to be rapid enough for the first appear- to"Villafranchian." be much placeffor the Pliocene, and Europe as the cradle of modern man." ance of these forms to constitute a to be much placeffor the Pliocene, and Europe as the cradle of modern man." ance of these forms to constitute a "feels that probably the Plio- If he had said "the most ancient cradle reference point probably more accu- Gautier Gautier "feels that probably the PlioIf he had said "the most ancient cradle reference point probably more accuhas suffered amputation at both of modern man," he might have been rate than any of the other climatic in- cene has suffered amputation at both of modern man," he might have been rate than any of the other climatic into the truth. itscene boundaries in sub-Saharan Africa." closer dicators. Nevertheless, colder northern its boundaries in sub-Saharan Africa." closer to the truth. dicators. Nevertheless, colder northern Coryndon and I have been forced waters must have been moving down I have been forced waters must have been moving down byCoryndon a study ofand the mammals to reach a the west coast of Europe for some time by a study of the mammals to reach a the west coast of Europe for some time similar by MALCOLM F. FARMER*" conclusion and to suggest that it was possible for the invasion before by MALCOLM F. FARMER* similar conclusion and to suggest that before it was possible for the invasion the early Kaiso fauna must range of the Mediterranean to take place, the early Kaiso fauna must range of the Mediterranean to take place, Whittier, Calif., U.S.A. 2 III 67 into the Pliocene. This provides and it is presumably this pre-Calabrian down Whittier, Calif., U.S.A. 2 III 67 down into the Pliocene. This provides and it is presumably this pre-Calabrian for the suggestion by Emiliani With the rapid accumulation of cooling that is evidenced in the in- support support for the suggestion by Emiliani With the rapid accumulation of cooling that is evidenced in the in"the genus Homo dates from well digenous microfauna of the Mediter- that of the geological history of that "the genus Homo dates from well knowledge digenous microfauna of the Mediterknowledge of the geological history of into the ·Pliocene." Furthermore, ranean. In short, although the defini- back coastal regions and continental shelves, back into the Pliocene." Furthermore, ranean. In short, although the defini- as Africa coastal regions and continental shelves, has been a source of indigetion of the plio-Pleistocene boundary and of marine deposits in these regions as Africa has been a source of indigethe Plio-Pleistocene boundary nous and of marine deposits in these regions development from which mamattion Le ofCastella provides a valuable and from the bottom of ocean basins nous development from which mamat Le Castella provides a valuable and from the bottom of ocean basins emigrated to Eurasia, time lines time line for the Mediterranean marine mals as well as deposits from the formerly mals emigrated to Eurasia, time lines time line for the Mediterranean marine as well as deposits from the formerly are difficult to determine in Africa sequences, it does . not render very glaciated areas, it is becoming increadifficult to determine in Africa sequences, it does not render very glaciated areas, it is becoming increainare relation to the European deposits much easier the task of defining this singly clear that revision of concepts in relation to the European deposits much easier the task of defining this singly clear that revision of concepts and their faunas. It would seem that boundary, even in marine sequences, the Pleistocene is in order. concerning and their faunas. It would seem that boundary, even in marine sequences, concerning the Pleistocene is in order. the correlation Calabrian = Villafranin other critical areas such as the Nepaper is a very welcome conEmiliani's the correlation Calabrian = Villafranin other critical areas such as the NeEmiliani's paper is a very welcome conhas been misleading and there therlands and East Anglia. Presumably chian tribution, offering a report on prochian has been misleading and there therlands and East Anglia. Presumably still tribution, offering a report on proexists a great deal of confUSIon in jn these areas the climatic deterioration gress and some guidance for the fustill exists a great deal of confusion in in these areas the climatic deterioration gress and some guidance for the fudefining the boundaries in the terwould have been manifest long before ture. defining the boundaries in the terwould have been manifest long before restrial ture. and in relating them deposits the cold waters moved as far south as of glacial and interThe concepts restrial deposits and in relating them the cold waters moved as far south as The concepts of glacial and intermarine sequence. A reevaluation glacial Gibraltar. Furthermore, the terrestrial totothe appear to be under revision. the marine sequence. A reevaluation Gibraltar. Furthermore, the terrestrial of the nomenclature for the mammalglacial appear to be under revision. deposits which constitute the "Villaearth has not been free of ice since of the nomenclature for the mammal- The deposits which constitute the "Villa- bearing The earth has not been free of ice since sediments is clearly necessary. franchian" are not equivalent to this Pliocene, .although the amounts bearing sediments is clearly necessary. the franchian" are not equivalent to this the Pliocene, although the amounts precisely defined Calabrian, and. the and areas of ice accumulation have precisely defined Calabrian, and. the and areas of ice accumulation have Villafranchian undoubtedly extends varied. Emiliani's suggestion of a reVillafranchian undoubtedly extends by C. S. COON*" varied. Emiliani's suggestion of a reback into the Pliocene of this definisemblance between the Pleistocene and by C. S. COON* back into the Pliocene of this definisemblance between the Pleistocene and tion (see, for example, Azzaroli 1964). the Permian offers perspective on the tion (see, for example, Azzaroli 1964). the Permian offers perspective on the Gloucester, Mass., U.S.A. 7 III 67 How far back into the Pliocene the Pleistocene. The traditional view of Gloucester, Mass., U.S.A. 7 III 67 How far back into the Pliocene the Pleistocene. The traditional view of Villafranchian must go is uncertain, account of the history of of- that epoch reflects a kind of ethnoVillafranchian must go is uncertain, Emiliani's Emiliani's account of the history of ofthat epoch reflects a kind of ethnobut one might surmise that Elephas ficial attemps to define the Plio-Pleiscentrism which regards the present as but one might surmise that Elephas ficial attemps to define the Plio-Pleiscentrism which regards the present as meridionalis is at least as old as the tocene boundary is detailed, lucid, a unique period, a time of climax, the meridionalis is at least as old as the tocene boundary is detailed, lucid, a unique period, a time of climax, the base of the Calabrian and that the and useful. His discussion of the role time of the great mo(iern man, rather base of the Calabrian and that the and useful. His discussion of ihe role time of the great modern man, rather older deposits with Anancus arver- of marine invertebrate faana in such than just a point in 'a sequence. This older deposits with Anancus arverof marine invertebrate fauna in such than just a point in a sequence. This nensis and Elephas planifrons would dating is instructive. It surprises me has needed revision for a long time. nensis and Elephas planifrons would dating is instructive. It surprises me has needed revision for a long time. bebePliocene, although still "lower Vilto see Fontechevade, SwansEmiliani suggests that during the Pliocene, although still "lower Vii- a a little little to see Fontechevade, SwansEmiliani suggests that during the lafranchian. " combe, and Steinheim dated at about Pleistocene, and perhaps earlier, poplafranchian." combe, and Steinheim dated at about Pleistocene, and perhaps earlier, popThese observations might seem 95,000 years, much younger than geoulations became separated and isolatThese observations might seem 95,000 years, much younger than geoulations became separated and isolatpointless except insofar as they help logist's previous figures. then in periods of "better" cliededand pointless except insofar as they help logist's previous figures. and then in periods of "better" cliVol. 9 . No.1. February 1968 Vol. 9 . No. 1 . February 1968 33 33 mate rematehad hadan an opportunity opportunitytoto be be rejoined joined(hence (hencethe thepolytypic,stock). polytypic stock).Such Such populations populationswere werenever neverseparated separated long long sharply enough enoughtotohave have become become so so sharply differentiated differentiatedasastotoprevent preventhybridizahybridization. tion.Culture Cultureand andthe thenature natureof oflearned learned behavior behaviormay mayhave have contributed contributed to to this this situation pattern situationinin that that behavioral behavioral pattern changes changesoccured occuredinstead insteadof of anaanatomical differences in tomicalchanges, changes, and and differences in learned learnedbehavior behavior patterns patterns were were not not ininas asanatomical surmountable suarmountable anatomical or or phyphysiological siological differences differencesmight mighthave have been. been. The Thepossibility possibilitythat thatAustralopithecus Australopithecus africanus africanusserved servedasasa ameal meal for for A. A. rorobustus bustusis isone oneon onwhich which studies studies of of priprimate matebehavior behaviormay may throw throw some some light. light. With Withregard regardtoto the the centers centers of of dedevelopment velopmentofofthe the varieties varieties of of man man during duringthe thePleistocene, Pleistocene,there theremay. may be be four, Africa, four,perhaps perhapsfive: five: eastern eastern Africa, western westernEurasia, Eurasia, northeastern northeastern central central Eurasia, Eurasia,southeastern southeasternEurasia, Eurasia, and and perperThe southern southern haps Africa. The haps west west Africa. ofofEurasia margins margins Eurasiaand andAfrica Africaappear appear asasprimary primates primaryareas areas for for early early primates with northwithAfrica, Africa,western westernEurasia, Eurasia, northeastern southeasterncentral centralEurasia, Eurasia, and and southeastern Eurasia eastern Eurasiaall allplaying playingaa part part in in the thedevelopment developmentof ofthe theprimate, primate, man. man. Emiliani Emilianisuggests suggeststhat that physiological physiological and andanatomical anatomical disadvantages, disadvantages, partiparticularly difficult cularlythose thosewhich which made made it it difficult totolive conditions, were live in in cold cold conditions, were ininvolved volvedin in the the extinction extinctionof of NeanderNeanderthals. thals.Invasion Invasionby bypeople people from from outside outside the theNeanderthal Neanderthalareas areasappears appears to to have have been beenpart partof of the the situation. situation. Both Both susuperiority periorityofofcultural culturalachievement achievementand and differences differencesininstandards standardsof ofphysical physical atattractiveness may tractiveness mayhave havebeen been involved. involved. The Thenew newpeoples peoplesmay mayalso also have have been been more moreprolific. prolific.Perhaps Perhaps the the displacedisplacement mentofofthe theAustralian Australian aborigines aborigines by by Western Europeans Western Europeansmay maybebeaa model model for forthe theNeanderthal Neanderthal situation. situation. erectus latter lattertrait. trait.I Ihave have recently recently attempted attempted erectushad hadspread spreadto tomany many parts parts of of the the a amorphological globe.One Onesmall small population population evolved evolved morphological definition definition of of the the genus genus globe. independently Homo Homo(Frisch (Frisch1965). 1965). independentlyininisolation isolationand and spread spread 2)2) Inferring replacethe theoriginal original stock. stock. Inferring the thecapacity capacity of of making making totoreplace Comment: a acomfortable Comment:Species Species formation formation isis by by comfortableliving living (under (under ordinary ordinary conditions) meansasassimple simpleasasthat. that. The The factors factors conditions)from fromthe thecranial cranial capacity capacity nonomeans ofofHomo many involvedare are intricate intricate and and many Homo erectus erectuswould would seem seem to to imply imply involved anan understanding connection (Huxley of the the most (Huxley1942). 1942). Some Some of most imimunderstandingof of the the connection between betweenbrain brainsize size and and technological technological portant portantproblem problemcomplexes complexesshould should be be skill mentionedhere: here: skillwhich whichI Iwish wishvery verymuch muchwe we had. had. mentioned 3)3) When a)a) long-range long-range trends, trends,like like the the dedeWhen the theauthor authorsays says"European "European summers central nervous nervous summersduring duringthe theglacial glacialages ages were were velopment velopmentofof the the central even system ininman, evencolder colderthan thanthe theEuropean European winters winters system man,which which requires requires conconofoftoday," stancy today,"one onewonders wonderswhat what part part of of stancyofofsome somefactor factoror or factors factors and and Europe which Europehe herefers refersto. to.Does Does the the statement statement whichoccur occurininspite spiteof of change change of of enenhold vironment (Huxley holdboth bothfor forthe thesurroundings surroundingsof ofBrno Brno vironment (Huxley1942; 1942;Decker Decker1963; 1963; inincentral see centralEurope Europe and and for for those those of of the the seealso also"canalisation," "canalisation,"Fraser Fraser1961). 1961). Guattari b)b) constant Guattaricave caveon onItaly'S Italy'sMediterranean Mediterranean constant factors factors influencing influencing seseshore? shore?Can Canitit be be stated stated of of the the latter latter lection lectionpressure, pressure,ofofwhich which the the prevprevenvironment environmentthat that"surviving "survivingaa single single alence alenceof ofaggressive aggressivecompetition competition within within glacial glacialnight nightmust musthave havebeen been aa very very ororbetween betweenhuman humanspecies speciesand and "cul"culdifficult task"? ture" constant difficult task"? ture"acting actingas'asa a novel novel and and constant 4)4)Many areareexamples Manypalaeoanthropologists palaeoanthropologists might might ~nviromet environment examples (Huxley (Huxley feel feelunhappy unhappyat at seeing seeing the the Steinheim, Steinheim, 1942:128-30; 1942:128-30;'Dobzhansky Dobzhansky 1960; 1960; BreiBrelSwanscombe, 1965b:33). tinger Swanscombe,Ehringsdorf, Ehringsdorf,and and FonFontinger1961; 1961; Robinson Robinson 1965b:33). techevade by Dobzhansky Dobzhansky techevaderemains remainslumped lumped together together as as "Culture" "Culture"isis seen seen by "pra.esapiens" new factor factor in "praesapiens"or or"early "early sapiens" sapiens" types. types. (1960:117) (1960:117) as as aa new in evoluevolumeant tion, The questions are The above above questions are meant tion,arising arisingwith withHomo: Homo: merely merelytotostress stresshow howmuch muchprudence prudence isis The pressure of of natural selection has has al- alT he pressure natural selection called calledfor forininusing usingthe thevaluable valuable data data ways waysbeen beenexerted exertedtowards towardsthe the maintenance maintenance offered offeredhere herebybyEmiliani Emiliani for for aa better better and andimprovement improvementof ofthose those genorypes genotypes which which understanding confer understandingofofhuman humanevolution. evolution. conferonontheir theirpossessors possessorsthe the capacity capacity to to acquire, acquire,totouse use and and to to transmit transmit culture. culture. bybyALEXANDER ALEXANDERGALLUS*" GALLUS* Melbourne, Melbourne,Australia. Australia.1313III III67 67 Biological Biological evolutionary evolutionary theory theory seems seems totohave scientific thinking have influenced influenced scientific thinking ininother otherdisciplines disciplinesonly onlyininaa simplified simplified paper is isa a case form. Emiliani's form. Emiliani's paper case in in point. point.His Hisviews views on on human human evolution evolution can canbe bereduced reducedto toaa few few simple simple postupostulates: lates: 1)1) Homo in aa single single phyphyHomo evolved evolved in logenetic relogeneticlineage, lineage,each each"taxon" "taxon" represented presentedby bya asingle singlepolytypic polytypic"stock" "stock" which whichsucceeded succeededthe theone one preceding preceding it it inina a"rather bybyJOHN E. E. FRISCH*" "ratherorderly" orderly"way. way. JOHN FRISCH* Comment: Comment:The Thecase casehas has been been argued argued Tokyo,. Japan. 14 III Tokyo, Japan. 1467 III 67convincingly convincinglyfor foratatleast least two two synchrosynchroEmiliani's nic,even even sympatric sympatrichominids hominidsof of at at Emiliani'sarticle article isis aa very very useful useful sumsum- nic, mary contributions for leastspecies speciesrank rankininthe the Early Early and and maryofof the the many many contributions for least which MiddlePleistocene Pleistocene(Tobias (Tobias1965, 1965,1966; 1966; whichheheisisknown knownto to all all students students of of Middle Patterson 1965 :42-43; Leakey 1965: paleoanthropology. It helps particuPatterson 1965:42-43; Leakey 1965: paleoanthropology. It helps particu11,11,106; larly points 106;Robinson Robinson1963a:394; 1963a:394; 1965b: 1965b: larlytoto understand understandon on what what points 49). ancestral Australopithecus Australopithecus maymay sometimes disagree these students 49). An An ancestral these students sometimes disagree reverses with robustusbefore beforeA. A. africanus africanus reverses withhim. him.Several Severalsuch such points points arise arise in in robustus relative the relativedating dating(Tobias (Tobias1966), 1966), and and thesecond secondhalf halfof of the the article, article, where where heheattempts thereseems seemstotobebeno no proof proof that that the the attemptstotoapply apply his his dating dating meme- there "taxon" erectus pekinensis pekinensis isis thod "taxon" Homo Homo erectus thodtotohuman humanevolution: evolution: totoHomo 1)1) ItIt isis assumed ancestral Homo sapiens sapiens "praesa"praesaassumed that that man man can can be be ancestral phylogenetic succession succession "defined piens." The The phylogenetic "definedasasa a primate primate capable capable of of syssys- piens." neanderthalensis to tools." tematically fromH.H. sapiens sapiens neanderthalensis to tematicallymanufacturing manufacturing tools."To To from H.H. sapiens my sapiens sapiens saptens isis still still very very conconmyknowledge, knowledge,no noother otherliving livinganimal animal (Brace troversial form has troversial (Brace1964b; 1964b;Pradel Pradel1966). 1966). form hasever everbeen beendefined definedtaxonomitaxonomically seemspremature prematuretotoconstruct constructaa phyphycallyby by its its behavior., behavior. Moreover, Moreover, it it ItItseems the logenetic should logeneticlineage lineage of of this this sort sort until until difdifshouldnot notbe be overlooked overlooked that that the word ficultiesare arefully fullysettled. settled. word"systematically," "systematically," crucial crucial for for the the ficulties 2)2) Species formation affecting affecting is isasas likely proposed Species formation proposeddefinition, definition, likely to to refer tqtoa acontinuous Homoerectus erectusand andleading leadingtotoH. H. sasarefer continuousvariable variable such such as, as, Homo letletusussay, piensproceeded proceeded through throughisolation isolation folfolsay,brain brainsize, size, but but isis less less sussus- piens ceptible lowingclimatic climaticchanges changesafter after H. H. ceptibletotoexact exactmeasurement measurement than than the the lowing 34 34 CIJRRENT This Thisnew newtype typeof of evolution evolution isis ininfluenced fluencedbybyconscious consciouschoice choice or or decidecision sion("freedom"); ("freedom"); functional functional adaptaadaptability increased through through bilityhas has much much increased conscious arguments consciouschoice. choice. Similar Similar arguments have havebeen been put put forward forward by by Decker Decker (1963), (1963),Strong Strong(1953), (1953),Spuhler Spuhler(1960), (1960), Debetz Debetz(1961), (1961),Kortlandt Kortlandt(1962), (1962), HeHewes wes(1961), (1961),Weinert Weinert(1938:4-5, (1938:4-5, 29,5829, 5861), (1953:57-61), Wasburn Was burn 61), Gallus Gallus (1953:57-61), (1965:101), (1965:101),and andRendel Rendel(1959). (1959). c)c) polymorphy clines within within polymorphyand and clines Homo 1942 :208-9, Homo sapiens sapiens (Huxley (Huxley 1942:208-9, non-interrup354), 354),which which presuppose presuppose non-interruption tionofofinterbreeding. interbreeding. :527d)d) /oetalisation foetalisation(Huxley (Huxley 1942 1942:52732). 32). 3)3)Man Manhad hadspread spread previous previous and and bebecame cameisolated isolatedduring duringan anIce Ice Age. Age. Comment: Comment:ItIt isis impossible impossible at at present present totobebedogmatic dogmatic about about the the chronology chronology ofofhuman migrations. In In fact thisthis queshuman migrations. fact question tionisisininurgent urgentneed needof ofattention attentionane;! and clarification. clarification. 4)4) Australopithecus Australopithecus africanus africanus"may "may have" have"evolved evolved by by beginning beginning to to eat eat meat meatand andby bydiscovering discoveringthe the"imagina"imaginative tiveuse useofoftools" tools" and and hunting hunting strategy. strategy. Comment: Comment:This This question question has has been been argued arguedinindetail detailby byRobinson Robinson (1963) (1963) and (1963), the the latter latter denying denying andHall Hall (1963), the thecritical criticalsignificance significanceof oftool-use tool-use for for the human thetransition transitionfrom fromape ape to to human form. form.I Iwould wouldlike.here like,here only only to to put put in in a aplea plea for for aa deeper deeper .penetration -penetration of of the the subject Emiliani's. subjectthan than Emiliani's."To "To discover" discover" "to"todetect" means meanseither either detect"or or "to "to invent." invent."To To'''detect'' "'detect"tool tooluse useisisout outof of the thequestion, question,for forsomething somethingcan canbe be dedethus the tected only if itifisitpre-existent; tected only is pre-existent; thus the ANTHROPOLOGY ANTHROPCURRENT OLOGY meaning of "to dis)::over" is here "to meaning of "to discover" is here "to invent," and the real problem is invent," and the real problem is whether or not cultural innovation dewhether or not cultural innovation depending on a,bstract thinking (i.e., "inpending on abstract thinking (i.e., "invention" or "choice" of a certain new vention" or "choice" of a certain new type of adaptive behavior) was an imtype of adaptive behavior) was an important factor in human evolution portant factor in human evolution (Ascher 1965 :48, Dobzhansky 1965: (Ascher 1965:48, Dobzhansky 1965: 64). 64). Emiliani's treatment of the relative Emiliani's treatment of the relative and absolute chronology of climatic and absolute chronology of climatic events is lucid, but his comment's on events is lucid, but his comment's on human evolution are unsatisfactory in human evolution are unsatisfactory in that they are based on a simplified that they are based on a simplified of evolutionary theory. It 'is version version of evolutionary theory. It 'is necessary to take into consideration necessary to take into consideration the effects of human behavior on the effects of human behavior on adaptation and selection pressure and adaptation and selection pressure and thus on evolution (De Vore 1965). It thus on evolution (De Vore 1965). It is isfurther necessary to take into confurther necessary to take into consideration all possible biological factors sideration all possible biological factors which have been analysed by evoluwhich have been analysed by evoluHuman evolution is surely tionists. tionists. Human evolution is surely complex, and one cannot even assume complex, and one cannot even assume that the variables involved remained that the variables involved remained the same throughout the Pleistocene. the same throughout the Pleistocene. Finally, I question whether "isolation Finally, I question whether "isolation asasa a result of climatic change" was result of climatic change" was really a dominant factor of species really a dominant factor of species formation in Homo erectus and H. formation in Homo erectus and H. sapiens times, rather than one which sapiens times, rather than one which had only a modifying or disturbing had only a modifying or disturbing effect on other, much more important, effect on other, much more important, factors in the evolution of Man. factors in the evolution of Man. Emiliani: PLEISTOCENE EPOCH Emiliani: PLEISTOCENE EPOCH by R. DALE GIVENS*" by R. DALE GIVENS* San Antonto, Texas, U.S.A. 8 III 67 San Antonio, Texas, U.S.A. 8 III 67 ofoffossil men is an interesting one fossil men is an interesting one despite the disagreements which: are despite the disagreements which are sure to arise over his terminology. The sure to arise over his terminology. The expert discussion this hypothesis will expert discussion this hypothesis will certainly evoke should produce a valucertainly evoke should produce a valuable review of the issues, and this, able review of the issues, and this, after all, is the way we advance our after all, is the way we advance our knowledge. knowledge. ItItisisgratifying to know that geologists gratifying to know that geologists and palaeontologists are moving closer and palaeontologists are moving closer totoananadequate chronolgy of the Pleiadequate chronolgy of the Pleistocene and before. It is also gratifying stocene and before. It is also gratifying totofind support for the "we are still in find support for the "we are still in the Pleistocene" idea; a number of us the Pleistocene" idea; a number of us have long felt this to be the case. have long felt this to be the case. However, a number of questionable inJ. HESTER*" However, a number of questionable in- bybyJAMES JAMES J. HESTER* terpretatiQns appear in the latter half terpretations appear in the latter half Bethesda, Md., U.S.A. 11 III 67 ofofEmiliani's article. The statement Bethesda, Md., U.S.A. 11 III 67 Emiliani's article. The statement that it would not be surprising to find paper by Emiliani represents, in This that it would not be surprising to find This paper by Emiliani represents, in the genus Homo dating from well back my opinion, an outstanding contributhe genus Homo dating from well back my opinion, an outstanding contribuinto the Pliocene is presumably based to the study of human ecology into the Pliocene is presumably based tion tion to the study of human ecology ononthe Olduvai Gorge material which the Pleistocene. He is definitely the Olduvai Gorge material which during during the Pleistocene. He is definitely Leakey calls Homo habilis. Designating right course in his attempt to Leakey calls Homo habilis. Designating ononthe the right course in his attempt to this form as Homo, however, seems environmental changes with this form as Homo, however, seems correlate correlate environmental changes with completely unjustified on present evolution of man. The fact that the completely unjustified on present the the evolution of man. The fact that the evidence, since the characteristics rewas a period of extreme evidence, since the characteristics re- Pleistocene Pleistocene was a period of extreme ported to date fall within the range stress undoubtedly served to ported to date fall within the range climatic climatic stress undoubtedly served to ofofvariations we can expect for Aupopulations and to affect in variations we can expect for Au- isolate isolate populations and to affect in stralopithecus and certainly closer to their evolution in the manner general stralopithecus and certainly closer to general their evolution in the manner the latter than to any definite Homo However, when we prothe latter than to any definite Homo heheoutlines. outlines. However, when we pro-erectus or any other. Thus it is very to specific details of this problem -erectus or any other. Thus it is very ceed ceed to specific details of this problem unlikely that this &e.nus will ever be lack much critical data. Of special unlikely that this genus will ever be we we lack much critical data. Of special dated back into the ll1Iliocene. importance to understanding the fate dated back into the Pliocene. importance to understanding the fate Classifying Fontechevade and Neanderthals, for example, Classifying Fontechevade and ofof the the Neanderthals, for example, Swans combe either as a sapiens sub-be the collection of pollen and Swanscombe either as a sapiens sub- would would -be the collection of pollen and or as "praesapiens" is unwarspecies types of environmental data species or as "praesapiens" is unwar- other other types of environmental data ranted at present, especially since it from their occupation sites or from ranted at present, especially since it from their occupation sites or from implies ancestry to the later H. sapiens correlated continental deimplies ancestry to the later H. sapiens temporally temporally correlated continental desapiens to the exclusion of other types. Also of importance would be bybyM.M.GIGOUT*" sapiens to the exclusion of other types. posits. posits. Also of importance would be GIGOUT* ItItseems more reasonable to look at detailed studies of the cultural seems more reasonable to look at more more detailed studies of the cultural Orleans, France. 11 III 67 them and Steinheim, etc., as belonging by which the Neanderthals Orleans, France. 11 III 67 them and Steinheim, etc., as belonging means means by which the Neanderthals totoananearly and variable group of H. with the climatic stresses of the Emiliani will forgive me for emphaearly and variable group of H. coped coped with the climatic stresses of the Emiliani will forgive me for empha- sapiens that were ancestral in' general Such studies might support sizing only the points on which I am that were ancestral in general Pleistocene. Pleistocene. Such studies might support sizing only the points on which I am tosapiens later types. Emiliani's inferences asastoto the nature not completely in agreement with him. to later types. Emiliani's inferences the nature not completely in agreement with him. Emiliani's suggested sequence of fosofofthe European continental climate ItItisis difficult for me to follow him Emiliani's suggested sequence of fosthe European continental climate difficult for me to follow him sil types in a phylogenetic lineage on the deep-sea core data or, on when he identifies some 20 glaciations sil types in a phylogenetic lineage based based on the deep-sea core data or, on when he identifies some 20 glaciations would also be strengthened if subspethe other hand, might bring about last million years. Of course, ininthe would also be strengthened if subspethe other hand, might bring about the last million years. Of course, cies were ignored. And again we are revision of these inferences. glaciations and pluvials are subdivided cies were ignored. And again we are some some revision of these inferences. glaciations and pluvials are subdivided presented with two equations-A. with the methods that EmiI Iagree bybyinterstadials with warmer climates; presented with two equations-A. agree with the methods that Emiinterstadials with warmer climates; robustus = vegetarian and A. africaliani has employed in reconstructing but the interlocking of glacial and plurobustus = vegetarian and A. africaliani has employed in reconstructing but the interlocking of glacial and plu- nus = carnivore (or at least omnivore) continental climate from pelagic foravial formations and of littorals of nus = carnivore (or at least omnivore) continental climate from pelagic foravial formations and of littorals of -for which there is not as yet ademinifera and littoral marine shells. glacio-eustatic origin certainly seems -for which there is not as yet ademinifera and littoral marine shells. glacio-eustatic origin certainly seems quate evidence. Further, I believe that the climatic to liJUit the major climatic episodes to Further, I believe that the climatic to lilnit the major climatic episodes toquate evidence. during the Pleistocene were reshifts five, or six (Gigout 1965; Choubert, shifts during the Pleistocene were refive or six (Gigout 1965; Choubert, gular and worldwide and that it loly, Gigout, Marcais, Margat, and gular and worldwide and that it Joly, Gigout, Marcais, Margat, and should therefore bebefeasible toto make ,Raynal 1956; Fisk and McFarlan by ROGER T. GRANGE, JR.*" should therefore feasible make Raynal 1956; Fisk and McFarlan by ROGER T. GRANGE, JR.* climatic generalizations. The only pro1955; and Bernard, Leblanc, and Maclimatic generalizations. The only pro1955; and Bernard, Leblanc, and MaTampa, Fla., U.S.A. 16 III 67 blem I perceive is that his reconstrucjor 1962). Even if we count the subTampa, Fla., U.S.A. 16 III 67 blem I perceive is that his reconstrucjor 1962). Even if we count the subtion is of a climate so severe that it of glaciations, we arrive at divisions review articles frequently offer to tion is of a climate so severe that it divisions of glaciations, we arrive at CA CA review articles frequently offer to must have provided an extreme test of only a dozen stages (Venzo 1964). students a striking illustration of the must have provided an extreme test of only a dozen stages (Venzo 1964). students a striking illustration of the human survival capability. Before we The equivalence Wiirm = Wisconsin complexities which usually underlie human survival capability. Before we The equivalence Wiirm = Wisconsin complexities which usually underlie can accept this reconstruction, we must cannot be considered as established. the seemingly simple textbook statecan accept this reconstruction, we must cannot be considered as established. the seemingly simple textbook state- seek supporting evdience from the huThe Wisconsin is often double, and They can also be stimulating for seek supporting evdience from the huThe Wisconsin is often double, and ment. ment. They can also be stimulating for man occupation sites in question. some authors attach it to the Riss + the professional scholar. Emiliani's man occupation sites in question. some authors attach it to the Riss + the professional scholar. Emiliani's Wiirm group (Richmond 1965). summary of the problems of pleistoWiirm group (Richmond 1965). summary of the problems of pleistoFor my part, I will defend the uniquecene dating is just such a review. For my part, I will defend the unique- cene dating is just such a review. ness of the Quaternary. It is wellThe latter part of the article is sure bybyRALPH L. HOLLOWAY, JR.*' ness of the Quaternary. It is wellThe latter part of the article is sure RALPH L. HOLLOWAY, JR.* known considerable confusion in knownthat thatititisis n6t n6t comparable comparable in in totoproduce produce considerable confusion in New York, N.Y., U.S.A. 1 III 67 duration to other eras; but it has its itsitsuse New York, N.Y., U.S.A. 1 iii 67 duration to other eras; but it has its useofofsuch suchclassifications classificationsasasHomo Homo own particular methods of study, diferectus habilis. This seems particularly will limit my remarks to the palaeoI own particular methods of study, diferectuws habilis. This seems particularly I will limit my remarks to the palaeoferent from those of the Tertiary, e.g., objectionable in view of the fact that anthropological portions of this paper, ferent from those of the Tertiary, e.g., objectionable in view of the fact that anthropological portions of this paper, morphology, the term Homo habilis is open. to because here a number of confusions morphology, stratigraphy, stratigraphy, prehistory, prehistory, even even the term Homo habilis is open to because here a number of confusions palaeopedology, question (LeGros taxonomy have led Emipalaeopedology, etc. etc. This This isiswhat whatmakes makes serious serious question (LeGrosClark Clark 1967: 1967: concerning concerning taxonomy have led Emiof the Quaternary. There a acrossroads 116). liani to speculate unduly under the crossroads of the Quaternary. There 116). liani to speculate unduly under the are Quaternarists; there are no "TerThe .of modern knowledge about speare Quaternarists; there are no "TerThe hypothesis hypothesisEmiliani Emiliani advances advances guise guise.of modern knowledge about spetiarists." concerning think that that concerningthe themorphological morphologicalsequence sequence ciation tiarists." ciationand and evolution. evolution. I I think 9. No.1. February 1968 Vol.Vol. 9 . No. 1 . Febrzary 1968 35 35 overspecific mucli inter- environmental overspecificinintrying tryingtotoname namein in aa environmentaltheories theories(e.g., (e.g., HuntingHuntingmuchof ofthe thespeculation speculation and'the and the intersystematically ton's) pretation systematicallycorrect correctway, way, what what are are ton's)about about the the evolution evolution of of the the brain, brain, pretationof ofdeep-sea deep-sea cores cores for for PleistoPleistoof fossil fossil modern really behavior, cene reallyvery very small small samples samples of behavior,cold cold weather, weather, and and modern ceneenvironments environments follows follows from from his his ununman. gather from from Emiliani's com- hominids. critical man. II gather Emiliani's comhominids.None None of of this this actually actually hides hides criticalacceptance acceptance of of certain certain taxonotaxonosuggestion40j A40 date the Emiliani's mic ments Emiliani's substantive substantive suggestionmentsthat thatonly onlyinin Europe, Europe, with with the micrubrics. rubrics.The TheKK40/A40 date of of 1.75 1.75 6 which rigors XX 10 rigorsofofglaciers, glaciers,do do the the "capable "capable whichI I think thinkisisprobably probably right-that right-that 106years yearsatatOlduvai Olduvai Gorge, Gorge, Bed Bed I, I, brain successive arose relates brainand and consummate consummateskills" skills" develop develop successiveforms formsof of hominids hominids arose relatesto tothe theAustralopithecine Australopithecine group. group. the such "clear-cut "clear-cut early early primarily which I I fail primarilyfrom fromsome some fraction fraction of of the whichlead lead to to such fail to to see see the the logic logic behind behind his his statestatepreceding sapiens" Steinheim, Swansment sapiens" types types as as Steinheim, Swanspreceding form, form, not not from from its its totality. totality. mentthat thatititwill willcome come as as no no great great sursurcombe, prise combe,etc. etc."Europe "Europe as as the the cradle cradle of of prisetotofind findthe thegenus genusHomo Homo "well "well modern man" seems like an unfortuback into the Pliocene." Emiliani acmodern man" seems like an unfortuback into the Pliocene." Emiliani acnate number of cepts nateway wayto tocharacterize characterize the the complexicomplexiceptswithout withoutquestion question aa number of bybyKENNETH KENNETHA.A.R. R.KENNEDY*' KENNEDY* ties dubious tiesof of hominid hominid evolution. evolution. According According dubioussequences sequencesand and taxonomic taxonomic lalato Emiliani's logic, the rigors of Euro~els belsfor the early hominid, fragments. Ithaca, N. Y., U.S.A. to Emiliani's logic, the rigors of Eurofor the early hominid fragments. Ithaca, N.Y., U.S.A. 14 14 III III 67 67 drastic winters winters "H omo habilis," at least least those those reportreport- pean pean summers summers and and drastic "Homo habilis," at In his endeavor to relate the climatic In his endeavor to relate the climatic better-adapted to better-adapted ededfor be significantly significantly should shouldhave have led led to forBed Bed I,I, may may not not be historyofofthe thePliocene Plioceneand and Pleistocene Pleistocene groups arthritic, sinusitis-sufsinusitis-suf- history different groups than than arthritic, differentfrom fromAustralopithecus Australopithecus afriafriepochs to hominid evolution, Emiliani epochs to hominid evolution, Emiliani canus, the proclamations proclamations fering, fering,flu-ridden flu-riddenNeanderthals. Neanderthals. We We canus,in in spite spite of of the forward two ideas suggested aa puts puts forward two ideas suggested know so little about populations of based on such low-valence attributes as know so little about populations of based on such low-valence attributes as century ago when the case for early century ago when the case for early hominids that it is pointless to claim cranial hominids that it is pointless to claim cranialcapacities, capacities, tooth tooth dimensions, dimensions, or or manwas was argued argued from from the the evidence evidence of of that sensi- man v;:trious fragments. Simithatone onegroup grouphad' had aa particular particular sensivarious post-cranial post-cranial fragments. Simia afew fossils from sites ininFrance, few fossils from sites France,BelBeltivity to arthritis or any other malady. of A. robuotus, A. larly, the sequence tivity to arthritis or any other malady. larly, the sequence of A. robust6s, A. gium, modern-type gium,and andGermany: Germany: (1) (1) modern-type Neanderthals africanus, etc., Neanderthalsapparently apparentlyadapted adapted to to aa afrzcanus, etc.,is isbased basedon on aa sort sort of of man (Homo sapiens) evolved in man (Homo sapiens) evolved in EuEuwide number of ecological conditions ecological logic and not on empirical wide number of ecological conditions ecological logic and not on empirical rope out of aa more more primitive primitive human rope out of human Far East, East (Europe, Middle East, evidence single in(Europe, Middle East, Far East, East evidencethat thatallows allows only only aa single instockwhich whichhad had its its origins origins in in Africa; Africa; and were replacreplac- stock terpretation. andSouth South Africa) Africa) and and were terpretation.The TheSouth South African African evidevidNeanderthal Man, an early ococ(2) (2) Neanderthal Man, an early ed (?) or evolved into sapiens sapiens and ence clearly reverses the sequence, ed (?) or evolved into sapiens sapiens ence clearly reverses the sequence, and cupant of the, European cradle of cupant of the European cradle of types Olduvai be interpreted interpreted in typesininmany manyplaces. places. Olduvai Gorge Gorge can can be in modern modernman, man, met met extinction extinction with with the the am frankly mystified about the I the same manner if one assumes that I am frankly mystified about the the same manner if one assumes that debut debutofofsapient sapienthumanity. humanity. purpose "pre-Zinj" africanus. purposeof ofthis thispaper. paper. Is Is it it to to offer offer aa "pre-Zinj" isis actually actually A. A. africanus. With regard toto the With regard the first firstidea, idea, II of speculations about the number myself intrigued by the sugI I find number of speculations about the doubt that the European find myself intrigued by the sugfossil record doubt that the European fossil record dynamics of early hominid evolution, gestion dynamics of early hominid evolution, gestionthat thatthe the "pre-Australopithecus "pre-Australopithecus is sufficiently well understood to supis sufficiently well understood to supor to provide evidence regarding the to bipedal evolutionary step which led or to provide evidence regarding the evolutionary step which led to bipedal port that portthe thecontention contention that environments of the early hominids, or is likely to have been selecposture environments of the early hominids, or posture is likely to have been selecof While the fossil finds of Australopithecus ... " (are (are not not all all "steps" "steps" by by defidefi- totoshow tive show that that deep-sea deep-sea cores cores are are of tive..." While the fossil finds of Australopithecus value in talking about the other two and Homo erectus point to Africa as the but bipedal posture nition adaptive?); value in talking about the other two nition adaptive?); but bipedal posture and Homo erectus point to Africa as the questions? As far as I can tell, Emicradle hardly in itself have led to improvcan questions? As far as I can tell, Emicradleof ofthe theearly earlyHomininae, Homininae, the the finds finds of of can hardly in itself have led to improv"prae-sapiens" or early sapiens types liani with respect respect such ededperception such "prae-sapiens" or early sapiens types lianihas has succeeded succeeded only only with perception or or communication, communication, and and as Steinheim, Swanscombe, Ehringsdorf, and toto the taxonomic one as Steinheim, Swanscombe, Ehringsdorf, and the first firstquestion. question. The The taxonomic onewonders wonders where where the the evidence evidence is is that that particularly Fontechevade Fontechevadepoint pointtotoEurope Europe as as the the cradle cradle "in the distinctions distinctionsheheuses uses are are particularly "inother otheranimals, animals, an an increase increase in in the ofofmodern man. modern man. open toto criticism, and I I find no conlength of the neck has served the same open criticism, and find no conlength of the neck has served the same vincing purpose." Granted vincingarguments argumentsto to support support his his spespepurpose." Similarly, Similarly, the the acquisition acquisition of of Grantedthat thatthe the antiquity antiquity of of EuroEuroculations. meat-eating by the africanus taxon is pean fossil hominids is somewhat culations. meat-eating by the africanus taxon is pean fossil hominids is somewhat more more seen ages ofof human "remains certain seenasasaareason reason for forafricanus' africanus' evolving evolving certainthan thanthe the ages human 'remains from ininother the fromrobustus robustusgroups. groups.Next, Next, cannibalcannibalotherparts partsofofthe theOld Old World, World, the ism asasananimportant dynamic fact ismisisoffered offered important dynamic by factremains remainsthat thatthe the bony bony traces traces of of byW. W.W. W.HOWELLS*' HOWELLS* ininthe Homo been recovered recovered thedevelopment development of of the the imaginative imaginative Homo sapiens sapiens have have been Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. 20 III 67 use aa Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. 20 III 67 from Siberia, useof oftools toolsand andstrategies strategiesfor forgetting getting fromPleistocene Pleistocene deposits deposits in in Siberia, attempt is good To goodhominid hominid meal; meal; but but no no attempt is China,Borneo, Borneo,the theSudan, Sudan, and and South South To one one outside outside the the field, field, the the first first part part China, made informative treattreatAfrica. theory assume thatthat all all madetotoweigh weighthe thepossibilities possibilitiesofofobob- ofofthis Africa.Does Doesthis this theory assume thispaper paper isis an an informative prey- ment taining non-European tainingenough enough protein protein without without preynon-European or or non-Western non-Western Asiatic Asiatic mentofofthe thedating dating of of marine marine deposits deposits ing hominids: scavenging, sapiens in ids are the ingon onother other hominids:e.g., e.g., scavenging, and andtheir theircorrelation correlationwith with late late PleistoPleistosapiensform formfossil fossil hom hominids are the cooperative vestiges of a Pleistocene dispersal out what seems especially inevents; cooperativehunting; hunting;hunting huntingofofimmaimma- cene vestiges of a Pleistocene dispersal out cene events; what seems especially inture ofofthe amteresting tureanimals, animals,etc. etc. the northwest northwestcorner cornerofofthe the Old Old terestingis isthe the uniformity uniformity in in amWere Homo erectus groups "under and to an extent in duration, World? plitude, World? plitude, and to an extent in duration, Were Homo erectus groups "under the environmental stress of ofofthe InInthe the severe severe environmental stress of thetemperature temperaturecycles. cycles.Emiliani Emiliani is is thedays dayswhen when ititwas was still still acceptacceptable major Java, North North duly dulyconservative conservativeabout about absolute absolute dates dates ableto to refer refertotoNeanderthal NeanderthalMan Man as as major glaciations" glaciations" in in Java, Africa, wish representative forthe theearlier earlierglacial glacialphases; phases; II wish Africa,East EastAfrica, Africa,and andChina? China? And And for representativeofofa a species species other other than than isisthere Emiliani's hehemight extinction mightgo go in in for for more more discussion discussion of of sapiens, thereany any evidence evidence for for Emiliani's sapiens,the theproblem problem of of his his extinction that European summers the results of other dating methods and of superior assertion for was interpreted in terms the results of other dating methods and was interpreted in terms of superior assertion for that European summers present European winpower were theirmutual mutualreconciliation. reconciliation. powerin in warfare warfare and and intellect intellect on on the the werecolder colderthan than present European win- their ters? The from deep-sea cores, Cro-Magnon successors. successors. I I do connection part ters? Theevidence evidence from deep-sea cores, part of of the the Cro-Magnon do not not see see the the obvious obvious connection atatleast Caribbean ofofthe with Emiliani's Emiliani's suggestion suggestionthat thatthe theNeanderNeanderleastfrom fromthe the Caribbeanand andEqu~­ Equathesecond secondpart part of of the the paper paper with torial the decidedly thals' torial Africa, Africa, suggests, suggests, according according to to thefirst. first.Here Here Emiliani Emiliani is is decidedly thals'demise demise might mightbe be related related to to phyphy0 Emiliani, particularly less Emiliani,an anamplitude amplitudeof of6_7 6-7?C. C.Does Does siological disadvantages, disadvantages, particularly lesscautious cautious than than before, before, occasionally occasionally siological this landing osteoarthritic thistally tallywith withthe theabove aboveclaim? claim? Can Can osteoarthriticand andre'Spiratory respiratorymaladies, maladies, landinginina aterminological terminologicalswamp: swamp: we we the sapiens saisisprovocative. Neander:-, have theflow flowof ofcolder colder waters waters from from melting melting provocative.But But if if the the Neanderhaveaa s.ubspecies subspecies (Homo (Homo sapiens sapipiens) ens) "speciating" subspecies of in their their periice thals "speciating" and and subspecies of icemasses masses and and their their effects effects on on foramiforamithalswere werecold-adapted cold-adapted in perinifera sapiens manufactured from from glacial glacial milieu, milieu, aa climatic climatic situation situation that that sapiens being being manufactured niferatell tellususabout about the the rigors rigors of of concon,tinental life Homo erectus. It seems the that they appear borne through through 'tinental lifeininareas areas where where Homo Homo they appear to to have have borne Homo erectufs. It likely seemsthat likely the erectus anthropologists, several erectusand and subsequent subsequent finds finds existed? existed? severalmillenia, millenia, itit seems seems curious curious that that anthropologists,while while deriding deriding older older get- their blunders The blundersininnomenclature nomenclature may may be be gettheirdisappearance disappearanceisisexplicable explicable by by aa The latter latterpart part of of Emiliani's Emiliani's paper paper difficulties by being sudden suggests reversion tO to Certain certain ting suddenineffectiveness ineffectivenessof ofsuch suchaa favorfavortinginto into new new difficulties by being suggeststotome me aa reversion 36 36 CURRENT CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY t :~L2'Gwlr&R6s) ~"'5=:P;tW '~M"=:£i;165A2R,c3E- t! t-.;\\ PROBABLE PARALE.LISATION WIT34 WOLOSTET CURVE 11966)1 | I OLOCENE W R M C W E I C H S E L E E M R I S S II t WART 1 E Y PROBABLE fiRST lA-II DRDER C % :~i!I-=;* TENTATIVE ABSOLUTE OATlNG Wl.TERt l"SOLAt10 C'U"RCEA YEARSBP ? ? 1035 32 13 152 3 27 'ESOILS SEt&UE S I OECALI IROWN E- 9 ? CYCL.ES Or SOL I FIRST tA-I) SOIN' ANO CT SECONO O R ACUMLAE 0 243 ESSERE TUCNSSSAE 271_MM 485 13E 333331333333 3,I 3 1-3) IP 5M N-3 ORDER \ C A 8 3 2 1 C3 C2 t 9 C j3 171 T 602 7-26 3 f 3 962 - I R I SS I 1 RENTU4E ) j 4OLSTEIN 11-ll) | MINOEL t ELSTER ) II I_ | MINOEL E ELSTER )I CROM E R G G0 N Z t MENAP ) i WAAL I DONAU 1EtzURON ) T I G LI U M I t |C 0| 03 27133~333 O3323C93333 - 2 3 3 F 3 FF 23 F I G 3 ! 3- G 2 GI | 3 | 2 U j 03 02 _81. Di 3? E2 _3 A-03 LATRNTV i 2 3 Pos-et 1. Loess-section curve of the Prague and Brno areas. The "x" ordinate represents the observed thickness of soil or sediment in meters; the "y" ordinate represents the types of soil or sediment in the order in which they are supposed to' succeed each other as the climate changes from mainly cold to mainly warm. Each soil recorded is identified by the cycle to which it belongs and by a letter (e.g., ~_"). 0 4 changes from mainly <lates are all from Vestonice (Kukla and Klima 1961). Warm forest malacofaunas are found buried in Ca-horizons of lessive soils (Lozek all 1964). dates Absolute chronology is based on comparisonare with the winter insolation curve for 55°N latitude from (d. Figs. 2 and 3). Cyclical division 1964). Absolute chro is according to Kukla (1961). FIG. is according to Kukla (1961). section of Emiliani's curve shows close able adaptation. To be sure, cases of section of Emiliani's curve shows close able adaptation. of resemblance to the Pelukian-Kotzebuan osteoarthritis occurToinbe thesure, fossilcases series resemblance to the osteoarthritis occur in the fossil series division, where the Pelukian-Kotzebuan same number of from Krapina, La Ferarssie, La Quina, division, where the sameseem number of from La Ferarssie, but La Quina, minor temperature cycles to be and La Krapina, Chapelle-aux-Saints; rheuminor temperature cycles to be be and La Chapelle-aux-Saints; but rheumayseem easily registered. Each division matic diseases also occurred among the registered.to Each division may climatic easily be matic diseases also occurred among some periodic considered population as well as the in Cro-Magnon considered to some periodic climatic Cro-Magnon as well comas in variation causing glacials and interglalater Mesolithicpopulation and Neolithic variation causing glacials and interglalater Mesolithic comcials. andNeolithic osteoarthritis munities in Europe,and cials. munities in Europe, has been identified in and suchosteoarthritis Pleistocene A loess-section curve recently conhas been as identified in such Pleistocene A loess-section curve studies recentlyofconand the structed Bos primigenius mammals after detailed' a mammals anddisthe number structed detailed studies of a If Bos theprimigenius Neanderthals cave bear. as of after well-preserved loess and cave bear. Neanderthals number of well-preserved and so appeared in If thethe dramatic fashion dissoils sections resting on river loess terraces appeared in the fashion so ofsol's resting river often described, thedramatic causes may reside the sections Bohemian massifon may be terraces of pardescribed, the causes mayin reside of theinterest Bohemian may be ofSedparinoften factors which leave no trace the ticular in massif this connection. ir factors which no traceofin the the ticular interest in this connection. Sedfossil record: the leave capability with richly imentation pockets filled fossil record: the capability of the imentation filled with richly Cro-Magnon peoples to form socially divided strata,pockets including palaeontologiCro-Magnon form socially divided strata, interglacials, including palaeontologiwith a to slightly higher cohesive units peoples cally evidenced show the cohesive with and a slightly cally sequence evidencedof interglacials, showand the of units efficiency successhigher than same margin sedimentation margin efficiency andsocial success than pedogenesis same sequence of sedimentation and could be of realized in the tradiin two areas 200 kilocould realized in the social tradipedogenesis in two Lozek, areas 200 tions ofbeNeanderthals. More effective apart (Kukla, and kiloZameters tions of of Neanderthals. More effective meters apartThe (Kukla, Lozek, recorded and Za6communication and comethods ruba 1961). sequences methods between of communication rubatherefore 1961). The sequences recorded operation individualsand of coa must reflect wide-range clioperation between individuals of a matic must changes therefore reflect wide-range cliunit may be of critical adaptive social rather than local sedisocial unit in may of critical for adaptive matic changes ratherCarbon-14 than local dates sediimportance the be competition food mentation conditions. in the competition mentation conditions. Carbon-14 dates inimportance an area undergoing climatic for andfoodfrom Vestonice fix chronologically the in an changes area undergoing climatic and more fromrecent Vestonice the biotic during and between partfixofchronologically the loess curve bioticoptima. changes during more and recent part1961). of the loess curve glacial While the and casebetween for ex(Kukla KHma (Sample Gro glacial optima. While the case for ex- 2105 (Kukla Klf ma 1961).re-dated (Sample Gro tinction by physiological disability hasand recenJI y been by tinction physiological disability Vogel 2105 has recently been re-dated by cannot be by ruled out, the morphology [personal - communication to be ruled the of morphology Vogel [personalcommunication to ofcannot the large sinus out, cavities NeanderKHma] at more than 34,000 years of the of of NeanderKli'ma] at of more years thal Manlarge andsinus the cavities incidence rheu- B.P. the than 52,00034,000 years origiinstead thal Man and the incidence of rheuB.P. instead of the 52,000 years origimatic disease recorded in his fossil re- nally reported.) Sequences of clearly matic cannot disease recorded in his stand fossil renally reported.) Sequences of clearly mains in themselves as different ages show surprisingly close mains cannot in themselves stand as correspondence. different ages show evidence for extinction by flu and This surprisingly observation close has evidence for extinction flu and led correspondence. Thisofobservation has other ailments popularly by associated sedimentation to the definition other led toofthe definition of sedimentation with lifeailments in a coldpopularly climate. associated cycles first and second order (Kukla with life in a cold climate. cycles Six of first and second order (Kukla 1961). first-order cycles, each of 1961). Six first-order cycles, each of them representing the timespan of one them representing timespan of one glacial and one the interglacial, were by J. KUKLA*" glacial and one interglacial, were by J. KUKLA* (Kukla and Lozek originally described Prague, Czechoslovakia. 17 v 67 originally described (Kukla and Lozek Today much new evidence is 1961) . Prague, Czechoslovakia. 17 v 67 1961). Today much new demonstrating theevidence existenceis Emiliani's newly adjusted 0 18 /0 16 tem- available, demonstrating existence Emiliani's newly adjusted ofavailable, eight cycles below the the Holocene at perature curve is welcome. TheQ18/016 placing temof principal eight cycles the Holocene at curve ispeak welcome. The placing sitebelow of Cerveny kopec. at 170,000 years the ofperature the Kotzebuan the principal sitedeveloped of Cerveny kopec. of the Kotzebuan peak at 170,000 years and completely soils with events of Almost encourages comparisons Almost completely encourages glaciations. comparisonsHowever with events of loess sequences C to developed I underliesoils the and incontinental I am loess sequences C to Isoils underlie the incontinental Howeverdates I am of cycle B. completely preserved of many isotope still skepticalglaciations. completely preserved below soils of PK cycleV, B. still sea skeptical of many isotope dates Two pedocomplexes from cores for the p'eriod between TwoD, pedocomplexes below to PKone V, from sea for the period between each corresponding andcores 300,000 years because .so cycle 70,000 cycle D, each one 70,000 and 300,000 because .so cycle,corresponding have recentlytobeen little is known of theyears geochemistry of first-order first-orderDrilling cycle, have little is known of the geochemistry discovered. of that has recently shown been the ocean floor. The Recent-Pelukian the ocean floor. The Recent-Pelukian Vol. 9 . No.1. February 1968 Vol. 9 . No. 1 . February 1968 discovered. Drilling has shown that soils of the Stranska skala locality, 6.5 soils Stranska skala which locality, 6.5 Cerveny kopec, conkin eastofofthe kmaeast Cervenyfauna kopec,(Lozek which and contain richofBiharian tain a1957), rich Biharian fauna (Lozek and Fejfar must, because of their Fejfar 1957), must, be because of their relations to terraces, younger than relations terraces, younger than cycle I andtoolder thanbecycle D. Soilcycle I and older than cycle Soildevelopment comparison has D. placed development placed to cycle E or has F (Kukla, them equivalent comparison them equivalent to cycle or F (Kukla, unpublished). A closer fix isEexpected A closer fix isbyexpected petrotounpublished). be obtained in the future to be obtained in the future by petrographical methods. graphical methods. The loess-section curve (Fig. 1) The curve of (Fig. 1) shows) theloess-section observed sequences soils shows the observed of soils best-preserved and sediments in thesequences and sediments in the and best-preserved sections of Bohemia Moravia. sections of Bohemia and Moravia. of cycles I to E Whereas sediments Whereas of cycles I to E at Cerveny have been sediments studied only have been studied only at Cerveny. kopec, the well-developed cycle D is kopec,from the well-developed D is known six sites, cycle cycle C from known from sites, cycle several. C from twelve sites, andsix cycle B from twelve sites,isand cycle B from The curve tentatively datedseveral. on an The curve is tentatively on an absolute time scale based on dated the Crollabsolute time scale based on thein Crollof changes the Milankovich theory Milankovich theory changes the earth's orbit but usingoffor datingin the earth'sinorbit but using for Northern dating the changes insolation in the changes in in insolation in the Northern Hemisphere the winter, rather than Hemisphere the winter, rather than the summer, inhalf-year. This point the summer, half-year. point should be explained in moreThis detail. should be explained in more detail. An attempt was originally made to An either attempt originally made to apply thewas Milankovich (1941) theand Milankovich (1941) orapply the either Brouwer van Woerkom or thesummer Brouwerhalf-year and van Woerkom insolation (1953) (1953) to summer half-year insolation curves the data, but no logical curvesappeared to the data, but no logical parallel for the most re.cent, forthe the most recent, 1L datedappeared part of loess-section Cparallel C14-dated part of the coldloess-section period becurve. The primarily curve.30,000 The primarily cold years periodB.P. beand 65,000 tween tweenbe 30,000 and 65,000 years B.P. cannot explained in terms of any cannot be explained terms of any reasonable response in time (Broecker reasonable response (Broecker is obvious that 1965). Nevertheless, it time 1965). Nevertheless, it is the cyclical repetition ofobvious loess that and the must cyclical of loess and soils haverepetition been caused by some soils must have been caused by some Two possibilities astronomical factor. astronomical possibilities remain: either factor. it is theTwo Southern Heremain: that either it is the Southern Hemisphere determinates world climisphere that world climate-which candeterminates hardly be acceptedcan summer hardly be acceptedormate-which it is not the half of the or itbut is not summer the year, the the winter one, half that of plays year, but the the decisive role.winter one, that plays the role. So,decisive using Milankovich's (1941) table So,(calculated using Milankovich's (1941) table XXV for every five milenXXV (calculated for every five milen- 37 % I A!~L\j I • i a I1S00 ADI 10 I I 50 vV \]V\)l.TV V'l VVl/Vv-v-\/J\J\j\/V'v v Iii iii t i , tit I L0 0 H800 5+ (\ /\" AD) /\ 1\ I I 100. 103 YEARS Iii i 1 t Iii iii 200 I I Iii I I i Iii I Iii 400 50 /\ i 300 !\100X103YEARS ,,!\ f\ f\ f\ 1 I ' I I I I I , I I 500 200 300 1\ /\ 1\400 S00 :-At~.c I I 600 600 5 A ~J AL\ A/ /\ \ // A \Sx A/ tA/ A AJ/ A \/ A W LACTIJAL\I A 15 LONG F'15 [CYCLESA B3 B 2 B ci i-b' CYCLE D3 02 DI E3 E 2 E F3 F2 | F KYEARS403 10.5 32 128 152 199 243 271 370 391 445 485 506 559 602 FIG. 2. General curve of winter half;year insolation for 55° IN latitude, based on Milankovich's (1941) calculations. Parallel with loessFIG. 2.cycles General curve (cf. of wlnter section is shown Fig. 1). half-year insolation for 55? \N latitude, based on Milankovich's (1941) calculations. Parallel with loesssection cycles is shown (cf. Fig. 1). nia, I constructed the general winter The winter insolation minimum, on the have played an important positive role. The winter insolation minimum, on the nia, I constructed the general winter have played an important positive half-year insolation curve for 55° north other hand, was 13% lower, the maxiobserved lowering of role. sea 4) The half-year insolation curve for 550 north other hand, was 13% lower, the maxiThe observed lowering of sea latitude (Fig. 2) and compared it with mum 7% higher. The increase that acHolland between 1730 and level4) in mum 7% higher. The increase that aclatitude (Fig. 2) and compared it with level in Holland between 1730 and the known C14 and Th230 Pa 231 evidence companied the Eemian transgression 1820 was accompanied by a decrease companied the Eemian transgression the known C14 and Th230 evidence was accompanied by a decrease 3). A surprising degreePa23' of cor23% at 12,000 years B.P., (Fig. reached in1820 mean January temperatures but reached 23% at 12,000 years B.P., (Fig. 3). A surprising corin mean January temperatures but Main of Wiirm to influence world climate subpractically no change in July temperrespondence was found.degree enough enough to influence world climate subrespondence was found. Main Wiirm practically no change in July temperperiod shows generally atures and an increase of mean annual (Wisconsin) stantially. stantially. atures and an increase of mean annual (Wisconsin) period shows low winter insolation. The generally Holocene albedo during glacial temperature (Fairbridge 1961). 3) The 3) The albedo during glacial temperature (Fairbridge 1961). low Paudorf winter insolation. The Holocene and (Plum Point) interval 5) The comparative studies of miwinters must have been considerably and Paudorf (Plum Point) abruptly interval winters must have been considerably 5) The comparative studies of mibegan when winter insolation than during winters of interhigher croclimate of glaciated and non-glaciathigher than during winters of interglaciated and non-glaciatbegan when winterrapid insolation abruptly increased. Similar increase acglacials due to the large snow-covered edcroclimate areas at of similar latitudes that have glacials due to the large snow-covered ed areas at similar latitudes that have increased. Similar rapid increase accompanies the high sea stands of Tyr- areas in front of the glaciers. In sumsometimes been used to support the areasthe in front of thewould glaciers. In sumsometimes been used to support the companies the high sea stands of Tyrdifference have been relative mers rhenian 1 and Tyrrhenian 1 (Stearns importance of summer insolamers the difference would have been relative importance of summer insolarhenian -2 and Tyrrhenian 1 (Stearns and Thurber 1965). An especially close tion (Koppen and Wegener 1924) have much less, with high albedo being much less, high albedo being (Koppen and Wegener 1924) have and Thurber 1965). An especially close to Emiliani's onlywith to glacier-covered areas. general correspondence restricted a tion serious defect: the areas compared restricted only to glacier-covered areas. a serious defect: the areas general correspondence to Emiliani's The austausch Koejfizient, twice as curve exists up to about 65,000 years are under the influence of thecompared same inThe austausch Koeffizient, twice as are under the influence of the same incurve exists up to about 65,000 years solation. ago. More than a general correspondhigh in winter as in summer, must also high in winter as in summer, must also solation. ago. of More thanoscillations a general correspondence major can hardly of major oscillations candetailed hardly beence expected without a more be expectedofwithout a more detailed calculation the insolation curve. calculation insolation curve. for the example, differences There exist, of for of example, differences the exist, location the Paudorf ininThere in the location of the Paudorf inpeak (22,000 B.P. according solation "'ir W LOESS CURVE SOLAR-INSOLATION CURVE ERIE LOBE ~ EUROPE PALEOT MPERATURE solation peak (22,000 B.P. according to Milankovich, ca. 25,000 according j j 5 Of CZECHOSLOVAKIA ~ N I W ~ 1 5 t l u ~ D c Y s : ~ E V ~ L Y ~ P G I A R T S ~ STRATIGRAPI-IY CURVE ~OR SURfACE w ' J LOESS CURVE SOLAR-INSOLATION CURVE ERIE LOBE ww EUROPE PALEOTEMPERATU to Milankovich, ca. 25,000 according -_J - OF CZECHOSLOVAKIA FOR 55'N LATI TU DE ST TGAit " to Brouwer and van Woerkom). It is IN SFULL.BASICT EVE Y CI"'DATEO STRATIGRAPHY CURVE SURFACE t> t)WINTEP I)~ "2.$LO W'A~ SUMMER Do~f401 7ISTRATIGRAF ~:If'lC ~ WATERS PRINCIPAL WA:E;'L~NB OF FOR tl |C to Brouwer and van Woerkom). It is ) +COLD WARM WINTR FULL N.BASIC S LEVE CARRIBEAN evident, however, that the main coldx a :~I SUMMER CANIC UNITL14573 C'4D ATED UNITS ~I< L'J >-1 I~ DOTD ~ ~ 'CANON 'CANON ~L5 c14EVENTS DATED 18 115 BASIC LEVEL C C (GOLDTH'w'AIT PRINCIPAL C EMILIANI ~ ~~ cr:u.ii= ~ ~ ~I II~ DOTED 4 DECREASE iNtREASE ET AL 1965 ) ~la DATE BASED IN 0 II1967 0 ANALYSIS evident, however, the main cold< i~ - CX14573 UNITS (GOLDTHWAIT Ct arethat synchronous with climate episodes ~~ ~ ADttREASE EI GLACI~:g DEGREES ANALYSIS OF CELSIUS O OUIQ.. z Z :=: ; o j5-[3 >~g DECREASE CANOUNITS1800 AL EVENTS BASED IN 0Q8/0Q1 o .... -15% -10% -5% LEVEL +5% ADVANCE o~ ~D 20 22 2-t 26 28 climate episodes are synchronous with C) C) L la. u 0A ) I 1800 A D GLACIAL DEGREES OF CELSIUS winter insolation decrease and vice -= IDID ~.J 1111111111111111111111111 I I24 1 26 III 0 _ a3 enO ~31:rJ. O - 150/O -10O% -5% LEVEL + ~RETt; 5/o ADVANCE'W~ Z ?DI I 20 I 22 28 winter insolation decrease vice Turning points seem and to have versa. versa. Turning points seem to have some special importance, perhaps as specialtoimportance, perhaps as ansome impetus climatic change. The < Q HOLOCENE MALACOFAUNASJ RECENT an impetus to climatic change. The _ SQ cC I rw LLER0D detailed mechanism of the response of > LA5CAUX detailed mechanism of the response of ? I -~~~~~ CREEK 0~~~o ~BOLLING world climate to insolation changes is ~BRI PATAUD I - A ~ z L ERIE... I KLASCAUX world climate to insolation changes is W \, I g - ) ~ PDRT FARMDAL,;) 'N, PATAUD ) PAUOORF I z 4..... 7 S) I Y> C BRI without any doubt very complicated Z A VI\ PAUDORF uEuId g ~ PLUM PO":!!) r.. .::> D' ARCY o without any doubt very complicated 30 A~~A --4 FARMD N and remains unclear (d. Mitchell ; ~~ -:T _~ '" -=s POD HRADEM and remains unclear (cf. has Mitchell r ::::> is -S HRADEM tERTOVA PEC _J z ~~~~~POD When this problem been 1965). \.::! u g -<:'GAI-IANNA BPEC TUPTON 1Li .) (ERTOVA )) 1965). When this problem has been ',> e \L) --t:<GAHANNA~i ~ TPO clarified and the importance of winter .l"'f---...... ::::::::!:-------+---{ I ~ PORT ~ 5 c WARREN ~L clarified and the importance of winter ! O B l A T ) g ~ ; ~ 0 50 >< )PORT WARREN F_ accepted, the chance selection of sumaccepted, the chance selection of sum, ~ :: u ::, BR"RUP ~~ 30 I |- ^1S 'D H MRSO mer as decisive in determining climate ) ~ ....c:::::..BRADTVILLE g T o :zT) :~ o w merprobably as decisivebeinconsidered determining will theclimate most ST PIERRE" ~ T AMERSFOORT ~ ~ will probably considered the most I< I J W t research serious mistake be in Quaternary inserious recent mistake years. in Quaternary research TYRRHENIAN 1. 870 ST PIERRE) if T AMERSFOORT u in recent years. I }1n1 JTE-BRADTVILLE ' 0 T Some arguments in favour of winter Some arguments in favour of winter insolation changes as determinants of ~ ; insolation cnanges as determinants of world climate are the following: U"'1-/+:~=t,. -~.:[REAT 8A5IN i - _ _ _ _ _ _ b 1 ;:: world climate are the following: -<GREAT BASIN 1) According to the Milankovich 1) According to the Milankovich tables, mean summer insolation at 55 0 110~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I oe INTERG Copaiso losssetios f teastglcia8c0l wth majo iopedted mean YREA Ntables, latitude wassummer about insolation 1 % higher at 550 FIG 3INTERGLACIAL M2 ALACOFAUNASRRENA N latitude was about 1% higher during last 100,000 years than today. during last 100,000 years than today. On the basis of this fact alone, no 130 On the basis of would this fact no glaciation at all be alone, expected. C l4 DATES glaciation at all would be expected. Winter insolation, on the other hand, Li A DATES teprtr cuv,Dfnt t ae aemre yasldtiage tesb noe Winter on the other hand, was moreinsolation, than 3% lower. was than 3 %insolation lower. 2) more The summer minimum FIG. 3. Comparison of loess sections of the last glacial cycle with major isotope-dated Thepast summer insolation over2) the 105 years was minimum only 3% FIG. 3. events, Comparison sections theand last cycle Pleistocene with winterof andloess summer insolation of curves, withglacial Emiliani's palaeo-with m over the past 105 years was only 3% lower than the present level, the maxiPleistocene events, with winter andbysummer insolation curves, temperature curve, Definite C14 dates are marked a solid triangle, others by an open and w lower than the present level, the maxitemperature curve, Definite arementioned marked by are a solid triangle mum 4.4% higher. Some authors (Opik in figures. Sources C14 other dates than those above Kaufman triangle and an estimate mum 4.4% higher. Some authors (Upik triangle an Leroi-Gourhan estimate in(1965), figures. Sources other than those mentione and Broecker and (1965), Morisson and Frye (1965), Movius (1960), 1953) have argued that so slight a difV,I II) fA 00 ::l 1/...1 q I 0 It'l 'CJ: 0 c:( ) 60i ) D TALBOT A BRJRUP ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ go 0 3 1,s <j \, "__""j !I j .i"'; If ! 1953) have argued that so slight a difference cannot have caused glaciations. ference cannot have caused glaciations. 38 andMusil Broecker (1965),(1966). Leroi-Gourhan (1965), Morisson and Frye (1965), Movius (1960), and and Valoch and Musil and Valoch (1966). CURRENT AN'THROPOLOGY 38 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY PLEISTOCENE EPOCH Emiliani: For of loess-curveloess-curveForthe the purpose purpose of Emiliani: PLEISToCENE EPOCH however dating, dating, howeverthe thesummer summervs. vs.winter winter general agreement and should dating of the loess-section curve meet tive dilemma dilemmais isofofsecondary secondary importance. importance. meet general agreement and should tive dating of the loess-section curve will remain only a working hypothesis perhaps receive more emphasis if we The Theprincipal principaltask taskisistotofind findsome somepepewill remain only a working hypothesis perhaps receive more emphasis if we at a better understanding sufficient isotope data has been arearetotoarrive riodic riodicvariation variationinin insolation insolation which which until arrive at a better understanding until sufficient isotope data has been of the ongoing process of evolution. collected might correspond to the first-order to support it. might correspond to the first-order collected to support it. of the ongoing process of evolution. or not average temperatures ofof loess sections. TW9 cycle approach would surely be Whether A Asimilar cycle loess sections. Twoapproaches approaches Whether or not average temperatures similar approach would surely be areare available: in deep-sea core research, where based on criteria specific to toastal available:(1) (1)In In Figure Figure33 aa timetime- useful useful in deep-sea core research, where based on criteria specific to Voastal are relevant also for other parts of 117,000 years lies between the span sedimentation rates cannot be sup- areas span of 117,000 years lies between the areas are relevant also for other parts sedimentation rates cannot be supseems less clear; for of the Holocene and the beginning by isotope dating. Emiliani's ofofa acontinent beginning of the Holocene and the ported continent seems less clear; for ported by isotope dating. Emiliani's protected area of Boheexample, the probable Eemian. temperature maximum, placed at probablebeginning beginningofofthe the Eemian.The The Eem· example, the protected area of BoheEem temperature maximum, placed at and Moravia appears, on present mia general 98,000 years (Rosholt et al. generalinsolation insolation characteristics characteristics of of about mia and Moravia appears, on present about 98,000 years (Rosholt et al. totohave had relatively high this time span disagrees with the generally ac- evidence, this time spanclosely closelycorrespond correspondto to 1961), have had relatively high 1961), disagrees with the generally evidence, acsummer temperatures during the last those of the preceding 115,000-year of 85,000 and 120,000 cepted dates those of the preceding 115,000-year summer temperatures during the last cepted dates of 85,000 and 120,000 and to have therefore supperiod, for high sea stands which must glaciation period,thus thusrevealing revealingthe theexistence existenceof of years glaciation and to have therefore supyears for high sea stands which must ported what was for that time a dense a acycle been separated by a cold episode ported what was for that time a dense cycleofof115-117 115-117millenia. millenia.(2) (2)The The have have been separated by a cold episode only low sea level. At least a general population. onlyperiodic periodicvariation variationininthe theinsolainsola- with population. with low sea level. At least a general tion Regarding the long process of may be drawn between the tioncurve curvelonger longerthan than50,000 50,000 years years parallel Regarding the long process of parallel may be drawn between the (the minimum possible C14-dated Holocene and the first part of the achieving erect posture, Kummer (the minimum possible C14-dated achieving erect posture, Kummer Holocene and the first part of the duration ofof thethe last glacial) (1956) has shown that Oreopithecus In the Holocene, the high sea duration last glacial)isisa acycle cycle Eemian. (1956) has shown that Oreopithecus Eemian. In the Holocene, the high sea ofof115,000-117,000 years. Every third probably had a genu valgum. This instand is evidently synchronous with 115,000-117,000 years. Every third probably had a genu valgum. This instand is evidently synchronous with cycle seems to to be be longer, from 125,000 dicates a trend toward bipedal walksea-water temperature peak; cycle seems longer, from 125,000Emiliani's Emiliani's sea-water temperature peak; dicates a trend toward bipedal walkto to127,000 (cycles D Dand ing already in the Miocene, although 127,000years years (cycles andG). G). but ing already in the Miocene, although butthe theEemian Eemianhigh highsea sea stand stand of of it is impossible to trace direct connecnormal 116,000-year cycle consists The 120,000 years would be accompanied, The normal 116,000-year cycle consists 120,000 years would be accompanied,it is impossible to trace direct connections ofoffive periodic repetitions repetitions to the bipedal human hominids to Emiliani's curve, by a according five minor minor periodic tions to the bipedal human hominids according to Emiliani's curve, by a of Africa. Generally we should be very (probably caused by variations in the very low sea temperature, comparable (probably caused by variations in the very low sea temperature, comparable of Africa. Generally we should be very ofofthe careful, in our present stage of knowprecession to the one recorded during the precession theequinoxes) equinoxes) 20,00020,000- with careful, in our present stage of knowwith to the one recorded during the ledge, not to deduce too much as to the 23,000 glaciation. Since this can 23,000years yearslong. long.The The first firstthree threehave have Wisconsin ledge, not to deduce too much as to the Wisconsin glaciation. Since this can geographical location of any particular much be be the the case,case, I have recommendmuchgreater greateramplitude amplitudethan thanthe thelast last hardly geographical location of any particular hardly I have recommendmuch less of speciation. Diftwo. the Eem maximum as process, two.The Thefirst firstand andthe thethird thirdinsolation insolation ededrelocating process, much less of speciation. Difrelocating the Eem maximum as in the intensity of research peaks, in in Figure 3. The Broecker et al. et ferences peaks,about about40,000 40,000years yearsapart, apart, are are shown shown Figure 3. The Broecker al.ferences in the intensity of research and in the opportunities to reach fictitious (1958) contemporaneous contemporaneouswith with the the fictitious and in the opportunities to reach (1958)estimate estimateofof150,000 150,000 years years for for age of the "X-V" boundary partly fossil-bearing levels may make our two-fold two-foldglaciations glaciationsofofthe theMilankoMilanko- the the age of the "X-V" boundary partly fossil-bearing levels may make our views very one-sided. vich this recommendation. views very one-sided. vichcurve. curve.The Thelast lasttwin twinofofcycle cycleBB supports supports this recommendation. corresponds It is not clear that one can deduce to established Emiliani's objections correspondstotothe thedoubled doubled forest forestsoil soil It is not clear that one can deduce Emiliani's objections to established ofofthe Australopithecus africanus from A. are more than logical. thelessive lessivesequence sequenceinin the the loess loess nomenclature Australopithecus africanus from A. nomenclature are more than logical. sections. robustus (cf. Heberer 1965). The geologists working on continents, sections.This Thiscomparison comparisonisissupported supported For For geologists working on continents, robustus (cf. Heberer 1965). The bybythe seaseastands known fossils of A. robustus are geneit itis ispractical thehigh high standsofof85,000 85,000and and however, known fossils of A. robustus are genehowever, practical to to continue continue 120,000 years B.P. and by rally more recent, some even belonging thethe established division of Holo120,000 years B.P. and by the the interinter- with with established division of Holo- rally more recent, some even belonging glacial totothe early Middle Pleistocene. Mixed and Pleistocene, maybe setting off off glacialfa)lna faunathat that accompanies accompanies both both cene cene and Pleistocene, maybe setting the early Middle Pleistocene. Mixed thethelower diet is well known from ground-living Villafranchian (or the Eopleistolowerlessive lessiveand and the the older older high high the diet is well known from ground-living the Villafranchian (or the Eopleistoseaseastand. (e.g., baboons) and is probcene of Russian authors) as a separate primates stand. primates (e.g., baboons) and is probcene of Russian authors) as a separate ably very old among hominids. I do of the Pleistocene I Iconsider Subdivisions considerthe theevidence evidence sufficient sufficientto to period. period. Subdivisions of the Pleistocene ably very old among hominids. I do not have enough space here to discuss reintroduce thetheinsolation reintroduce insolationcurve curve to to should not have enough space here to discuss shouldbebebased basedon on cyclical cyclical climatic climatic the taxonomy of the human hominids Quarternary whereas the delimitation of the Quarternaryresearch. research.IfIfthe the loess-secloess-sec- changes, changes, whereas the delimitation of the the taxonomy of the human hominids (but see Kurth 1967). In any case, tion glacial cycle has some astronoonly be based on Villafranchian can tion glacial cycle has some astrono(but see Kurth 1967). In any case, Villafranchian can only be based on their probably slow rate of increase mical (Zubakov andand Krasnov micalcause, cause,then thenit itcan can hardly hardly be be biostratigraphy biostratigraphy (Zubakov Krasnov their probably slow rate of increase 1959). other and the length of their generations sug1959). otherthan thaninsolation insolationchanges, changes,and and ifif and the length of their generations sugthat successful migrations over such gest AsAsfor Paleolithic populations resistsuchis isthe thecase casethe theglacial glacial cycle cycle must must gest that successful migrations over for Paleolithic populations fesistlogically areas with different environlogicallybebe115,000-127,000 115,000-127,000 years years in in ing ingthe theharsh harshglacial glacialwinters wintersofofEuEu- large large areas with different environduration, at least for the last million mental conditions would have required rope, we must point out that no evidduration, at least for the last million rope, we must point out that no evid- mental conditions would have required years. long time. Our fossil finds are a avery years.I Ihave havetherefore thereforeadded added tentative tentative ence very long time. Our fossil finds are enceis isavailable available of of the the presence presence of of absolute loess-section man in the middle latitudes of Europe scattered and still insufficient for absolutedating dating to to the the loess-section scattered and still insufficient -for man in the middle latitudes of Europe better comprehension, curve and, forfor tracing lineages even though we can during a glacial winter. It seems much curve and, better comprehension, during a glacial winter. It seems muchtracing lineages even though we can superimposed describe morphologically specific or likely thatthat the the Paleolithic hunter superimposedononititthe theterms termsof ofclasclas- more more likely Paleolithic hunterdescribe morphologically specific or European stratigraphy according sical subspecific groupings. I would hesitate followed his quarry into the North in sical European stratigraphy according followed his quarry into the North insubspecific groupings. I would hesitate toto Woldstedt (1966). There is is a general to deduce from the relatively richer times only in summer and reWoldstedt (1966). There a general glacial glacial times only in summer and re- to deduce from the relatively richer correspondence, European fossil record that the "cenin in winter to to southern France correspondencebetween betweenthe thecurve curveand and treated treated winter southern France European fossil record that the "centhe classical sequence as to position tre" of sapiens speciation was in Euororthethe Black SeaSea basin. TheThe incredibly the classical sequence as the to the position Black basin. incredibly tre" of sapiens speciation was in Euofofthe rope, despite the fact that conditions migrations of the Great Lakes IntheStranska Stranskaskala skalaLower Lower Biharian Biharian long long migrations of the Great Lakes In-rope, despite the fact that conditions fauna. recorded for instance by Tanner there favored isolation. The few fauna.The Thetotal total length lengthof of classical classical dians, there favored isolation. The few dians, recorded for instance by Tanner European roughly (1940), make this seem probable. human fossils and the similarly scarce Europeanglaciation glaciation agrees agrees roughly (1940), make this seem probable. human fossils and the similarly scar with cultural remains before the Wiirl)1 withthe the latest latest estimates estimates (Evernden (Evernden cultural remains before the Wiirim and cover such a long time span that conandCurtis Curtis1965). 1965). The The soils soils of of cycles cycles cover such a long time span that con G,G,H,H,and I are much more intensive by G. KURTH* of direct connections can be sideration and I are much more intensive by G. KURTH* sideration of direct connections can be than Brunspeculative only. Is it not enough that thanany any younger youngersoil soil (cf. (cf. Brunspeculative only. Is it not enough that , g i ~ ' U h c s n u a r B Germany. 14 III 67 nacker's for one time-horizon demonBraunschwezg, Germany. 14 IIfossils 67 nacker's[1964] [1964] Riesenboden). Riesenboden). Our Our fossils for one time-horizon demoncurve shows that care must be taken and restrate one particular trend of differenDiscussing Emiliani's methods curve shows that care must be taken Discussing Emiliani's methods and restrate one particular trend of differenininevaluating sections from the remote dating Pleistocene levels is not Why do we need more special sults in tiation? evaluating sections from the remote sults in dating Pleistocene levels is not tiation? Why do we need more special of of Pleistocene; complicated sequences the palaeoanthropologist's business. His His and speculative interpretations when Pleistocene; complicated sequences the palaeoanthropologist's business. and speculative interpretations when climatic oscillations such as occur in facts demonstrate the validity of climatic oscillations such as occur in proposal proposalthat thatwe we use use terms termslike like TerTer- the the facts demonstrate the validity of the more recent partpart of the tiary, general theory ? We are still too the more recent of Pleistocene, the Pleistocene, tiary,Quaternary, Quaternary,Holocene, Holocene, and and our our general theory? We are still too amust also Post-Pleistocene only only informally will will much in the stage of gathering facts must alsobebeexpected expectedthere. there.The Thetent tentaPlost-Pleist:ocene informally much in the stage of gathering facts Vol. 9 . No.1. February 1968 Vol. 9 . No. 1 . February 1968 39 39 toward a better reconstruction of our toward a better of our past; it will be a reconstruction long time before we past; it will be long time we can correlate thea data gainedbefore by difcan correlate ferent methods. the data gained by different methods. by GABRIEL W. LASKER*" by GABRIEL W. LASKER* Delroit, Mich., U.S.A. 8 III 67 Derozit, Mzch., U.S.A. 8 iii 67 were carnivorous and one not, then the' were carnivorous and one not,then of the vegetarian would the by remains remains of thenumerous vegetarian be relatively more if would it were more numerous it were anrelatively important food resourceif of the an important food resource the carnivorous species. However, theofanacarnivorous species. However, the anatomical evidence adduced to support tomical evidence adduced to support the existence of such different adaptthe existence of such different adaptations in specimens assigned to each of ations in specimens assigned to each of two sympatric species is weak. Furtwo sympatric species is weak. thermore, the known remains of Furthe thermore, known of the two kinds arethe similar in remains frequency. environment, would be a trend toward environment, would a trend any modifications ofbemind or toward body any modifications mindability or body which would heightenofman's to which would man's ability to invent, use, heighten and maintain culture. invent, use,may and have maintain culture. Neanderthals had brains as Neanderthals may havethat hadof brains large as, or larger than, Homoas large as, or larger thatthink of Homo sapiens sapiens, but than, I do not we sapiens sapiens, I do notthat think we can assume (withbut Emiliani) they can as assume (with Emiliani) that they were "intelligent." They simply did were as "intelligent." They simply did not have the cultural ability of Homo not have the cultural ability were of Homo sapiens sapiens, and therefore not sapiens, and therefore assapiens well adapted to the human were way not of as well adapted to the human way of life. Since Emiliani (1956b) is one of those Sincehas Emiliani (1956b) is one ofrecent those who proposed relatively two kinds are similar in frequency. whofor hasthe proposed relatively recent of the Pleistodates glaciations dates itfor glaciations Pleistocene, is the very helpful oftothe have his life. cene,onit how is very to have views the helpful Pleistocene dates his of by JOHN M. LONGYEAR, III*" views on how the Pleistocene dates be of by JOHN M. LONGYEAR, III* human evolutionary events should Ithaca, N.Y., U.S.A. 10 III 67 humanon evolutionary events should be revised the basis of the new eviby M. A. MACCONAILL*" Ithaca, N.Y., U.S.A. 10 III 67 revised on the the "modern new evi- Although I intend by M. A. MACCONAILL* dence. When hebasis callsof on to confine my reCork, Ireland. 10 III 67 dence. he calls on "modern Although intend to confine mysecreviews on When speciation and evolution" to marks to a Ifew points in the last Cork, Ireland. 10 III 67 views on speciation evolution" to tion marks to a few points last like sec- Emiliani's article is a very valuable help relate the fossils,andhowever, perof Emiliani's paper,inI the would help he relate the fossils, per- totion of Emiliani's paper, I would like Emiliani's article is a very valuable particularly from the contribution, haps is putting the however, weaker case note in passing that his discussion haps heThere is putting the weaker case oftothe note in passing his discussion contribution, angle. particularly from Its value lies the forward. are, differences as well as Pleistocene as that revealed by deep- non-specialist's There are differences well sea non-specialist's angle. Its clarity value lies as of and the Pleistocene as revealed by deep- 'much in its concision and as in asforward. similarities between man and asother other sediments is a welcome as similarities man and other synthesis sea and other is a welcome ,much in its concision and clarity in information it supplies. An asoborganisms, and between one should develop to a sediments non-specialist such as the organisms, and one should develop the information supplies. obsynthesis to a non-specialist such as jective is An highly definition ofit epochs of human evolution on the myself. concepts concepts of human evolution on the myself. jective definition of epochs is highly Our author is voicing' the basis of human biology, the fossil reThe assumption of bipedal posture desirable. basis and of human biology, the fossiland re- by The desirable. Our author voicing the of bipedal of many of us is when he says archaeological dating' cord, our assumption remote ancestors was posture surely feelings cord, and archaeological dating and more feelings of us when he says by our remotethan ancestors was surely that "someofofmany the confusion existing in context. important Emiliani suggests. context. more important that "someliterature of the confusion existing appears to result in onlyEmiliani "likely suggests. to have Pleistocene step was notthan For instance, Emiliani's casual re- This Pleistocene literature Thisselective," step was not onlycrucial, "likelyand to have For instance, Emiliani's casual re- been semantics alone." appears to result it was the from mark that cannibalism may have playfrom semantics alone." from Austrabeen selective," it was crucial, and the mark thatimportant cannibalism may haveme playHis general sequence improvement in perception eda very role gives an consequent consequent improvement perception lopithecus ed a very important role gives an and His general sequenceisfrom Austraonwards reasonable communication was inunquestionexcuse to point out that, since theme popand of communication was unquestionexcuse could to point that, sincedecline the pop-ably lopithecus is reasonable it is combined, as he when onwards far less importance, from a se- enough ulation notout continually ably ofstandpoint, far less importance, a se- suggests, ulationextinction could not of continually decline enough with whenoverlap. it is combined, as he than was from the freeHis suggestion without the species, can- lection lection standpoint, was the free- that withoutnever extinction of the suggests, with overlap. His suggestion of the forelimbs than for manipulation, the Neanderthals could have been nibalism can have beenspecies, a verycan-ing ing of the forelimbs for manipulation, nibalism never been a very thatmore the Neanderthals could have been ourselves is etc. This same observation, even intelligent than important source can of have human food for carrying, important of human for etc. already This same observation, even moreHow intelligent ourselves ofcarrying, course, has been made by delightful. angrythan it would haveis the species assource a whole for anyfood appreof course, hasLaBarre already (1954), been made by made the species appre- many delightful. angryanthropologists it would have authors: Washthose How older ciable lengthasofa whole time. for Let any us assume ciable length of time. Let us assume many (1960), authors: Hewes LaBarre (1954), madecanon thosewas older (1961), Washand whose so anthropologists often Facies eius that man's remote ancestors used for burn that man's remote ancestors for burn (1960), Hewes (1961), whose wasergo so often Facies eius mihicanon placet, stultissimus est. Hockett and Ascher (1964), justand to non half the presentused recomexistence only existencedietary only half the present recomHockett placet, ergoluok, stultissimus a few.and Ascher (1964), just to (Inon justmihi don't like his thereforeest. intake, but grew to name mended name a few. mended dietary intake, to (I just don't like his look, therefore fellow's a fool)! nearly present-day size at but eachgrew age of Emiliani speaks of Pleistocene Eu- the nearly at each ageeat of speaks Pleistocene Euthe fellow's to a fool)! life. Thenpresent-day a pregnant size female would and Asia as of a "typical evoluropeEmiliani Reverting the matter of semantics, life. Then pregnantper female eat tionary rope and Asia a "typical evoluthe matter of semantics, some 1,600 a calories day would for 280 mill." In as truth, this region at someReverting semantictorectifying could well be someof1,600 caloriesbut per the daynewborn for 280 tionary truth, regionby at some semantic rectifying well of be days pregnancy, that time mill." must In have beenthis occupied currentcould naming performed on the days of pregnancy, newborn that time mustand have been occupied performed the currentancestry naming of of infant would yield as but foodthe only about small, isolated, inbreeding groupsby the presumptive real or on infant would yield calories as food to only about ofsmall, isolated, and inbreeding groups the real or presumptive ancestry of 3,200 calories-140 nurture humans, hemmed il! by barriers of Homo hodiernus. Emiliani defines Man 3,200 calories-140 of and humans, hemmed in byoccasionally barriers of asHomo hodiernus. Emiliani defines Man the infant for eachcalories calorieto itnurture could ice water, and only "a primate capable of systematithe infant calorie ice andother water, and and onlyinterbreeding occasionally as "amanufacturing primate capable of systematibands yield as food.for By each one year cally tools," thus makof it agecould the meeting yield would as food.have By one year of another age the meeting interbreeding cally manufacturing tools,"of thus makchild consumed with them. other It wasbands underand these circum- ing humanbehaviour his criterion child would have consumed another with them. It wastounder these circuming This behaviour his criterion 182,000 calories (even if one made no stances, according Wright (1931) and ness. is commendable, forofithumanis the 182,000 calories (even ifmother), one madeand no stances, according Wright evolution (1931) and ness. This for it is the allowance for a nursing others, that repaid, toadaptive of ais commendable, complete anthropologist, canon allowance for a nursing and others, evolution canon a complete anthropologist, the ratio would be aboutmother), 70 calories place. The ques- one was most that likelyrepaid, to takeadaptive whoofcares for culture as much as thecalorie ratio would be about calories was most likelyhowever: to take place. ques- for onecrania. who cares culture as much as per available to the 70 cannibals. what, tion remains, justThe His for criterion is respectable perthree calorie available the would cannibals. tion remains, however: what, for crania. His criterion respectable ratio be exactly, was adaptive underjust those cir- insofar By years the to as c (the capabilityisof systemaBy three exactly, wasWas adaptive under those insofar as c (the capability systemacumstances? about 84 toyears 1, by the six ratio years would 104 to be 1, it modification of cirthe tically manufacturing tools) ofimplies h about to 1, 111 by six 1, cumstances? Was ittolerance modification the tically manufacturing implies by nine84years to years 1, and104sotoon. body for greater of of cold? but if it istools) to be a trueh (humanness); by nine years 1 1 1individuals to 1, and somust on. bodyhas forbeen greater tolerance of cold? (humanness); if it isalso to be a true Furthermore, some This suggested; in fact, the definition, thenbut h must imply c, Furthermore, some individuals must This has been suggested; in fact, definition, then mustbealso imply c, to adulthood, and no species Neanderthal type itself has been the ex- that survive is, c and h hmust equivalent. survive to adulthood, and no Neanderthal itselfashas exthatauthor is, c and h must be Australopiequivalent. at leasttype in part, an been example could utilize all its dead as species food. plained Our suggests that could utilize all its as food. at least in part, as an example Our author suggests AustralopiTherefore, whatever the dead importance of ofplained adaptation to cold (Coon 1962). But thecus africanus maythat have evolved Therefore,inwhatever the importance of of adaptation to to cold But from thecus africanus have evolved d.nnibalism magic, warfare, and there are obstacles this(Coon line of1962). reasonA. robustus bymay developing a taste cannibalism in human magic, life, warfare, and there to this line of reason-for from robustus by developing a taste other aspects of a warmis obstacles the disappearance of Neaning. Oneare meatA.and by discovering the need other aspects humanlong life, gestation a warming. Oneatisabout the disappearance of Neanfor"the meat and by discovering the need blooded animalof with derthals the Wiirm maximum, for imaginative usage of tools and blooded animal with long and gestation derthals about the Wiirm maximum, foremployment "the imaginative usage of toolsstraand relatime, usually single births, they should have been most the just when at of sophisticated time,slow usually single births, relajust when Another they should haveinterpretabeen most not and get more tively growth could the employment of larders sophisticated is the successful. tegies" to keep the filled. straBut tively not get successful. Another is the interpretation, than a slow smallgrowth fractioncould of one per more cent by Emiliani and others, of certegies" to keep larders But not the latterthe two "aids filled. to evoluare a small fraction of one The per cent tion, by Emilianipeculiarities and others,asof cerofthan its food from cannibalism. low Neanderthal malatain are not the latter twothat "aidsdistinguish to evolution" precisely those of itsoffood from cannibalism. The low tain Neanderthal peculiarities as malaratio Australopithecus remains to tion"from precisely thoseanimals? that distinguish daptive rather than adaptive, to cold. man all other What is ratio fossils of Australopithecus to daptive thanofadaptive, cold. other at Makapansgatremains is in acman from allbut other Whatuse is Given rather the course hominidtoevoluthe comp'uter an animals? imaginative other fossils at Makapansgat is in acthe course of mid-Pleistocene hominid evolucomputer an theory imaginative use with this interpretation. cord and history up to tionGiven ofthe tools? What but is the of games cord with this tion and histo}ry up to of tools? What is theory of games thatmid-Pleistocene the only but times, it seems to me If there wereinterpretation. two sympatric species an attempt to the develop even more If there were two(or sympatric species times, it seems that theadaponly but an attempt to develop of Australopithecus one Australotrend which couldtobeme considered In even short,more the sophisticated strategies? of Australopithecus (or one Australotrend which be matter considered sophisticated strategies? In short, the and one hominine), and one tive from thencould on, no whatadapthe pithecine by the aforesaid powers connoted pithecine and one hominine), and one 40 tive from then on, no matter what the CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY 40 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY Emiliani: PLEISTOCENE EPOCH "aids" are precisely what is intended are precisely what is intended Emiliani: PLEISTOCENE EPOCH by"aids" the term sapiens. Consistency, then, by the either term that sapiens. requires we beConsistency, told the con-then, glaciation, I cannot believe that the we abandon the old system as unworkrequires either that we be told the conglaciation, I cannot believe that the we abandon thecan old-be system unworkunder which "h implies c" or able? Also, what said ofasthe prearea would have ditions circum-Mediterranean ditions under which "h implies c" or circum-Mediterranean area would have able? Also, said of years the prethat we change Australopithecus africeding more what than canbe two million of had summers as extremely cold as posthat we change Australopithecus africeding more than two million years of had summers as extremely cold as posthe Pleistocene? Should we now expect tulated by Emiliani. Even under concanus to Homo sapiens australis (or the Pleistocene? Should we now expect canus to Homo sapiens australis (or tulated by Emiliani. Even under ditions of increased cloud cover, conH. sapiens with some other adjective). to find evidence for three million years the H. sapiens with some other adjective). find of evidence threeThe million years ditions of increased cloud cover, the ortomore glacialfor cycles? pattern To make hand c equivalent is to add summer sun must have accomplished or more of glacial cycles? The pattern To make h and c equivalent is to add summer sun must have accomplished becomes more comp'icated when we considerable warming, quite as it does a second postulate to the acceptable becomes more complicated when we warming, quite as it does second postulate to the acceptable think of the possibility of correlated "ca implies h." It does not follow from Under summer coninconsiderable the Arctic today. in the Arctic today. Under summer con"c implies h." It does not follow from think of the possibility of correlated pluvial cycles in more tropic latitudes. postulated as being as cold ditions "All grass is green" that "Everything pluvial cycles in more tropic latitudes. as being as cold "All grass is green" that "Everything asditions those ofpostulated the winter of many parts of green is grass." The question When, if I will also welcome an explanation as those of the winter of many parts of green is grass." The question When, if I will also welcome an explanation Europe today no insects would fly and ever, did a primate become human? is of the statement that "other animals" today no insects would fly and did a primate become human? is of the statement that "other animals" noEurope insect-pollinated plants survive. anever, affair of an unwritten and unwithave evolved long necks in lieu of mean affair of an unwritten and unwitno insect-pollinated plants survive. have evolved long necks in lieu of meWhat would such conditions mean in nessed history. Here, as in other chanisms for offense and defense. Long nessed history. Here, as in other What would such conditions mean in chanisms for offense and defense. Long terms branches of science, we have a realm of floral and faunal succession, necks, relative to body size, have evolvbranches of science, we have a realm terms of floral and faunal succession, necks, relative to body size, have evolvof abiding uncertainty. Unlike the proand of total biomass? What would be ed in giraffes and gerenuks, but the of abiding uncertainty. Unlike the proand of total biomass? What would be ed in giraffes and gerenuks, but the the number of frost-free days, what the bLm of the epochs, it cannot be solved of neck in each case is a part of length blm of the epochs, it cannot be solved the number of frost-free days, what the length of neck in each case is a part oflength (if any) of the growing season? by isotopes. All we can do is to detera complex feeding mechanism and is by isotopes. All we can do is to deterlength (if any) of the growing season? a complex feeding mechanism and is What would the surviving flora promine the epochal range within which not used for either offense or defense, mine the epochal range within which What would the surviving flora profor either offense defense, the thing must have happened. Tovide in the way of food, not only diof theorterms. innot theused common meaning the thing must have happened. Tovide in the way of food, not only diin the common meaning of the terms. wards this knowledge Emiliani has adrectly to man but to a fauna upon (Contests between male giraffes, with wards this knowledge Emiliani has adrectly to man but to a fauna upon (Contests between male giraffes, with which a human population could also vanced our steps significantly. the heads being swung as battering rams vanced our steps significantly. which a human population could also the heads being swung as battering rams depend? I have no answers at present on the ends of the long necks, are part answers at present the social ends of the long The necks, are part todepend? most ofI have these no questions, but in the ofontheir behavior.) necks of to most of these questions, but in the of their social behavior.) The necks of area. I cannot circum-Mediterranean by CHARLES A. REED*" some carnivores (polar bear, cheetah, circum-Mediterranean area I cannot by CHARLES A. REED* some carnivores (polar bear, cheetah, believe that the environment during a weasel) are longer than are those of believe that the environment during a Chicago, Ill., U.S:A. 21 III 67 weasel) are longer than are those of glacial stage was as extremely frigid as their respective close relatives, but Chicago, III, U.S.A 21 III 67 glacial stage was as extremely frigid as their respective close relatives, but I am delighted to have this succinct Emiliani's phraseology must certainly would also seem to have evolved as a I am delighted to have this succinct Emiliani's phraseology must certainly would also seem to have evolved as a summary of Emiliani's research and suggest to most readers. part of a feeding mechanism. Such a summary of Emiliani's research and suggest to most readers. part of a feeding mechanism. the relevant work of others, combined may beSuch con-a Our knowledge of glacial environmechanism in a carnivore the relevant work of others, combined Ouris knowledge of from glacialstudies environmechanisw in a carnivore may be acon-ments with his interpretation of the meaning but basically best derived of sidered "offensive"; interpretation of the meaning sidered "offensive"; but basically a ments is best derived from studies of ofwith thehis fluctuating paleo-environment head to browse and a the last maximum of the Wiirm-Wisgiraffe lifting its of the fluctuating paleo-environment giraffe lifting its head to browse and athe last maximum of the Wiirm-Wisto the history of man. Much of this weasel using its length of neck to aid in consin, when conditions over mos.t of to the history of man. Much of this weasel using its are length of neck to aid Europe in consin, would when conditions most of literature, including some of the aucatching a mouse utilizing similar admittedlyover have been literature, including some of the aucatching a mouse are utilizing similar Europe for would admittedly have been thor's own papers, does not come autokinds of feeding adaptations. No Pridifficult a hominid at the cultural thor's own does notofcome autokindswith of feeding adaptations. No Pridifficult for a hominid at the cultural matically to papers, the attention those of mate, the capabilities inherent in level of Homo erectus. At this time a matically to the attention of those of mate, with the capabilities in level of Homo erectus. At this time a us whose training and experience has the grasping hand, needs aninherent elongated few hundred miles of tundra separated us whose training and experience has the grasping hand, needs an elongated few hundred miles the of tundra been primarily biological. neck as a feeding adaptation; the Priand the the ice-front from forest, separated been primarily biological. neck as a feeding adaptation; the Prithe ice-front from the forest, and the General agreement is at last emermate has instead the whole length of erectus in livable habitats for H. is at last emermate has instead the whole length of livable (if habitats for H. erectus in what has seemed to be a forelimb. ging,General from agreement Europe conditions were similar ging, from what has seemed to be a forelimb. Europe (if part conditions were of similar welter of dispute, concerning the time during some of his period occuDoes Emiliani perhaps overstJ.:'ess the welter of dispute, concerning the time Does Emiliani perhaps overstress the during some would part ofprobably his period of occuand changing events marking the Pliopancy there) have relationship between glacial climates and changing events marking the Plio- relationship between glacial climates pancy there) to would have Pleistocene boundary. To the date of been reduced the probably Mediterranean and the evolution of Homo erectus? Pleistocene boundary. To the date of been reduced to peninsulas the Mediterranean and the evolution of Homo erectus? "more than 3.3 million years for the coastland and the of Iberia, We welcome all suggestions, certainly, "more than 3.3 million years for the coastland and the peninsulas of Iberia, We H. welcome suggestions, certainly, of the Villafranchian" in beginning Italy, and the Balkans (Wright 1961: but erectusalllived throughout much beginning of the Villafranchian" in Italy, the Balkans (Wright 1961: erectus lived throughout much France can now be added the nearFig. 6). and Were conditions in these areas ofbut theH. Eastern Hemisphere (from southFrance can now be added the nearFig. 6).the Were conditions in these areas of the Eastern Hemisphere (from south- during date for the inauguration of identical Wiirm maximum as extreme ern Africa to Java to northeastern identical date for the inauguration of the Wiirm maximum as extreme ern Africa to Java to northeastern mountain glaciation in the Sierra Neasduring Emiliani has postulated them to have China to central and southwestern mountain glaciation in the Sierra Neas Emiliani has postulated themduring to have China to central and southwestern vadas of California (Curry 1966). glacial period been in that prior Over this area many environEurope). vadas of California (Curry 1966). been in prior glacial period during Europe). Over this area many environwhich H.that erectu5 was supposedly occuI wonder if geologists who specialand mental variables existed; glaciation whichthese H. erectus was supposedly if geologists who specialvariables existed; glaciation and pying same regions? I think occunot. itsmental accompanying climatic changes, ize Iinwonder the marine Pleistocene always pying these same regions? I think not. ize in temperature the marine Pleistocene always its accompanying (climatic) oscillaHowever, as I mentioned before, the record dramatic in climatic our eyes, changes, may not however record temperature (climatic) oscillahowever in our eyes, may notcircum-Mediterranean However, as I mentioned before, the have been dramatic the selective factors responthe only tions lasting approximately 50,000 was not tions lasting approximately 50,000 have been the selective factors responcircum-Mediterranean was not the only region in which Homo erectus lived, years each in terms of cycles per second sible for molding what we call erectus years each in terms of cycles per second for molding erectus region which Homo erectus lived, tosible a population we what defineweascall sapiens. nor was inthe glacial environment the (cps). Emiliani reports that the tem(cps). Emiliani reports that the temto a population we define as sapiens. nor was the glacial environment the perature oscillations of the Late Cenoonly region in which he could have We know nothing of the differences, perature oscillations of the Late Cenoonly region in hominids, which he in could have We know of the differences, zoic' happened with a frequency of evolved. Earlier southern of human evolution in if any, in ratesnothing zoic - happened with a frequency of evolved. Earlier hominids, in southern if any, in rates of human evolution in 6.7 x 10-13 cps. My grade-school ariand eastern Africa, had seemingly not and non-glacial regions and/or glacial 6.7 x 10-l' cps. My grade-school ariand eastern Africa, had not glacial and non-glacial regions and/or translated this into 21.13 cyof seemingly a peri-glacial thmetic needed the stimulus periods. Indeed, there seems little evithmetic translated this into 21.13 cyneeded the stimulus of a peri-glacial periods. Indeed, there seems little eviper million years, and in the next biocles environment for their particular at present that Homo erectus dence cles per million years, and in the next environment for their particular dence present that cold. HomoThe erectus column Emiliani :tgreed: "The total and cultural passage throughbiological conlived in at extreme glacial column Emiliani agreed: "The total logical and cultural grade. passage through lived in extreme glacial cold. The connumber cycles occurring ... during the the australopithecine at Choukoutien, admittedly ditions number cycles occurring ... during the the australopithecine grade. ditions at Choukoutien, admittedly past 1,000,000 years problably numcold-temperate (but certainly not with past 1,000,000 years problably numcold-temperate (but certainly not with bered 20." Why not say so the first summers as cold as those of European bered 20." Whythenotpossible say so the first summers as cold as have thosebeen of European time and avoid errors to may as diffiby KARL H. SCHWERIN*" winters today), time and avoid the. possible errors to winters today), may by haveHomo been as diffiby KARL H. SCHWERIN* my arithmetic? cult as any survived erectus, my arithmetic? Albuquerque, N. Mex., U.S.A. 13 III 67 cult as any survived by Homo erectus, If each such.(Cycle has occurred ca. since the Hungarian site at VertesszolAlbuquerque, N. Mex., U.S.A. 13 III 67 each such.cycle has occurred ca. since Hungarian VertesszoleachIf50,000 years, for a million years lik hasthe been describedsite as athaving been Clearly one of Emiliwi's objectives is each 50,000 years, for a million years lbs has been as having been toClearly Emiliani's objectives is 20 duringdescribed an interstadial period clarifyone ourofunderstanding of recent past, can we somehow corelat~ occupied past, can we somehow correlate 20 occupied interstadial period to clarify epochs our understanding of recent such cycles with the four (or five?) geological within the during Mindelan(Kretzoi and Vertes and to sharpen the such cycles with the four (or five?) within the Mindel (Kretzoi and Vertes geologicalof epochs and to sharpen the textbook glacial periGlds, even allowing boundaries. I will limit 1965). definition textbook glacial periods, even allowing 1 965). definition of boundaries. I will limit for the addition of stadials, or should my comments to these considerations. Even during a period of continental for the addition of stadials, or should Vol. 9 . No.1. February 1968 Vol. 9 . No. Even during a period of continental 1 . my comments to these considerations. February 1968 41 41 Understandably heheis isapproaching Understandably approaching failfailtotounderstand understandhis hisobjection objectiontoto liani lianimay maybebemore more"logical" "logical" and and in his special field, but for but these questions from the the point of view these questions from point of view"Holocene." "Holocene."IfIfI I understand understandhim himcorcor- meaningful meaningful in his special field, biolog-of bio in theinvarious fields offields would he he of of a ageologist-palaeontologist. geologist-palaeontologist.BoundBound- rectly, rectly, wouldreplace replacethis thiswith witha a workers workers the various subdivision aries arearedefined bybythe appearance aries defined the appearanceofof mere mere subdivisionofofthe the Pleistocene, Pleistocene, ical icaland andcultural culturalhistory historyofofmankind mankind can only "Flandrian"; i.e.,i.e., he he it it he he calls thethe certain marine species at ata aparticular certain marine species particular which can onlyproduce producemore moreconfusion. confusion. which calls "Flandrian"; Emiliani locality in inspace locality spaceand andtime, time,ororby bygeogeo- would wouldlump lumprecent recentgeological geological history history Emilianiaccepts acceptsthe theold old myth myththat that is is lessless capable forfor thethe "struggle thethe preceding epochs ofofthe logical logicalevidence evidenceofof past past temperature temperature with with preceding epochs theCeCe- "man" "man" capable "struggle life" nozoic. variations with which the the occurence of of nozoic.I hope I hopeI Ihave haveshown shownthat thatthere there of of variations with which occurence life"than thanother otheranimals. animals.But Butwhat what specialize in in eating men? What such marine species good,indeed indeed compelling, compelling, reasons reasons enemies enemies specialize eating men? What such marine speciesis iscorrelated. correlated.This This arearegood, of of man's size forfor classifying the the last last 10,000 (or (or per-per-animals approach leads toto state, classifying 10,000 animals man's sizecan canwalk walkand and approach leadshim him state, andand climb and and swimswim as well as he?as he? haps haps15,000) 15,000)years yearsasasmarking markinga a disdis- run run climb as well It Itwill which, Even willnot notcome comeasasaa great great surprise surpriseififitit tinct tinctgeological geologicalepoch-one epoch-one which, Evenmore moreproblematic problematicis isthe the"very "very should role" of of cannibalism in in thethe shouldappear, appear,when when the the Plio-Pleistocene Plio-Pleistocene however, is defined by completely dif- important however, is defined by completely difimportant role" cannibalism boundary hashasbeen boundary beendated, dated,that thatthe thegenus genus ferent early stages of human evolution. Every criteria than than thosethose whichwhich have have ferent criteria early stages of human evolution. Every Homo well Homodates datesfrom from wellback backinto intothe thePlioPlio- preceded it. cultural preceded it. culturalanthropologist anthropologistknows knows that that cene. cene. is absent in known huntReturning to tothe cannibalism is absent in known huntReturning thequestion questionofof pepe- cannibalism ingingand food-gathering populations, toto agree riods versus eras, if ifweweare and food-gathering populations, riods versus eras, are agree If,If,however, weweare however, aretotodefine defineHomo Homo nearly typical primitive foodwith Simpson (1960:286-87) with but nearly typicalfor for primitive foodwith Simpson (1960:286-87)that that with but as as"a"a primate of systematisystematiprimate capable capable of communities. There are culture "a "afundamentally new sort of of producing producing communities. There are culture fundamentally new sort tools," cally callymanufacturing manufacturing tools,"i.e., i.e.,a aculculhints thatthat cannibalism may may have have evolution has also appeared," then itit some some hints cannibalism evolution has also appeared," then animal, I Ithink ture-bearing ture-bearing animal, thinkone onecould could practiced bybyearly to tomemeappropriate seems been practiced earlyman man(Chou(Chouseems appropriatetotorecognize recognize been argue argueonon evolutionary evolutionaryand and logical logical a new era, the Culturozoic (or Paideokoutien Loc. 1),1), butbut there is nois known koutien Loc. there no known a new era, the Culturozoic (or Paideothat thetheappearance grounds grounds that appearanceof of culcul- zoic, if the Greek form is preferred). interpret analogybybywhich whichwe we can can interpret zoic, if the Greek form is preferred). analogy ture-bearing hominids should represent ture-bearing hominids should represent them. And where is the unquestionable Huxley argues (1956:6) that this had them. And where is the unquestionable Huxley argues (1956:6) that this had at atthe least a anew thevery very least newgeological geologicalpepe- its beginning mid-Pliocene. Emiliani evidencethat thatAustralopithecus Australopithecuskilled killed its beginning mid-Pliocene. Emiliani evidence notnot thethe start of of a new era. The riod, if if riod, start a new era. The seems to be of the same mind. The only and of of hishis own or or related andate atemembers members own related seems to be of the same mind. The only evolutionary evolutionaryprocess processhas hascertainly certainlynot not question is what date we are to assign species? question is what date we are to assign species? ceased, ceased,but butit ithas hasclearly clearlytaken takena anew new the mid-Pliocene. Without question, changes in ecologthe mid-Pliocene. Without question, changes in ecologwith the development direction direction with the developmentofofculculical If wewe areare to to admit that thethe developicalconditions conditionsduring duringthe thePleistocene Pleistocene If admit that developture. ture. ofofculture ment shouldhave have selective selective influence influence on on ment culturehas hasindeed indeedbeen beenso so should OfOfcourse, froma strictly a strictly geological course, from geological human profoundly significant for for the the course humanevolution; evolution;but butititwill willbe be very very profoundly significant course point pointofofview, view,one one might mightargue argue that that of evolution that it requires recognito to produce evidence difficult produce evidencefor forthis this of evolution that it requires recogni-difficult thetheexistence existenceofofman, man,along along with with his his tion of a new geological era, then we speculative speculativesupposition. supposition.Perhaps Perhaps"mo"motion of a new geological era, then we culture, hashashad culture, hadlittle littleimpact impacton on the the must mark the beginning of that era man," i.e., homo sapiens sapiens, dern man," i.e., homo sapiens sapiens, must mark the beginning of that era dern Pleistocene record. record. Pliocene Plioceneand and Pleistocene was better able to withstand cold where culture itself has its beginning was better able to withstand cold where culture itself has its beginning Though we do find cultural remains, Though we do find cultural remains, (which would. also provide a terminal weatherthan than"the "theNeanderthals," Neanderthals," but but (which would also provide a terminal weather they materials theyand and human human skeletal skeletal materials not only in incold date replacedthe thelatter latter not only cold datefor forthe thePliocene). Pliocene). Even Even though though hehereplaced would seem to the palaeontologist to would seem to the palaeontologist to culture had little effect geologically butbut also in in temperate and even regions regions also temperate and even culture had little effect geologically bebelittle littledifferent differentfrom fromthe thefossil fossil rere- during the Plio-Pleistocene (as curwarmones. ones. during the Plio-Pleistocene (as cur- warm ofof other species. mains mains other species. The rently defined), Theone onefactor factorininthe theevolution evolution of of rently defined),we wemight mightview view this this past 10,000-15,000 years, Within thethe thethe Pleistocene which we we Within past 10,000-15,000 years,epoch manduring during Pleistocene which epochasasanalogous analogoustotothe thePalaeocene, Palaeocene, man man hashasbegun however; know however, man beguntotohave haveaa which served as asa asort must knowabout aboutabove above all all others others isis which served sortofofpreliminary preliminary must profound and widespread effect on on thethedevelopmental time. We are indebted to Emiliani for for profound and widespread effect stage before the marked time. We are indebted to Emiliani developmental stage before the marked biological biologicaland and geological geological features features of of expansion verystimulating stimulatingwork workon on dating dating expansionofofmost mostmammalian mammalian orders orders hishisvery the Pleistocene events, andand theearth. earth.Since Sinceplants plantsand and animals animals ininthe andcorrelating correlating Pleistocene events, theEocene Eoceneand andlater laterepochs epochsof ofthe the and were wewelook werefirst firstdomesticated domesticatedsome some 10,000 10,000 Cenozoic. principal differences difer~ncs look forward forward eagerly eagerly to to hearing hearing Cenozoic. My My principal years on on those subjects. more from him yearsago, ago,man manhas hasnot notonly onlyspread spread his his with Emiliani, then, concern what what fac- facmore from him those subjects. with Emiliani, then, concern at at thethe expense of of wild domestic species domestic species expense wild tors to be considered in deterare tors are to be considered in deterones, ones,hehehas has cleared cleared forests, forests, plowed plowed mining andand howhow much sig- sigboundaries mining boundaries much grasslands, drained lakes and and swamps, grasslands, drained lakes swamps, is istotobe these bybyL.L.VVAN nificance AN V ALEN* nificance be ascribed ascribed to to these VALEN* irrigated irrigateddeserts, deserts,and andgreatly greatlyspeeded speeded factors. factors. Chicago, Ill., upupnatural processes of erosion (some Chicago, III,U.S.A. U.S.A.33III iII67 67 natural processes of erosion (some ofofthese are theseeffects effects arediscussed discussedininThoThoEmiliani's stratigraphic and palaeoEmiliani's stratigraphic and palaeomas mas1956). 1956).These Thesebiological biological and· and geogeo- bybyGUNTER SMOLLA * temperature GiiNTER SMOLLA* temperaturediscussions discussionsare arequite quitewelwelof sufficient magnilogical effects are logical effects are of sufficient magnicome. come.The The agreement agreementbetween between his his rereFrankfurt Germany. 20 III 67 Frankfurt Germany. 20 III 67sults and varieties of Milankovich's tude that I would expect themthem to protude that I would expect to prosults and varieties of Milankovich's duce a marked disturbance or unconduce a marked disturbance or uncon- Everyone will agree thatthat "some of the isolation Everyone will agree "some of the isolationcurves curves(Van (VanWoerkom Woerkom1953) 1953) formity in in thethe geological record, com-com-confusion formity geological record, is israther good existing in Pleistocene liter-literconfusion existing in Pleistocene rather goodand andprovides providespresumppresumpparable parableto tothat thatwhich whichseparates separates earlier earlier ature tive appears to to result from semantics ature appears result from semantics tivesupport supportfor forboth. both. geological thing alone"; cannot see see that that geologicalstages. stages.The The unique unique thing Most biology alone";but-alasbut-alas-II cannot Mostofof the the section section on on biology unconformity is that, for the about this about this unconformity is that, for the Emiliani Emilianigives givesus us any any helpful helpful suggessugges- would, would,however, however,have have benefited benefited by by thethe history of evolution, first time in in first time history of evolution, tions tionsfor forsolving solvingthis thisproblem. problem. Terms Terms omission. omission."Modern "Modernviews viewson onspeciation speciation base. ThisThis disturbance it it hashas a cultural a cultural base. disturbance for like and require geogeolike"pos(glacial" "posfglacial"oror"Holocene" "Holocene" for andevolution" evolution"do do not not require may insignificant from our our per- perthe mayseem seem insignificant from thepast past10,0.00 10,000years yearsare areindeed indeed out out of of graphic graphicisolation isolation for for phyletic phyletic evoluevolusrective, butbut I am suresure it would not benot scale the absolute absolute tion, spective, I am it would be scale compared compared with with the tion,and andasasfar farasasany any kind kind of of evoluevoluby aby geologist se.veral i if it it were viewed length ofofthe "glacial" were viewed a geologist se.veral subspecific level (e.g., length the "glacial"and and the the whole whole tion tionatat the the subspecific level (e.g., andand in the context million years hence, For the archaeologist, howPleistocene. million years hence, in the context Neanderthals) is concerned, geographic Pleistocene. For the archaeologist, howNeanderthals) is concerned, geographic ofofthe adjacent geological strata. the adjacent geological strata. ever, ever,the thescale scale isis quite quite different. different. The The isolation, isolation,asasopposed opposed to to occupancy occupancy of of Emiliani 0,000 years areas, would bebeevoked Emilianihimself himselfgoes goessosofar faras as to to past past110,000 years are are for for him him full full of of different different areas, would evokedonly only recognize ininspecial cases. One species cancan change recognizea afaunal faunal change, change, noting noting that that events. events.He Hehas has to to work work not not only only with with special cases. One species change but many manyanimal animalspecies specieshave have become become exex- geological, geological, butalso-and also-and more more and and into intoanother anotherbybyevolution evolutionininthe thesame same tinct past occupied area. tinctininthe the past15,000 15,000years yearsasasaa concon- more-with more-with historical historical time timescales. scales. The The continuously continuously occupied area.(See (SeeSimpSimpsequence the son discussion. of sequenceofofhuman humanexpansion. expansion.Thus Thus II term term"Flandrian" "Flandrian" proposed proposed by by EmiEmison[1961] [1961] for for aa discussion of the 42 42 CURRENT CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY principles of phyletic evolution and principles of phyletic evolution and Van Valen [1966] for a more detailed Van Valen [1966] for a more detailed theory of subspecific evolution possibly theory of subspecific evolution possibly applicable to man.) applicable to man.) Determination of the place of origin Determination of the place of origin of Homo is a problem in sampling, of Homo is a problem in sampling, even in the unlikely event that this even in the unlikely event that this transition occurred in a restricted retransition occurred in a restricted region. The degree of knowledge of gion. The degree of knowledge of mammalian faunas of appropriate ages mammalian faunas of appropriate ages must be weighed in each region against must be weighed in each region against the presence or absence of human fosthe presence or absence of human fos- Emiliani: PLEISTOCENE EPOCH Emiliani: PLEISTOCENE EPOCH sils. The fragmentary evidence from sils. The fragmentary evidence from Indonesia and China in fact suggests Indonesia and China in fact suggests transitional early Homo in these retransitional early Homo in these regions also. It is also questionable (Dargions also. It is also questionable (Darlington 1957) whether the severity of lington 1957) whether the severity of glacial climate contributed importantly glacial climate contributed importantly to human or oth~r evolution except for to human or other evolution except for direct adaptations to cold. direct adaptations to cold. Are there any .data on the relative Are there any data on the relative frequency of arthritis in Neanderthals frequency of arthritis in Neanderthals and more recent man? I thought the and more recent man? I thought the sample size of even all Neanderthals sample size of even all Neanderthals was still too small for age-specific was still too small for age-specific statistics such as this. The suggestion statistics such as this. The suggestion of a relation between the size of air of a relation between the size of air sinuses and the occurrence or severity sinuses and the occurrence or severity of upper respiratory disease is interestof upper respiratory disease is interesting and apparently original, even if ing and apparently original, even if perhaps unlikely, and could be tested, perhaps unlikely, and could be tested in recent populations. in recent populations. Reply Reply eda, and Selli 1961). I Thus the boundthe present time beyond the range of ttie present time beyond the range of eda, and Selli 1961). ' Thus the boundC14: these, together with the points ary, as presently defined, appears to C14: these, together with the points ary, as presently defined, appears to rest on an ecological event of rather provided by CI4 dating, indicate a gerest on an ecological event of rather provided by C14 dating, indicate a geby CESARE EMILIANI'* limited significance. Within the next neral agreement, within the limits of by CESARE EMILIANI* neral agreement, within the limits of limited significance. Within the next few years, absolute dating of marine error of the various analytical techI am gratified to see that my paper has error of the various analytical techfew years, absolute dating of marine I am gratified to see that my paper has epicontinental sections and the intensive niques, between oceanic, marine epihonored by such a large number been epicontinental sections and the intensive niques, between oceanic, marine epibeen honored by such a large number study and continental events continental, of thick-oceanic sections from the of CA* comments. Because different study of thick oceanic sections from the continental, and continental events of CA* comments. Because different open Cooke]. 2 [Butzer, seas may provide new evidence comments often cover the same points, [Butzer, Cooke]. 2 open seas may provide new evidence comments often cover the same points, advising a redefinition of the PlioThe notion that there were four glaprovide a general reply, followed I will advising a redefinition of the PlioThe notion that there were four glageneral reply, followed Pleistocene boundary. For the time ciations has such great classic fascinabyI awill fewprovide specific aremarks. Each statePleistocene boundary. For the time ciations has such great classic fascinaby a few specific remarks. Each state-being, the term Pleistocene should be tion that it will not die easily. Howor group of statements is followed ment being, the term Pleistocene should be tion that it will not die easily. Howment or group of statements is followed to its formal meaning: any restricted ever, the evidence from both marine by the name(s) in brackets of the aurestricted to its formal meaning: any ever, the evidence from both marine by the name(s) in brackets of the au- deviation therefrom will only create and continental deposits, indicating thor(s) who prompted the statement(s). deviation therefrom will only create and continental deposits, indicating thor(s) who prompted the statement(s). Schwerin]. confusion [Butzer, that there were considerably more than According to the principles followed confusion [Butzer, Schwerin]. that there were considerably more than According to the principles followed I am quite sympathetic to the profour glaciations, is both compelling and by stratigraphers since "strata Smith," four glaciations, is both compelling and I am quite sympathetic to the proby stratigraphers since "strata Smith," blems which scholars dealing with conmounting. For instance, Kukla, in his and later internationally agreed upon, blems which scholars dealing with con- mounting. For instance, Kukla, in his later internationally tinental deposits face because of' the comment, mentions eight loesses; Scherf stratigraphic subdivision agreed of theupon, theand comment, mentions eight loesses; Scherf tinental deposits face because of the the stratigraphic subdivision of the difficulty (1936) found eleven weathering hori(or impossibility) of correentire geologic column since the Cam(1936) found eleven weathering horidifficulty (or impossibility) of correentire geologic column since the Cam- lating zons in the loess section at Paks, Hunthese deposits with the marine brian is based upon marine deposits. zons in the loess section at Paks, Hunlating these deposits with the marine brian is based upon marine deposits. sections. While these problems will not gary; and Lona (1963) illustrates eight Each term is defined on the basis of a gary; and Lona (1963) illustrates eight sections. While these problems will not Each term is defined on the basis of a be solved by applying indiscriminately climatic oscillations within the Donautype section. The term "Pleistocene" is climatic oscillations within the Donaube solved by applying indiscriminately type section. The term "Pleistocene" is (i.e., Mindel interval, all having full glawithout the support of absolute no excpt~on: it is defined on the basis Mindel interval, all having full gla(i.e., without the support of absolute it is defined on the basisdating) cial/interglacial amplitude. I would the marine terminology to the ofno theexceptlion: type section at Le Castella, Cacial/interglacial amplitude. I would dating) the marine terminology to the of the type section at Le Castella, Ca- continental venture to say that, whenever the stradeposits, they can be quite labria, southern Italy, following the venture to say that, whenever the stracontinental deposits, they can be quite labria, southern Italy, following the easily tigraphic record is analyzed in suffisolved by establishing an indeunanimous decision of the 7th INQUA tigraphic record is analyzed in suffieasily solved by establishing an indeunanimous decision of the 7th INQUA pendent cient detail, strong climatic oscillapalaeontological nomenclature Congress (Richmond and Emiliani cient detail, strong climatic oscillapendent palaeontological nomenclature Congress (Richmond and Emiliani based upon the fossil evidence of the tions are noticed; and whenever a time 1967) [Butzer]. tions are noticed; and whenever a time based upon the fossil evidence of the 1967) [Butzer]. scale (or even a time estimate) exists, continents, a road which the Soviet stuIt is true that the decision of the 18th continents, a road which the Soviet stu- scale (or even a time estimate) exists, It is true that the decision of the 18th the wave length appears to be in the dents have already adopted with their International Geological Congress to the wave length appears to be in the dents have already adopted with their International Geological Congress to usage of the term "Anthropogene." I neighborhood of 50,000 years [Gigout, place the Plio-Pleistocene boundary at neighborhood of 50,000 years [Gigout, usage of the term "Anthropogene." I boundary atagree with Anati that ~A Ree]. These analyses, of course, are should coor': theplace basethe of Plio-Pleistocene the Calabrian stage also Ree]. These analyses, of course, are agree with Anati that CA should coorthe base of the Calabrian stage also dinate most easily done on oceanic sediments. this meritorious effort. The conincluded a statement to the effect that most easily done on oceanic sediments. dinate this meritorious effort. The conincluded a statement to the effect that Sea-level changes also appear to follow tinental terminology would then be rethis boundary be placed ·"at the horiSea-level changes also appear to follow tinental terminology would then be rethis boundary be placed "at the hori- lated the time scale provided by the deepto the marine one only at the zon of the first indication of climate the time scale provided by the deeplated to the marine one only at the zon of the first indication of climate points where absolute dates are availsea cores. Thus, the high stands dated deterioration" in the continuous late sea cores. Thus, the high stands dated points where absolute dates are availdeterioration" in the continuous late able. at 125,000 and 85,000 years ago corOnly a few such points exist at Cenozoic marine sections of Italy. Subat 125,000 and 85,000 years ago corCenozoic marine sections of Italy. Sub- able. Only a few such points exist at respond to dated high isotopic tempersequent research has shown, however, respond to dated high isotopic tempersequent research has of shown, however, atures, separated by a temperature minthat the first indication climatic deI It is curious that, of the many hundred atures, separated by a temperature minthat the first indication of climatic deium at about 110,000 years [Kukla]. 1 It is curious that, of the many hundred terioration dates from many million molluscan and foraminiferal species which ium at about 110,000 years [Kukla]. terioration dates from many million occur molluscan and foraminiferal species which The relationship between semi-anin the North Atlantic, only two dozen years ago, and 'the Pleistocene, thus The relationship between semi-anoccur in the North Atlantic, only two dozen years ago, and the Pleistocene, thus species entered the Mediterranean at the benual insolation variations at different would probably include most defined nual insolation variations at different speciesof entered the Mediterranean atall theofbedefined would probably include mostginning the Calabrian and nearly latitudes and climatic oscillations reof the Pliocene. Substantial glaciation ginning of the Calabrian and nearly all of latitudes and climatic oscillations rePliocene. Substantial glaciationthese species are common to both the North quires closer analysis. Koppen and Antarctica problably began in of the these species are common to both the North quires closer analysis. K6ppen and in Antarctica problably began Atlantic and the Baltic. Species living in the Wegener (1924) assigned predominant 5,0~ years ago (Emiliani 1957), Atlantic and the Baltic. Species living in the Wegener (1924) assigned predominant must necessarily be adjusted to ab5,000,000 years ago (Emiliani 1957), Baltic Baltic must necessarily be adjusted to ab- significance to the summer insolation and eVIdence for glaciation elsewhere salinity conditions. I wonder whether significance to the summer insolation and evidence for glaciation elsewherenormal at 65°N. Kukla, in his comvariations normal salinity conditions. I wonder whether dates from at least 3,000,000 years guests may not have entered variations at 65?N. Kukla, in his comdates from at least 3,000,000 years thethenorthern northern guests may anot have entered ment, speaks in favor of the winter in(Curry 1966). Thus, the Pleistocene pasthe Mediterranean through temporary ment, speaks in favor of the winter in(Curry the Pleistocene theinMediterranean a temporary variations at 55°N. I believe sage southwestern through France, acting as a sa-pas- solation cannot be 1966). definedThus, in terms of cooling solation variations at 55?N. I believe sageecologic in southwestern France, acting as a sacannot be defined in terms of cooling that these are only first-order approxilinity filter. The maximum required alone [Cooke]. As a matter of fact that these are only first-order approxilinity ecologic The186 maximum required alone [Cooke]. As a matter of fact, subsidence be about m. along a would filter. mations, and that the effect of insolaisotopic analysis of the Le Castella sec~ subsidence would be about 186 m.Carcasalong a mations, and that the effect of insolaisotopic analysis of the Le Castella secsmall area between Toulouse and vanations at different critical lation tion has shown that the Plio-PleistosmallThe areascanty between Toulouse and in Carcastion variations at different critical lamarine deposits the tion has shown that the Plio-Pleisto- sonne. cene boundary, as defined today, is sonne. The scanty marine deposits in the may have been entirely eroded away cene boundary, as defined today, is area areathus mayeliminating have been any entirely eroded away 2 I do not accept as definite any C14 date not accompanied by any substantial evidence of such not accompanied by any substantial since, 2 I do not accept as definite any C14 date since, thus eliminating any evidence of such greater ,temperature decrease (Emili ani, Maya marine transgression. than about 45,QOO years [Butzer}. temperature decrease (Emiliani, Maya marine transgression. Vol. 9. No.1. February 1968 Vol. 9 . No. 1 . February 1968 greater than about 45,QOO years [Butzer]. 43 ros, etc.). Giraffes developed extravan der Hammen and Gonzales (1960) titudes and in different seasons should van der Hammen and Gonzales (1960) ros, etc.). Giraffes developed extratitudes and in different seasons should long necks (and forelimbs) as a secondtotocoincide with estimates obtained by For instance, it may be bebeevaluated. long necks (and forelimbs) as a secondcoincide with estimates obtained by evaluated. For instance, it may be ary effect related to tree-grazing. them from the fossil floras. argued (Emiliani 1966) that summerary effect related to tree-grazing. them from the fossil floras. argued (Emiliani 1966) that summerknow, from direct palaeontoloEarly Hominidae, even though they We insolation minima in the accumulation insolation minima in the accumulation We know, from direct palaeontoloEarly Hominidae, even though they may have been able to swim, run, climb, gical and palaeobotanical evidence, latitudes coupled with insolation maxigical and palaeobotanical evidence, latitudes coupled with insolation maximay have been able to swim, run, climb, would have been successful in etc., ma in the evaporation latitudes will that the climatic oscillations of the etc., would have been successful in that the climatic oscillations of the ma in the evaporation latitudes will Pleistocene had a profound effect on these activities, as evasive practices, tend to produce strong glaciations; Pleistocene had a profound effect on these activities, as evasive practices, tend to produce strong glaciations; only if alerted in time. It would seem maxima in the acboth plants and animals, not only on summer-insolation only if alerted in time. It would seem both plants and animals, not only on summer-insolation maxima in the acthe continents but also in the sea. There that they too would have benefited cumulation areas coupled with insolathat they too would have benefited the continents but also in the sea. There cumulation areas coupled with insolaisislittle doubt that, when floras migrate, from increased perception and that the minima in the evaporation areas tion little doubt that, when floras migrate, tion minima in the evaporation areas from increased perception and that the plant-eaters also migrate, and meatbenefit might have resulted in vertical will tend to produce warm interglaplant-eaters also migrate, and meatbenefit might have resulted in vertical will tend to produce warm interglaeaters follow. Thus, the Pleistocene was posture [Holloway, Longyear, Smolla, and intermediate conditions may cials; cials; and intermediate conditions may posture [Holloway, Longyear, Smolla, eaters follow. Thus, the Pleistocene was produce milder glacials and interglaof great and repeated migraReed]. a a time Reed]. time of great and repeated migraproduce milder glacials and interglaWhether or not the genus Homo tions, a phenomenon per se conduccials [Kukla]. cials [Kukla]. Whether or not the genus Homo tions, a phenomenon per se conducThe glacial!interglacial amplitude of tive to the splitting of large populadates from the Pliocene depends on two The glacial/interglacial amplitude of dates from the Pliocene depends on two tive to the splitting of large populathe climatic oscillations remained estions into smaller groups and to genethings: (a) the definition of Homo; and the climatic oscillations remained esthings: (a) the definition of Homo; and tions into smaller groups and to geneconstant at an estimated 60°C of some of these: It is not (b) the absolute age of the appearance sentially tic isolation sentially constant at an estimated 60?C tic isolation of some of these: It is not (b) the absolute age of the appearance during the past 425,000 years, with the necessary, for isolation, to have interofofHHyalinea yalinea baltica at Le Castella. If during the past 425,000 years, with the necessary, for isolation, to have interbaltica at Le Castella. If single execption of deep-sea core stage vening glaciers: an intervening hostile habilis is assigned to Homo, and if the vening glaciers: an intervening hostile single execption of deep-sea core stage habilis is assigned to Homo, and if the ecology 3.3.This temperature range is essentially may be sufficient [Holloway, appearance of H. baltica at Le Castella This temperature range is essentially ecology may be sufficient [Holloway, appearance of H. baltica at Le Castella the same as today's winter/summer Kukla, Reed, Van Valen]. Conditions isisasasrecent as some micropalaeontolothe same as today's winter/summer recent as some micropalaeontoloKukla, Reed, Van Valen]. Conditions gical evidence suggests (about 700,000 range for the open North Atlantic, and for rapid evolution were established for rapid evolution were established range for the open North Atlantic, and gical evidence suggests (about 700,000 ititisison the basis of this similarity that the entire biosphere, and not for for years, according to Hay and Boudreaux on the basis of this similarity that for the entire biosphere, and not for years, according to Hay and Boudreaux I stated that glacial summers were. esman alone [Brace]. I do not believe 1968), then Homo originated in the 1968), then Homo originated in the I stated that glacial summers were. es- man alone [Brace]. I do not believe that, as a rule, an entire species spePliocene [ Holloway]. sentially similar to intergracial winters Pliocene [Holloway]. that, as a rule, an entire species spesentially similar to intergracial winters believe that I did overstate the into a different one. My reason I will conclude with a few assorted I Inow ciates I will conclude with a few assorted now believe that I did overstate the ciates into a different one. My reason case, and that what is true for the open for this belief is that, a hundred years remarks. I should have used subspecase, and that what is true for the open for this belief is that, a hundred years remarks. I should have used subspeciated instead of speciated when disNorth Atlantic need not be true for inafter Darwin, the missing links are still North Atlantic need not be true for inafter Darwin, the missing links are still ciated instead of speciated when disland seas (North Sea, Baltic, Mediterthe geological record largely missing in cussing the origin of Homo sapiens land seas (North Sea, Baltic, Mediterlargely missing in the geological record cussing the origin of Homo sapiens ranean) or for the continents at middle sapiens [Brace ]. [Howell]. The term Flandrian ranean) or for the continents at middle [Brace]. sapiens [Howell]. The term Flandrian and high latitudes. There, the glacial! ItItisisan almost universally adopted isisnot my idea, but was proposed by an almost universally adopted and high latitudes. There, the glacial/ not my idea, but was proposed by to have been view that the most important result of interglacial range appears Dubois in 1924 [Schwerin, Smolla]. interglacial range appears to have been view that the most important result of Dubois in 1924 [Schwerin, Smolla]. than today's winter/summer smaller bipedal posture in early Hominidae I Ido not equate evolution with changes smaller than today's winter/summer bipedal posture in early Hominidae do not equate evolution with changes range. As an example, the glacial!interwas the freeing of the anterior limbs for capacity [Anati]. I wish to inincranial range. As an example, the glacial/interwas the freeing of the anterior limbs for cranial capacity [Anati]. I wish to range as measured by isotopic glacial toolmaking. My point however is that amplify my statement on cannibalism glacial range as measured by isotopic toolmaking. My point however is that amplify my statement on cannibalism of fossil marine shells (food analysis bipedal posture was not achieved totoemphasize that cannibalism includes analysis of fossil marine shells (food bipedal posture was not achieved emphasize that cannibalism includes the Haua Fteah Cave of refuse) from through the necessity of making tools, not only nutritional cannibalism but refuse) from the Haua Fteah Cave of through the necessity of making tools, not only nutritional cannibalism but Cyrenaica appears to have been about but through the more primordial nealso cultural cannibalism. The latter is Cyrenaica appears to have been about but through the more primordial nealso cultural cannibalism. The latter is 8°C (Emiliani et al. 1964: Fig. 5) while of better perception for scoutlikely. to have been more important cessity 8?C (Emiliani et al. 1964: Fig. 5) while cessity of better perception for scoutlikely to have been more important today's winter/summer range is 11°C. Mammals which have attained a ing. than the former, and I should have distoday's winter/summer range is 11C. ing. Mammals which have attained a than the former, and I should have disAA more more appropriate appropriate generalization generalization body size (making hiding difficertain cussed this point [Anati, Lasker]. The certain body size (making hiding difficussed this point [Anati, Lasker]. The would be that, for Europe and the Mewhich are preyed upon by carnicult), age which I estimated for Swanscombe would be that, for Europe and the Mecult), which are preyed upon by carniage which I estimated for Swanscombe diterranean basin, glacial summers vores, and which have no adequate (Emiliani 1956) is 125,000 years and diterranean basin, glacial summers vores, and which have no adequate (Emiliani 1956) is 125,000 years and were similar to today's late autumns defense mechanism, tend to have their not 95,000 years. Also, I provided no were similar to today's late autumns defense mechanism, tend to have their not 95,000 years. Also, I provided no [Frisch, Hester, Holloway]. In the perception centers as high above the time estimate for Steinheim [Coon]. [Frisch, Hester, Holloway]. In the perception centers as high above the time estimate for Steinheim [Coon]. low latitudes, on the other hand, the ground as permitted by their general The Neanderthals had apparently a low latitudes, on the other hand, the ground as permitted by their general The Neanderthals had apparently a glacial!interglacial range was much body architecture (gazelles, zebras, very advanced culture: they not only glacial/interglacial range was much body architecture (gazelles, zebras, very advanced culture: they not only greater than the modern winter/sumetc.). This is not the case for other maminvented religion but exhibited excelgreater than the modern winter/sumetc.). This is not the case for other maminvented religion but exhibited excelmer range. My estimate of a 6°C temmals having similar feeding habits but lent judgment in choosing the right mer range. My estimate of a 6?C temmals having similar feeding habits but lent judgment in choosing the right perature decrease for the Caribbeanendowed with powerful offense and place (Monte Circeo, only 50 miles perature decrease for the Caribbeanendowed with powerful offense and place (Monte Circeo, only 50 miles equatorial Atlantic area was found by defense mechanisms (bisons, rhinocefrom Rome) [Longyear]. equatorial Atlantic area was found by defense mechanisms (bisons, rhinocefrom Rome) [Longyear]. References References Cited Cited ALLCHIN, BRIDGET. 1963. The Indian stone ALLCHIN, BRIDGET. 1963. The Indian stone age sequence. Journal of the Royal Anage sequence. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 93 :210-34. thropological Institute 93:2 10-34. [CLB*] [CLB*] ANDERSEN, Sv. TH~, HL. DE VRIES, and W. ANDERSEN, Sv. TH., HL. DE VRIEs, and W. H.H. ZAGWIJN. 1960. Climatic change and ZAGWIJN. 1960. 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