WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT
Zuhairuse Md Darus, Fadzil Hassan, Masran Saruwono,
Zaidi Omar, Zulkiflee Samad, Fadhil Muhamad,
Noraziah Mohammad
Continuing Professional Development (CPD), Education and
Training as Part of Technology for the Learning Process in
Malaysian Built Environment
1
ZUHAIRUSE MD DARUS, 2FADZIL HASSAN, 2 MASRAN SARUWONO, 1ZAIDI
OMAR , 3 ZULKIFLEE SAMAD , 2 FADHIL MUHAMAD & NORAZIAH
MOHAMMAD
1
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
2
Universiti Teknologi Mara
3
Universiti Malays
MALAYSIA
E-mail: ujang@vlsi.eng.ukm.my, atiqmy@yahoo.com
Abstract
Problems associated to the performance, delivery and quality of product or services
emanating from ineffective performance of the human resource in the Malaysian built
environment are a continuing debate. Critics have been frequent in associating these
shortcomings with inadequacies within the continuing professional development (CPD),
education and training provisions offered to the human resource.
This paper presents the investigations on the underpinning concepts of CPD), education
and training which identify their differences and similarities. This was on the premise
that understanding the similarities and differences are very important as they significantly
influence how the technology is disseminated and roles that must be to be played by the
parties responsible for their design and delivery. The findings suggest the need to
understand similarities and differences in the application of the meanings of education,
training and CPD are important; but more importantly, they must all be underpinned with
learning. It is imperative that that the parties responsible for the education, training,
learning, development must appreciate learning. This must be conceived collectively
applied within the design and delivery to the provisions to be effective.
Keywords: Built environment, human resource, education, training, continuing
professional development (CPD), learning
the Malaysian built environment
initiated many initiatives to offer to the
human resource.
However, to date
results have been variable and critics
frequently argue that that many of the
CPD, education and training offered to
1. Introduction
It is a general belief that the way forward
for ensuring sustaining performance of
the human resource is through the
process of continuing professional
development (CPD), education and
training. Imbued with this conviction,
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the human resource have been somewhat
inadequate and ineffective.
2. Scenario of the Malaysian
Built
Environment
Human
Resource
The common argument arising from the
challenge of providing effective CPD,
educate and train the human resource is
the scope to which the responsible
parties conceive, design and deliver the
CPD, education and training provisions.
The recurrent questions of; “Who should
provide the education?”, “Who should
provide the training?”, “Who should be
responsible for CPD? and “How should
these initiatives be coordinated?”
continue to be debated. In conceiving
this issue, some have contended that
differentiating CPD, education and
training is a non issue as it is just a case
of semantics.
Yet in the practical
operational context, the understanding
and the appreciation of the similarities
and differences have significantly
influenced the way in which the parties
responsible designs and offers the
provisions to the human resource.
At its best, the Malaysian built
environment is capable of matching its
counterparts from the more developed
countries delivered with world-class
standards and quality. This can be
exemplified, amongst others, from the
construction and administration of the
new National Administrative Centre at
Puterajaya, Multi-Media Super Corridor,
Petronas Twin Towers and the Kuala
Lumpur International Airport (KLIA).
However, performance in many other
areas has been poor.
Complaints of
products and services offered not up to
the required quality are recurring, many
completed built infrastructure are
deteriorating rapidly, many construction
projects not completed on time, within
cost or quality and reliance on imported
workers continue to be on the increase
(CIDB, 2006, Sariah 2003).
In conceiving this issue, this paper
discusses
the
differences
and/or
similarities between CPD, education and
training, their sustentative meanings and
their features before underlining the
elements that facilitate their effective
provisions. This was drawn from a
research undertaken by the authors to
investigate
the
validity
and
appropriateness of the current provisions
offered to the Malaysian built
environment human, which in-part
investigates CPD, education and
training. The significance of the holistic
appreciation of CPD, education and
training underpinned by learning is
underlined in the conclusion.
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Zaidi Omar, Zulkiflee Samad, Fadhil Muhamad,
Noraziah Mohammad
Malaysia has always modelled the UK
system in developing the human
resource. CPD, education and training
offered to the human resource and CPDs
are offered through the academic,
vocational and professional frameworks.
Organisations such as technical colleges,
institutions
of
higher
learning,
vocational schools, national training
organizations, in-house construction
organizations,
employers
and
professional institutions play central
roles in offering the range of
improvement pathways and alternatives
for the human resource.
Whilst this provides the advantage of
creating
linkages
between
the
frameworks, the task of outlining the
scope
of
education,
training,
development and CPDs has been very
complex. This is because in many
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and, as a result, has helped spawn new
subcultures; the rise of cyberculture has,
at its basis, the development of the
Internet and the computer.
Social science is concerned with the
study of the social life of human groups
and
individuals
which
includes
anthropology, communication studies,
criminology, economics, geography,
history, political science, psychology,
social studies, and sociology (IES,
2007).
The social sciences are
sometimes criticised as being less
scientific than the natural sciences, in
that they are seen as being less rigorous
or empirical in their methods. Studies in
social sciences are considered to be
largely
observational,
in
that
explanations
for
cause-effect
relationships are largely subjective.
circumstances, these frameworks overlap
and tends to blur the demarcation
between them. This blurred demarcation
tends to impede some activities to
educate, train, develop and provide CPD
to the human resource. Hassan (1994),
Arshad (1997), Ghani (2003) and Ismail
(2005) pointed out that in many
instances,
education,
training,
development and CPD in Malaysia tends
to be polarised and fragmented, and this
tend render the many of the provisions
ineffective.
In conceiving this issue, technology
together with education, training and
CPD were investigated.
3.
Technology,
Education,
Training and CPD
3.1. Technology
CPD, education and training in the built
environment falls within the disciplines
of studies of technology within the
realms of social sciences. Technology
is a broad concept that deals with the
usage and knowledge of techniques
‘tools’ and ‘crafts’ in a particular
specialized field of endeavor (Franklin,
1989).
Frequently, technology have
been used to refer to a collection of
techniques to combine resources to
produce desired products, to solve
problems, fulfill needs, or satisfy wants;
it includes technical methods, skills,
processes, techniques, tools and raw
materials. The scope of technology is
diverse.
As pointed by Bergmann
(2006), that technology can be viewed as
an activity that forms or changes culture.
It is not limited to the application of
subjects such as math, science, and the
arts for the benefit of life as it is known.
This can be exemplified from the rise of
communication technology, which has
lessened barriers to human interaction
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Zuhairuse Md Darus, Fadzil Hassan, Masran Saruwono,
Zaidi Omar, Zulkiflee Samad, Fadhil Muhamad,
Noraziah Mohammad
Built environment refers to the manmade surroundings that provide the
setting for human activity, ranging from
the large-scale civic surroundings to the
personal places (Wikipedia, 2006).
Technology within the context of the
built environment, CPD, education and
training is an interdisciplinary field of
study to address the design, management
and
use
of
these
man-made
surroundings, and their relationship to
the human activities which take place
within them. The field is generally not
confined to just academic discipline in
its own right, but as a "field of
application" which also draws upon the
individual disciplines of economics, law,
management, design and technology.
3.2.
Education
Education originates from the Latin
word which means "to raise", "to train"
or “to bring up”. Wikipedia (2007)
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defines education also as a discipline, a
body of theoretical and applied research
relating to the understanding and
improving the process of teaching and
learning. Allman (1982), Martin (1998),
Hughey and Mussnug (1997) and Matrix
(1998) converge to argume that many
early definitions of education tends to
advocate a front-end model of education,
which put the idea that education occurs
during the formulative years, and when
socially matured, education ceases.
Peter (1973) perceives education as a
humanistic process that leads to of an
individual being ‘educated’.
add that education is not a single event
and should be planned rather than
haphazard. Cross (2006) and Merriam
at al (2007) maintain that learning in
education should not be limited only to
the formal process; education should be
principle driven, teaches general skills
and knowledge for the sake of a field
discipline rather than having a specific
job focus.
3.3.
Training
Wikipedia (2007) defines training as the
teaching of vocational or practical which
relates to specific useful skills. In noting
the variable definitions of training,
Anderson (1994) suggest that training is
a systematic development of the attitude,
knowledge and skill behavior pattern
required by an individual in-order to
perform adequately a given task or job.
Thomson (1990), Gravan et al (1995),
Reid and Barrington (1999) and Matrix
(1998) are common in defining training
as a deliberate, planned and systematic
process to modify, develop knowledge,
values, attitude, techniques and skills
through learning experiences, to achieve
a set level of performance in an activity
or a range of activities. Consistent in
their views were the belief that training
must be derived from understanding the
learning process and if successful will
speeds up the learning process; training
is focused to make the individual
proficient by instruction and practice;
and is a job specific form of education
which can be general or organisation
specific but does not necessarily relate to
the job that the individual undertakes.
Gura (1992) asserts that the current
concepts
of
education
emerged
significantly from the earlier works of
Friedrich Froebel and John Dewey.
Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852), who
introduced kindergarten as for early
childhood education demonstrated that
children learn by playing. John Dewey
(1859-1952) introduced the idea that
education and life are interrelated, not
separate; children learn best by doing
and acting on the world, and by
continuity of experience which is
essential to growth. Developing further
from these concepts, Richardson and
Wolfe (2001) and Dewey (2005),
suggest that formal and informal
education is important but they need to
be differentiated. They conceive formal
education as highly structured and
informal education takes place mostly
outside
recognised
educational
institutions.
Reid and Barrington (2004) and Bereiter
(2002) view education as also taking
place
beyond
individual’s
early
intellectual development stage. Jarvis
and Griffin (2003) stresses that
education must involve learning that
must be built on understanding. They
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Zaidi Omar, Zulkiflee Samad, Fadhil Muhamad,
Noraziah Mohammad
Thomson (1990) conceive training as a
deliberate, planned and systematic
process to modify, develop knowledge,
values, attitude, techniques and skills
through learning experiences. This is to
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Noraziah Mohammad
commonly maintain that training should
focus at making the individual proficient
by instruction and practice. It is a job
specific form of education, which can be
general or organisation specific, but does
not necessarily relate to the job that the
individual undertakes.
achieve a set level of performance in an
activity or a range of activities. In
differentiating training from education,
Rodgers (1986) suggest that training
have narrow goals and specifies the
‘right’ way to do something. Reid and
Barrington (1994), Thomson (1990), and
Harrison (1993) commonly maintain that
training should focus at making the
individual proficient by instruction and
practice. It is a job specific form of
education, which can be general or
organisation specific, but does not
necessarily relate to the job that the
individual undertakes. Gravan et al
(1995) emphasise that training must be
developed from understanding the
learning process and how humans learn
because effective training speeds up the
learning process.
In differentiating
formal from informal training, Thomson
(1990) suggest that in contrast to
informal training, formal training entails
deliberate and structured learning
process. Hendry et al (1995) underline
the
continuum
of
training
as
encompasses initial, continued skill
training and re-training.
Gravan et al (1995) emphasise that
training must be developed from
understanding the learning process and
how humans learn because effective
training speeds up the learning process.
Martin (2006) conceives that training
can be a subset of learning but warn that
training alone is not powerful enough to
develop people in organisations. In
differentiating formal from informal
training, Wilson (2005) suggest that in
contrast to informal training, formal
training entails deliberate and structured
learning process. Hendry et al (1995)
underline the continuum of training as
encompasses initial, continued skill
training and re-training. Axtell et al
(1997) affirms that initial transfer of
skills is an important pre-requisite of
subsequent skill application at the
workplace.
Thomson (1990) suggest that training is
a deliberate, planned and systematic
process to modify, develop knowledge,
values, attitude, techniques and skills
through learning experiences. This is to
achieve a set level of performance in an
activity or a range of activities.
In
differentiating training from education,
In
differentiating
training
from
education, Rae (1986) suggest that
training have narrow goals and specifies
the ‘right’ way to do something. He
underlines that while general training is
applicable to many specific training is
the specific acquisition of a skill
valuable to selected employers only.
Thomson (1990), Gravan et al (1995)
and Reid and Barrington (2004)
3.4.
Continuing
Professional
Development (CPD)
CPD in the built environment originates
from the concepts of human resource
development within the context of
general management. Baum (1995), and
McIntosh (1994) identify development
as more focussed to the learner than the
learning. It is not concerned with the
uniformity of learning outcomes as
training is but concentrates on enhancing
jobs by enhancing employees. Many of
the notions of the development points to
the issue of expanding one’s potential
through conscious and unconscious
learning process with the view to
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learning as the fundamentals for
ensuring the continuous process of
development. Cheetham and Chivers
(2001) suggest the important need to
appreciate the processes that leads to
professional competence. They assert
that this must include the opportunity to
experience
a
wide
range
of
developmental
experience;
the
motivation to acquire the necessary
competencies
and
to
improve
continuously with adequate practice in
carrying out the various key tasks and
functions in order to master the requisite
competencies. They add that persistence
in overcoming difficulties and in
preserving when things are not going
well together with the influence and
support (when needed) of others as the
essential ingredients of effective CPD.
enabling the individual to take up a
future role within an organisation.
Amongst them, Pedler (1995) defines
development as making the most that
one can out of opportunities in both the
outer and inner sphere, while Baum
(1995) Lauermann (1992) characterises
development as a process that can take
place at any time and is not constrained
by formal parameters or at specific
points within an individual’s life cycle.
Neither it is confined to the classroom or
coaching situation, nor is it situational
term restricted to planned or formalised
group sessions.
Knight (2002) and Eurat (1999) note that
CPD emanate from the concern that the
lifespan of knowledge gained during the
initial professional course will decline
with change.
To circumvent this,
especially within the current rapidly
changing
business
environment,
professionals need to adopt education
and training as a continuous lifelong
process to be in touch with the current
developments. They maintain that this
has been the basis for professional
institutions to ensure that their members
can continually maintain and develop the
knowledge and competency level. This
is supported by Cerverno et al (1992)
who add that competence development
is an integral part of becoming a
sustainable competent professional.
4.
Evaluating the differences
and similarities
Analysis of the education, training and
CPD identified their differences and
similarities. It is logical to suggest all
are complimentary components of the
same process, i.e. the enhancement of
human potential or talent. Education is
often viewed as the beginning of the
individual’s intellectual development.
Training is frequently viewed as a prerequisite for a job to they certify his/her
ability and suitability to the prospective
job. CPD appears to be the primary
processes to which education, training
and formal education contribute, which
in turn facilitates ‘growth’ or
‘development’ within the individual and
the organization.
Dreyfuss and Dreyfuss (1986) observe
that a person’s learning starts from a
novice to become an advance beginner
before proceeding to be proficient, then
competent and finally an expert. Eraut
(1999) suggest that much of the learning
required to attain full professional
competence in CPD actually occur after
the completion of formal training. He
suggest that off-the-job and work-based
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There are important distinguishing
features can be drawn. Education is
generally focused at the individual and
its objectives are usually less
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Identifying learning as the emergent and
central underpinning theme in education,
training and CPD, learning was
investigated and is discussed as follows:
quantifiable as each individual’s learning
priorities differ. In a training context,
behavioral objectives are quite specific
and are usually related to the present job.
In CPD, it is focused primarily on future
roles, behavioral objectives tend to be
less precise. The nature of the learning
process within education, training,
development and CPD can be different.
Training mostly involves learning in a
structured mechanistic manner. On the
other hand, education and CPD tends to
emphasise on ‘organic’ learning
practices where the focus of change in
the individual, rather than what he or she
can do. The learning context of each
also varies.
Training can also be
associated with ‘learning by doing’
whereas education is more synonymous
with ‘learning by thinking’; and CPD
involves learning thinking, doing and
feeling.
4.1.
Learning
There is a great difficulty in defining
learning precisely and this is largely due
to the lack of a common accepted
definition Merriam at al (2007). In
acknowledging that learning covers such
a wide spectrum of conditions, the
culminating views of Gravan et al
(1995), Mullins (2002), Osborne (1996),
Beaton and Richards, (1997) suggest that
learning be conceived as about the
attainment of knowledge and skills.
The origins of the ‘modern’ study of
learning based on the concepts of
‘Behaviorism’,
‘Cognitivism’
and
‘Constructivism’ drawn from the works
of earlier leading psychology behavioral
scientists such as Pavlov, Watson,
Thorndike and Skinner were noted from
Mullins (2002), Martin (1998) and
Torrington et al (2002). ‘Behaviorism’
advocates the theory reflexes could be
‘conditioned’ to respond to new situation
and stimuli. In ‘cognitivism’, cognitive
theorists view learning as involving the
acquisition or reorganization of the
cognitive structures through which
humans process and store information.
They suggest that much learning
involves
associations
established
through contiguity and repetition, and
the importance of reinforcement in
providing feedback about the correctness
of
responses.
“Constructivism’
propounds the theory that knowledge is
constructed from experience, learning is
a personal interpretation of the world
and is an active process in which
meaning is developed on the basis of
experience. Constructivism promotes
The distinction between education,
training, development and CPD is
frequently a function of their use.
Within the context of the development
and improvement of the Malaysian built
environment human resource, this may
be part of the educational initiative, but
may equally comprise an element of an
industry level or in-house management
training or CPD programme.
It is arguable that the debate about the
similarities or differences between
education, training and CPD is primarily
academic.
However, in the real
implementation process there is a
tendency to polarise them.
Absolute
definitions are usually not really helpful
in understanding the role of education,
training and CPD. Within the practice of
the education, training and CPD in the
Malaysian built environment, such
distinction have occurred and is still
occurring.
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Zaidi Omar, Zulkiflee Samad, Fadhil Muhamad,
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traditional learning, ‘active’ learning is
more effective because the individual
will be able to learn better through
activities such as ‘action learning’,
‘experiential learning’ and ‘problembased’ processes. Abella (1987)
identifies task-force, exercise, case
discussion, simulation, games, role-play
exercise,
group
discussion
and
presentation/lectures as the methods that
can be applied in effective learning
processes. Abdullah (2001), Bee and
Bee (1998) and Reid and Barrington
(2004) mutually believe that to promote
effective learning, individuals should
learn not only by adaptation but also
through manipulation or ‘interventions’.
learning as should be situated in realistic
settings; testing should be integrated
with the task and not a separate activity.
In appreciating these concepts, Abdullah
(2001) adds that the individual cognitive
learning process begins with the
individual’s sensory input where
information coming from the senses is
transformed,
produced,
elaborated,
recovered and used. Gravan et al (1995)
maintain that learning is not a single
concept and there are many perspectives
to learning which can lead to different
types of learning.
In reviewing the works of Pavlov,
Watson, Thorndike and Skinner, Klob
(1984) and Mumford (1991) argue that
‘passive’ approach to learn neglects the
human ‘cognitive’ elements such as
curiosity, the desire to learn and feel.
Klob (1984) proposes that learning takes
the form of a cycle beginning with
experience, followed by observation,
theory building and putting into practice
cycle. In supporting Klob’s learning
cycle, Mumford (1991) adds that the
learning veers away from the cycle after
repeated exercise.
The theory of
learning based on the ‘learning curve’
advocates the notion that individual’s
tend to learn a new task more rapidly at
first and the ‘learning curve’ is steep,
and then gradually plateaus after
acquiring
significant
experience
(Martins, 1998). It advocates the view
that individuals tend to learn a new task
more rapidly at first and the ‘learning
curve’ is steep, and then gradually
plateaus after acquiring significant
experience. Torrington et al (2002)
suggest a variation that in reality, the
learning process is characterized by a
series of learning curves and loops.
5.
CPD, Education and
Training: An Integrated
Approach
While the concepts discussed above are
characterised as distinct in some way,
there are elements common to all of
them. To begin with, they are all
concerned with learning. CPD appears to
be the primary processes to which
education, training and formal education
contribute, which in turn facilitates
‘growth’ in both the individual and the
organization. Education and training
tends to be viewed as a pre-requisite for
a job because they certify the
individual’s ability and suitability to the
prospective job. It is therefore logical to
suggest that all are seen as
complimentary components of the same
process, i.e. the enhancement of human
potential or talent.
However,
there
are
important
distinguishing features can be drawn.
Education is generally focused at the
individual and its objectives are usually
less quantifiable as each individual’s
Rae (1999), Abella (1987) and Mathews
(1995) suggest that in contrast to
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Zaidi Omar, Zulkiflee Samad, Fadhil Muhamad,
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providers. In practice in the Manaysian
built environment, such disconnection
have and is still occurring.
learning priorities differ. Within the
training context, behavioral objectives
are quite specific and are usually related
to the present job. In development and
CPD context, it is focused on future
roles, behavioral objectives tend to be
less precise. The nature of the learning
process within education, training,
development and CPD can be different.
Training mostly involves learning in a
more mechanistic manner. On the other
hand, education and CPD tends to
emphasize on ‘organic’ learning
practices taking place at different phases
of the individual’s life where the focus
of change in the individual rather than
what he or she can do. The learning
context of each also varies. Training
tends to be associated more with
‘learning by doing’ whereas education is
more synonymous with ‘learning by
thinking’ while CPD involves more of
learning by thinking, doing and feeling.
6.
There is a general tendency to view the
concepts of education, training and CPD
as separate, with education being viewed
as occurring primarily in the school
system and system of higher vocational
education.
Training is viewed as
conducted by specific companies or
organisations to meet a particular need
which
is
often
occupationally
differentiated. In many training cases,
the employee is not selected unless he or
she is fully educated for the job prior to
applying for it; training is job specific
and many other learning activities are
not the employers concern.
Much
training, development and CPD is
mostly conducted on-the-job or through
self-directed
models,
manual
or
curriculum.
The distinction between education,
training, development and CPD is
frequently a function of their use. Within
the context of the development and
improvement of the Malaysian built
environment human resource, this may
be part of the educational endeavour, but
may equally comprise an element of an
industry level or in-house management
training or CPD programme. It may be
argued that the debate about the
similarities or differences between
education, training, development and
CPD is primarily too hypothetical to be
significant. However, in the real
implementation process there is a
tendency to polarise them especially
when identifying parties, what they
should do, especially when structuring
the provisions for the human resource.
In the final analysis absolute definitions
are not really helpful in understanding
the role of educators, trainers, and CPD
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Need for a holistic view
As people and technology changes, the
scope of professions is fast changing,
distorting boundaries separating job and
professions. It cannot be assumed that
organizational or industrial CPD,
educational and training programmes
can adequately be covered along
traditional mode anymore.
The
complexity, quantity and quality of
knowledge, skills and competency have
changed so much within the last decade,
exacerbated by the speed at which
information
is
transferred
and
exchanged. Employees must now cope
simultaneously with large databases,
integrated management and information
systems as well as traditional manual
systems. This tends to challenge the
idea that places education first, training
second, development follows and so on,
on the justification that in the
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Zuhairuse Md Darus, Fadzil Hassan, Masran Saruwono,
Zaidi Omar, Zulkiflee Samad, Fadhil Muhamad,
Noraziah Mohammad
information technology age now the
human resource can now adapt to
changes in a much shorter period of time
than before (Hammet and Pettigrew,
1994).
training and CPD as an integrated
process and as a whole, and bonded
together with sound understanding of
learning concepts.
The view that CPD, education and
training as separate is now getting to be
more outdated as they no longer have
clear boundaries that they once did. The
distinction is further blurred when one
considers the increasing pressures on
employees to be more ‘self-dynamic’ by
being productive, innovative, and change
orientated. CPD, education and training
providers in the Malaysian built
environment should start to be
concerned with issues of relevance and
practicality in terms of what they
cooperatively provide.
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