Beyond the Yates paradigm: the study of Western esotericism between counterculture and new complexity (2001)

BEYOND THE YATES PARADIGM: THE STUDY OF WESTERN ESOTERICISM BETWEEN COUNTERCULTURE AND NEW COMPLEXITY1 WOUTERJ. HANEGRAAFF 1. Two Revolutions The study of western esotericism finds itself in the middle of a process of academic professionalization and institutionalization2. Before addressing some problems connected with this development, and as an introduction to them, I would like to draw a parallel which may seem surprising at first sight. It is well known that the turbulent period of the 1960s produced, among many other things, the so-called sexual revolution: a complex social phenomenon with wide-ranging effects, including the emergence of the academic study of sexuality and sex-related problems in the context of new disciplines such as gender studiesj. While this revolution has not led to the sexually liberated culture once predicted by its defenders, it did succeed in breaking the social taboo on sex as a subject of discussion, in the academy and in society as a whole4. New disciplines such as gender studies have flourished since the 1960s, and there can be no doubt that any attempt to curtail or suppress scholarly discussion and research related to sexuality would nowadays be rejected by academics as an unacceptable infringement on intellectual freedom. Parallel to the sexual revolution, the countercultural ferment of the 1960s produced a popular revolution of religious consciousness, with widespread interest in western esotericism as one of its major manifestations5. As will be ' This article is a stronglyrevisedversionof a paper presentedat Reed College(Portland, Oregon)on April 5, 2000. I would like to thankAntoineFaivre,Hans ThomasHakl and Olav Hammerfor their criticalcommentson earlierversions. 2Faivre,& Voss,'WesternEsotericismand the Scienceof Religions';Faivre,'Avant-Propos'; 'Esoterik';id., 'Esoterikin Hanegraaff,'Introduction';id., 'SomeRemarks';Neugebauer-Wolk, der frthen Neuzeit'. ' For a historicaloverview,seeAllyn,MakeLove,not War. 4 See e.g. Lehigh, 'What you didn't know': in spite of 'the conservativebacklashagainst erotic excess', a lastinglegacyof the sexualrevolutionis a 'cultural candorthat hasn't gone away'. An excellentrecent exampleis the Clinton impeachmentprocess,duringwhich even vocaldefendersof "moralvalues"did not shrinkfromhavinggraphicsexualdetailspublishedon the Internet. 5 Notethat the emergenceof a "new religiousconsciousness"sincethe 1960s(e.g. Glock& Bellah, The New ReligiousConsciousness)is not synonymouswith the emergenceof a new 6 seen, this development happened to coincide with the emergence of a new, thoroughly academic interest in the so-called "Hermetic Tradition" of the Renaissance. This domain of research had long been neglected by historians, due to its strong connections with "magic" and "the occult" in western culture: domains of human activity which were felt to be particularly unworthy of serious academic research 6. To some extent this attitude changed after the middle of the 1960s, but while the "Hermetic Tradition" did gain some recognition as a domain of academic investigation, scholarly attention remained limited essentially to early modem history and was dominated by research agendas concentrating on the relevance of hermeticism to the history of science and philosophy. The study of western esotericism generally - from the Renaissance to the present, and from a multidisciplinary perspective including the study of religion and other disciplines in the humanities and the social sciences - remained curiously neglected'. The two revolutions of the 1960s and their related fields of research have more in common than one might think. Sex and "the occult" are both subjects invoking strong emotions and feelings of curiosity, and the secret attraction that they hold for many cannot be easily admitted in polite company. The social taboos on both domains have deep roots in dominant traditions of Christian theology; and the witchcraft persecutions of the 16th and 17th centuries furnish particularly clear examples of how closely "sex and the occult" could be linked in the Christian imagination'. In the gradual process of secularizapopularesotericism,for two reasons.Firstly,the former also includesa wide varietyof new religiousmovements(NRMs)and trendswith no particularconnectionto westernesotericism NRMs, easternmissionarymovements,and so on); (for examplemany Christian-evangelical secondly,the emergenceof this popular"new religiousconsciousness"duringthe 1960sis essentiallya socialphenomenon,whereascontemporarywesternesotericismas one of its major subdomainsis primarilydefinedand set apartnot by the natureof its socialmanifestationsbut by the nature of its beliefs.It is only fromthe perspectiveof intellectualhistorythat western esotericismin general,includingits contemporarymanifestationsin the social contextof the "newreligiousconsciousness",can be demarcatedas a specificdomainin the historyof religions - which obviouslydoesnot meanthat social-sciencetheoriesand approachescannotor should not be appliedto it! (see discussionin Hanegraaff,'EmpiricalMethod',esp. 112-113,117-119) 6 A classicexampleis GeorgeSarton,Introductionto the Historyof ScienceI, 19:'The historian of sciencecannotdevotemuchattentionto the studyof superstitionand magic,that is, of unreason ...Humanfollybeingat onceunprogressive,unchangeable,and unlimited,its studyis a hopelessundertaking'. 7 In this articleI will not addressthe delicateproblemof the definitionand demarcationof "westernesotericism"(aboutwhichseee.g. Hanegraaff,'On the Construction';cf. alsothe contributionby CaroleFrosio in this issue of Aries),but refer simplyto the short descriptionof currentsin the colophonof thisjournal(see under"EditorialPolicy"). 8 Seee.g. the succinctdiscussionin Chambers,Sexand the Paranormal,73-93.The connection has not remainedlimitedto the imaginationof outsiders:its was perhapsinevitablethat not a fewoccultistsin the wakeof the Enlightenment wouldcometo focuspreciselyon the combina- 7 tion since the 18th century-including the emancipation of scholarly research from the influence of theological doctrine-the 1960s marked a decisive watershed : the moral and religious values of traditional Christianity came to be questioned and revised to a hitherto unprecedented extent, thus paving the way for the essentially secular consciousness of contemporary Europeans and Americans9. As part of this process, the taboo on gender studies and other sexrelated disciplines was successfully and permanently lifted. In contrast, the taboo on academic research of western esotericism remained firmly in place throughout the 1970s and 1980s. As far as academic recognition is concerned, the study of western esotericism therefore made a false start during the 1960s, and in what follows I will provide some suggestions about why this happened. My argument rests upon a distinction between three parallel but mutually interacting developments, which will be discussed one by one: firstly the religionist-countercultural approach to religion associated with Eranos, secondly the academic study of "the Hermetic Tradition" in the wake of Frances Yates, and thirdly the various mixtures of these two in popular perceptions of hermeticism and western esotericism since the 1960s. I will argue that the academic professionalization of the study of western esotericism requires us to overcome the discipline's double (religionist-countercultural and "Yatesian") heritage, in favor of a new "post-Yatesian" perspective. II. Three Currents of Thought Eranos, Religionism, and the Counterculture The first consistent attempts at breaking the academic taboo on western esotericism as a subject of research were made in the countercultural climate of the 1960s'°, and the heritage ofthese projects is still with us. Martin Green has traced the roots of the "counterculture" back to Ascona in Switzerland before World War II", and his thesis is confirmed by recent studies such as Steven tion of sex and magicin theireffortsto developalternativesto establishedChristianity.This is a major themein Godwin'sgroundbreakingTheosophicalEnlightenment. 9 Contraryto the so-called"secularizationthesis",it has becomeever moreevidentthat contemporarysecularconsciousnessis quitecompatiblewithreligiousbelief.On secularizationas a processresultingin religioustransformationand creativeinnovation,see Hanegraaff,'Defining Religion';for a detaileddiscussionof NewAgereligionas basedupona secularizedesotericism, see id., NewAgeReligion(part 3). '° On the "prehistory"of the disciplinesee Hanegraaff,'Introduction',viii-x. " Green,Mountainof Truth. 8 Wasserstrom's Religion after Religion 12 .When the famous Eranos meetings were first organized in Ascona, in the fateful year 1933, the town was already known for its bohemian atmosphere strongly influenced by the dionysianism of the cultural avant-garde'3. While the founders of Eranos were not sympathetic to this particular perspective (associated with Monte Verita) their own type of counterculturalism had clear connections to Graf Hermann Keyserling's Schule der Weisheit: a forum rather similar to Eranos in inspiration, and which had run in Darmstadt from 1920 to 1930'4. Eranos was never officially presented as the continuation of the Schule der Weisheit; but after it had become impossible for Keyserling to continue his forum due to the NationalSocialist takeover, the Eranos meetings in neutral Switzerland presented themselves as an obvious alternative". In his Reisetagebuch eines Philosophen ( I 918), Keyserling listed the contemporary currents which inspired his vision of the future of religion: Theo-andAnthroposophy, NewThought,ChristianScience,the NewGnosis,Vivekananda's Vedantism,the Neo-Persianand Indo-IslamicEsotericism,notto mentionthoseof the Hindus and the Buddhists, the Bahai system, the professed faith of the various spiritualisticand occultistcircles,and even the freemasons,all start from essentiallythe samebasis, and theirmovementsare certainto have a greaterfuturethan officialChristianityl6. As is well known, an essentially similar mixture has continued to be characteristic of the international phenomenon of popular Jungism, based upon the work and inspiration of the great Swiss psychiatrist whose spirit hovered over the Eranos meetings and who has become a godfather of the secularized eso- 11Wasserstrom, as Religionafter Religion,102.It shouldbe notedthat "counterculturalism" understoodhere and throughoutthis article is not linkedto any specificpoliticalorientation. Whilethe countercultureof the 1960swith its anti-bourgeoissentimentstendedto be left wing, Eranos participantstendedto be politicallyconservative. " On Eranossee alsoHolz,'ERANOS';and we are awaitingthe forthcomingmonographby HansThomasHakl. '4 Plus one additionalmeetingin Formentorin 1931.Jung met the organizerofEranos, Olga Frobe,at Keyserling'sSchuleder Weisheitin 1930.Noll,Jung Cult,94, saysthat 'many' of the lecturersin Keyserling'sschoolalso beganto appearin the newvenueof Eranos.Actuallythe numberremainedlimitedto four:Leo Baeck,Carl GustavJung,ErwinRousselleand Gerardus van der Leeuw. 11SeeHakl'sforthcomingbookon Eranos:followingthe meetingin Formentor(Mallorca)in Meditationen,and 1931,in 1932Keyserlingneededall his time for his book Südamerikanische in 1933it was too late.In his book,Hakl concludes:'Eranos,das 1933in der neutralenSchweiz begann,kam also geradezeitgerecht,auch wennman nicht von einertatsachlichenWeitergabe derselbengeistigen"Fackel"sprechenkann' (Hakl,personalcommunication). '6 Keyserling,Reisetagebuch,140 (but note that his positive evalution does not keep KeyserlingfromcriticizingTheosophyon the pagesthat follow). 9 tericism nowadays known as NewAge". A continuing interest in religious "alternatives" to official Christianity is evident from Jung and Eranos to popular Jungism and the New Age movement after the war. Eranos has also been at the origin of a distinct style of religious studies usually referred to as "religionism"' 8, and which has achieved enormous popularity in the United States after World War II. This perspective, associated in the United States with Mircea Eliade and the "Chicago School" of religious studies, has come under increasing attack along with the waning of the counterculture after the 1970s'9; but significantly, its basic discourse has continued to find a wide audience outside the academy, due to extremely popular authors such as Joseph Campbell and many lesser writers more or less influenced by Jungism. As Wasserstrom remarks, speaking of the end of the 20th century: 'the so-called New Age is a phenomenon entirely outside the academy, and it is the New Age to which much of the spirit of History of Religions has fled'2°. The counterculturalism of Eranos is therefore of central importance to one of the most influential trends in the 20th-century academic study of religion, on the one hand, and to a new type of popular religiosity, on the other. But to prevent too hasty generalizations, some distinctions need to be made. In my book on the New Age movement I distinguished between western esotericism on the one hand, and occultism on the other. Occultism I defined as comprising 'all attempts by esotericists to come to terms with a disenchanted world or, alternatively, by people in general to make sense of esotericism from the perspective of a disenchanted secular world'2' . Occultism in this sense might also be referred to as "secularized esotericism", and is characterized by hybrid mixtures between two worldviews that would logically seem to " See Hanegraafl;; NewAgeReligion,496-513.By popularJungismI do not primarilymean the academicand therapeuticreceptionof Jung's analyticpsychologybut, rather,the internationalgrassrootsmovementthat has 'formedaroundthe symbolicimageof Jung' and takesthe form,e.g. of `innumerable workshops,televisionshows,best-sellingbooks,and videocassettes' (Noll,Jung Cult,6-7). 18A general overview and discussion [in Dutch] is provided by J. G. Platvoet, 'Het religionisme'. 19See e.g. Allen, 'Is nothingSacred?'.A good impressionof the currentreligionism-reductionism debate can be gleanedfrom Idinopulos& Yonan,Religionand Reductionism.For a criticaldiscussion(arguingfor historico-empirical methodologiesas an alternativeto both religionismand reductionism)and an applicationto the study of westernesotericism,see Hanegraaff,'EmpiricalMethod'. 20Wasserstrom,Religionafter Religion,238. 21Hanegraaff,NewAgeReligion,422. Obviouslythis is an etic definition,not to be confused with variousemic meaningsincludingthe commonuse of I 'occultismein the wakeof Eliphas Levi(cf. Faivre,'Questionsof Terminology',8). 10 exclude one another: a traditional western esoteric worldview rooted in a framework of correspondences and occult causality, on the one hand, and a modem "scientific" worldview based on instrumental causality, on the other. The New Age movement, I argued, is clearly an occultist movement in this sense; other examples include spiritualism, modem theosophy, and the New Thought movement. It is important to recognize, however, that although New Agers tend to interpret Carl Gustav Jung's writings from such occultist perspectives, Jung himself was not an occultist in the above sense. His theory of synchronicity as a "non-causal connecting principle", explicitly based upon a traditional esoteric worldview of correspondences opposed to instrumental causality, reflects his adherence to a traditional type of esotericism with deep roots in German Naturphilosophie22. Steven Wasserstrom has provocatively argued that the fundamental perspectives of the great Erano.s protagonists Gershom Scholem, Mircea Eliade and Henry Corbin likewise reveal deep roots in and affinities with various traditions of (non-occultist) western esotericism, and he goes as far as concluding that 'they institutionalized, in the academic study of religion, an original esoterism'Z3. Wasserstrom's arguments can be contested in several respects (he certainly overemphasizes Christian kabbalah and his generalizations about the influence of German Romantic illuminism, Naturphilosophie and Traditionalism need to be nuanced24), but I would argue that this does not fundamentally affect his suggestion that western esotericism is of key importance to understanding the nature and origins of the Eranos approach, and hence of religionism. In order to add nuance to the current debate about Wasserstrom's book, I suggest it is helpful here to adopt Colin Campbell's seminal concept of the "cultic milieu"25. Richard Noll's controversial presentation of Jung as the founder of a "cult" may be slightly overstated, but the legitimate core of his argument can be readily accepted by interpretingEranos as an early-intellec- 22Hanegraaff,NewAgeReligion,500-501. 23Wasserstrom,Religionafter Religion,36. za Scholem'sdebt to Christiankabbalahand GermanRomanticismis very clear (see e.g. Kilcher,Sprachtheorie,331-345; and cf. my review in ARIES22 [1999], 116-117),but the relevanceof Christiankabbalahto Corbinand Eliadeis marginalat best. For Eliade'sdebt to Traditionalismand a critiqueof Wasserstrom'sinterpretations,see Spineto'sdiscussionin the presentissueof Aries.Corbinwas attractedto Germanidealismas wellas to Swedenborg,rather than to RomanticNaturphilosophie(cf the pertinentdiscussionin Faivre,'La question',90-98; and see esp. his referenceto the highlysignificantclashof opinionbetweenCorbinand Ernst Benz,documentedin the Cahiersde I'LlniversiteSaintJean de Jerusalem2 [1976],51-76). z5Campbell,'The Cult, The Cultic Milieuand Secularization';and cf. discussionin Hanegraaff,NewAgeReligion,14-18. 11 of a modem cultic milieu26 .The participants in tual and academic-example such a milieu may have very different personal emphases-Scholem did not to share Eliade's attraction anti-historicist Traditionalism, Christian kabbalah remained marginal to Eliade, German Naturphilosophie is of little importance to Corbin, and so on-while yet sharing sufficient common ground to experience their particular spiritual perspectives as broadly compatible and mutually fruitful. Like the cultic milieu of the 1960s and 1970s, which eventually developed into the New Age movement, the cultic milieu ofEranos derived its coherence and sense of common purpose essentially from a shared pattern of culture criticism directed against the "reductionist" tendencies of the modem academy. The countercultural sentiment is perfectly expressed in Eliade's memories about Corbin's reasons for founding his "Universit6 de Saint Jean de J6rusalem" in 1974. Corbin felt that scholarsand philosopherswho do not share in [thereductionist]fallacyoughtto abandon their eagerlyacceptedsubalternpositionsin contemporaryacademiaand rebelagainstthe academicand culturaldictatorshipof "scientism","historicism",and "sociologism".Accordinglythey shouldreassembleand constitute,not a new type of "TheosophicalSociety", but a newtype of university". The crucial difference between the Eranos cultic milieu (including offshoots such as the Universite de Saint Jean de Jerusalem) and the larger cultic milieu of the 1960s and 1970s was that the former espoused a non-occultist spirituality. But this perspective, reflecting both affinity and familiarity with the nature of pre-Enlightenment esoteric traditions, inevitably came to be compromised to the extent that important elements from the highbrow Eranos vision were adopted and assimilated by the middle- and lowbrow occultist cultic milieu which would eventually become known as New Age28. 26That the contemporaryJungianmilieufrequentlyproduces"cult-like"phenomenais hard to deny,in my opinion,and is easilyaccountedfor by interpretingit as a culticmilieu;but one quite understandsthe irritationamongJungiansaboutNoll's "convenient"comparisonbetween the "Jung Cult" and the notoriousOrdre du TempleSolaire,in a much-notedNew YorkTimes article publishedeleven days after the collectivesuicide/murderof the Swiss-Canadiancult (Noll,'The Rose'). 27Eliade,'SomeNoteson TheosophiaPerenni.s',173.For a recentstatementalongthe same lines,appliedto the studyof westernesotericism,cf. Voss,'The University'. zRThesedifferencesmay be gaugede.g. by comparingthe physicistWolfgangPauli'sJungian analysisof the Kepler-Fluddpolemicand his applicationto the problemof the observer-observed relationin quantumphysics(see overviewand discussionin Westman,'Nature,Art, and Psyche' ;and for the characteristicEranos-perspectivesee e.g. Quispel,'Gnosisand Psychology'), with moreaccessiblepresentationsin bookssuch as e.g. Peat,Synchronicity, stronglypopularized versions such as Ferguson'sNew Age manifestoAquarian Conspiracy,ch. 6, and popularizationsof even such popularization(see examplesin Hanegraaff,NewAge Religion, 149-150). 12 I conclude that the counterculture was indeed bom at Ascona, but that it took more than one direction from there. These two main lines of development are closely linked to two broad religious currents in 19th/20th-century culture, which have interacted in complex ways but should not be confused. 1.The first current is ultimately rooted in Renaissance hermeticism and western esotericism but emerged by a thorough transformation of the latter under the impact of the Enlightenment and the secularization of western societyz9. This current typically compromises with 19th- and 20th-century materialism and a "mechanistic" worldview based upon instrumental causality, and may etically be referred to as occultism. Over the course of its development it has easily assimilated characteristically American currents such as New Thought, and it has continued to flourish in the popular type of mass spirituality nowadays referred to as New Age. While its enthusiasts never got tired of preaching the need for overcoming the gap between science and religion and have continued to proclaim a "scientific religion", occultism has never succeeded, even temporarily, to gain a foothold inside the academic community. Present-day enthusiasts and representatives of occultist counterculturalism may find inspiration in religionist academics such as Jung, Eliade or Joseph Campbell; but they do so on their own terms and do not necessarily appreciate, let alone adopt, these authors' non-occultist perspectives. 2. The second current has, likewise, important roots in Renaissance hermeticism and western esotericism generally; but it is characterized by rejection rather than assimilation of the Enlightenment heritage. By way of counterEnlightenment and antimodemist trajectories such as Illuminism, German Romanticism and Traditionalism, it leads right into the heart of the Eranos approach to the study of religion. Here we are dealing with a spiritual and intellectual tradition of considerable subtlety and intrinsic interest, which provided one important source of inspiration (although obviously not the only one) for some of the previous century's greatest scholars of religion. This tradition has always been intellectual rather than popular, has remained closer to traditional esotericism by favoring Romanticism and Traditionalism over the heritage of the Enlightenment and secular progress, and has remained true to its European-and particularly German - roots. It flourished in the setting of the Eranos meetings and is essential to understanding the "religionist" approach to the study of religion associated with scholars such as Jung, Eliade and Corbin. I suggest that Wasserstrom's 29See detailedanalysisin HanegraaffNewAge Religion,part Ill; and cf. Godwin,Theosophical Enlightenment. 13 presentation of the Eranos vision as reflecting an original esoterism' may be accepted if-and only if-this is understood as referring to a characteristic modem-esoteric cultic milieu. Most certainly the Eranos vision cannot be reduced to any single one of the esoteric currents that fed into it; but it indeed represents an original - i.e., creative and innovative - syncretism resulting spontaneously from intellectual group dynamics rather than from the ideology of any single current or thinker3°. Clearly the religionist approach to the study of western esotericism is itself a religious project. More precisely, it is characterized by the study of western esotericism from the spiritual perspective of a certain modern-esoteric cultic milieu. This perspective may be given an occultist slant to the extent that authors representing Eranos-style approaches are assimilated in popular nonacademic types of counterculturalism. Whenever I refer to countercultural approaches in what follows, the reader should therefore keep firmly in mind that these approaches fall into a wide spectrum containing many shades and gradations between the intellectual and often considerably profound perspectives of the best Eranos traditions, and the popular and often intellectually quite shallow ones typical of much New Age literature. Frances Yates and the Hermetic Tradition As far as academic research is concerned, the idea of a "Hermetic Tradition" dates back to 1938, when the great Renaissance specialist Paul Oskar '° This is the only pointon whichI wouldchallengeSpineto'sexcellentdiscussionof Eliade and Traditionalismin the presentissueof Aries.Spinetoexplainsveryconvincinglythat 'Traditionalistconceptsand termsare integratedby Eliadewithin a differentconceptualframework', that Eliadecriticizedthe Traditionalistson variouspoints,and that he can in no waybe considered a dogmaticfollowerof Gu6non,Evolaor Coomaraswamy. Comparedto any doctrinal-TraditionalistperspectiveEliadethereforeemergesas not a Traditionalistbut as somebodywhotook fromTraditionalismwhathe coulduse whiledisregardingthe rest (andthe sameis true, mutatis mutandis,of any other western-esotericinfluenceon the major Eranos representatives).This doesnot mean,however,that Eliadecouldnot emicallyhave consideredhimselfas in essential accordwithTraditionalism i.e. - accordingto his own idiosyncraticunderstandingof its essence rather than accordingto any doctrinalGu6nonian,Evolianor Coomaraswamian opinion.That this was indeedthe case is stronglysuggestedby Quinn'srecentlypublishedrecollectionsof his encounterswith Eliade,which he writes were markedby 'an instantaneousand mutualunderstandingof the qualitativetypethat needsno furtherexplicationto the intuitive'(Quinn,'Mircea Eliade', 149).I am not convincedby Spineto'ssuggestionthat Quinn'sperceptionof Eliadeas a kindredTraditionalistspirit reflectedmerelywishful thinking(Quinn, accordingto Spineto, 'wishedto see his "mentor"as a Traditionalist,and ... this desirewas so strongthat he did not even note the clear elementsof criticismin Eliade's referencesto Coomaraswamy').I suggest that whattheysharedwas not necessarilyanydoctrinalconviction,but merelya strongattraction to the generalspiritualperspectiveof the Traditionalists.I wouldarguethat as such, they both felt at homenot only in the sameculticmilieu,but also shareda similarTraditionalistemphasis withinthat milieu. 14 Kristeller wrote an Italian article in which he called attention to the remarkable popularity of the Corpus Hermeticum in the culture of the 1 Sth and 16th centuries3'. At first Kristeller's suggestion was picked up mostly by Italian Renaissance specialists, and in 1955 a pioneering edition of some hermetic writings from the Renaissance was published in Rome32. In Italy at least, the study of Renaissance hermeticism had now become part of academic research agendas, but there can be no doubt that the decisive international breakthrough of "the Hermetic Tradition" as a historiographical concept came in 1964, with Frances Yates' famous Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition. Yates had simply adopted her concept of "the Hermetic Tradition" from Italian Renaissance historiography; but as a gifted and imaginative writer she was able to present it to her readers in a manner that struck them as a revelation. An entire forgotten tradition, which had been marginalized and suppressed by mainstream historiography, suddenly seemed to have been brought to light. In mainstream academic discussions up to the present, the influence of Yates' work has remained limited largely to its relevance to the history of science and philosophy. In an influential article published in 196733, she went beyond her book on Bruno in making far-reaching claims about the Hermetic Tradition as an essential, almost causal factor in the emergence of the scientific revolution, and this led to vehement academic debates all through the 1970s and beyond34. Nowadays the extreme idea of the Hermetic Tradition as a causal factor in the emergence of modem science is no longer accepted by historians, although weaker versions remain widely current; but the debate fueled by Yates' provocative theses had the highly positive effect that the importance of the "hermetic" dimension in the 17th-century scientific and intellectual discourse is now generally recognized35. As a result we now have a or not directly indebted to Yates' considerable body of solid research-either 31Kristeller,'Marsilio Ficino e LodovicoLazzarelli'.For the bibliographicmaterialson which Kristellerbased himself, see his monumentalSupplementumFicinianumII, lvii-lviii, cxxix-cxxxi.Outsidethe academiccontextreferencesto "the hermetictradition"occur already earlier;see e.g. Evola,La tradi=ioneermetica. 32Garinet al., Testiumanistici. 33Yates,'The HermeticTradition'. ;4 The debate began alreadya year before(McGuire& Rattansi,'Newton and the Pipesof Pan') but gatheredmomentumfrom 1970 on, due to Mary Hesse'ssharp rejectionof Yates' views(Hesse,'Hermeticismand Historiography').Since 1977participantsin the debatecommonly referredto the "Yatesthesis", but this thesis is actuallyan inventionby Yates' critic Robert S. Westmanrather than by Yates herself (see Westman,'Magical Reform'; and cf. Schmitt,'Reappraisals'and Copenhaver,review). 35Seethe balancedoverviewsand discussionsby Copenhaver,'NaturalMagic', and Cohen, ScientificRevolution,169-183. 15 on the relations between western-esoteric currents and the writings-focusing development of modem science; and in many ways the critical debate which has developed in this domain may be taken as a model for other discipline©6. Frances Yates was not a religionist and had no relations with Eranos and its "cultic milieu". However, she created a grand narrative about "the Hermetic Tradition" which happened to be tailor-made, as will be seen, for the spiritual agendas of counterculturalists. This grand narrative has two main characteristics, both of which are deeply problematic. 1.Firstly, "the Hermetic Tradition" emerges from Yates' writings as a quasiautonomous traditional counterculture or undercurrent fighting a battle on two fronts: against Christianity, on the one hand, and against a rationalist/ scientific worldview, on the other. Already soon after her book on Bruno, specialists warned against the danger of simplification inherent to such a perspective"; and the progress of research has demonstrated that these warnings were justified. At closer scrutiny, none of Frances Yates' main protagonists of "the Hermetic Tradition" can really be reduced to a "hermeticist" or "magus". Marsilio Ficino was a devout Christian neoplatonist with great interest in the hermetic writings, but he was also strongly influenced by scholastic philosophy and much else beside'8. '6 I certainlydo not intendto state, or even suggest,that all this researchemergedstraight fromYates'writingsor was cruciallyindebtedto her approach.WhatI am claimingis that such researchbecamepartof a broadtrendof revisionisthistoryof scienceand philosophy,whichhas owed its breakthroughto academicrespectabilityto Yatesmore than anyoneelse. Again,if I concentrateon the "Yatesparadigm"in the rest of this article,this is not to claimthat her approach is still basic to currentresearchin the historyof scienceand philosophy(althoughthis may well be the case indirectly:for example,even a recentauthoritativediscussionof Bruno's scientificthoughtsuch as Gatti,GiordanoBruno,cannotavoidarguingwithYatesfromthe very first page and throughoutthe book).Rather,the centralimportanceof the Yatesparadigmin my discussionderivesfromthe factthat it remainspredominantin how "the HermeticTradition"and, by implication,westernesotericismgenerally-tends to be perceivedby scholarsin other disciplinesof the humanitiesas well as by the generalpublic. 37See e.g. the irritatedremarksby EugenioGarin (one of the Italian pioneersin the field) about the lack of rigor and precisionin currentdiscussionsabout "hermeticism",and about Yates'tendencyto stretchher conceptof "the HermeticTradition"to an extentwhereit becomes as all encompassingas elusive(Garin,'Divagazioniermetiche').Aboutthe generalproblematics of tripartite"reason-faith-gnosis" typologies,cf. Hanegraaff,NewAge Religion,517-521;id., 'On the Construction', 19-21, 42; and Van den Broek & Hanegraaff,'Introduction',vii-x (adoptedby, e.g., Coudert,Impactof the Kabbalah,xiii-xiv).As I arguedon these occasions, such a tripartitetypologycan be a usefulheuristictool as longas it is used strictlyas an idealtypicalconstruct;understoodas a descriptionof historicaldevelopmentsit can onlyleadto gross simplifications. 38See Copenhaver'sseries of articles'ScholasticPhilosophy','RenaissanceMagic', 'lamblichus,Synesius...', and 'HermesTrismegistus';but cf. Hanegraaff,'Sympathyor the Devil', ', about Ficino'sDe hita CoelitusComparandaas a crypto-commentary on Asclepius23-24/3738. 16 Cornelius Agrippa was not just a "Renaissance magus" but also a humanist Hermetism and magic are certheologian and a sceptical philosopher. tainly of great importance in Giordano Bruno, but he was equally interested in questions of strict philosophy of science related to Copernicanism4o. Likewise, the complexity of a figure such as John Dee (one of Yates' favorites) suffers from being reduced to the straitjacket of "the Renaissance Ironically, one of the purest examples of a Christian hermetist in the Renaissance, Lodovico Lazzarelli, had been central to early pre-Yates discussions of the hermetic tradition, but was almost completely neglected by Yates herself and forgotten by her followers42. In short: there was certainly much interest in the hermetic philosophy and related currents during the Renaissance, and Yates rightly called attention to this, but there was no such thing as an autonomous or quasi-autonomous "Hermetic Tradition". 2. Secondly, Yates' approach is characterized by a heavy emphasis on modernist narratives of secular progressA3. Much of the fascination of her writings relied on the intriguing paradox of an essentially non-progressive and scientifically backward tradition of "magic" that nevertheless - according to Yates - had been the essential impulse and motor of the scientific revolution and thus of social and cultural progreSS?4 Her . background assumption is that "magic" is essentially conservative and static while "science" is progressive (whereas actually "magical" traditions are subject to historical change and development no less than science, philosophy or religion). And this assumption is closely linked to her view of the relation between Middle Ages and Renaissance: like most of her contemporaries, Yates greatly underestimated the continuities between the two, in favor of a sharp opposition between the stagnant "Dark Ages" (with their 'old dirty magic 141and superstition) and the Renaissance as the triumphant dawn of progress and science. Within this modernist framework, her crucial innovation was to suggest that genuine science emerged not simply by "breaking free from 39 Seee.g. Vander Poel,CorneliusAgrippa. See Gatti, GiordanoBruno. 4' Compare Peter French's thoroughlyYatesianJohn Dee with the much more complex thinkeremergingfrome.g. Clulee,John Deenatural Philosophy. 'z See Hanegraaff,'Sympathyor the Devil' and (in more detail)Hanegraaff& Bouthoorn, LodovicoLazzarelli(forthcoming). 4' This modernistframeworkis evidentfromthe firstsentenceofCiordanoBruno('The great forwardmovementsof the Renaissance...') to the final chapter (with typical Enlightenment rhetoricon p. 432: `... the seventeenthcenturyrepresentsthat momentoushour in the historyof man in whichhis feet beganto tread securelyin the pathswhichhave since led him unerringly onwardsto that masteryovernaturein modemscience ...'). See esp. Yates,GiordanoBruno,432-455 and ; id., 'HermeticTradition'. as Yates,GiordanoBruno,80. 17 magic" on its own terms, but that the essential step leading towards it had been made by the "magi" themselves46. This thesis has led to vehement debates, to which I referred above. For our present purposes, we only need to note that Yates' thesis is controversial only as long as it is seen in the context of a modernist narrative. In "post"-modemist framework S4', which are not wedded to ideologies of progress, it loses its explosive connotations. Today we no longer need to legitimate the study of hermeticism by presenting it as "progressive": while the complex relationship between hermeticism and the rise of modem scientific thinking is obviously of great historical interest, western-esoteric currents deserve serious attention whether they happen to be progressive or not. So in Yates' writings we have, firstly, the picture of the "Hermetic Tradition" as a quasi-autonomous counterculture of magic and mysticism, pitted against the dominant powers of church and rationality; and secondly, we have a modernist set of assumptions about science and progress, which underlies her presentation of this Hermetic Tradition. The combination of these two results in a "grand narrative" about hermeticism, which I will refer to as the "Yates paradigm". This paradigm may be presented explicitly or assumed implicitly, and it can be encountered in diluted versions with or without mention of Frances Yates. In itself this narrative is quite compatible with the academic enterprise. We are simply dealing with a research paradigm from the 1960s which now, several decades later, needs to be replaced under the pressure of new research (which relativizes the simplistic picture of autonomy and continuity) and new theoretical perspectives (many of which, following the collapse of the great ideologies, criticize modernist assumptions to various extents?1). It should be superfluous to add that even ifYates' books now need to be criticized on many points, they are deservedly considered classics of the academic study of westem esotericism. To her great and lasting credit, Frances Yates opened up the doors for a new field of academic research, while making highly original con46Yates,'The HermeticTradition',272: 'the Hermeticattitudetowardthe cosmosand toward man's relationto the cosmos ...was, I believe,the chiefstimulusof that newturningtowardthe world which, appearingfirst as Renaissancemagic,was to turn into seventeenth-century science'. And on p. 273 she writesabout the Hermetictexts,Neo-Platonism,Pythagoro-Platonic and Kabbalisticcurrents,astrologyand alchemythat 'these werethe Renaissanceforceswhich turnedmen's mindsin the directionout of whichthe scientificrevolutionwas to come'. 47HereI use the term "post-modem"in a limitedsenseonly,i.e. as referringto an approach whichquestionsthe grand narrativesunderpinningmodernistideologies. 48For example,compareYates'sapproachto Renaissance magicwith poststructuralistperspectivessuch as developedin e.g. Tomlinson,Musicin RenaissanceMagic(and cf my review in ARIES22 [1999], 118-129). 18 tributions to it herself. But while Yates herself wrote as a historian and never moved beyond the pale of scholarship, her grand narrative could very easily be interpreted in a non-academic fashion congenial to countercultural agendas of spiritual reform. This process now needs to be looked at in somewhat more detail. Eranos meets Hermeticism: Countercultural approaches to Western Esotericism. In the wake of Theodore Roszak's well-known manifesto published in 1968"9, the counterculture has been associated mostly with the youth culture of the 1960s. However, it is important to emphasize not only that (as we have seen) counterculturalism is a phenomenon with much earlier roots, but also that, far from having vanished during the 1970s, it has - again, like the sexual revolution-become a permanent feature of contemporary culture. To understand countercultural interpretations of hermeticism and western esotericism, it cannot be sufficiently stressed that this phenomenon is not only - and not even primarily-a scholarly one reflected in learned writings, but relies on popular sentiments which are widely diffused throughout our culture and manifest in a variety of ways. We have to think of popular media such as journals, pulp fiction, best-selling "mystery" books, TV documentaries, multifarious websites, and so on. Essentially such media use historiography in the interest of popular mythology; and their central theme is that of the suppressed alternative tradition. I will argue that the Hermetic Tradition has become one recurring element in this popular type of counterculturalism, unfortunately to the detriment of its academic reputation. The popular success of Frances Yates' book on Bruno has much to do with its perfect timing: published in 1964, it fell in fertile soil among those who sympathized with countercultural agendas of spiritual reform. It is easy to see why: Yates' master-narrative made "the Hermetic Tradition" look precisely like a traditional counterculture rebelling against the forces of the establishment. The Renaissance magi had emphasized personal religious experience against the dogmas of the Church; and they had tried to bring "the imagination to power" (1'imagination au pouvoir) against the cold "reign of quantity" associated with mechanistic science. The dominant powers of church and science had joined forces in suppressing the Hermetic Tradition, and thus the heroic attempts at social and spiritual reform by Pico della Mirandola, Bruno, Dee, the Rosicrucians and their spiritual heirs had been cruelly suppressed. In the context of such a narrative, Giordano Bruno-burned at the stake in 1600 49TheodoreRoszak,Makingof a CounterCulture. 19 - emerges as the supreme martyr of a magical/mystical "enchanted" worldview, pitted against the sinister dogmatism and closed-mindedness of the establishment. From a countercultural perspective the subversive implications of such a narrative are irresistible: it implicates all the forces of the Establishment whether religious or scientific - in what looks like a huge historical conspiracy against the spiritual counterculture of the west. That counterculture could now be given a name: the Hermetic Tradition; or alternatively (and even more attractively) the Hermetic Tradition could be presented as one link in a larger chain of gnosis - together with other suppressed alternatives such as gnosticism, the Cathars, or the Templar tradition. In such a context, Yates' paradoxical interpretation of magic as a force of progress added a touch of genius. It suggested that the hermeticists and defenders of magic had not been locked in the mentality of a superstitious past but had been the real champions of progress all along! In ridiculing them as obscurantists and suppressing them as heretics, the establishment had actually been suppressing free inquiry and experiment. And apparently the implied pattern of suppression had not stopped at the end of the Renaissance: didn't the very novelty of Yates' argument reveal a centuries-long "conspiracy of silence" about the existence and significance of the Hermetic Tradition? Mainstream historiography had dismissed hermetic magic as mere pseudo-science, it had ignored the hermeticists or caricatured them as superstitious simpletons, and it had suppressed the evidence that many of the greatest scientists had been profoundly interested in the occult sciences5°. In short: Yates' master-narrative exposed mainstream accounts of science and progress as ideological constructs by means of which the establishment had attempted-and was still attempting-to suppress and silence its rivals. All the basic elements of such a narrative can actually be found - explicitly formulated or clearly implied - in Yates writings themselves. But crucial to countercultural interpretations of Yates' work was the addition of an extra element : the suggestion that the magical and "enchanted" worldview of "the Her50The "conspiracyof silence"-aspectcan be acceptedas essentiallycorrect(cf. Van den Broek & Hanegraaff,'Preface', vii-ix). Interpretationsof hermeticmagic and alchemy as "pseudo-science"(see, e.g., the perspectivesof Shumaker,NaturalMagic,or Vickers,'On the Functionof Analogy')are problematic,in my view,not becausethese phenomenaare actually "real" sciencebut becausethey are rootedin religiousworldviewswhich are misunderstoodif one anachronistically judgesthemaccordingto the criteriaof modemscience(seee.g. the excellent discussionson this point in Simon,Scienceset savoirs).That greatscientistssuch as Newton and Boylewerehighlyinterestedin hermeticpursuitssuch as alchemyis no longerin any doubt (see e.g. Dobbs,Janus Face of Genius;Principe,AspiringAdept);but obviouslyone shouldbe waryof popularexaggerationssuggesting,e.g.,that "Newtonwasreallyan alchemist". 20 metic Tradition" might now be revived by way of a "new renaissance", and that scholars should see it as their task to stimulate such endeavors of cultural and spiritual reform. This idea is widespread in all types of counterculturalism - from the highbrow Eranos vision to its popular-occultist derivations-, but in it is not to be found the writings of Frances Yates. Throughout her book on Bruno, Yates emphasized that the authority of the Hermetic Tradition had been based upon a huge error in dating; and accordingly she claimed - quite mistakenly, by the way - that Isaac Casaubon's correct dating of the Corpus Hermeticum in 1614 had essentially spelt the end of the Hermetic Tradition51. She would have found it an odd idea that hermeticism-based on noble and beautiful but evidently untenable assumptions-would or could be revived in modern society; Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition might have pointed the way towards "genuine science", but their central beliefs were mistaken and their worldview belonged to the past. This is where countercultural interpretations were more optimistic. The idea of the Hermetic Tradition as a counterculture suppressed and maginalized by the mainstream was adopted, and so was the idea of its progressive nature. But while Yates emphasized the hermetic "will to operate" combined with an optimistic view of man as the two crucial elements pointing the way towards the development of "genuine science", countercultural interpretations added an extra element: the magically "enchanted" worldview of hermeticism itself. They suggested that the suppression of the Hermetic Tradition, and the ensuing conspiracy of silence, had caused western culture to get trapped in the spiritual dead alley of excessive rationalism and the mechanization of the world picture. Genuine progress now required a "re-enchantment of the world"52 and a rediscovery of the sacred53. The goal was a "new renaissance" 5' Yates,GiordanoBruno, esp. 398-399.In a review(Isis 55 no. 180[1964],389-391)Allen G. Debusremarkedthat the first half of the 17th centurywas actuallymarkedby a heightened interestin the occultphilosophy,andYatesherself lateracceptedthis criticismasjustified('HermeticTradition',272). Debussuggestedthat the traditiondid 'collapse'after 1660,but in fact RalphCudworth'scriticismof Casaubonin his influentialThe TrueIntellectualSystemof the Universe(1678)causedthe authorityof the Corpus llermeticumto remainpartly intact even duringthe 18th century(seeAssmann,"'Hen kai pan"', 38-52, esp. 44-45),and the earlyEnlightenmentactuallywitnessedan unprecedentedfloodof popularhermeticliteraturein some countries(Kemper,'AufgekltnerHermetismus',esp. 149). 52For programmaticstatementssee e.g. MorrisBerman,Reenchantmentof the Worldand Comingto our Senses(with discussionof Yatesand the HermeticTraditionin ch. 7, "Science and Magic"). 5?SeeHanegraaff, 'DefiningReligion',esp.364-368and 373-375for a discussionof howthe conceptof "the sacred" - derivedessentiallyfromEliade-has developedas a popularalternative for "religion"in popularconsciousnesssincethe 1960s,and how this reflectsa patternof culturecriticismdirectedagainstthe disenchantedsecularworld. 21 of cultural and spiritual renewal, in which man would overcome his alienation from nature and the sacred, and science would no longer be divorced from spirituality. The leading ideas of the Eranos-tradition (expressed not only by the founding members, of course, but also by authors in the same tradition such as e.g. Joseph Campbell, James Hillman, Robert Avens54 )were tailormade for an approach to hermeticism and western esotericism along these lines. Yates' Hermetic Tradition was already congenial to religionism due to its emphasis on personal religious experience, the power of myths and symbols, and the religious imagination; and from a religionist-countercultural perspective it was natural to add the idea of "the sacred" as basic to a trans-denominational spirituality (easily combined with the esoteric concept of aphilosophia perennis), and the ideological subtext of a battle against the values of the modem world in the name of spiritual reform. Countercultural approaches along such lines have mostly presented the Hermetic Tradition within the wider context of a history of gnosis. From the suppression of the gnostics in late antiquity and of the Cathars and the Templars in the middle ages, a continuous line could be drawn to the suppression of the Hermetic Tradition in the Renaissance. A history of gnosis understood as the spiritual counterculture of the West became synonymous, therefore, with a history of suppressed alternative traditionsss. III. Two Academic Chairs Western Esotericism at the École Pratique des Hautes Etudes, 5e section. Against the backgrounds sketched above, let us now look at how the study of western esotericism has developed in the academy. It is significant that we owe 54Campbell'scounterculturalism emergesveryclearlyin e.g.the fourthvolumeof his"Masks and his ideasachievedmasspopularitydueto a seriesof TV of God"series,CreativeMythology; interviewswith Bill Moyers(seeCampbell& Moyers,Powerof Myth).AmongHillman'smany and influentialbooks,of particularimportanceis his Re-visioningPsychology(witha longfinal chapteron the HermeticTradition,dependentnotjust on Yatesbut on the Warburgschoolgenerally). Like l?illman,Avenslooks at what he calls "gnosis"from a psychologicalperspective: 'Gnosisis an ancientnamefor depthpsychology'(TheNewGnosis,5). ss The counterculturalinterpretationof gnosis,hermeticismand westernesotericismhas been expressedin manyforms.A characteristicexampleof a popularTV documentary,whichlargely reliesfor its attractionon counterculturalsentiments,is TobiasChurton'sChannel4 production The Gnostics(also publishedin book form in 1987). Best-selling"mystery"books such as Baigent& Leigh's HolyBloodand the Holy Grail or Picknett& Prince,TemplarRevelation typicallyrely on the myth of the suppressedalternativewith an emphasison Christianheresy. MoreseriousexamplesincludeAmericanjournalssuch as Alexandriaand the (recentlydiscontinued) popular periodicalGnosis; or publishers such as David Fideler's Phanes press or Hillman'sSpringpubl.(whichalso bringsout a journalby the samename). 22 the world's first university chair specifically devoted to the study of this domain to the personal initiative of Henry Corbin-one of the central figures of the Eranos approach, and undoubtedly the most explicitly esoteric intellectual of the three scholars analyzed by Wasserstrom. Corbin was Directeur d'ttudes (i.e. professor) at the prestigious French institute for the study of religions, the 5th section of the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Études in Paris, at a time when, in 1964, the Chair for "history of scientific ideas in modem europe" hitherto held by Alexandre Koyr6 became vacant. Since there were no suitable candidates in that field, the Chair had to be taken by someone from another area of specialization. The choice fell on Franqois Secret, a scholar who had already a great reputation as a historian of Christian kabbalah. Secret was appointed in the same year, and the Chair now had to be given a new title. When this subject was discussed during a meeting of the members of the 5th section, Henry Corbin suggested that (given Secret's area of specialization) the Chair might appropriately have the term "esotericism" in its title. The result was a vote for the title "History of Christian Esotericism"56. It may be noted here that Secret, unlike Corbin, was not a scholar with religionist leanings but a representative of the strict historical school. Much later-in 1979he was invited to give a lecture at Eranos, but he proved not to be congenial to that milieu and was not invited again57. In 1979, a year after Corbin's death, Secret was succeeded by the present chairholder, Antoine Faivre, and the title of the chair was changed to "History of esoteric and mystical currents in modem and contemporary Europe". Like Secret, Faivre is a scholar in the French academic tradition, with its strong emphasis on detailed almost "positivist" historiography58. Originally trained as a Germanist, he had written important studies on 18th- and early 19th-century Christian theosophy, illuminism and Romantic Naturphilosophie59: his research interests were therefore perfectly congenial to those of the Eranos milieu, and Faivre became a regular participant oftheEranos meetings as well as of Corbin's Université de Saint Jean de Jérusalem6°. Now it is somewhat bizarre that while Steven Wasserstrom recognizes that serious academic scholarship may well coincide with personal "esoteric" commitment in the case of figures such as Corbin or Eliade, he all but ignores Faivre's scholarly oeuvre 'fi AntoineFaivre,personalcommunicationto the author. 57Nor was he interestedin being invited again: he did not feel comfortablein the Eranos milieu(Faivre,personalcommunication). On this tradition,see Ivan Strenski,'Ironies'. 59See esp. Faivre,Eckartshausen;id., Kirchberger. z" He gave lecturesat Eranos in 1973 and 1974, and contributedto the Cahiers of the Universitede SaintJean de Jerusalemin 1975, 1976,1978,1984and 1986. 23 and simply presents him as 'an esotericist' whose books are written 'from an esoteric perspective, naturally'6'. This reflects insufficient familiarity with Faivre's academic oeuvre, the bulk of which is in French and has only begun to be translated into other languages during the last decade. Somewhat ironically, while Faivre is undoubtedly a product of the Eranos cultic milieu no less than of French Germanistic studies, his approach to research is actually closer to Scholem than to either Corbin or Eliade. While Wasserstrom correctly characterizes Eliade as essentially 'a gifted generalist and popularizer' whose work was 'largely derivative, most accomplished not at original research but rather at a kind of haute vulgarisation'62 , Faivre's lasting contributions are the result of detailed research based on original source materials. And while Faivre has never tried to hide his sympathy for Christian theosophy and German Naturphilosophie, in his writings one does not find anything like the numerous passionate and virulently polemic defenses of an esoteric worldview typical of Corbin's writings. Of particular importance is the fact that in Faivre's writings, as in those of Scholem, one does not find the sentiments of anti-historicism, which are so conspicuous in Corbin and Eliade. In sum: both Scholem and Faivre have occasionally passed beyond the strict boundaries of empirical historiography if the occasion called for it, and both participated in a cultic milieu that may be qualified as "esoteric" in the precise sense defined above, but it remains true that both remained academic scholars of esotericism rather than esotericists using the study of historical currents as a vehicle for promoting their own particular beliefs. The Hidden Flowering of the Study of Western Esotericism Briefly after the first chair for western esotericism was founded in Paris, Frances Yates' book on Bruno was beginning to cause widespread interest in "the Hermetic Tradition", among academics and among the general public. The following years were marked by experimentation and an unprecedented expansion of the universities, and one might have expected the study of hermeticism and western esotericism to have profited from this. Contrary to such expectations, however, the academic institutionalization of western esotericism as a field of research did not take place: the Paris chair would remain an isolated phenomenon for almost three decades and a half. Against the background of the preceding discussions it is now possible to analyze what happened, and why. To that end, I distinguish between five different categories of scholars who have been involved in the study of western esotericism since the 61Wasserstrom, Religionafter Religion,321-322nt 42. 62Wasserstrom,Religionafter Religion,13. 24 1960s: ( 1 )historians of science and philosophy, (2) generalists in the humanities, (3) countercultural-religionists, (4) esoteric universalists, and (5) specialists of specific subjects and currents. Firstly, Yates' work did cause a new academic interest in hermeticism; but as we have seen, the effect remained mostly limited to the disciplines ofhistory of science and philo.sophy. In this context Yates' approach was subjected to critical debate, eventually leading to more nuanced views. The study of hermeticism in relation to the history of science and philosophy has continued to flourish and produce new studies of high quality63. However, this happy development has hardly led to the establishment and recognition of hermeticism as a separate domain of research, with its own chairs and departments, journals, publication series and so on64.Scholars in this field usually do their work in the context of general departments for history of science, medicine, philosophy, and so on, and publish their research in journals belonging to these disciplines. As a result they are typically working in a situation of intellectual isolation as far as the general field of western esotericism is concerned, and not infrequently their immediate colleagues look at their area of specialization with a mixture of surprise and suspicion. Secondly, a limited number of scholars since the 1960s have seen hermeticism and western esotericism as their general area of specialization, and have approached this domain from a variety of disciplines in the humanities (such as intellectual history, history of religions, art, literature, music, and so on); hence, I refer to them as generalists [of western esotericismJ in the humanities65. Even more clearly than in the case of my first category, the nearabsence of academic structures has typically caused such generalists to remain in a situation of relative isolation. Due to a lack of standard introductory 11See e.g. researchreflectedin the collectivevolumesby RighiniBonelli& Shea,Reason, Experiment,and Mysticism(1975);Heinekamp& Mettler,Magia Naturalis (1978);Vickers, Occultand Scientific Mentalities (1984);Merkel& Debus,Hermeticismand the Renaissance (1988);Debus& Walton,Readingthe Bookof Nature(1988);Osler,Rethinkingthe Scientific Revolution(2000).Someof the betterknownspecialistsareAllenG.Debus,WalterPagel,Betty Jo TeeterDobbs,CesareVasoli,WayneShumaker,RichardWestfall,PaoloRossi,A. RupertHall, BrianCopenhaver,andWilliamNewman;but any such list risksomittinga numberof important names. 64Mentionshouldbe made,however,of the journalAmbix,publishedby the Societyfor the Historyof Alchemyand Chemistry. 65Again,anylist is boundto be incomplete,but someexamplesof generalistsin the studyof westernesotericismas intendedhereare AntoineFaivre,JamesWebb,JoscelynGodwin,Arthur Versluis,GerhardWehr,ChristopherMclntosh,Jean-PierreLaurant,and the authorof this article. Of coursenot all theseauthorscoverall periodsfromRenaissanceto presentin their actual research;but even if they concentrateon a morespecificarea,neverthelessthey clearlyperceive their contributionsas part of the studyof westernesotericismin such a generalsense. 25 courses or textbooks (not to mention academic curricula), most of them have developed essentially as autodidacts, forced to make the field their own by a time-consuming process of trial-and-error. As a result their ways of looking at the field and their personal emphases have shown considerable variety, and this makes it risky to generalize about them. Nevertheless, I venture to suggest have tended that - whether or not they were conscious of the fact-generalists to understand western esotericism as a relatively self-contained phenomenon, and have focused on its supposed specificity and "internal history" rather than on its complex interdependence with "mainstream" developments66. Psychologically this is understandable, but it has had the unfortunate effect that outsiders, in turn, have tended to perceive the field of western esotericism as a kind of "island": something which might be of concern to those who happened to find its manifestations interesting in and for themselves, but which had no obvious scholarly relevance to others. Thirdly, many scholars of such a generalist type have additionally understood hermeticism and western esotericism from perspectives congenial to agendas. They typically saw western esobroadly countercultural-religionist tericism not as just another domain of academic research but felt that it should be a source of inspiration for spiritual reform in the academy and in the general society67. Some of these scholars belong partly or even primarily to the previous category, but additionally express themselves in a counterculturalreligionist manner from time to time. The influence of Eliade's "Chicago School" on religious studies in the United States has created at least some room for such countercultural-religionist approaches to western esotericism in regular academic settings; but the more outspoken representatives of this approach have tended to be working outside or on the outer margins of the acadinfrequently, they are associated with "alternative" academic or emy-not semi-academic ventures inspired by countercultural ideals. Writings belonging to this third category fill the entire spectrum typical of countercultural religionism, in many gradations from subtle interpretations in the best Eranos traditions to typical New Age literature far removed from genuine academic research. ? This perspectivemay sometimesbe bound up with a realist(or naivelyrealist)approach, whichfailsto recognizethe natureof "westernesotericism"as an etic construct(seeHanegraaff, 'On the Construction'). 67Among the more serious examples,see e.g. the French savant Pierre Riffard (see his L 'ésotérisme;and cf. my analysisin 'On the Construction',22-26) and the French-Rumanian authorBasarabNicolescu(Science,Meaning,and Evolution).In Germany,a clear exampleis Ralph Liedtke(Die Hermetik).A typicalAmericancase is Tuveson,Avatarsof Thrice-Great Hermes(cf. my analysisin 'Romanticism',253-256). 26 Fourthly, there have been those who were interested not so much in hermeticism specifically, as in "esotericism" generally-but who understood this term in a sense different from the one that we have been using here. According to this "traditionalist" understanding (which turns out to be implicitly assumed in many religionist studies of "esotericism" as well), the esoteric means the "inner" dimension or universal essence of religion per se68. As a result, the actual object of research is not actually esotericism in the sense of a number of specific currents in western culture, but some kind of universal esoterism, understood as equivalent to concepts such as a sophia perennis, "Tradition", "spirituality", or "the sacred" generally. My very description of these first four developments (for the fifth, see below) already suggests why the study of hermeticism and western esotericism failed to gain the academic recognition that might have been expected in the wake ofYates' writings. Since the differences between the four developments - and between the last three in particular - were not evident to most academics, the predictable result was that everything referred to as "esotericism" came to be tarred with the same brush. If countercultural/religionist approaches were accepted in the academy at all (a development which took place mainly in the United States, but has always remained alien to western Europe universities), they tended to understand "esotericism" as more or less synonymous with "spirituality", "the sacred", or even "religion" in general-thus blurring from the outset the specificity of western esotericism as a separate domain consisting of a definite number of specific historical currents. On the other hand, to the extent that western esotericism was presented as a separate field of study, academics were bound to suspect religionist agendas implying apologies for esotericism rather than an academic study of it; and as a result, they would tend to reject it. In many cases their suspicions were correct, but in other cases they were mistaken: to this day, scholars studying western esotericism from an academic perspective may encounter opposition because they are incorrectly assumed to be apologists. Finally, even if this does not happen, the field still runs the risk of being perceived as some self-enclosed and out-ofthe-way pursuit with little or no relevance to problems of general importance to academics. Essentially my conclusion is a simple one: the only generally-available paradigm for the study of western esotericism - Yates' grand narrative-was simply too vulnerable to countercultural (re)interpretation to be suitable as the 68For an excellent example,see many contributionsto the FrenchDictionnairecritiquede 1'esoterisme,as analyzedby CaroleFrosioin the presentissueof Aries. 27 basis for mainstream academic institutionalization69. As a result, the academic study of western esotericism had no option but to develop "invisibly" and fragmentedly, carried by the cumulative effort of individual scholars working in relative isolation rather than as an internationally organized discipline. This brings me to my fifth and final category of specialists in specific subjects and currents. Perhaps the most important fact about the modern study of western esotericism is that it has in fact been flourishing for decades, in the sense that a remarkably great (and increasing?1) numbers of scholars in a wide variety of disciplines have been quietly studying and publishing about currents and phenomena that actually belong to this field but were simply not conceptualized as such. Historians of medicine might study the writings of Paracelsus, historians of chemistry might contribute to our knowledge of alchemy, historians of philosophy might write about philosophers such as Ficino or Pico, historians of art and literature might study the occult in late 19th-century symbolism, and so on and so forth. Many of these scholars have never perceived themselves as "scholars in the field of western esotericism", and some do not wish to be so perceived at all. Their reservations are quite understandable: after all, they have never had much to gain by such associations, but had much to lose by itto be perceived as a "student of esotericism" might raise eyebrows among their colleagues and could seriously discredit their reputation. The challenge we are now faced with is to develop the study of western esotericism into a generally recognized and professional field of academic research, so that these specialists not only can feel safe to join forces with generalists, but may also expect to reap some real benefits from doing so. A Second Academic Chair at the University of Amsterdam. In September 1999, the Paris chair of western esotericism was finally joined by a second one at the University of Amsterdam, connected with the world's `9 It is onlyduringthe 1990sthat an alternativeparadigmhas presenteditself,in the formof AntoineFaivre'soft-quoteddefinitionof westernesotericismas a "formof thought"characterized by four intrinsicand two non-intrinsiccharacteristics(see e.g. Faivre,Access, 10- 15).Of coursethe discussionremainswide open, and eventuallythis paradigmmight be replacedin turn. "' Nobodywho attemptsto systematically keep track of internationalpublishedresearchin westernesotericismcan failto be impressedby the sheeramountof currentactivityin this field, frequentlyof excellentacademicquality.WhenI speakwith scholarsfroman oldergeneration, they frequentlymentionthe differencein this respectbetweenthe periodof the 1960sand 1970s - when they were isolatedpioneerswhoseinterestsran againstthe currentof the times-and recentyears.PersonallyI believethatthe fallof the Berlinwall in 1989symbolicallydemarcates the emergenceof a new post-ideologicalacademicmentality,which is critical of the "grand narratives"and hence instinctivelyreceptiveto innovativeprojectssuch as a criticaland unbiased studyof westernesotericcurrents. 28 first complete subdepartment, under the title "History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents"". Very significantly, the official documents explicitly stipulate that research and teaching in the context of the new subdepartment will not be based on any religion or worldview, i.e., that it will take place from a metaphysically neutral perspective. This entails a deliberate choice to leave behind the countercultural-religionist heritage of the study of western esotericism, and establish the discipline on strictly academic foundations. In addition, the subdepartment's teaching curriculum and research program ("Western Esotericism and Modernization") explicitly aim to move beyond Yates' only in its countercultural manifestation but in its origigrand narrative-not nal academic-historical guise as welF2. As we have seen, Yates' guiding idea of a quasi-autonomous "Hermetic Tradition" separate from Christianity, rational philosophy and science has proved impossible to uphold; and likewise, her modernist assumptions about progress are highly problematic. TheAmsterdam subdepartment reflects the move towards a new approach to the academic study of western esotericism, which replaces the grand narratives of modernity by a fine-grained discourse emphasizing complexity and historicity, and refuses to draw sharp and impermeable barriers between "esotericism" on the one hand, and mainstream currents of western culture on the other. The great advantage of such an approach is that it takes western esotericism out of the isolation of a "traditional counterculture" and can demonstrate its considerable relevance to research going on in other academic disciplines. This approach reflects a general trend, which may in fact be perceived in an increasing number of recent studies pertinent to the domain of western esotericism. As such, it is a natural development from the first two categories discussed above (and the second one more in particular) while providing a general paradigm capable of encompassing those belonging to the fifth). In the next section I will argue that it represents a fruitful alternative to the countercultural-religionist and universalist perspectives of the past (i.e., my third and fourth categories). IV. Two Perspectives The Future of the Counterculture. Students of western esotericism have often complained about the "narrowminded" hostility of the "academic establishment" against their field of inter" The subdepartmentnow consistsof one full professor(W.J.Hanegraaff)and two lecturer/ researchers(J.-P.Brachand O. Hammer).Theexistencein the samecity of theworld-renowned BibliothecaPhilosophicaHermeticaprovidesexcellentconditionsfor fruitful collaboration, whichwill be formalizedin the contextof an AmsterdamPlatformfor HermeticStudies. '2 See public inaugurationspeech (18.1.2000):Hanegraaff,Het einde van de hermetische traditie. 29 est; but my discussion implies that actually, with respect to much that has been going on under the umbrella of "the study of esotericism" academics were perfectly justified in being suspicious. Regardless of the intrinsic interest and intellectual quality they may sometimes have, religionist-counterculturalist approaches to the study of western esotericism (as to the study of religion generally) are ultimately based upon spiritual rather than academic agendas. More specifically, their aim is to reform the academy - and ultimately western culture as such - by grounding research in esoteric assumptions instead of studying esotericism from a perspective of critical neutrality. Since this agenda runs counter to the very nature of the academic enterprise, the religionist-countercultural study of western esotericism was rightly rejected by academics. Since this point is often misunderstood, I would like to emphasize that it does not necessarily imply a negative judgment about religionism as such. Authors such as Jung, Eliade and Corbin have produced a fascinating corpus of writings that may be criticized in various respects but deserve our serious consideration even if we do not agree with them; and even if their followers do not always manage to match the profundity of the founding fathers, their publications may still have much of interest to offer. The point I am making may be best explained by a comparison taken from sports. Religionist scholars who approach the study of western esotericism on the basis of spiritual agendas, but still wish to be accepted in the academy are like badminton players who wish to be accepted on a tennis court, but refuse to accept the rules of tennis. If tennis players tell them that they should follow the rules of the game they are supposed to be playing on this particular court, the badminton players interpret this as a sign of narrow-mindedness and hostility. But of course the tennis players are right. If you want to play tennis you have to accept the rules of the game; if you are not prepared to do that, you should go elsewhere. This does not mean that the tennis player considers his sport to be superior to badminton; all it means is that he is there to play tennis, not badminton. My point is that a religionist study of esotericism may be a legitimate intellectual pursuit in principle, but that the academy is based on the rules of a different game. These rules include a strict separation between faith and scholarly understanding, and a continuing practice of argumentative criticism as basic to the growth of knowledge'3. In sum: there may well be a sunny future for countercultural-religionist approaches to western esotericism, but I believe that this future lies outside the boundaries of the academy. Obviously this does not mean that academic schol73See discussionin Hanegraaff,'EmpiricalMethod'. 30 ars of western esotericism cannot make use of whatever they happen to fmd valuable in religionist writings; and we have seen that it is possible for some scholars to have a double career, participating in religionist contexts as well as in academic ones (likewise a scholar of religion may adopt some ideas taken from a confessional theologian; or a historian who also happens to be a Christian or a Muslim may write about his beliefs in a confessional journal). But to the extent that they wish to be accepted in the academy, students of western esotericism will have to accept the rules which are basic to the academic enterprise instead of trying to change them. Beyond the Yates Paradigm. The new approach to the study of western esotericism as I see it currently taking shape may best be defined by way of contrast with the Yates paradigm. It does not look at western esotericism as a quasi-autonomous "counterculture" but as a neglected dimension of the general culture of the time; and it looks at the secularization and modernization of esotericism as a continuous unhistorical process of creative innovation (as opposed to the modernist-and - notion that secularization/modernization implies a decline of religion and magic). This means approximately the following. - With respect to the period before the Enlightenment, western esotericism can be seen simply as a hitherto neglected dimension of Christian culture. By studying pre-Enlightenment esotericism we are not uncovering a countertradition distinct from Christianity; rather, we are discovering that Christian culture as such is a far more complex phenomenon than one might infer from traditional church histories (based on simple church-sect or or- - thodoxy-heresy oppositions)'4. During the pivotal 18th century, it is likewise simplistic to imagine a movement of "esotericists" pitted against the defenders of "reason"'5 . Again, the key term is historical complexity; and again, the study of western esotericism challenges the simplicity of grand narratives of modernity and secular progress. And finally, from the 18th century up to the present, western esotericism develops as a still poorly understood dimension of the emerging secular and pluralistic society of the west; and here as well, serious study of eso- '4 This approachis equivalentto the way in which the study of Jewish"mysticism"since GershomScholemhas transformedour understandingof Jewishreligionas such (for Jewish "mysticism"as equivalentto Jewish"esotericism"in Scholem'swork,seeDan, 'In Quest', 6263). 'S See e.g. McIntosh,RoseCrossand theAge of Reason,and the importantrecentvolumeby Neugebauer-Wilk,Aujklärungund Esoterik. 31 teric and occultist currents brings home the lesson that the relations between "religion" and "secularization" are far more complex than one might infer from old-fashioned modernist views. Academic study of western esotericism along these lines turns out to be anything but an out-of-the-way pursuit relevant merely to some scholars interested in the weird beliefs of outsiders, marginal currents or the "lunatic fringe". On the contrary, by questioning a traditional historiography based on modernist ideologies, the study of western esotericism has the potential of revolutionizing our understanding of western religion and culture in general. The new perspective outlined here seems to be something that is "hanging in the air". It has been gathering momentum during the 1990s, and is reflected in a rapidly increasing number of publications coming from various disciplines. As just one example, let me quote some pertinent remarks by Moritz BaBler and Hildegard Chatellier, in an interesting French/German volume on esotericism and mysticism in the decades around 1900. They begin by stating that Mystical,occultist,esotericand spiritualisticdiscourseswere an importantpart of this culturalcompost[ofthe decadesaround1900],andtheyplayeda crucialroleas enzyms,at Thatthe academichistoriographyof least,in whatcameto be the fertilesoil of modernity. modernity...still tendsto marginalizethe influenceof thesediscoursesas somehowpainful and inappropriate,is a phenomenonthat needsto be studieditself.... And they continue with admirable precision: One can neversufficientlywarn againstthe unclearimpressionof an unbrokenhistorical continuityof [esoteric]thoughtintothe periodof modernity.In contrast,whatneedsto be emphasizedis thatwe are dealingwithsemanticcontinuitiesthat merelyevokethe illusion of a "grand"continuity,i.e.,of a Tradition,whereasactuallythe functionsof thesesemantics get completelyreorganizedin the contextof a fundamentallychangedsociety.Nobody will therefore ... try to construea new "grand narrative",suggestingfor examplethat "essentiallyit has beenoccultismthat has mademodernitypossible";rather,we mustemphasizethe complexityof each historicalfact as a point of intersection[Knotenpunkt] betweenendlessdiscourseseach with their own specificconstellations76. In other words: Baf3ler and Chatellier reject the idea of a more or less autonomous tradition (whether called "hermetic" or "esoteric"), as well as the quasiYatesian narrative of esotericism as motor of modernization and progress. Instead, they emphasize the simultaneity and complex interaction of esoteric and non-esoteric discourses, and the discontinuities of history linked to processes of modernization. 76BaBler& Châtellier,'Einleitung',23, 25. 32 V. One Final Comparison I began this article by contrasting the sexual taboos demolished in the wake of the counterculture of the 1960s, and the persistence of the academic taboo on studying western esotericism. The comparison provides me with a suitable closing metaphor. Sex may no longer be a taboo in academic discussion, but this does not mean that a professor of gender studies is expected to consider the practice of sex as part of his or her professional duty. Practicing sex is one thing while studying it is another; and neither of the two is expected to take the place of the other. Esotericism has remained a taboo in academic discussion because its countercultural-religionist representatives have too frequently refused to draw such distinctions, and insisted that only practitioners-people personally engaged in an esoteric quest-are able to adequately study esotericism. Accordingly, they held that the very nature of the academy needed to change, in order to make the study of esotericism possible. The religionist assumption underlying such a viewpoint is that the study of western esotericism should elucidate and explain the "real nature" and essence sui generis of esotericism, and that it falls short of its mission if it does not evoke and transmit the very experiential knowledge claimed by esotericists themselves. This is equivalent to saying that an academic study of sexual symbolism should cause the reader to experience sexual bliss. 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Singleton(ed.),Art, Science, and History in the Renaissance,Baltimore& London:The John HopkinsPress 1967,255-274. 37 Au-de19du "paradigmeYates": I 'etudede lisotirisme occidentalentre contre-cultureet nouvellecomplexité L'auteurchercheici a s'expliquerpourquoi,depuisles ann6essoixanteet jusqu'a une date r6occidentaln'est pas devenueune sp6cialit?academiquereconnue cente,1'6tudede 1'esotesrisme et a part entiere,en d6pit de l'int6rdtpour I'herm6tismesuscit6dans le mondesavant par le succ?s de l'ouvragede F. A. Yates,GiordanoBruno et la tradition hermétique(1964). Son argumentationprend en comptetrois facteurs,la fois parall?leset interactifs :1'approche "religioniste"et contre-culturelledu phdnom?nereligieuxassoci6cau CercleEranos,I'dtude acaddmiqueproprementditede "la traditionhermetique"a la suitede Yates,enfinleursdiffesrentes combinaisonsau sein des interprdtationsde I'hermetismeet de I'dsotdrismeoccidentalqui ont eu cours dans le public depuisles ann6essoixante.En ce qui concemele premierfacteur, I'auteur estime que la recente interpretationd'Eranos comme refletant"une forme originale d'6sot6risme",due a StevenWasserstrom,peut se r6vdleracceptabledans la mesureou on 1'exploited lalumieredu conceptseminalde culticmilieu,introduitpar ColinCampbell;en ce sens, les approches"religionistes"de I'?sot?rismeoccidentalpropresau milieuEranossont effectivelui-memeque de considerationsd'ordre mentsusceptiblesde releverdavantagede 1'6sot6risme strictementacad6mique.Quantau secondaspect,il apparaitque le traitementreservepar Yatesà "la traditionherm6tique"s'est erigejusquetresrecemmenten paradigmedominantde t'etude de 1'esoterismeoccidental;ce "paradigmeYates"se r6v?led6ficienten ce qu'il pr6senteI'henn6tisme(ainsi,cons6quemment, que l'ensemblede t'esoterismeoccidental)commeun contre-courant relativementautonomeet auto-referent,presentationfond6ede surcroitsur des presupposes "modernistes"tres discutables.Le troisiemepointconsistea montrerque l'originedu rejet,par le mondesavant,de 1'6tudede 1'6sot6risme occidentalresidepour 1'essentieldans l'incapacit6du "paradigmeYates"a resister a certainesr6interpr6tationscontre-culturellesvulgarisdes,dont 1'esprit se trouve entièrementoppos£ celui de la d6marcheuniversitaire.En conclusion, I'auteuraffirmela necessite,dans la perspectivede I'dtudeacad6miquede 1'esoterismeoccidende celle-ci,aussi bien que Fintal, de surmonterles racines"religionistes"et contre-culturelles fluenceperdurantedu "paradigmeYates".11defendl'idée selonlaquelleune tellelignede recherche se manifeste en fait deja depuis la dernière décennie, et il termine en recensant les caract6ristiquesde cette nouvelleapproche.Ce faisant, il insiste sur le fait que 1'6sotdrisme occidentaln'ajamais constitueun contre-courantpresqueautonome,plus ou moins 1'ecart des d?veloppements propresa la cultureofficielle,mais qu'il doit au contraireetre considerecomme une dimensionjusqu'ici ndgligdede la societechretienne,commed'ailleursde la societesdcularisdeelle-m?me.Sousce rapport,nous dit-il,1'6tudedu domaineen questionest susceptiblede venirr6volutionnernotrecomprehensionde la cultureoccidentaledans son ensemble.