Chapter 11
Positive Psychology and Judaism
Mark Schiffman, Aaron Cherniak, Eliezer Schnall, Suzanne Brooks,
Steven Pirutinsky, and Devora Shabtai
In the second half of the twentieth century, the late Rabbi Menachem Mendel
Schneerson led a sect of ultra-Orthodox Jews who are known as Lubavitch Hasidim.
Over the course of his life, Rabbi Schneerson underwent profoundly difficult personal hardships. Born in the Russian empire in 1902, he lived through pogroms, two
world wars, a typhus epidemic, the persecution and exile of his father, violent political revolutions, the murder of his brother, grandmother, and other relatives by the
Nazis, and a life of childlessness (Kalmenson, 2019). Yet due to being steeped in
thousands of years of traditional Jewish teachings, Rabbi Schneerson developed
what Kalmenson (2019) describes as a “positivity bias,” which he cultivated by
“actively seeking the positive aspect or opportunity in any given situation, believing
deeply in God’s ultimate goodness and immanent presence, and living with purpose, responsibility, and meaning” (p. 19).
Although Jewish teachings throughout the ages are vast and the lived experiences of Jews varied, it is helpful to frame them through the prism of the “positivity
M. Schiffman (*) · S. Brooks
Azrieli Graduate School of Jewish Education and Administration, Yeshiva University,
New York, NY, USA
e-mail: mordechai.schiffman@yu.edu; sebrooks@yu.edu
A. Cherniak
Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
e-mail: aaron.cherniak@post.idc.ac.il
E. Schnall
Yeshiva College, Yeshiva University, New York, NY, USA
e-mail: schnall@yu.edu
S. Pirutinsky
Graduate School of Social Work, Touro College, New York, NY, USA
e-mail: steven.pirutinsky2@touro.edu
D. Shabtai
Center for Education Studies, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
e-mail: Devora-Shabtai.Greer@warwick.ac.uk
© The Author(s) 2023
E. B. Davis et al. (eds.), Handbook of Positive Psychology, Religion, and
Spirituality, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10274-5_11
163
164
M. Schiffman et al.
bias.” Through embodying Judaic values, many Jews have been enabled to live
spiritually rich and positive lives, despite extraordinary hardships and persecution.
Jewish thought, beliefs, and practices have millennia-long histories that can inform
the comparatively new field of positive psychology. Collaborations between positive psychologists and Jewish philosophers, leaders, and adherents are recommended to understand Jewish concepts of well-being and spirituality. Such
collaborations may further enrich the field of positive psychology and provide practitioners with additional resources to inform research and practice. Towards that
goal, this chapter is a brief introduction to Judaism and the Jewish people, followed
by a discussion of aspects of Jewish tradition and culture that are pertinent for positive psychology and the psychology of religion/spirituality (R/S).
Introduction to Judaism
With historical roots stretching back nearly 4,000 years, Judaism is a monotheistic
religion that affirms belief in one transcendent and immanent God who, as recounted
in the Pentateuch, created the world and entered into a covenantal relationship with
the Jewish people. After miraculously redeeming the children of Israel from bondage in Egypt, God revealed Himself to them at Mount Sinai and presented them
with the Torah. Besides the Pentateuch, the Jewish biblical canon also includes 19
later works of the Prophets and the Hagiographa. The prophets weaved ethical
exhortations into the story of the tribes of Israel as they entered the Land of Israel,
established the monarchy of King David, built the Temple, were exiled from Israel
in 586 BCE, and returned to build the Second Temple. The Hagiographa includes
books such as Psalms, Job, and Proverbs, which contain ethics, wisdom, and spiritual guidance (Baskin, 2011).
Within traditional Judaism, the written biblical texts are supplemented by the
Oral Law, which elucidates and elaborates on the written text, explaining and interpreting the laws and narrative of the Bible. Shortly after the destruction of the
Second Temple in 70 CE, the Oral Law was compiled and organized in the form of
the Mishna and other literary works. Scholarly rabbinic debates concerning these
texts were collected and redacted in the Talmud until approximately the seventh
century CE (Hezser, 2004). During the Middle Ages, a plethora of rabbinic works
emerged, encompassing Hebrew Bible and Talmud commentary, law, poetry, Jewish
philosophy (comparing Judaism with Neoplatonic and Aristotelian concepts), and
Kabbalah (Tirosh-Samuelson, 2003). During this period, the different cultural traditions of Sephardim (Jews from the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa, and the Middle
East) and Ashkenazim (Jews from Northern and Eastern Europe) developed (BenShalom, 2004).
In the modern period, in response to the Enlightenment, the streams of Judaism
that comprise the twenty-first century landscape emerged. Although currently there
are several denominations, each with its own subcategories (see Baskin, 2011), we
11
Positive Psychology and Judaism
165
focus primarily on three: Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. Orthodox Jews generally follow Jewish law (known as Halakha) and tradition as it has been interpreted
in the Talmud and practiced throughout the ages. The Conservative movement also
refers to traditional Jewish law as a source for contemporary practice but is more
open to revision and adaptation of codified Jewish law. Major distinctions between
Conservative and Orthodox practice relate to issues of egalitarianism in worship,
Sabbath observance, and adherence to dietary laws (Baskin, 2011). Reform Judaism
(or Liberal or Progressive Judaism) does not believe that Jewish law is binding, and
it is thus more likely to alter traditional concepts to conform to modern values
(Gehl, 2014).
Demographics
Over four-fifths of the nearly 15 million Jews worldwide live in the U.S. and Israel
(DellaPergola, 2020). Depending on how the term Jewish is defined, there are close
to 7 million Jewish people in the U.S. (Sheskin & Dashefsky, 2020). Current estimates indicate that approximately 37% identify as Reform, 17% as Conservative,
9% as Orthodox, 32% as nondenominational, and 4% with smaller denominations
(Pew Research Center, 2021). In Israel, there are around 6.6 million Jews
(DellaPergola, 2020), but their denominations differ—with 22% identifying as
Orthodox, 29% as Masorti (most similar in practice to Conservative Jews in North
America), and 49% as Hiloni (secular; Pew Research Center, 2016). Smaller Jewish
communities are also found throughout the world, including in Canada, the United
Kingdom, Argentina, Russia, Germany, Australia, and Brazil (DellaPergola, 2020).
Judaism and Positive Psychology
In contrast to the disease model (which emphasizes pathology), positive psychology
focuses on human strengths, wellness, and fulfillment (Seligman et al., 2005).
Jewish thought and tradition are similarly replete with perspectives on psychological health and well-being (see Pirutinsky, 2020). In this section, we survey the
Jewish tradition on the topics of (a) happiness and flourishing, (b) character
strengths, and (c) spirituality. This brief yet broad overview shows the relevance of
a Judaic framework to positive psychology. On the whole, Jewish values, beliefs,
and actions encourage a spiritually integrated, strength-based, and PERMA (Positive
emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, Accomplishment; Seligman, 2011)
model of well-being.
166
M. Schiffman et al.
Happiness and Flourishing
The positive psychology literature generally incorporates two types of happiness,
each rooted in Greek philosophy: hedonism (concerned with pleasure, comfort, and
enjoyment) and eudaimonia (focused on pursuing complex goals that are meaningful to self and society; Delle Fave et al., 2011). Although the original focus of positive psychology gravitated closer to a hedonic view, the PERMA model aims to
integrate eudaimonia through a focus on meaning and engagement (Seligman,
2011). We highlight four elements of the Jewish conceptualization of happiness that
can contribute to positive psychology’s broader conceptualizations of happiness.
Multiple Perspectives It is impossible to describe a single Jewish view of happiness, as there are multiple approaches, with varying emphases. This point is captured in the fact that one of the biblical Hebrew words that is most closely associated
with happiness is ashrei (Tirosh-Samuelson, 2003). As Jonathan Sacks (2014) contends, the word is written in plural form, indicating that the most appropriate translation would be “happinesses,” signifying that happiness is not unidimensional.
Different paths to happiness are reflected in the Hebrew Bible, rabbinic works, and
later Jewish philosophical writings. Pelcovitz and Pelcovitz (2014) highlight the
diverse Judaic understandings of happiness by pointing to several synonyms used
for it in Jewish literature (simchah, sasson, gilah, rinah, ditzah, chedva) and by
identifying the nuances of each word. Research and practice in this area is likely to
be most fruitful when acknowledging the individual and contextual nature of happiness, along with its varied sources and expressions.
Blending of Pleasure and Meaning The diversity within the Jewish conceptualization of happiness incorporates elements of pleasure and enjoyment and integrates
them into a larger framework of meaning and self-transcendence. One example of
this duality relates to the celebrations and customs surrounding the Jewish holidays.
On these special days that occur annually, Jews are enjoined to celebrate with festive meals. But this obligation is far from purely hedonistic. These festivals incorporate a spiritual component with the experience of celebrating “before God”
(Deuteronomy 16:15), and they are meant to involve providing for the material welfare of the society’s poor and vulnerable. Otherwise, as Maimonides states, the
“meal is not a rejoicing in a divine commandment, but a rejoicing in his own stomach” (Twersky, 1972, p. 108). Thus, Judaism recognizes that happiness has both
hedonic and eudaimonic elements, emphasizing transcending the self by helping
others and by acknowledging the presence of God.
Importance of Action Another important element of the Judaic notion of happiness is the role of law and ritual and its relationship to the inner life. Cohen et al.
(2013) posit that Judaism emphasizes action, in contrast to beliefs and the cultivation of internal states. However, this emphasis on action does not diminish the
importance of belief and internal development. Rather, Jewish tradition suggests it
is through committed action that an inner state is cultivated. Jewish spiritual-ethics,
11
Positive Psychology and Judaism
167
known as mussar, emphasize the importance of not being content with mindless
acts by accentuating a focus on the inner life. Yet the internal state itself is not
enough. It is only through the ritualized act that the proper inner state can be developed and actualized. Ritualized acts both should be done with joy and produce joy
(Fishbane, 1995).
Happiness is Not the Goal According to several prominent modern Jewish thinkers, happiness is an important but not the central value in Judaism (Soloveitchik,
1983; Sacks, 2014). It is not the telos as it may be in an Aristotelian eudaimonic
conceptualization. Although serving God should be done with joy (Deuteronomy
28:47; Psalms 100:2) and that service should lead to a joyous life (Psalms 19:9),
serving God through the commandments is the ultimate goal. Judaism, in Sacks’
(2014) words, involves “the pursuit of holiness, not the pursuit of happiness” (p. 32).
Happiness may come as a result of living according to the will of God, but it is not
the aim.
These Judaic notions of happiness provide an important counterpoint to the dangers of self-absorbed, overly hedonic happiness. Judaic happiness does not negate
the place of pleasure but insists that pleasure must be balanced with selftranscendence. Balancing internal and external aspects of happiness offers a wellrounded perspective. It also helps us consider that happiness should not be pursued
as its own goal but should be experienced in pursuit of a higher value.
Character Strengths
Commandment Following the eudaimonic approach, positive psychology encourages the cultivation of character strengths as part of living the good life (Peterson &
Seligman, 2004). The development of character strengths is also essential in the
Judaic tradition, with one major difference from the Aristotelian framework. For
Aristotle, happiness comes from arriving at a proper disposition by subordinating
passions to human reason. According to the Hebrew Bible and the Talmudic sages,
human reason also plays a role in character formation. Still, within Judaism, one
ultimately subordinates passions and appetites to God’s laws, not to human reason
(Tirosh-Samuelson, 2003). Thus, the character strengths accentuated in the Judaic
tradition involve developing personal discipline and ethical behavior for the purpose
of fulfilling God’s commandments. Not only are traits important for fulfilling the
commandments, but character development itself is seen as an independent biblical
commandment of emulating God (Blau, 2000). This perspective can transform character development into a deeply spiritual endeavor.
Virtues and Strengths Peterson and Seligman (2004) surveyed the literature of
various philosophical and religious traditions and identified six core virtues that
they hypothesized must be present for someone to be considered of good character:
168
M. Schiffman et al.
transcendence, wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, and temperance. They further
conceptualized 24 character strengths, which they described as the processes or
mechanisms that define the virtues. In their limited treatment of Judaic texts, they
identified some, but not all, of the 24 strengths. Yet Schnall et al. (2014) contend that
all 24 character strengths are evident in the classic texts of Judaism. Schnall and
colleagues (2014) surveyed the Torah literature related to the five character strengths
in the virtue of transcendence: hope, humor, gratitude, spirituality, and appreciation
of beauty. Here, we survey the remaining virtues (wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, and temperance), followed by a discussion of spirituality.
Wisdom The books of Psalms and Proverbs are replete with references to the
importance of wisdom and knowledge of the world and of God. The sages viewed
the learning of Torah as an essential, daily commandment to which they devoted
considerable time and energy (Tirosh-Samuelson, 2003). Judaism recognizes various forms of wisdom and methods for cultivating it. Two primary paradigms include
the rationalist perspective and the Kabbalistic tradition. Medieval rationalists like
Maimonides believed wisdom is achieved through knowledge of Torah and nature
(Hartman, 2010). The Kabbalistic tradition espouses that wisdom is reached through
contemplation of God’s nature and direct experience of His presence (Scholem
et al., 2007).
Courage The importance of bravery in battle is explicit in the Hebrew Bible (e.g.,
Deuteronomy 31:6; Joshua 1:6). Talmudic sages also conceptualized courage as a
moral and psychological strength, both in the ethical and spiritual realms. As Ben
Zoma states in Mishna Avot (4:1): “Who is strong? He who conquers his desires.”
In addition, the traits of vitality and enthusiasm were encouraged in the context of
performing the commandments. For example, Abraham is described as performing
God’s will with zeal; he serves as a role model for Jews to perform the commandments with alacrity (Genesis 22:3; Talmud Pesachim 4a).
Humanity Many biblical and Talmudic works extol the virtues of humanity, which
include strengths and traits that manifest in caring relationships with others (Peterson
& Seligman, 2004). Traits like love and kindness are emblematic of how God relates
to the world and thus must be emulated through the process of imitatio Dei. This
requirement to emulate God creates what Wurzburger (1994) calls an ethic of
responsibility, wherein Jews are commanded to help others through gemilut chasadim (acts of kindness), including giving charity to the poor, providing hospitality to
strangers, visiting the sick, comforting mourners, facilitating marriage, and redeeming captives. In fact, according to Rabbi Akiva (Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 9:3),
“Love thy neighbor like yourself” (Leviticus 19:17) is the greatest principle in
the Torah.
Justice The virtue of justice, including the character strengths of fairness and leadership, also plays a vital role in Judaism. A just judicial system is mandated in the
Hebrew Bible, as is stated, “justice, justice you shall pursue” (Deuteronomy 16:20).
11
Positive Psychology and Judaism
169
Businesspeople are commanded to be honest and perform their jobs with integrity
(Leviticus 19:35). Abraham argues before God, asking God to be fair in His treatment of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 18:13–23), thereby serving as a paradigm
for fighting for what is right and just (Sacks, 2007). Moses and others serve as
examples of leadership, and several contemporary works outline lessons of leadership from the Bible (Brown, 2013; Sacks, 2015) and Talmud (Schnall &
Greenberg, 2012).
Temperance Character strengths incorporated into the virtue of temperance (forgiveness, prudence, humility, and self-control) play a prominent role in Jewish literature. Granting forgiveness is encouraged, and someone who refrains from doing
so to one who sincerely repents is considered cruel (Talmud Bava Kamma 92a). In
a strong endorsement of prudence, the Talmud states, “Who is wise? He [or she]
who foresees the consequences [of their actions]” (Talmud Tamid 32a). In addition,
humility is identified as the crown jewel of a trait encouraged by the sages (TiroshSamuelson, 2003). Finally, many commandments encourage exercising self-control
when it comes to eating and sexual relations. Based on this fact, Cohen et al. (2013)
conceptualize self-control as a possible protective factor that may account for some
of the positive correlations between Jewish R/S and both mental and physical health,
an idea which has found empirical support (e.g., McCullough & Willoughby, 2009;
Pirutinsky, 2014).
Spirituality
As defined by Peterson and Seligman (2004), spirituality is demonstrated by people
who possess clear beliefs about the meaning and purpose of the cosmos and believe
in a transcendent, nonphysical element that infuses their life with a higher purpose
and impacts their actions accordingly. Thus defined, spirituality relates to several
Judaic concepts, such as the notion of divine providence, which incorporates the
belief God is omniscient, guides both historical events and also everyday occurrences, rewards those who observe the commandments, and punishes those who do
not (Schnall et al., 2014). A central example is the shema affirmation, which is
recited daily and incorporates biblical passages about the unity and love of God,
commitment to the commandments, and belief in reward and punishment
(Deuteronomy 6:4–5 and 11:13–17). Moreover, in the mystical literature, everyday
human behavior impacts the spiritual world, imbuing mundane and religious activities with cosmic, spiritual import (Scholem et al., 2007).
Prayer, identified by Peterson and Seligman (2004) as an essential component of
spirituality, plays a central role within Judaism. In addition to the ancient biblical
accounts of meaningful prayers, the Talmud outlines the obligation for Jews to
engage in formal prayer three times a day (Berakhoth 26b). According to some,
prayer is the most significant form of divine service (Berakhoth 32b). Prayer is not
170
M. Schiffman et al.
limited to making requests for the fulfillment of physical needs; it also involves
yearning for connection to the Divine (Schnall et al., 2014).
Moreover, although Peterson and Seligman (2004) counted spirituality as one of
the 24 character strengths, the Jewish tradition conceptualizes spirituality as a metatrait. The Talmudic sages encourage “doing everything for the sake of Heaven”
(Mishna Avot 2:12), interpreted by later commentaries as an imperative to infuse
even mundane activities with sanctity (Lamm et al., 1999). This notion would align
with Piedmont’s (1999) claim that spirituality is a distinct personality dimension
that directs, drives, and selects behaviors in both secular and religious contexts. It is
also consistent with Pargament and Mahoney’s (2005) sanctification theory, which
contends that any object or action can be psychologically imbued with an element
of sacredness.
Research on Judaism, Positive Psychology,
and Psychology of R/S
Well-Being There is limited but growing research related to Judaism and wellbeing (Cohen et al., 2013). Rosmarin et al. (2010a) surveyed both Jews and
Christians and found that greater gratitude and spirituality were associated with
reduced depression and anxiety in both groups. Similarly, Vilchinsky and Kravetz
(2005) found that, among both religious and secular Israeli Jewish students, religious belief was negatively associated with psychological distress and positively
associated with psychological well-being. Additionally, Pirutinsky et al. (2011)
report that intrinsic religiosity moderated the association between poor physical
health and depression among Jews. There also is evidence that Jewish practice prospectively predicts remission of depressive episodes (Pirutinsky & Rosmarin, 2018).
Character Strengths The research related to character strengths within the Jewish
population is limited. In a sample that included participants from different religious
traditions, including Jews, Rosmarin et al. (2011) identified gratitude towards God
as a construct distinct from general gratitude. They hypothesized that gratitude to
God can cultivate transcendence and interconnectedness beyond general gratitude
and may be experienced more frequently and in more diverse situations. They found
that such spiritual gratitude uniquely predicted mental well-being over and above
general gratitude. A subsequent study also found that gratitude to God is more
enduring in the face of emotional distress than general gratitude (Rosmarin
et al., 2016).
Spirituality The aforementioned studies on gratitude fit a growing trend within the
psychology of R/S that examines whether virtues contextualized in a religious belief
system function differently from general character strengths. Prominent models of
positive psychology present spirituality as one characteristic among others that
11
Positive Psychology and Judaism
171
compose a specific virtue, such as Peterson and Seligman’s (2004) classification,
which places spirituality as one of several character strengths that make up the virtue of transcendence. However, spirituality may be a component whose influence
affects all other character strengths rather than a standalone trait. Similar to how
framing gratitude in a religious framework of meaning changes the expression of
gratitude, religious attributions can transform other strengths, such as granting forgiveness and expressing love. In that vein, Kor et al. (2019) administered several
measures of both character strengths generally and spirituality specifically to 1,352
middle school Israeli adolescents (85% of the participants were Jewish). Their
ensuing longitudinal factor analysis indicated that, at least among Jews, spirituality
was a discrete factor independent of the classic tripartite model of intrapersonal,
interpersonal, and intellectual strengths. In other words, spirituality is not simply a
distinct character strength among many others that fit neatly into one virtue, but an
overarching property that imbues all other character strengths with an additional
layer of meaning. Spirituality as an independent factor remained stable over time
and contributed to higher subjective well-being and prosociality. The study supports
the contention that, within Judaism, spirituality can be conceptualized as a metatrait that influences other character traits.
Internal/External Another theme within the literature on spirituality is the distinction between internal and external manifestations of religious life, including how
they relate to well-being. The body of research exploring these differences is mixed,
and a review is beyond the scope of this chapter (e.g., Schnall et al., 2010, 2012).
However, it appears that for some Jewish individuals, internal components of religiosity such as personal (as opposed to ritualized and codified) prayer, religious motivations, and attachment to God may be more reliable predictors of flourishing. For
example, in a cross-sectional study, Levin (2013) found that, among 1,849 Israeli
Jews, personal prayer was associated with elevated life satisfaction and well-being,
but synagogue attendance and formal prayer were not. Relatedly, in another crosssectional study, Lazar (2015) found that the quality of prayer—prayer behavior,
prayer type, and belief in prayer—predicted elevated life satisfaction better
than attending formal prayer did. On the other hand, Pirutinsky et al. (2011) reported
that for non-Orthodox Jews, social support mediated (explained) the relationship
between religiosity and coping with health difficulties.
Finally, furthering the distinction between internal and external components of
R/S, Pirutinsky et al. (2020) investigated the congruence of Jewish adherents’
implicit attitudes and explicit beliefs about God. They reported that congruent, positive, implicit attitudes and explicit beliefs predicted the highest levels of life satisfaction. The lowest levels of life satisfaction were found among those with positive
implicit attitudes and low levels of explicit positive beliefs. This finding suggests
that integrated conscious and nonconscious beliefs are an important factor in determining religion’s impact on well-being (see Davis et al., Chap. 18, this volume).
Religious Coping Additional research focuses on the use of religious coping
mechanisms to enhance well-being. British Jews who utilized religious coping
172
M. Schiffman et al.
methods after a major stressor were more likely to report positive affect (Loewenthal
et al., 2000). Rosmarin et al. (2009a) created and validated a Jewish Religious
Coping Scale (JCOPE) and found that positive religious coping predicted lower
levels of anxiety, and negative religious coping predicted higher levels of depression
and anxiety. The JCOPE added concepts particular to Judaism, such as “I look forward to Shabbat,” “I talk to my rabbi,” and “I try to do Mitzvot (good deeds).”
Rosmarin, Pargament, and Mahoney (2009b) created a Trust in God Scale, based on
an eleventh-century Jewish text, which draws on the strengths of spirituality, particularly trust in an omnipresent and benevolent God. These researchers found that
divine trust was related to higher personal happiness and lower depression and anxiety. Based on these concepts, they developed a spiritually integrated treatment for
anxiety. A subsequent study found that those who participated in this spiritually
integrated treatment reported reduced worry, stress, depression, and intolerance of
uncertainty (Rosmarin et al., 2010b).
Based on the literature in the broader population, there are several conceptual
theories that can explain the healing power of religious coping in Judaism. First, the
strengthened interpersonal connections utilized by religious individuals in times of
distress, such as speaking with one’s rabbi, may increase a sense of ethnic identity
and communal support (Pirutinsky & Mancuso, 2011). Relatedly, the cycle of religious life (e.g., Sabbath and holiday meals, congregational service) may provide
opportunities to develop a sense of belonging and a social support system, although
limited research suggests that this mechanism may be more relevant to nonOrthodox Jews (Pirutinsky et al., 2011). Second, adherence to Jewish practice may
strengthen one’s sense of higher, spiritual purpose in life (see Park & Van Tongeren,
Chap. 6, this volume). These religious practices may also provide a potent form of
behavioral activation that can protect against disengagement, sadness, and depression (Krumrei et al., 2013; Pirutinsky & Rosmarin, 2018). Finally, prayer and other
efforts to connect with God can foster positive emotions which can protect against
worry and despair that emerge from anticipating further pain and helplessness
(Rosmarin et al., 2009b; see Chap. 20, this volume).
Implications and Applications for Clinical Practice
Clinicians working with a Jewish client must be aware of Jewish interdenominational diversity and refrain from assumptions about Jewish R/S merely because the
client identifies as Jewish (Schiffman, 2016). Even within a particular denomination, Schnall (2006) notes that “Orthodox Jewry is a diverse group, with many subgroups, and that members of the subgroups differ to a greater or lesser degree in
their language, diet, worldview, dress, and even religious practice” (p. 277). The
same is true of Reform Judaism (Gehl, 2014) and other Jewish subgroups.
Based on the framework and research presented, assuming a Jewish client is
receptive, it may be beneficial to integrate religious themes within a therapeutic or
11
Positive Psychology and Judaism
173
coaching context. Clinicians can enhance commitment and motivation to therapeutic tasks, as well as bolster their efficacy, by framing happiness within a meaningful
religious framework, explicitly framing therapeutic goals as a functional path to the
fulfillment of commandments and connection to God, and sanctifying and spiritualizing the entire enterprise of character development.
Clinicians can also use biblical and rabbinic statements or other culturally familiar concepts to discuss tenets of positive psychology. Spiritually integrated clinical
treatments often draw on biblical verses and religious proverbs to facilitate the
acceptance of new positive cognitions (Pargament, 2007). In addition, religious stories may play a prominent role in treatment (Schnall et al., 2016). Positive psychology interventions drawing on Jewish tradition can utilize these same sources.
Finally, the distinction in the research between internal and external components
of R/S has important implications. Interventions that aim to integrate Jewish tradition and positive psychology may benefit from addressing both the explicit (more
doctrinal) and implicit (more experiential) aspects of spirituality. For example, an
intervention utilizing traditional texts to advance ideas regarding gratitude or transcendence may be more effective when coupled with activities that promote personalized experiences such as prayer, meditation, and journaling.
Implications and Applications for Research
Research related to positive psychology and the psychology of R/S within the
Jewish population is scarce. Judaism differs from other religions in significant ways
(Cohen et al., 2013), and research specifically targeting Jewish variables is warranted. There is a clear need for more methodical and targeted research programs to
help advance this field.
For example, to propel a more robust research agenda in the Jewish community,
Levin (2013) called on researchers to stratify analyses denominationally. Cohen
et al. (2013) noted that lack of denominational differentiation limits what conclusions can be drawn about potential influences. In a move in this direction, Cherniak
et al. (2021) investigated how differences between the denominations, including the
centrality of ritual practice and gender-based obligations in ritual, may modify the
link between R/S and well-being. Relatedly, researchers can take Beck and Haugen’s
(2013) suggestion to use empirical methods to explore the theological assumptions
of Christians and do the same with Jews, which would assist in identifying to what
extent the textual heritage and beliefs are internalized and serve as factors to increase
well-being.
Additionally, researchers could follow the lead of Rosmarin et al. (2009a) in
generating measures that specifically reflect the character of Jewish R/S and other
positive psychology constructs. Future research can also build on Rosmarin et al.
(2011) and explore how other character strengths, in addition to gratitude, such as
forgiveness, humility, and compassion, may present differently when infused with
religious/spiritual meaning.
174
M. Schiffman et al.
Although this chapter continued the theoretical groundwork linking positive psychology’s virtues to concepts in Judaism, there is an additional need to analyze the
nuances of each trait through the prism of classic Judaic literature and culture.
Similarly, more systematic applied research that will further develop and evaluate
clinical and educational interventions is necessary. A collaboration between positive
psychologists and Jewish studies scholars, Jewish community leaders, and those
who integrate Jewish thought and practices into their lives, could lead to greater
understanding and application of millennia-old Judaic wisdom.
Conclusion
The field of positive psychology is enhanced by taking into account the nuanced
differences in relationships between psychology and well-being for each religion.
Understanding Jewish conceptualizations of happiness, character, and spirituality
deepens and further enlightens our understanding of the broader mechanisms by
which virtues and character traits enhance emotional well-being and functioning.
This benefit is bidirectional, as positive psychology, with its cutting-edge scientific
research and empirically supported strategies, offers innovative angles and practical
strategies for the practice of Judaism. Judaism, with its close to 4,000 years of history, offers tried and true wisdom and perspective that can enhance the field of positive psychology. Integration of the two has begun, yet there is still much more work
to be done.
References
Baskin, J. R. (2011). The Cambridge dictionary of Judaism and Jewish culture. Cambridge
University Press.
Beck, R., & Haugen, A. D. (2013). The Christian religion: A theological and psychological review.
In K. I. Pargament, J. J. Exline, & J. W. Jones (Eds.), APA handbook of psychology, religion,
and spirituality (Vol. 1): Context, theory, and research (pp. 697–711). American Psychological
Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14045-039
Ben-Shalom, M. (2004). Medieval Jewry in Christendom. In M. Goodman (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of Jewish studies (pp. 153–192). Oxford University Press.
Blau, Y. (2000). The implications of a Jewish virtue ethic. Torah U-Madda Journal, 9, 19–41.
Brown, E. (2013). Leadership in the wilderness: Authority and anarchy in the book of Numbers.
Maggid Books.
Cherniak, A. D., Pirutinsky, S., & Rosmarin, D. H. (2021). Does gender moderate effects of religion on anxiety? Department of Psychology, Stockholm University. (Unpublished manuscript).
Cohen, A. B., Gorvine, B. J., & Gorvine, H. (2013). The religion, spirituality, and psychology
of Jews. In K. I. Pargament, J. J. Exline, & J. W. Jones (Eds.), APA handbook of psychology, religion, and spirituality (Vol. 1): Context, theory, and research (pp. 665–679). American
Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14045-037
DellaPergola, S. (2020). World Jewish population, 2019. In American Jewish yearbook 2019
(pp. 263–353). Springer.
11
Positive Psychology and Judaism
175
Delle Fave, A., Massimini, F., & Bassi, M. (2011). Psychological selection and optimal experience
across cultures: Social empowerment through personal growth. Springer.
Fishbane, M. (1995). The inwardness of joy in Jewish spirituality. Boston University Studies in
Philosophy and Religion, 16, 71–88.
Gehl, N. (2014). Reform Judaism. In D. A. Leeming (Ed.), Encyclopedia of psychology and religion (pp. 1480–1482). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_9253
Hartman, D. (2010). Maimonides: Torah and philosophic quest (Exp ed.). JPS.
Hezser, C. (2004). Classical Rabbinic literature. In M. Goodman (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of
Jewish studies (pp. 115–140). Oxford University Press.
Kalmenson, M. (2019). Positivity bias: Practical wisdom for positive living: Inspired by the life
and teachings of the Lubavitcher Rebbe. Ezra Press.
Kor, A., Pirutinsky, S., Mikulincer, M., Shoshani, A., & Miller, L. (2019). A longitudinal study of
spirituality, character strengths, subjective well-being, and prosociality in middle school adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 377. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00377
Krumrei, E. J., Pirutinsky, S., & Rosmarin, D. H. (2013). Jewish spirituality, depression, and health:
An empirical test of a conceptual framework. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine,
20(3), 327–336. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-012-9248-z
Lamm, N., Brill, A., & Carmy, S. (1999). The religious thought of Hasidism: Text and commentary.
Yeshiva University Press.
Lazar, A. (2015). The relation between prayer type and life satisfaction in religious Jewish men
and women: The moderating effects of prayer duration and belief in prayer. The International
Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 25(3), 211–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/1050861
9.2014.920603
Levin, J. (2013). Religious behavior, health, and well-being among Israeli Jews: Findings from the
European Social Survey. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 5(4), 272–282. https://doi.
org/10.1037/a0032601
Loewenthal, K. M., MacLeod, A. K., Goldblatt, V., Lubitsh, G., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Comfort
and joy? Religion, cognition, and mood in Protestants and Jews under stress. Cognition and
Emotion, 14(3), 355–374. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300378879
McCullough, M. E., & Willoughby, B. L. B. (2009). Religion, self-regulation, and self-control:
Associations, explanations, and implications. Psychological Bulletin, 135(1), 69–93. https://
doi.org/10.1037/a0014213
Pargament, K. I. (2007). Spiritually integrated psychotherapy: Understanding and addressing the
sacred. Guilford Press.
Pargament, K. I., & Mahoney, A. (2005). Sacred matters: Sanctification as a vital topic for the psychology of religion. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15(3), 179–198.
https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327582ijpr1503_1
Pelcovitz, R., & Pelcovitz, D. (2014). Life in the balance: Torah perspectives on positive psychology. Shaar Press.
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. American Psychological Association.
Pew Research Center. (2016). Israel’s religiously divided society. Author.
Pew Research Center. (2021). Jewish Americans in 2020. Author.
Piedmont, R. L. (1999). Does spirituality represent the sixth factor of personality? Spiritual transcendence and the five-factor model. Journal of Personality, 67(6), 985–1013. https://doi.
org/10.1111/1467-6494.00080
Pirutinsky, S. (2014). Does religiousness increase self-control and reduce criminal behavior? A longitudinal analysis of adolescent offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 41(11), 1290–1307.
Pirutinsky, S. (2020). I created the evil inclination and I created Torah its antidote: An indigenous
Jewish psychology. In T. A. Sisemore & J. J. Knabbs (Eds.), The psychology of world religions
and spiritualties: An indigenous perspective (pp. 59–84). Templeton University Press.
Pirutinsky, S., & Mancuso, A. F. (2011). Who are we? Social identity and psychological wellbeing. Graduate Student Journal of Psychology, 13, 39–44.
176
M. Schiffman et al.
Pirutinsky, S., & Rosmarin, D. H. (2018). Protective and harmful effects of religious practice on
depression among Jewish individuals with mood disorders. Clinical Psychological Science,
6(4), 601–609. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702617748402
Pirutinsky, S., Rosmarin, D. H., Holt, C. L., Feldman, R. H., Caplan, L. S., Midlarsky, E., &
Pargament, K. I. (2011). Does social support mediate the moderating effect of intrinsic religiosity on the relationship between physical health and depressive symptoms among Jews? Journal
of Behavioral Medicine, 34(6), 489–496. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-011-9325-9
Pirutinsky, S., Cherniak, A. D., & Rosmarin, D. H. (2020). Implicit and explicit attitudes towards
God and life satisfaction. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 12(4), 387–392. https://doi.
org/10.1037/rel0000250
Rosmarin, D. H., Pargament, K. I., Krumrei, E. J., & Flannelly, K. J. (2009a). Religious coping
among Jews: Development and initial validation of the JCOPE. Journal of Clinical Psychology,
65(7), 670–683. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20574
Rosmarin, D. H., Pargament, K. I., & Mahoney, A. (2009b). The role of religiousness in anxiety,
depression, and happiness in a Jewish community sample: A preliminary investigation. Mental
Health, Religion and Culture, 12(2), 97–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674670802321933
Rosmarin, D. H., Krumrei, E. J., & Pargament, K. I. (2010a). Are gratitude and spirituality protective factors against psychopathology? International Journal of Existential Positive Psychology,
3(1), 799–808.
Rosmarin, D. H., Pargament, K. I., Pirutinsky, S., & Mahoney, A. (2010b). A randomized controlled evaluation of a spiritually integrated treatment for subclinical anxiety in the Jewish
community, delivered via the Internet. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24(7), 799–808. https://
doi.org/10.1037/rel0000021
Rosmarin, D. H., Pirutinsky, S., Cohen, A. B., Galler, Y., & Krumrei, E. J. (2011). Grateful to God
or just plain grateful? A comparison of religious and general gratitude. The Journal of Positive
Psychology, 6(5), 389–396. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2011.596557
Rosmarin, D. H., Pirutinsky, S., Greer, D., & Korbman, M. (2016). Maintaining a grateful disposition in the face of distress: The role of religious coping. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality,
8(2), 134–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000021
Sacks, J. (2007). To heal a fractured world: The ethics of responsibility. Schocken.
Sacks, J. (2014). Happiness: A Jewish perspective. Journal of Law and Religion, 29(1), 30–47.
Sacks, J. (2015). Lessons in leadership: A weekly reading of the Jewish Hebrew Bible. Maggid.
Schiffman, M. (2016). Incorporating Jewish texts with REBT in the treatment of clinical anger.
Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 34(3), 225–239. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10942-016-0239-x
Schnall, E. (2006). Multicultural counseling and the Orthodox Jew. Journal of Counseling and
Development, 84, 276–282. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2006.tb00406.x
Schnall, E., & Greenberg, M. J. (2012). Groupthink and the Sanhedrin: An analysis of the ancient
court of Israel through the lens of modern social psychology. Journal of Management History,
18, 285–294. https://doi.org/10.1108/17511341211236228
Schnall, E., Wassertheil-Smoller, S., Swencionis, C., Zemon, V., Tinker, L., O’Sullivan, M. J., Van
Horn, L., & Goodwin, M. (2010). The relationship between religion and cardiovascular outcomes and all-cause mortality in the women’s health initiative observational study. Psychology
and Health, 25, 249–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440802311322
Schnall, E., Kalkstein, S., Fitchett, G., Salmoirago-Blotcher, E., Ockene, J., Tindle, H. A., Thomas,
A., Hunt, J. R., & Wassertheil-Smoller, S. (2012). Psychological and social characteristics
associated with religiosity in women’s health initiative participants. Journal of Religion and
Health, 51, 20–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-011-9549-6
Schnall, E., Schiffman, M., & Cherniak, A. (2014). Values that transcend: Positive psychology
in Jewish texts and tradition. In C. Kim-Prieto (Ed.), Religion and spirituality across cultures
(pp. 21–45). Springer.
11
Positive Psychology and Judaism
177
Schnall, E., Eichenbaum, B., & Abramowitz, Y. (2016). Jewish stories in mental health counseling. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 11, 12–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1540138
3.2015.1130667
Scholem, G., Garb, J., & Idel, M. (2007). Kabbalah. In M. Berenbaum & F. Skolnik (Eds.),
Encyclopaedia Judaica (Vol. 11, 2nd ed., pp. 586–692). Macmillan Reference.
Seligman, M. (2011). Flourish. Free Press.
Seligman, M. E., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress:
Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421. https://doi.org/1
0.1037/0003-066x.60.5.410
Sheskin, I. M., & Dashefsky, A. (2020). United States Jewish population, 2019. In American
Jewish year book 2019 (pp. 135–231). Springer.
Soloveitchik, J. D. (1983). Halakhic man (1st English ed.). Jewish Publication Society.
Tirosh-Samuelson, H. (2003). Philosophy and kabbalah: 1200–1600. In D. H. Frank & O. Leaman
(Eds.), The Cambridge companion to medieval Jewish philosophy (pp. 218–257). Cambridge
University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/ccol0521652073.011
Twersky, I. (Ed.). (1972). A Maimonides reader. Behrman House.
Vilchinsky, N., & Kravetz, S. (2005). How are religious belief and behavior good for you?
An investigation of mediators relating religion to mental health in a sample of Israeli
Jewish students. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 44(4), 459–471. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00297.x
Wurzburger, W. S. (1994). Ethics of responsibility: Pluralistic approaches to covenantal ethics.
Jewish Publication Society.
Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate
credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and
indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative
Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by
statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from
the copyright holder.