©Journal of Sports Science and Medicine (2014) 13, 945-950
http://www.jssm.org
Research article
Upper Limb Static-Stretching Protocol Decreases Maximal Concentric Jump
Performance
Paulo H. Marchetti 1, Fernando H. D. de Oliveira Silva 1, Enrico G. Soares 1, Érica P. Serpa 1,
Priscyla S. M. Nardi 1, Guanis de B. Vilela 1 and David G. Behm 2
1
Human Movement Sciences Graduate Program, School of Health Sciences, Methodist University of Piracicaba
(UNIMEP), Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil. 2 School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the acute effects of an upper limb static-stretching (SS) protocol on the
maximal concentric jump performance. We recruited 25 young
healthy, male, resistance trained individuals (stretched group, n
= 15 and control group, n = 10) in this study. The randomized
between group experimental protocol consisted of a three trials
of maximal concentric jump task, before and after a SS of the
upper limb. Vertical ground reaction forces (vGRF) and surface
electromyography (sEMG) of both gastrocnemius lateralis (GL)
and vastus lateralis (VL) were acquired. An extensive SS was
employed consisting of ten stretches of 30 seconds, with 15
seconds of rest, and 70-90% of the point of discomfort (POD).
ANOVA (2x2) (group x condition) was used for shoulder joint
range of motion (ROM), vGRF and sEMG. A significant interaction for passive ROM of the shoulder joint revealed significant increases between pre- and post-SS protocol (p < 0.001). A
significant interaction demonstrated decreased peak force and an
increased peak propulsion duration between pre- and poststretching only for stretch group (p = 0.021, and p = 0.024,
respectively. There was a significant main effect between groups
(stretch and control) for peak force for control group (p =
0.045). Regarding sEMG variables, there were no significant
differences between groups (control versus stretched) or condition (pre-stretching versus post-stretching) for the peak amplitude of RMS and IEMG for both muscles (VL and GL). In
conclusion, an acute extensive SS can increase the shoulder
ROM, and negatively affect both the propulsion duration and
peak force of the maximal concentric jump, without providing
significant changes in muscle activation.
Key words: Kinesiology, neuroscience, physiology, performance.
Introduction
The effect of static stretching (SS) on the neuromuscular
system has been attributed to both central and peripheral
mechanisms. These performance (force and power) reductions can originate from neurophysiological (i.e. mechanoreceptors of the skin, muscle and joint proprioception),
hormonal, cellular (structural changes such as titin), or
mechanical (i.e. stiffness, torque-length characteristics)
factors (Avela et al., 2004; Behm et al., 2004; Behm and
Chaouachi, 2011; Pacheco et al., 2011; Rubini et al., ,
2007; Serpa et al., 2014; Wallmann et al., 2005), and in
some studies, it might persist for over several hours poststretch (Brandenburg et al., 2007; Fowles et al., 2000;
Haddad et al., 2014; Power et al., 2004).
The majority of these studies focus on how a specific stretching protocol affects the exercised muscle(s).
On the other hand, there is evidence that the contralateral
untrained limb might be affected by the trained limb,
known as cross-over effect (Farthing, 2009; Zhou, 2000).
Several articles have reported cross-over effects for different exercise conditions such as fatigue (Doix et al.,
2013; Marchetti and Uchida, 2011; Rattey et al., 2006;
Regueme et al., 2007; Strang et al., 2009; Todd et al.,
2003), and force/power (Carroll et al., 2006; Farthing et
al., 2005; Lee and Carroll, 2007; Sariyildiz et al., 2011;
Shima et al., 2002), however, few articles have examined
the cross-over effect after SS routines (Lima et al., 2014;
Nelson et al., 2012). Nelson, et al. (2012) analyzed 10week stretching program (4 times for 30s, with 30s rest, 3
d∙wk-1). The results indicated an increase in strength
(1RM) and ROM for both legs (stretched and nonstreched limb), where the strength gain of the nonstretched leg was 56% of the stretched leg. Lima et al.
(2014) investigated the acute effects of unilateral ankle
plantar flexors SS (6 sets of 45s/15s, 70-90% point of
discomfort (POD)) on surface electromyography (sEMG)
and the center of pressure (COP) during a single-leg balance task in both lower limbs. The results indicated no
differences on non-stretched limb for all dependent variables when compared to stretched limb.
The investigation of cross-over effect is mainly
limited to assessing how the stretching protocols of an
ipsilateral muscle affects the performance of the contralateral homologous muscle. There is less research investigating possible non-localized effects of upper-body on
lower-body performance or vice versa. This type of question addresses whether fatigue is specific to working
muscles or is it more of a systemic response. Previous
studies have shown evidence for the existence of neural
coupling between upper and lower-limb neural networks
which may modulate the muscle activation, reflexes and
coordination of muscles (Huang and Ferris, 2004; 2009).
Considering the neural coupling between upper and lower-limb, some articles have reported this effect for fatigue
conditions (Kennedy et al., 2013; Takahashi et al., 2011).
Halperin et al. (2014) in two separate papers reported that
fatigued elbow flexors impaired force and activation of
contralateral knee extensors while in the second paper,
knee extension fatigue caused decrements in the ability to
perform repeated maximal voluntary contractions of the
Received: 13 August 2014 / Accepted: 08 September 2014 / Published (online): 01 December 2014
946
elbow flexors. Neural coupling could be facilitated by
group III and IV muscle afferents (Martin et al., 2008).
This feedback loop from muscle afferents can provide an
inhibitory effect to the central nervous system leading to
systemic decrements in the central drive to exercised and
non-exercised muscles (Martin et al., 2008). Gandevia
(2001) provides extensive evidence of supraspinal inhibition concluding that muscle feedback concerning biochemical and force-generating status can impair cortical
sites. Long loop reflexes from muscle spindle afferents
(Marsden et al., 1983) as well as skin and subcutaneous
afferents (Corden et al., 2000) can influence cortical activation of the exercised and non-exercised remote muscles
(Kagamihara et al., 2003). Hence, it would be important
to ascertain the non-local muscle effects of stretching the
upper body on lower body performance.
However, there is no scientific evidence for acute
stretching-induced crosover or non-local muscle fatigue
effects. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to
evaluate the acute effects of an upper limb SS protocol on
the maximal concentric jump performance. It was hypothesized that extensive upper body SS would impair lower
body jump performance.
Methods
Subjects
Based on a statistical power analysis derived from the
maximum jump height data from a pilot study, fifteen
subjects would be necessary to achieve an alpha level of
0.05 and a power (1-β) of 0.80 (Eng, 2003). Therefore, we
recruited 25 young healthy, resistance trained individuals
(stretched group: 15 males, age: 23 ± 5 years, height: 1.78
± 0.08 m, and weight: 74.4 ± 13kg and control group: 10
males, age: 22 ± 6 years, height: 1.79 ± 0.07 m, and
weight: 74 ± 15kg) to participate in this study. Individuals
who participated in this study had no previous surgery on
both upper and lower extremities, no history of injury
with residual symptoms (pain, “giving-away” sensations).
All the participants signed an informed consent form after
receiving instruction on the experimental protocol of the
research. This study was approved by the University research ethics committee (#35/2014).
Procedures
Prior to the data collection, the subjects were asked to
identify the preferred leg for kicking a ball, which was
then considered the dominant leg (Maulder and Cronin,
2005), and all subjects were right-arm dominant based on
their preferred arm to write. All subjects were right leg
and arm dominant. The experimental protocol consisted
of: (1) a brief sub-maximal jumping warm-up for 5
minutes (20 jumps, 4 jumps with a rest interval of 45
seconds); (2) concentric jump task familiarization; (3) a
pre-stretching evaluation of the upper limb (passive
ROM); (4) three trials of maximal concentric jump task;
(3) shoulder joint SS protocol; (4) immediately poststretching evaluation of the upper limb (passive ROM);
and (5) three trials of maximal concentric jump task. The
control group followed the same procedures as the
stretched group, except for the shoulder joint SS protocol.
Upper limb stretching affects jump performance
The control group remained seated during the same time
interval that the stretched group performed the stretching
protocol. All measures were performed by the same researcher and at the same hour of the day, between 9 and
12 AM.
Concentric jumping task (CJ): The subjects initially stood on the force plate (Biomec410, EMG System do
Brasil, São José dos Campos, Brazil) with knee flexed to
90°, with the hands placed on the hips. The participant
then held the position for a 2-s period at which time they
were instructed to jump as high and fast as possible. The
subjects left the force plate with the knee and ankle fully
extended and landed in a similarly extended position. The
CJ eliminated any active prestretch of the musculature
and thus only utilized a concentric contraction (Power et
al., 2004). The subjects were allocated at least 10s rest
between jumps. Vertical ground reaction forces (vGRF)
and surface electromyography (sEMG) of both gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) and vastus lateralis (VL) were
simultaneously acquired at 2000Hz.
Measures
Surface electromyography recording (sEMG): The participants’ skin was prepared before placement of the EMG
electrodes. Hair at the site of electrode placement was
shaved and the skin was cleaned with alcohol. Bipolar
active disposable dual Ag/AgCl snap electrodes 1cm in
diameter for each circular conductive area and 2cm center-to-center spacing were placed unilaterally (dominant
lower limb) over the longitudinal axes of the GL and VL.
For the GL, the electrodes were placed in the direction of
the line between the head of the fibula and the heel and
for VL at 2/3 on the line from the anterior spina iliaca
superior to the lateral side of the patella, according to the
SENIAM/ISEKI protocol. The sEMG signals of the GLs
of both lower limbs were recorded by an electromyographic acquisition system (EMG832C, EMG system
Brasil, São José dos Campos, Brazil) with sampling rate
of 2000 Hz using a commercially designed software program (DATAQ Instruments Hardware Manager, DATAQ
Instruments, Inc., OH, USA). EMG activity was amplified
(bi-polar differential amplifier, input impedance = 2MΩ,
common mode rejection ratio > 100 dB min (60 Hz), gain
x 20, noise > 5 µV), and analog-to-digitally converted (12
bit). A ground electrode was placed on the right clavicle.
Shoulder Joint Range of Motion (ROM): Subjects
adopted a supine position with knees bent, supporting the
lumbar spine at the bench. The fleximeter was placed on
the dominant arm, above the elbow, and the hands were
placed together to set zero degrees of the fleximeter.
Then, each subject performed a passive ROM for a horizontal abduction movement of the shoulder joint. The
maximal passive shoulder ROM was evaluated before and
after the SS protocol with a fleximeter, with a sensitivity
of 1º (Sanny, Brazil).
Intervention
Static-stretching protocol (SS): The subjects remained
seated on a chair, with the hands behind the head, arms
raised above the shoulder joint. Then, a researcher moved
both arms (shoulder joint), at the same time, passively, to
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Marchetti et al.
Table 1. Mean (±standard deviation) of the peak amplitude of the root mean square (RMS) and integrated electromyography
(IEMG) before and after the static stretching (SS) protocol for vastus lateralis (VL) and gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) and
groups (control and stretched).
Control Group
Stretched Group
Variable
Muscle
Pre- Intervention Post- Intervention
Pre- Intervention
Post- Intervention
VL
.91 (.37)
.87 (.18)
.94 (.22)
.99 (.25)
Peak RMS
(Volts)
GL
.53 (.11)
.59 (.12)
.59 (.15)
.60 (.15)
VL
780 (334)
746 (214)
787 (210)
842 (204)
IEMG
(V.s)
GL
424 (110)
445 (92)
457 (111)
468 (118)
the maximal ROM of the horizontal abduction position,
bringing the elbows back as far as possible. An extensive
passive stretching protocol was employed consisting of
ten stretches of 30 seconds, with 15 seconds of rest between each stretch (Behm et al., 2004). The intensity was
70-90% of the point of discomfort (POD), where 0="no
stretch discomfort at all" and 100%="the maximum imaginable stretch discomfort" (Behm and Chaouachi, 2011;
Behm and Kibele, 2007). The POD intensity was required
from the subjects during all stretches and the ROM was
readjusted at 70-90% POD as necessary. The SS protocol
was applied and controlled (POD) by the same strength
and conditioning researcher.
Data analysis
All the vGRF and sEMG data were analyzed only during
the propulsive CJ phase (defined by vGRF) by a customized Matlab routine (MathWorks Inc., USA). Then, the
mean of the three maximal jumps were calculated for
each variable.
CJ performance analysis: For each CJ task, the
vertical GRF data was filtered with a fourth-order 80Hz
low-pass zero-lag Butterworth filter. We computed the
following variables during the propulsive phase of the CJ:
(a) propulsive time, (b) peak of force, (c) impulse (vGRF
area).
sEMG analysis: The digitized sEMG data was first
band-pass filtered at 20-400 Hz by using a fourth order
Butterworth filter with a zero lag. For the time domain
analysis, we calculated the peak of RMS, using a maximal
value of the EMG RMS (150ms moving window) for
each muscle, and each EMG RMS data was integrated
(IEMG).
Statistical analyses
The normality and homogeneity of variances within the
data were confirmed with the Shapiro-Wilk and Levene
tests, respectively. A mixed model ANOVA (2x2) was
used for all ROM, vGRF and sEMG variables, with factors being group (stretched and control) and repeated
measures for condition (pre- and post-stretching). Posthoc comparisons were performed with the Bonferroni test.
Cohen’s formula for effect size (ES) was calculated, and
the results were based on the following criteria: <0.35
trivial effect; 0.35-0.80 small effect; 0.80-1.50 moderate
effect; and >1.5 large effect, for recreationally trained
according to Rhea (2004). Test-retest reliability (ICC)
was calculated and ranged between 0.76 and 0.98 for all
dependent variables. An alpha of 5% was used for all
statistical tests.
Results
A significant interaction for passive ROM of the shoulder
joint revealed significant increases between the measurements taken before and those taken after the SS protocol
(mean±SD: 134.9 ± 12.4° to 141.9 ± 14.4°, p < 0.001, ES
= 0.54, ∆% = 5.93%). There were no significant differences with pre- to post-SS measures for the control group
(mean±SD: 135 ± 12° to 139 ± 14°, p = 0.704). There
were no significant main effects between the groups for
shoulder joint passive ROM.
Regarding sEMG variables, there were no significant differences between groups (control versus stretched)
or condition (pre-stretching versus post-stretching) for the
peak amplitude of RMS and IEMG for both muscles (VL
and GL) (Table 1).
A significant interaction demonstrated a decrease
for peak force (Figure 1a) and an increased peak propulsion duration (Figure 1b) between pre- and post-stretching
Figure 1. Mean and standard deviation of the (a) peak of force and (b) time of propulsion before and after static stretching (SS) for both groups stretched and control. * p < 0.05.
948
only for stretched group (p = 0.021, ES = 1.41, ∆% = 25%
and p = 0.024, ES = 1.32, ∆%=23.6%, respectively). Additionally, there was a significant main effect between
groups (stretched and control group) for peak force (p =
0.045, ES = 1.38, ∆% = 28.4%). For the impulse, there
were no significant differences between pre-stretching
and post-stretching for both stretched and control group.
Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the acute
effects of an upper limb SS protocol on the maximal concentric jump performance. It was hypothesized that extensive upper body SS would impair lower body jump performance.
The main findings of the present study were the
evidence of impairment on the maximal concentric jump
performance (increase of propulsion duration and decrease of peak force) and the increase of shoulder ROM
after an acute upper limb SS protocol. The total volume
(300s) and high intensity (70-90% POD) of SS used in the
present study increased the passive shoulder joint ROM
by 5.9%. However, the significant increases in shoulder
joint passive ROM after the SS protocol only occurred
with the stretched group.
Related to the force variables, we observed an increase of peak of propulsion phase and a decrease for
peak force between pre- and post-stretching only for the
stretched group. The non-local impairments associated
with extensive upper body exercise on lower body performance is in accord with Halperin et al.(2014) who
found a reduction in quadriceps muscle force and activation following a 100s isometric elbow flexor fatigue protocol. Similarly, Kennedy et al. (2013) reported 23% and
9% deficits in plantar flexors MVC after maximal and
submaximal fatiguing protocols of the forearms. The
decline in jumping performance of lower limbs after upper limb SS protocol suggests a central nervous system
mechanism (Kennedy et al., 2013), taking into account
the neural coupling between upper and lower-limb neural
networks which might modulate the muscle activation,
reflexes and coordination of muscles in a different extremity (Huang and Ferris, 2004; 2009). Halperin et al.
(2014) detected a crossover fatigue effect from the fatigued elbow flexors and knee extensors to the nonexercised knee extensors but no significant effect on the
non-exercised elbow flexors. They suggested the knee
extensors were more susceptible than the elbow flexors to
non-local or crossover muscle fatigue effects regardless of
the muscle group being fatigued. It would be interesting
in a subsequent investigation to examine whether the
upper body to lower body SS deficits found in the present
study would also occur with lower body SS influences
upon upper body performance.
The effects of prolonged and intense SS on the
joint receptors might lead to inhibitory inputs from afferent Type III (mechanoreceptor) and IV (nociceptor) afferents and Golgi tendon organ discharge, thereby limiting
neural drive to the primary motor cortex. Long loop reflexes from muscle spindle afferents (Marsden et al.,
1983) as well as skin and subcutaneous afferents (Corden
Upper limb stretching affects jump performance
et al., 2000) can influence cortical activation of the affected and non-local muscles (Kagamihara et al., 2003). Since
intrafusal stretch receptor discharge frequency from Ia
afferents can contribute up to 30% of the motoneuron
excitation (Gandevia, 2001), SS-induced reductions in
afferent excitability could adversely affect muscle force.
As there is no horizontal connectivity within the primary
motor cortex between arm and leg representations, the
decline in supraspinal drive may be attributed to mechanisms that originate upstream of primary motor cortex,
where arm and leg representations overlap considerably
(Aboodarda et al., 2014; Byblow et al., 2007; Trajano et
al., 2013). Gandevia (2001) provides extensive evidence
of supraspinal inhibition indicating that muscle feedback
concerning force-generating status can impair cortical
sites.
Considering the sEMG variables, such as peak of
EMG or IEMG, we did not observe significant differences
between pre-stretching and post-stretching for both muscles (VL and GL) and groups. Perhaps this nonsignificant response can be explained by the non-linear
force-EMG relationship (Solomonow et al., 1990). The
earliest studies on the force-EMG relationship reported a
linear relationship (Lippold, 1952) however; contemporary studies have illustrated a non-linear or curvilinear
force-EMG relationships with the quadriceps during isometric (Alkner et al., 2000) and dynamic (Fujita et al.,
2011) contractions. A non-linear force-EMG relationship
indicates that the sEMG is not sensitive to all changes in
force output, and it is not sensitive enough to capture the
differences between conditions, which were relatively
small (~5%). In addition, we can relate the high variability of the data (sEMG) with the inter-subject differences
of the SS protocol intensity.
We recognize that this study has some limitations.
The placement of the sEMG electrodes over the VL and
GL might have led to cross-talk from adjacent muscles,
such as the vastus intermedius, rectus femoris, soleus,
tibialis, and peroneal muscles. We chose to use the most
extensive SS protocol in the literature that included subjective information about the stretching intensity. However, we do recognize that the intensity of the stretching
might not be commonly utilized during warm-ups to activity or during the rehabilitation processes.
Conclusion
In conclusion, an acute extensive SS protocol can increase
the shoulder ROM, and negatively affect both the propulsion duration and peak force of the maximal concentric
jump, without providing significant changes in muscle
activation. These non-local effects should be taken into
consideration by athletes, coaches, fitness professionals
and rehabilitation specialists when stretching one body
part and subsequently training another muscle. SSinduced deficits are not localized to only the stretched
muscle and may affect subsequent power performance in
other muscle groups.
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Key points
• The jump performance can be affected negatively by
an intense extensive static-stretching protocol.
• An intense acute extensive SS protocol can affect
positively the shoulder ROM.
• The intense acute extensive SS protocol does not
change the level of muscle activation for vastus lateralis and gastrocnemius lateralis.
Upper limb stretching affects jump performance
AUTHORS BIOGRAPHY
Paulo H. MARCHETTI
Employment
Associated Professor
Degree
Ph.D
Research interests
Postural control, biomechanics, resistance
training, stretching
E-mail: dr.pmarchetti@gmail.com
Fernando H. D. de O. SILVA
Employment
Physical Educator
Degree
Master
Research interests
Biomechanics
E-mail: ferpkfr@gmail.com
Enrico G. SOARES
Employment
Physical Educator
Degree
Master
Research interests
Biomechanics
E-mail: emaildoenrico@gmail.com
Érica P. SERPA
Employment
Physical Educator
Degree
Master
Research interests
Biomechanics
E-mail: erica_serpa@hotmail.com
Priscyla S.M. NARDI
Employment
Physiotherapist and Physical Educator
Degree
Specialist
Research interests
Sports physiotherapy, biomechanics
E-mail: priscylanardi@gmail.com
Guanis de B.VILELA Junior
Employment
Assistant Professor
Degree
PhD
Research interests
biomechanics
E-mail: guanis@gmail.com
David G. BEHM
Employment
Associated Dean Professor
Degree
PhD
Research interests
Biomechanics, motor control
E-mail: dbehm@mun.ca
Paulo H. Marchetti
Methodist University of Piracicaba (UNIMEP). School of
Health Sciences. Human Movement Sciences Graduate Program. Human Performance Research Group. Rodovia do Açúcar
Km 156, Bloco 7, Sala 39, Taquaral, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil