Islamic Architecture A Compendium

Islamic Architecture Dr Uday Dokras I Islamic architecture Dr Uday Dokras Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Mesopotamian and all other lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries. Further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. Later it developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings, and the decoration of surfaces with Islamic calligraphy and geometric and interlace patterned ornament. The principal Islamic architectural types for large or public buildings are: the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for other buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture.Dome of the Rock, JerusalemInside the Prophet's Mosque, Medina, Hejaz, Saudi ArabiaInside the Jame Mosque of Yazd, IranShah Mosque, IsfahanThe Mosque of Rome, ItalyEast London Mosque, EnglandA view of intricate tile-work on the Mir-i-Arab Madrasa in Bukhara, Uzbekistan (Persian style)A view of the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, Pakistan, which was commissioned by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1671 CE (Mughal architecture)Makkah Masjid in Hyderabad is one of the largest and oldest mosques in India (Indo-Islamic architecture)Dome of the mihrab (9th century) in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, TunisiaThe large Hypostyle prayer hall in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, dating in its present form from the 9th century, in Kairouan, TunisiaThe Great Mosque of Djenné in the west African country of MaliOne of the hallmarks of Persian gardens is the four-part garden laid out with axial paths that intersect at the garden's centre. This highly structured geometrical scheme, called the chahar bagh, became a powerful metaphor for the organization and domestication of the landscape, itself a symbol of political territory.Arcades of the Mosque–Cathedral of CórdobaArcades of the Aljafería of ZaragozaDome of the Fire temple of Harpak in AbyanehNon-radial rib vault in the Jameh Mosque of IsfahanDome of the tomb of Ahmed Sanjar in MervUpper dome of Ālī Qāpū, IsfahanAdina Mosque, West Bengal, IndiaSchematic drawing of a pendentive domeCentral domes of the Hagia SophiaDome of the Kalenderhane MosqueSelimiye MosqueDesign of a muqarnas quarter vault from the Topkapı ScrollMuqarnas in the necropolis of Shah-i-Zinda, SamarqandMuqarnas in the AlhambraThe muqarna of a mosque in Bukhara, UzbekistanGeometrical tile ornament (Zellij), Ben Youssef Madrasa, MarocCalligraphic inscription on the dome of the Mevlana mausoleumDome of the Shah Mosque in Isfahan with calligraphic inscriptionBengali Islamic terracotta on a 17th-century mosque in Tangail, BangladeshThe interior of the Mezquita in Córdoba, SpainA sample of modern Islamic architecture - The mosque of international conferences center - IsfahanMedina quarter of Fez, MoroccoFigure-ground diagram of AlgiersFigure-ground diagram of a European town (1819)Qutub Minar built at the start of the Delhi Sultanate, a massive statement of conquest.The Taj Mahal, the most famous building of Mughal architecture.Gol Gumbaz built by the Bijapur Sultanate in Deccani style, the world's 2nd largest pre-modern dome.Adina Mosque, the largest mosque of Bengali Muslim architecture.Charminar at Old City in Hyderabad, India.The Asfi mosque, located near the Bara Imambara in Lucknow, India.The Grand Mosque of the Sultanate of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, features multi-layered roof typical of Indonesian mosque architecture.Baiturrahman Grand Mosque, Indonesia, with Mughal and Dutch Colonial influences.Masjid Agung Palembang, Indonesia, with Chinese influence.Kampung Kling Mosque, Malaysia, with a cross between Sumatran, Chinese, Hindu, and the Malacca Malay influences.Masjid Kampung Laut, Malaysia, which is a typical traditional Malay mosque architecture in Malaysia.Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, are 88-floor towers constructed largely of reinforced concrete, with a steel and glass facade designed to resemble motifs found in Islamic art, a reflection of Malaysia's Muslim religion.Chowmahalla Palace in Hyderabad. Intricate pattern on the Window of Syedna Hatim Rauza Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Mesopotamian and all other lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries. Further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. Later it developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings, and the decoration of surfaces with Islamic calligraphy and geometric and interlace patterned ornament. The principal Islamic architectural types for large or public buildings are: the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for other buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture. Many of the buildings which are mentioned in this article are listed as World Heritage Sites. Some of them, like the Citadel of Aleppo, have suffered significant damage in the ongoing Syrian Civil War. The Dome of the Rock ( Qubbat aṣ-Ṣakhrah) in Jerusalem (691) is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture. It is patterned after the nearby Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Byzantine Christian artists were employed to create its elaborate mosaics against a golden background. The great epigraphic vine frieze was adapted from the pre-Islamic Syrian style. The Dome of the Rock featured interior vaulted spaces, a circular dome, and the use of stylized repeating decorative arabesque patterns. Desert palaces in Jordan and Syria (for example, Mshatta, Qasr Amra, and Khirbat al-Mafjar) served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, and were decorated to promote an image of royal luxury. The horseshoe arch became a popular feature in Islamic structures. Some suggest the Muslims acquired this from the Visigoths in Spain but they may have obtained it from Syria and Persia where the horseshoe arch had been in use by the Byzantines. In Moorish architecture, the curvature of the horseshoe arch is much more accentuated. Furthermore, alternating colours were added to accentuate the effect of its shape. This can be seen at a large scale in their major work, the Great Mosque of Córdoba. The Great Mosque of Damascus (completed in 715 by caliph Al-Walid I), built on the site of the basilica of John the Baptist after the Islamic invasion of Damascus, still bore great resemblance to 6th and 7th century Christian basilicas. Certain modifications were implemented, including expanding the structure along the transversal axis which better fit with the Islamic style of prayer. The Abbasid dynasty (750 AD- 1258) witnessed the movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, and then from Baghdad to Samarra. The shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. The Great Mosque of Samarra, once the largest in the world, was built for the new capital. Other major mosques built in the Abbasid Dynasty include the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Abu Dalaf in Iraq, the great mosque in Tunis. Abbasid architecture in Iraq as exemplified in the Fortress of Al-Ukhaidir (c.775-6) demonstrated the 'despotic and the pleasure-loving character of the dynasty' in its grand size but cramped living quarters. The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) is considered the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world. Its original marble columns and sculptures were of Roman workmanship brought in from Carthage and other elements resemble Roman form. It is one of the best preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques, founded in 670 AD and dating in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period (9th century). The Great Mosque of Kairouan is constituted of a massive square minaret, a large courtyard surrounded by porticos and a huge hypostyle prayer hall covered on its axis by two cupolas. The Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq, completed in 847 AD, combined the hypostyle architecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base above which a huge spiraling minaret was constructed. The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture. When the Ottomans captured the city from the Byzantines, they converted the basilica to a mosque (now a museum) and incorporated Byzantine architectural elements into their own work (e.g. domes). The Hagia Sophia also served as a model for many Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque. Domes are a major structural feature of Islamic architecture. The dome first appeared in Islamic architecture in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock, a near replica of the existing Church of the Holy Sepulchre and other Christian domed basilicas situated nearby. Domes remain in use, being a significant feature of many mosques and of the Taj Mahal in the 17th century. The distinctive pointed domes of Islamic architecture have remained a distinguishing feature of mosques into the 21st century. Influenced by Byzantine and Persian architecture, the pointed arch as an architectonic principle was first clearly established in Islamic architecture; as an architectonic principle, the pointed arch was entirely alien to the pre-Islamic world. Especially in the Persianate world, the slightly 'depressed' four-centred arch or 'Persian arch', has been the most common style used. Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been the mathematical themes of ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other significant features employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes. Grand arches of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba/Lotfollah Mosque on Naqsh-e Jahan Square, Isfahan/The interior side view of the main dome of Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, Turkey built in the Ottoman style The Courtyard of Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, this Mosque was built in Umayyad style Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Mesopotamian architecture and all other lands which the Early Muslim conquests conquered in the seventh and eighth centuries. Further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Mughal architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. Later it developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings, and the decoration of surfaces with Islamic calligraphy and geometric and interlace patterned ornament. New architectural elements like cylindrical minarets, muqarnas, arabesque, multifoil were invented. The principal Islamic architectural types for large or public buildings are: the mosque, the tomb, the palace, and the fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for other buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture.[3][4] Many of the buildings which are mentioned in this article are listed as World Heritage Sites. Some of them, like the Citadel of Aleppo, have suffered significant damage in the ongoing Syrian Civil War and other wars in the Middle East. The Court of the Lions, a Moorish masterpiece, at the Alhambra palace (Granada, Spain) From the eighth to the 11th century, Islamic architectural styles were influenced by two different ancient traditions: Greco-Roman tradition: In particular, the regions of the newly conquered Byzantine Empire (Southwestern Anatolia, Syria, Egypt and the Maghreb) supplied architects, masons, mosaicists and other craftsmen to the new Islamic rulers. These artisans were trained in Byzantine architecture and decorative arts, and continued building and decorating in Byzantine style, which had developed out of Hellenistic and ancient Roman architecture. Eastern tradition: Mesopotamia and Persia, despite adopting elements of Hellenistic and Roman representative style, retained their independent architectural traditions, which derived from Sasanian architecture and its predecessors.[6] The transition process between late Antiquity, or post-classical, and Islamic architecture is exemplified by archaeologic findings in North Syria and Palestine, the Bilad al-Sham of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. In this region, late antique, or Christian, architectural traditions merged with the pre-Islamic Arabian heritage of the conquerors. Recent research on the history of Islamic art and architecture has revised a number of colonialistic ideas. Specifically, the following questions are currently subject to renewed discussions in the light of recent findings and new concepts of cultural history: the existence of a linear development within the Islamic architecture; the existence of an inter- and intracultural hierarchy of styles; questions of cultural authenticity and its delineation. Compared to earlier research, the assimilation and transformation of pre-existing architectural traditions is investigated under the aspect of mutual intra- and intercultural exchange of ideas, technologies and styles as well as artists, architects, and materials. In the area of art and architecture, the Rise of Islam is seen as a continuous transformation process leading from late Antiquity to the Islamic period. Early research into the area regarded early Islamic architecture merely as a break with the past, from which apparently rose a distorted and less expressive form of art,[8] or a degenerate imitation of the post-classical architectural forms.[9] Modern concepts tend to regard the transition between the cultures rather as a selective process of informed appropriation and transformation. The Umayyads played a crucial role in this process of transforming and thereby enriching the existing architectural traditions, or, in a more general sense, of the visual culture of the nascent Islamic society. The Dome of the Rock ( Qubbat aṣ-Ṣakhrah) in Jerusalem (691) is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture. It is patterned after the nearby Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Byzantine Christian artists were employed to create its elaborate mosaics against a golden background.[1][12] The great epigraphic vine frieze was adapted from the pre-Islamic Syrian style.[13] The Dome of the Rock featured interior vaulted spaces, a circular dome, and the use of stylized repeating decorative arabesque patterns. Desert palaces in Jordan and Syria (for example, Mshatta, Qasr Amra, and Khirbat al-Mafjar) served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, and were decorated to promote an image of royal luxury. Courtyard of Mustansiriya Medical College (in Iraq) is an example of Abbasid Islamic architecture A mosaic covered dome from the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba The horseshoe arch became a popular feature in Islamic structures. Some suggest the Muslims acquired this from the Visigoths in Spain but they may have obtained it from Syria and Persia where the horseshoe arch had been in use by the Byzantines. In Moorish architecture, the curvature of the horseshoe arch is much more accentuated. Furthermore, alternating colours were added to accentuate the effect of its shape. This can be seen at a large scale in their major work, the Great Mosque of Córdoba.[14] The Great Mosque of Damascus (completed in 715 by caliph Al-Walid I),[15] built on the site of the basilica of John the Baptist after the Islamic invasion of Damascus, still bore great resemblance to sixth and seventh century Christian basilicas. Certain modifications were implemented, including expanding the structure along the transversal axis which better fit with the Islamic style of prayer. The Abbasid dynasty (750 AD- 1258[16]) witnessed the movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, and then from Baghdad to Samarra. The shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. The Great Mosque of Samarra, once the largest in the world, was built for the new capital. Other major mosques built in the Abbasid Dynasty include the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Abu Dalaf in Iraq, the great mosque in Tunis. Abbasid architecture in Iraq as exemplified in the Fortress of Al-Ukhaidir (c.775 –76) demonstrated the "despotic and the pleasure-loving character of the dynasty" in its grand size but cramped living quarters.[17] The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) is considered the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world. Its original marble columns and sculptures were of Roman workmanship brought in from Carthage and other elements resemble Roman form.[18][19] It is one of the best preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques, founded in 670 AD and dating in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period (ninth century).[20] The Great Mosque of Kairouan is constituted of a massive square minaret, a large courtyard surrounded by porticos and a huge hypostyle prayer hall covered on its axis by two cupolas. The Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq, completed in 847 AD, combined the hypostyle architecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base above which a huge spiraling minaret was constructed. The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture. When the Ottomans captured the city from the Byzantines, they converted the basilica to a mosque (now a museum) and incorporated Byzantine architectural elements into their own work (e.g., domes). The Hagia Sophia also served as a model for many Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque. Domes are a major structural feature of Islamic architecture. The dome first appeared in Islamic architecture in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock, a near replica of the existing Church of the Holy Sepulchre and other Christian domed basilicas situated nearby. Domes remain in use, being a significant feature of many mosques and of the Taj Mahal in the 17th century. The distinctive pointed domes of Islamic architecture have remained a distinguishing feature of mosques into the 21st century. Influenced by Byzantine and Persian architecture, the pointed arch as an architectonic principle was first clearly established in Islamic architecture; as an architectonic principle, the pointed arch was entirely alien to the pre-Islamic world.[25] Especially in the Persianate world, the slightly "depressed" four-centred arch or "Persian arch", has been the most common style used. Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been the mathematical themes of ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other significant features employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonettes. Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem the Prophet's mosque, Medina, Hejaz, Saudi Arabia///Inside the Jame Mosque of Yazd, Iran/Shah Mosque, Isfahan/ he Mosque of Rome, Italy/East London Mosque, England   view of intricate tile-work on the Mir-i-Arab Madrasa in Bukhara, Uzbekistan (Persian style)   A view of the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, Pakistan, which was commissioned by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1671 CE ( architecture/Makkah Masjid in Hyderabad is one of the largest and oldest mosques in India (Indo-Islamic architecture)Dome of the mihrab (ninth century) in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia   The large Hypostyle prayer hall in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, dating in its present form from the ninth century, in Kairouan, Tunisia//The Great Mosque of Djenné in the west African country of Mali Some characteristics of Islamic architecture were inherited from pre-Islamic architecture of that region while some characteristics like minarets, muqarnas, arabesque, Islamic geometric pattern, pointed arch, multifoil arch, onion dome and pointed dome developed later. Paradise garden Gardens and water have for many centuries played an essential role in Islamic culture, and are often compared to the garden of Paradise. The comparison originates from the Achaemenid Empire. In his dialogue "Oeconomicus", Xenophon has Socrates relate the story of the Spartan general Lysander's visit to the Persian prince Cyrus the Younger, who shows the Greek his "Paradise at Sardis".The classical form of the Persian Paradise garden, or the Charbagh, comprises a rectangular irrigated space with elevated pathways, which divide the garden into four sections of equal size: One of the hallmarks of Persian gardens is the four-part garden laid out with axial paths that intersect at the garden's centre. This highly structured geometrical scheme, called the chahar bagh, became a powerful metaphor for the organization and domestication of the landscape, itself a symbol of political territory. A Charbagh from Achaemenid time has been identified in the archaeological excavations at Pasargadae. The gardens of Chehel Sotoun (Isfahan), Fin Garden (Kashan), Eram Garden (Shiraz), Shazdeh Garden (Mahan), Dowlatabad Garden (Yazd), Abbasabad Garden(Abbasabad), Akbarieh Garden (South Khorasan Province), Pahlevanpour Garden, all in Iran, form part of the UNESCO World Heritage.[29] Large Paradise gardens are also found at the Taj Mahal (Agra), and at Humayun's Tomb (New Delhi), in India; the Shalimar Gardens (Lahore, Pakistan) or at the Alhambra and Generalife in Granada, Spain. Courtyard (Sehan) The Great Mosque of Kairouan, with a large courtyard (sehan) surrounded by arcades, Kairouan, Tunisia. The traditional Islamic courtyard, a sehan (Arabic: صحن‎), is found in secular and religious structures. When within a residence or other secular building is a private courtyard and walled garden. It is used for the aesthetics of plants, water, architectural elements, and natural light; for cooler space with fountains and shade, and source of breezes into the structure, during summer heat; and a protected and proscribed place where the women of the house need not be covered in the hijab clothing traditionally necessary in public. A sehan – courtyard is in within almost every mosque in Islamic architecture. The courtyards are open to the sky and surrounded on all sides by structures with halls and rooms, and often a shaded semi-open arcade. Sehans usually feature a centrally positioned ritual cleansing pool under an open domed pavilion called a howz. A mosque courtyard is used for performing ablutions, and a patio for rest or gathering. Hypostyle hall A hypostyle, i.e., an open hall supported by columns combined with a reception hall set at right angle to the main hall, is considered to be derived from architectural traditions of Achaemenid period Persian assembly halls (apadana). This type of building originated from the Roman-style basilica with an adjacent courtyard surrounded by colonnades, like Trajan's Forum in Rome. The Roman type of building has developed out of the Greek agora. In Islamic architecture, the hypostyle hall is the main feature of the hypostyle mosque. One of the earliest hypostyle mosques is the Tarikhaneh Mosque in Iran, dating back to the eighth century. Vaulting In Islamic buildings, vaulting follows two distinct architectural styles: While Umayyad architecture continues Syrian traditions of the sixth and seventh century, Eastern Islamic architecture was mainly influenced by Sasanian styles and forms. Umayyad diaphragm arches and barrel vaults[ Qusair 'Amra In their vaulting structures, Umayyad period buildings show a mixture of ancient Roman and Persian architectural traditions. Diaphragm arches with lintelled ceilings made of wood or stone beams, or, alternatively, with barrel vaults, were known in the Levant since the classical and Nabatean period. They were mainly used to cover houses and cisterns. The architectural form of covering diaphragm arches with barrel vaults, however, was likely newly introduced from Iranian architecture, as similar vaulting was not known in Bilad al-Sham before the arrival of the Umayyads. However, this form was well known in Iran from early Parthian times, as exemplified in the Parthian buildings of Aššur. The earliest known example for barrel vaults resting on diaphragm arches from Umayyad architecture is known from Qasr Harane in Syria. During the early period, the diaphragm arches are built from coarsely cut limestone slabs, without using supporting falsework, which were connected by gypsum mortar. Later-period vaults were erected using pre-formed lateral ribs modelled from gypsum, which served as a temporal formwork to guide and center the vault. These ribs, which were left in the structure afterwards, do not carry any load. The ribs were cast in advance on strips of cloth, the impression of which can still be seen in the ribs today. Similar structures are known from Sasanian architecture, for example from the palace of Firuzabad. Umayyad-period vaults of this type were found in Amman Citadel and in Qasr Amra. Spain (al-Andalus) The double-arched system of arcades of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba is generally considered to be derived from Roman aqueducts like the nearby aqueduct of Los Milagros. Columns are connected by horseshoe arches, and support pillars of brickwork, which are in turn interconnected by semicircular arches supporting the flat timberwork ceiling. Arcades of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba/Arcades of the Aljafería of Zaragoza In later-period additions to the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba, the basic architectural design was changed: horseshoe arches were now used for the upper row of arcades, which were now supported by five-pass arches. In sections which now supported domes, additional supporting structures were needed to bear the thrust of the cupolas. The architects solved this problem by the construction of intersecting three- or five-pass arches. The three domes spanning the vaults above the mihrab wall are constructed as ribbed vaults. Rather than meeting in the centre of the dome, the ribs intersect one another off-center, forming an eight-pointed star in the centre, which is superseded by a pendentive dome. The ribbed vaults of the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba served as models for later mosque buildings in the Islamic West of al-Andalus and the Maghreb. At around 1000 AD, the Mezquita de Bab al Mardum (today Mosque of Cristo de la Luz) in Toledo was constructed with a similar, eight-ribbed dome. Similar domes are also seen in the mosque building of the Aljafería of Zaragoza. The architectural form of the ribbed dome was further developed in the Maghreb: the central dome of the Great Mosque of Tlemcen, a masterpiece of the Almoravids built in 1082, has twelve slender ribs, the shell between the ribs is filled with filigree stucco work. Iran (Persia) Because of its long history of building and re-building, spanning the time from the Abbasids to the Qajar dynasty, and its excellent state of conservation, the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan provides an overview over the experiments Islamic architects conducted with complicated vaulting structures. The system of squinches, which is a construction filling in the upper angles of a square room so as to form a base to receive an octagonal or spherical dome, was already known in Sasanian architecture.[32] The spherical triangles of the squinches were split up into further subdivisions or systems of niches, resulting in a complex interplay of supporting structures forming an ornamental spatial pattern which hides the weight of the structure. The "non-radial rib vault", an architectural form of ribbed vaults with a superimposed spherical dome, is the characteristic architectural vault form of the Islamic East. From its beginnings in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, this form of vault was used in a sequence of important buildings up to the period of Safavid architecture. Its main characteristics are: four intersecting ribs, at times redoubled and intersected to form an eight-pointed star; the omission of a transition zone between the vault and the supporting structure; a central dome or roof lantern on top of the ribbed vault. While intersecting pairs of ribs from the main decorative feature of Seljuk architecture, the ribs were hidden behind additional architectural elements in later periods, as exemplified in the dome of the Tomb of Ahmed Sanjar in Merv, until they finally disappeared completely behind the double shell of a stucco dome, as seen in the dome of Ālī Qāpū in Isfahan. Dome of the Fire temple of Harpak in Abyaneh/Non-radial rib vault in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan/Dome of the tomb of Ahmed Sanjar in Merv   Upper dome of Ālī Qāpū, Isfahan/Adina Mosque, West Bengal, India Domes Interior of the Palace of Ardashir of pre-Islamic Persia. The use of squinches to position the dome on top of a square structure is considered the most significant Sasanian contribution to the Islamic architecture. Based on the model of pre-existing Byzantine domes, the Ottoman architecture developed a specific form of monumental, representative building: wide central domes with huge diameters were erected on top of a centre-plan building. Despite their enormous weight, the domes appear virtually weightless. Some of the most elaborate domed buildings have been constructed by the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan. When the Ottomans had conquered Constantinople, they found a variety of Byzantine Christian churches, the largest and most prominent amongst them was the Hagia Sophia. The brickwork-and-mortar ribs and the spherical shell of the central dome of the Hagia Sophia were built simultaneously, as a self-supporting structure without any wooden centring. In the early Byzantine church of Hagia Irene, the ribs of the dome vault are fully integrated into the shell, similar to Western Roman domes, and thus are not visible from within the building.[35] In the dome of the Hagia Sophia, the ribs and shell of the dome unite in a central medallion at the apex of the dome, the upper ends of the ribs being integrated into the shell; shell and ribs form one single structural entity. In later Byzantine buildings, like the Kalenderhane Mosque, the Eski Imaret Mosque (formerly the Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes) or the Pantokrator Monastery (today Zeyrek Mosque), the central medallion of the apex and the ribs of the dome became separate structural elements: the ribs are more pronounced and connect to the central medallion, which also stands out more pronouncedly, so that the entire construction gives the impression as if ribs and medallion are separate from, and underpin, the proper shell of the dome.[36] Elaborately decorated ceilings and dome interiors draw influence from Near Eastern and Mediterranean architectural decoration while also serving as explicit and symbolic representations of the heavens. These dome shaped architectural features could be seen at the early Islamic palaces such as Qusayr ῾amra (c.712–15) and Khirbat al-mafjar (c.724–43). Mimar Sinan solved the structural issues of the Hagia Sophia dome by constructing a system of centrally symmetric pillars with flanking semi-domes, as exemplified by the design of the Süleymaniye Mosque (four pillars with two flanking shield walls and two semi-domes, 1550–1557), the Rüstem Pasha Mosque (eight pillars with four diagonal semi-domes, 1561–1563), and the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne (eight pillars with four diagonal semi-domes, 1567/8–1574/5). In the history of architecture, the structure of the Selimiye Mosque has no precedent. All elements of the building subordinate to its great dome. Schematic drawing of a pendentive dome/Central domes of the Hagia Sophia/Dome of the Kalenderhane Mosque Selimiye Mosque, Edirne Muqarnas The architectural element of muqarnas developed in northeastern Iran and the Maghreb around the middle of the 10th century. The ornament is created by the geometric subdivision of a vaulting structure into miniature, superimposed pointed-arch substructures, also known as "honeycomb", or "stalactite" vaults. Made from different materials like stone, brick, wood or stucco, its use in architecture spread over the entire Islamic world. In the Islamic West, muqarnas are also used to adorn the outside of a dome, cupola, or similar structure, while in the East is more limited to the interior face of a vault. Design of a muqarnas quarter vault from the Topkapı Scroll/Muqarnas in the necropolis of Shah-i-Zinda, Samarqand/Muqarnas in the Alhambra/ The muqarna of a mosque in Bukhara, Uzbekistan Ornaments As a common feature, Islamic architecture makes use of specific ornamental forms, including mathematically complicated, elaborate geometric and interlace patterns, floral motifs like the arabesque, and elaborate calligraphic inscriptions, which serve to decorate a building, specify the intention of the building by the selection of the textual program of the inscriptions. For example, the calligraphic inscriptions adorning the Dome of the Rock include quotations from the Quran (e.g., Quran 19:33–35) which reference the miracle of Jesus and his human nature. The geometric or floral, interlaced forms, taken together, constitute an infinitely repeated pattern that extends beyond the visible material world.[41] To many in the Islamic world, they symbolize the concept of infinite proves of existence of one eternal God. Furthermore, the Islamic artist conveys a definite spirituality without the iconography of Christian art. Non-figural ornaments are used in mosques and buildings around the Muslim world, and it is a way of decorating using beautiful, embellishing and repetitive Islamic art instead of using pictures of humans and animals (which some Muslims believe is forbidden (Haram) in Islam). Instead of recalling something related to the reality of the spoken word, calligraphy for the Muslim is a visible expression of spiritual concepts. Calligraphy has arguably become the most venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the Muslims with the religion of Islam. The holy book of Islam, al-Qur'ān, has played a vital role in the development of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabic alphabet. Proverbs and complete passages from the Qur'an are still active sources for Islamic calligraphy. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the heritage of calligraphy to use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions in their work. Geometrical tile ornament (Zellij), Ben Youssef Madrasa, Maroc///Calligraphic inscription on the dome of the Mevlana mausoleum/Dome of the Shah Mosque in Isfahan with calligraphic /Bengali Islamic terracotta on a 17th-century mosque in Tangail, Bangladesh Architectural forms Many forms of Islamic architecture have evolved in different regions of the Islamic world. Notable Islamic architectural types include the early Abbasid buildings, T-Type mosques, and the central-dome mosques of Anatolia. The oil-wealth of the 20th century drove a great deal of mosque construction using designs from leading modern architects. Arab-plan or hypostyle mosques are the earliest type of mosques, pioneered under the Umayyad Dynasty. These mosques are square or rectangular in plan with an enclosed courtyard and a covered prayer hall. Historically, because of the warm Mediterranean and Middle Eastern climates, the courtyard served to accommodate the large number of worshippers during Friday prayers. Most early hypostyle mosques have flat roofs on top of prayer halls, necessitating the use of numerous columns and supports. One of the most notable hypostyle mosques is the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba, Spain, as the building is supported by over 850 columns.[43] Frequently, hypostyle mosques have outer arcades so that visitors can enjoy some shade. Arab-plan mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties; subsequently, however, the simplicity of the Arab plan limited the opportunities for further development, and as a result, these mosques gradually fell out of popularity. The Ottomans introduced central dome mosques in the 15th century and have a large dome centered over the prayer hall. In addition to having one large dome at the center, there are often smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque, where prayer is not performed.[44] This style was heavily influenced by the Byzantine church architecture with its use of large central domes. Prayer Hall of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba, Spain   Specific architectural elements  Located close to one of Cairo's main modern traffic arteries, al-Azhar Street, the Bab al-Barqiyya is a fortified gate of unusual design; it was constructed with interlocking volumes that surrounded the entrant in such a way as to provide greater security and control than typical city wall gates. This gate was one of several design innovations imported from Syria and speaks to the ingenuity of the Ayyubid military engineers of that time. Bab al-Barqiyya was a gate in the city walls of Cairo, Egypt. This design was intended to impede direct assaults and force any attackers to slow down as they entered the gate.It was originally an eastern gate in the Fatimid walls built by the vizier Badr al-Gamali. It was rebuilt in the 12th to 13th centuries under an ambitious fortification project begun in 1176 by Salah ad-Din (Saladin) and continued by his Ayyubid successors. This project included the construction of the Citadel of Cairo and of a 20 kilometer-long wall to defend both Cairo (originally the royal city of the Fatimid caliphs) and Fustat (the earlier capital of Egypt to the southwest).[2]:96 The entirety of the envisioned course of the wall was never quite completed, but long stretches of the wall, especially north of the Citadel, were built. Bab al-Barqiyya was one of the gates in this completed northern section, along with the gates identified as Bab al-Mahruq and Bab al-Jadid. The gate was one of the main eastern gates of the city. Outside it was a desert area which was initially by the Mamluks used for equestrian games, a tradition started by Baybars and ended in 1320 by al-Nasir Muhammad.Later on, during the Burji Mamluk period, this area was the site of new Mamluk mausoleum complexes, now known as the Northern Cemetery. In the meantime, however, the city's growth and the relative security of the region made Bab al-Barqiyya's function as defensive gate less and less important. The gate, and the Ayyubid walls around it, fell into disuse and the inhabitants of the city built new houses and structures into them or on top of them. Over time, the eastern edge of the city, where the walls once stood, became a dumping ground for the city's detritus. The walls and gates disappeared under a growing mound of debris (though they remained largely intact). The Aga Khan Trust for Culturetransformed this into al-Azhar Park, opened in 2005. In the process, the eastern Ayyubid city walls were excavated and restored between 2000 and 2008, including Bab al-Barqiyya. The gate is now visible on the western edge of the park. Another nearby gate further south, Bab al-Mahruq, was also transformed into the western entrance to the park from the Darb al-Ahmar neighbourhood. The gate, built in stone, had a complex design typical of Middle-Eastern medieval fortified gates known as a "bent entrance". Rather than a simple opening in the walls where traffic goes straight through, the gate forces traffic to pass sideways through the gate by effecting two 90-degree turns in and out of the gate. Plan view of Bab al-Barqiyya along Ayyubid Wall. Located close to one of Cairo's main modern traffic arteries, al-Azhar Street, the Fatimid-era Bab al-Barqiyya fortified gate was constructed with interlocking volumes that surrounded the entrant in such a way as to provide greater security and control than typical city wall gates. Laser scan data from an Aga Khan Foundation/CyArk research partnership. Islamic architecture may be identified with the following design elements, which were inherited from the first mosque buildings (originally a feature of the Masjid al-Nabawi). Minarets or towers (these were originally used as torch-lit watchtowers, as seen in the Great Mosque of Damascus; hence the derivation of the word from the Arabic nur, meaning "light"). The minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia is considered as the oldest surviving minaret in the world.[45] It has the shape of a square massive tower of three superimposed sections. A four-iwan plan, with three subordinate halls and one principal one that faces toward Mecca Mihrab or prayer niche on an inside wall indicating the direction to Mecca. Domes and cupolas. In South East Asia (Indonesia and Malaysia), these are very recent additions. Pishtaq is the formal gateway to the iwan, usually the main prayer hall of a mosque, a vaulted hall or space, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open; a Persian term for a portal projecting from the facade of a building, usually decorated with calligraphy bands, glazed tilework, and geometric designs.[46][47] Iwans to intermediate between different pavilions. Balconies are a common feature of Islamic domestic architecture due to the warm climates in most countries.[48] Balconies also became an architectural element of some mosques, such as the Turkish royal boxes hünkâr mahfili, or "that in the Bara Gunbad complex at Delhi (1494)". Capitals are the upper part or crowing feature of a column or pilaster. They serve as a transition piece between the shaft of the structure and the element it supports. Capitals range greatly in design and shape in Islamic Architecture. Early Islamic buildings in Iran featured “Persian” type capitals which included designs of bulls heads, while Mediterranean structures displayed a more classical influence Qibla The Qiblah is the direction in which Mecca is from any given location, and within Islamic architecture it is a major component of both the features and the orientation of the building itself.[50] Ancient Islamic cities and the Mihrab in mosques were meant to be built facing in this direction, yet when actually observing the layout of such areas they do not all point to the same place. This is due to discrepancies in the calculations of the Islamic scientists in the past who determined where Mecca was from their individual locations. Scholars note that these differences come about for a multitude of reasons, such as some misunderstanding the meaning of Qibla itself, the fact that the geographic coordinates of the past do not line up with the coordinates of today, and that the determination of this direction was more an astronomical calculation, rather than a mathematical one. Early mosques were constructed according to either the calculations of what direction Qibla was approximately, or with the Mihrab facing south, as that was the direction that Muhammad was facing when he prayed in Medina, which is a city directly north of Mecca. Urban morphology of the Medina The architecture of the "oriental"-Islamic town is based on cultural and sociological concepts which differ from those of European cities. In both cultures, a distinction is made between the areas used by the rulers and their government and administration, public places of everyday common life, and the areas of private life. While the structures and concepts of European towns originated from a sociological struggle to gain basic rights of freedom—or town privileges—from political or religious authorities during the Middle Ages, an Islamic town or city is fundamentally influenced by the preservation of the unity of secular and religious life throughout time. The fundamental principle of the Islamic society is the ummah, or ummat al-Islamiyah , the community of Muslims of whom each individual is equally submitted to Allah under the common law of sharia, which also subjected the respective ruler, at least nominally. In Abbasid times, some cities like the Round city of Baghdad were constructed from scratch, set up to a plan which focused on the caliph's residence, located in the very centre of the city, with main roads leading radially from the city gates to the central palace, dividing individual tribal sections with no interconnection, and separated from each other by radial walls. However, these efforts were of short duration only, and the original plan soon disappeared and gave way to succeeding buildings and architectural structures. In a medina, palaces and residences as well as public places like mosque-madrasa-hospital complexes and private living spaces rather coexist alongside each other. The buildings tend to be more inwardly oriented, and are separated from the surrounding "outside" either by walls or by the hierarchical ordering of the streets, or both. Streets tend to lead from public main roads to cul-de-sac byroads and onwards into more private plots, and then end there. There are no, or very few, internal connections between different quarters of the city. In order to move from one quarter to the next, one has to go back to the main road again. Within a city quarter, byroads lead towards individual building complexes or clusters of houses. The individual house is frequently also oriented towards an inner atrium, and enclosed by walls, which mostly are unadorned, unlike European outward-oriented, representative facades. Thus, the spatial structure of a medina essentially reflects the ancient nomadic tradition of living in a family group or tribe, held together by asabiyya, strictly separated from the "outside". In general, the morphology of an Islamic medina is granting—or denying—access according to the basic concept of hierarchical degrees of privacy. The inhabitants move from public space to the living quarters of their tribe, and onwards to their family home. Within a family house, there are again to be found common and separate spaces, the latter, and most private, usually reserved for women and children. In the end, only the family heads have free and unlimited access to all rooms and areas of their private home, as opposed to the more European concept of interconnecting different spaces for free and easy access. The hierarchy of privacy thus guides and structurizes the entire social life in a medina, from the caliph down to his most humble subject, from the town to the house. Persian Iranian architecture or Persian architecture (Memāri e Irāni) is the architecture of Iran and parts of the rest of West Asia, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Its history dates back to at least 5,000 BC with characteristic examples distributed over a vast area from Turkey and Iraq to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and from the Caucasus to Zanzibar. Persian buildings vary from peasant huts to tea houses, and garden pavilions to "some of the most majestic structures the world has ever seen".] In addition to historic gates, palaces, and mosques, the rapid growth of cities such as the capital Tehran has brought about a wave of demolition and new construction. Iranian architecture displays great variety, both structural and aesthetic, from a variety of traditions and experience. Without sudden innovations, and despite the repeated trauma of invasions and cultural shocks, it has achieved "an individuality distinct from that of other Muslim countries".[3] Its paramount virtues are: "a marked feeling for form and scale; structural inventiveness, especially in vault and dome construction; a genius for decoration with a freedom and success not rivaled in any other architecture". Traditionally, the guiding formative motif of Iranian architecture has been its cosmic symbolism "by which man is brought into communication and participation with the powers of heaven". This theme has not only given unity and continuity to the architecture of Persia, but has been a primary source of its emotional character as well. According to American historian and archaeologist Arthur Pope, the supreme Iranian art, in the proper meaning of the word, has always been its architecture. The supremacy of architecture applies to both pre- and post-Islamic periods. Si-o-se Pol, one of the bridges of Isfahan. Traditional Persian architecture has maintained a continuity that, although temporarily distracted by internal political conflicts or foreign invasion, nonetheless has achieved an unmistakable style. In this architecture, "there are no trivial buildings; even garden pavilions have nobility and dignity, and the humblest caravanserais generally have charm. In expressiveness and communicativity, most Persian buildings are lucid, even eloquent. The combination of intensity and simplicity of form provides immediacy, while ornament and, often, subtle proportions reward sustained observation. Categorization of styles The Eram Garden in Shiraz is an 18th-century building and a legacy of the Zand Dynasty./Congregational prayer before the arched entrance to Imamzadeh Saleh Shrine interior, Tehran, 2017. Extreme right the design elements of Persian-style column as seen in Persepolis. Overall, the traditional architecture of the Iranian lands throughout the ages can be categorized into the six following classes or styles ("sabk"):[8] Zoroastrian: The Parsian style (up until the third century BCE) including: Pre-Parsian style (up until the eighth century BCE) e.g. Chogha Zanbil, Median style (from the eighth to the sixth century BCE), Achaemenid style (from the sixth to the fourth century BCE) manifesting in construction of spectacular cities used for governance and inhabitation (such as Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana), temples made for worship and social gatherings (such as Zoroastrian temples), and mausoleums erected in honor of fallen kings (such as the Tomb of Cyrus the Great), The Parthian style includes designs from the following eras: Seleucid era e.g. Anahita Temple, Khorheh, Parthian era e.g. Hatra, the royal compounds at Nysa, Sassanid era e.g. Ghal'eh Dokhtar, the Taq-i Kisra, Bishapur, Darband (Derbent). Islamic: The Khorasani style (from the late 7th until the end of the 10th century CE), e.g. Jameh Mosque of Nain and Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, The Razi style (from the 11th century to the Mongol invasion period) which includes the methods and devices of the following periods: Samanid period, e.g. Samanid Mausoleum, Ziyarid period, e.g. Gonbad-e Qabus, Seljukid period, e.g. Kharraqan towers, The Azari style (from the late 13th century to the appearance of the Safavid Dynasty in the 16th century), e.g. Soltaniyeh, Arg-i Alishah, Jameh Mosque of Varamin, Goharshad Mosque, Bibi Khanum mosque in Samarqand, tomb of Abdas-Samad, Gur-e Amir, Jameh mosque of Yazd The Isfahani style spanning through the Safavid, Afsharid, Zand, and Qajarid dynasties starting from the 16th century onward, e.g. Chehelsotoon, Ali Qapu, Agha Bozorg Mosque, Kashan, Shah Mosque, Sheikh Lotf Allah Mosque in Naqsh-i Jahan Square. Materials Available building materials dictate major forms in traditional Iranian architecture. Heavy clays, readily available at various places throughout the plateau, have encouraged the development of the most primitive of all building techniques, molded mud, compressed as solidly as possible, and allowed to dry. This technique, used in Iran from ancient times, has never been completely abandoned. The abundance of heavy plastic earth, in conjunction with a tenacious lime mortar, also facilitated the development and use of brick.[9] Geometry Iranian architecture makes use of abundant symbolic geometry, using pure forms such as circles and squares, and plans are based on often symmetrical layouts featuring rectangular courtyards and halls. Design Certain design elements of Persian architecture have persisted throughout the history of Iran. The most striking are a marked feeling for scale and a discerning use of simple and massive forms. The consistency of decorative preferences, the high-arched portal set within a recess, columns with bracket capitals, and recurrent types of plan and elevation can also be mentioned. Through the ages these elements have recurred in completely different types of buildings, constructed for various programs and under the patronage of a long succession of rulers. The columned porch, or talar, seen in the rock-cut tombs near Persepolis, reappear in Sassanid temples, and in late Islamic times it was used as the portico of a palace or mosque, and adapted even to the architecture of roadside tea-houses. Similarly, the dome on four arches, so characteristic of Sassanid times, is a still to be found in many cemeteries and Imamzadehs across Iran today. The notion of earthly towers reaching up toward the sky to mingle with the divine towers of heaven lasted into the 19th century, while the interior court and pool, the angled entrance and extensive decoration are ancient, but still common, features of Iranian architecture. Achaemenid architecture and Sasanian architecture Hatra in Iraq. In the 3rd to 1st century BCE, during the Parthian Empire, Hatra was a religious and trading center. Today it is a World heritage site, protected by UNESCO./Dej-e Shapour-Khast   Sassanid Rayen Castle/Pasargad/Arg-e Bam The pre-Islamic styles draw on 3000 to 4000 years of architectural development from various civilizations of the Iranian plateau. The post-Islamic architecture of Iran in turn, draws ideas from its pre-Islamic predecessor, and has geometrical and repetitive forms, as well as surfaces that are richly decorated with glazed tiles, carved stucco, patterned brickwork, floral motifs, and calligraphy. Iran is recognized by UNESCO as being one of the cradles of civilization. Each of the periods of Elamites, Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanids were creators of great architecture that, over the ages, spread far and wide far to other cultures. Although Iran has suffered its share of destruction, including Alexander The Great's decision to burn Persepolis, there are sufficient remains to form a picture of its classical architecture. The Achaemenids built on a grand scale. The artists and materials they used were brought in from practically all territories of what was then the largest state in the world. Pasargadae set the standard: its city was laid out in an extensive park with bridges, gardens, colonnaded palaces and open column pavilions. Pasargadae along with Susa and Persepolis expressed the authority of 'The King of Kings', the staircases of the latter recording in relief sculpture the vast extent of the imperial frontier. With the emergence of the Parthians and Sassanids new forms appeared. Parthian innovations fully flowered during the Sassanid period with massive barrel-vaulted chambers, solid masonry domes and tall columns. This influence was to remain for years to come. For example, the roundness of the city of Baghdad in the Abbasid era, points to its Persian precedents, such as Firouzabad in Fars.[12] Al-Mansur hired two designers to plan the city's design: Naubakht, a former Persian Zoroastrian who also determined that the date of the foundation of the city should be astrologically significant, and Mashallah ibn Athari, a former Jew from Khorasan. The ruins of Persepolis, Ctesiphon, Sialk, Pasargadae, Firouzabad, and Arg-é Bam give us a distant glimpse of what contributions Persians made to the art of building. The imposing Sassanid castle built at Derbent, Dagestan (now a part of Russia) is one of the most extant and living examples of splendid Sassanid Iranian architecture. Since 2003, the Sassanid castle has been listed on Russia's UNESCO World Heritage list. Panoramic view of the Naqsh-e Rustam. This site contains the tombs of four Achaemenid kings, including those of Darius I and Xerxes. Persian Shia Architecture The Kharāghān twin towers, 1067 and 1093 The fall of the Sassanian dynasty to the invading Muslim Arabs led to the adaptation of Persian architectural forms for Islamic religious buildings in Iran. Arts such as calligraphy, stucco work, mirror work and mosaics became closely tied with the architecture of mosques in Persia (Iran). An example is the round-domed rooftops which originate in the Parthian (Ashkanid) dynasty of Iran. Archaeological excavations have provided extensive evidence supporting the impact of Sassanid architecture on the architecture of the Islamic world at large. The Razi style is a term for the used between the 11th century and the Mongol conquest of Iran, reflecting influences from Samanid, Ghaznavid, and Seljuk architecture. Examples of the style include the Tomb of Isma'il of Samanid, Gonbad-e Qabus, the older parts of the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan and the Kharaqan towers. Many experts believe the period of Persian architecture from the 15th through 17th centuries CE to be the pinnacle of the post-Islamic era. Various structures such as mosques, mausoleums, bazaars, bridges and palaces have survived from this period. Safavid Isfahan tried to achieve grandeur in scale (Isfahan's Naghsh-i Jahan Square is the sixth largest square worldwide), by constructing tall buildings with vast inner spaces. However, the quality of ornaments was less compared to those of the 14th and 15th centuries. Another aspect of this architecture was the harmony with the people, their environment, and the beliefs that it represented. At the same time no strict rules were applied to govern this form of Islamic architecture. The great mosques of Khorasan, Isfahan and Tabriz each used local geometry, local materials and local building methods to express, each in their own way, the order, harmony, and unity of Islamic architecture. When the major monuments of Islamic Persian architecture are examined, they reveal complex geometrical relationships, a studied hierarchy of form and ornament and great depths of symbolic meaning. In the words of Arthur U. Pope, who carried out extensive studies in ancient Persian and Islamic buildings: The meaningful impact of Persian architecture is versatile. Not overwhelming but dignified, magnificent and impressive. However, Pope's approach toward Qajar art and architecture is quite negative. Naqshe Jahan square in Isfahan is the epitome of 16th century Iranian architecture. See 360°view[ The ancient Palace of Ardashir, constructed in 224 during the Sassanid Dynasty. The building has three large domes, among the oldest examples of such large-scale domes in the world. The Sassanid Empire initiated the construction of the first large-scale domes in Persia (Iran), with such royal buildings as the Palace of Ardashir and Dezh Dokhtar. After the Muslim conquest of the Sassanid Empire, the Persian architectural style became a major influence on Islamic societies and the dome also became a feature of Muslim architecture (see gonbad). The Il-Khanate period provided several innovations to dome-building that eventually enabled the Persians to construct much taller structures. These changes later paved the way for Safavid architecture. The pinnacle of Il-Khanate architecture was reached with the construction of the Soltaniyeh Dome (1302–1312) in Zanjan, Iran, which measures 50 m in height and 25 m in diameter, making it the 3rd largest and the tallest masonry dome ever erected. The thin, double-shelled dome was reinforced by arches between the layers. The renaissance in Persian mosque and dome building came during the Safavid dynasty, when Shah Abbas, in 1598, initiated the reconstruction of Isfahan, with the Naqsh-e Jahan Square as the centerpiece of his new capital. Architecturally they borrowed heavily from Il-Khanate designs, but artistically they elevated the designs to a new level. The distinct feature of Persian domes, which separates them from those domes created in the Christian world or the Ottoman and Mughal empires, was the use of colourful tiles, with which the exterior of domes are covered much like the interior. These domes soon numbered dozens in Isfahan and the distinct blue shape would dominate the skyline of the city. Reflecting the light of the sun, these domes appeared like glittering turquoise gems and could be seen from miles away by travelers following the Silk road through Persia. This very distinct style of architecture was inherited from the Seljuq dynasty, who for centuries had used it in their mosque building, but it was perfected during the Safavids when they invented the haft- rangi, or seven colour style of tile burning, a process that enabled them to apply more colours to each tile, creating richer patterns, sweeter to the eye. The colours that the Persians favoured were gold, white and turquoise patterns on a dark-blue background. The extensive inscription bands of calligraphy and arabesque on most of the major buildings where carefully planned and executed by Ali Reza Abbasi, who was appointed head of the royal library and Master calligrapher at the Shah's court in 1598,] while Shaykh Bahai oversaw the construction projects. Reaching 53 meters in height, the dome of Masjed-e Shah (Shah Mosque) would become the tallest in the city when it was finished in 1629. It was built as a double-shelled dome, spanning 14 m between the two layers and resting on an octagonal dome chamber. Tarikhaneh Temple, a pre-Islamic monument built in Sassanid Persia which was later turned into a mosque, showing elements of Iranian architecture before the spread of Islam// Shah Mosque in Naqsh-e Jahan Square, Isfahan, Iran The Islamic conquest of Persia in the seventh century availed the Muslims with the vast wealth of architectural innovation developed over the centuries, from the great roads, aqueducts and arches of the Roman Empire, to the Byzantine basilicas and Persian arches, and the Sassanian and Byzantine mosaics. The Islamic architects first utilized these native architects to build mosques, and eventually developed their own adaptations. Islamic architecture thus is directly related to Persian and Byzantine architecture. In Persia and Central Asia, the Tahirids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, and Ghurids struggled for power in the 10th century, and art was a vital element of this competition. Great cities were built, such as Nishapur and Ghazni (Afghanistan), and the construction of the Great Mosque of Isfahan (which would continue, in fits and starts, over several centuries) was initiated. Funerary architecture was also cultivated. Under the Seljuqs the "Iranian plan" of mosque construction appears for the first time. Lodging places called khans, or caravanserai, for travellers and their animals, or caravansarais, generally displayed utilitarian rather than ornamental architecture, with rubble masonry, strong fortifications, and minimal comfort. Seljuq architecture synthesized various styles, both Iranian and Syrian, sometimes rendering precise attributions difficult. Another important architectural trend to arise in the Seljuk era is the development of mausolea including the tomb tower such as the Gunbad-i-qabus (circa 1006-7) (showcasing a Zoroastrian motif) and the domed square, an example of which is the tomb of the Samanids in the city of Bukhara (circa 943).[72] The Il-Khanate period provided several innovations to dome-building that eventually enabled the Persians to construct much taller structures. These changes later paved the way for Safavid architecture. The pinnacle of Il-Khanate architecture was reached with the construction of the Soltaniyeh Dome (1302–1312) in Zanjan, Iran, which measures 50 m in height and 25 m in diameter, making it the 3rd largest and the tallest masonry dome ever erected.[73] The thin, double-shelled dome was reinforced by arches between the layers.[74] The tomb of Öljeitü in Soltaniyeh is one of the greatest and most impressive monuments in Iran, despite many later depredations. Iranian architecture and city planning also reached an apogee under the Timurids, in particular with the monuments of Samarkand, marked by extensive use of exterior ceramic tiles and muqarnas vaulting within. The renaissance in Persian mosque and dome building came during the Safavid dynasty, when Shah Abbas, in 1598 initiated the reconstruction of Isfahan, with the Naqsh-e Jahan Square as the centerpiece of his new capital.[75] The distinct feature of Persian domes, which separates them from those domes created in the Christian world or the Ottoman and Mughal empires, was the colorful tiles, with which they covered the exterior of their domes, as they would on the interior. These domes soon numbered dozens in Isfahan, and the distinct, blue- colored shape would dominate the skyline of the city. Reflecting the light of the sun, these domes appeared like glittering turquoise gem and could be seen from miles away by travelers following the Silk road through Persia. This very distinct style of architecture was inherited to them from the Seljuq dynasty, who for centuries had used it in their mosque building, but it was perfected during the Safavids when they invented the haft- rangi, or seven- colour style of tile burning, a process that enabled them to apply more colours to each tile, creating richer patterns, sweeter to the eye.[76] The colours that the Persians favoured were golden, white and turquoise patterns on a dark- blue background. The extensive inscription bands of calligraphy and arabesque on most of the major buildings where carefully planned and executed by Ali Reza Abbasi, who was appointed head of the royal library and Master calligrapher at the Shah's court in 1598,[78] while Shaykh Bahai oversaw the construction projects. Reaching 53 meters in height, the dome of Masjed-e Shah (Shah Mosque) would become the tallest in the city when it was finished in 1629. It was built as a double- shelled dome, with 14 m spanning between the two layers, and resting on an octagonal dome chamber. The Bibi-Heybat Mosque in Baku, Azerbaijan/Sultan Ahmed Mosque, built in 1616, Istanbul, Turkey Persian-style mosques are also characterized by their tapered brick pillars, large arcades and arches each supported by several pillars. In South Asia, such art was also used as was a technique throughout the region. The Islamic conquest of Persia in the seventh century also helped Islamic architecture to flourish in Azerbaijan. The country became home of Nakchivan and Shirvan-Absheron architecture schools. An example of the first direction in the Azerbaijani Islamic architecture is the mausoleum of Yusuf, built in 1162. The Shirvan-Absheron school unlike Nakchivan style used stones instead of the bricks in the construction. At the same characteristics of this trend were the asymmetry and stone carving, which includes famous landmarks like Palace of the Shirvanshahs The standard plan of Ottoman architecture was inspired in part by the example of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople/Istanbul, Ilkhanid works like Oljeitu Tomb and earlier Seljuk and Anatolian Beylik monumental buildings and their own original innovations. The most famous of Ottoman architects was (and remains) Mimar Sinan, who lived for approximately one hundred years and designed several hundreds of buildings, of which two of the most important are Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul and Selimiye Mosque in Edirne. Apprentices of Sinan later built the famous Blue Mosque in Istanbul. The most numerous and largest of mosques exist in Turkey, which obtained influence from Byzantine, Persian and Syrian-Arab designs. Turkish architects implemented their own style of cupola domes.[80] For almost 500 years Byzantine architecture such as the church of Hagia Sophia served as models for many of the Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque. The Ottomans mastered the technique of building vast inner spaces confined by seemingly weightless yet massive domes, and achieving perfect harmony between inner and outer spaces, as well as light and shadow. Islamic religious architecture which until then consisted of simple buildings with extensive decorations, was transformed by the Ottomans through a dynamic architectural vocabulary of vaults, domes, semidomes and columns. The mosque was transformed from being a cramped and dark chamber with arabesque-covered walls into a sanctuary of esthetic and technical balance, refined elegance and a hint of heavenly transcendence. Turkistani (Timurid) The Registan is the ensemble of three madrasas, in Samarkand, modern day Uzbekistan Timurid architecture is the pinnacle of Islamic art in Central Asia. Spectacular and stately edifices erected by Timur and his successors in Samarkand and Herat helped to disseminate the influence of the Ilkhanid school of art in India, thus giving rise to the celebrated Mughal school of architecture. Timurid architecture started with the sanctuary of Ahmed Yasawi in present-day Kazakhstan and culminated in Timur's mausoleum Gur-e Amir in Samarkand. The style is largely derived from Persian architecture. Axial symmetry is a characteristic of all major Timurid structures, notably the Shah-i-Zinda in Samarkand and the mosque of Gawhar Shad in Mashhad. Double domes of various shapes abound, and the outsides are perfused with brilliant colors. Moroccan El Hedim Square in Meknes, Morocco with the "Bab Mansour Gate" in the Old city of Meknes/Humayun's Tomb, Delhi, the first fully developed Mughal imperial tomb, 1569-70 CE/ Moroccan architecture dates from 110 BCE with the Berber's massive pisé (mud brick) buildings. The architecture has been influenced by Islamization during the Idrisid dynasty, Moorish exiles from Spain, and also by France who occupied Morocco in 1912. Morocco is in Northwest Africa bordering the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. The country's diverse geography and the land's long history marked by successive waves of settlers and military encroachments are all reflected in Morocco's architecture. Moroccan Islamic architecture is also present outside the country. For example, Sheikha Salama Mosque in the UAE city of Al Ain has two minarets which partly look Moroccan. Yemeni Yemeni Architecture can be characterized as “conservative”, as the Yemeni people combine their pre-Islamic and Islamic past. This philosophy is demonstrated in the construction of the mosque of Solomon in Marib, which was built directly on top of an old temple.[84] Yemeni architecture Is the architecture that characterizes houses built on several floors, some of the floors used as a line A storage room with removable stairs. The houses are made of mud bricks mixed with Gypsum. Russian Russian -Islamic architecture is a feature of the architecture of the Tatars, formed under the influence of a sedentary and nomadic way of life in ancient times, developing in the epochs of the Golden Horde, the Tatar khanates and under the rule of the Russian Empire. The architecture was formed in the modern form for many centuries and depended on the culture, aesthetics and religion of the population, therefore combines a unique combination of Eastern, Russian, Bulgarian, Golden Horde architecture, European styles dominating in Russia at one time or another, especially this Is clearly reflected in the Tatar mosques.  Indo-Islamic architecture and Mughal architecture The best known style of Indo-Islamic architecture is Mughal architecture, mostly built between about 1560 and 1720, but there are many other earlier and regional styles. Mughal architecture's most prominent examples are the series of imperial mausolea, which started with the pivotal Tomb of Humayun, but is best known for the Taj Mahal, completed in 1648 by emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal who died while giving birth to their 14th child. The Taj Mahal is completely symmetrical except for Shah Jahan's sarcophagus, which is placed off center in the crypt room below the main floor. This symmetry extended to the building of an entire mirror mosque in black marble to complement the Mecca-facing mosque place to the west of the main structure. A famous example of the charbagh style of Mughal garden is the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, where the domeless Tomb of Jahangir is also located. Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad which was commissioned by sixth Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in memory of his wife. The Red Fort in Delhi and Agra Fort are huge castle-like fortified palaces, and the abandoned city of Fatehpur Sikri, 26 miles (42 km) west of Agra, was built for Akbar in the late 16th century.[85] While the Deccan sultanates in the Southern regions of the Indian subcontinent developed the Indo-Islamic Deccani architectural styles like Charminar and Gol Gumbaz. Within the Indian subcontinent, the Bengali region developed a distinct regional style under the independent Bengal Sultanate. It incorporated influences from Persia, Byzantium and North India,[87] which were with blended indigenous Bengali elements, such as curved roofs, corner towers and complex terracotta ornamentation. One feature in the sultanate was the relative absence of minarets.[88] Many small and medium-sized medieval mosques, with multiple domes and artistic niche mihrabs, were constructed throughout the region.[88] The grand mosque of Bengal was the 14th century Adina Mosque, the largest mosque in the Indian subcontinent. Built of stone demolished from temples, it featured a monumental ribbed barrel vault over the central nave, the first such giant vault used anywhere in the subcontinent. The mosque was modeled on the imperial Sasanian style of Persia.[89] The Sultanate style flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. A provincial style influenced by North India evolved in Mughal Bengal during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Mughals also copied the Bengali do-chala roof tradition for mausoleums in North India. Qutub Minar built at the start of the Delhi Sultanate, a massive statement of conquest./ Charminar at Old City in Hyderabad, India. The Asfi mosque, located near the Bara Imambara in Lucknow, India. The Taj Mahal, the most famous building of Mughal architecture./Gol Gumbaz built by the Bijapur Sultanate in Deccani style, the world's 2nd largest pre-modern dome.Adina Mosque, the largest mosque of Bengali Muslim architecture. Chinese   The Great Mosque of Xi'an, China/ Minaret is not an original architecture of Indonesian mosque, instead the Menara Kudus Mosque employs a Hindu-Buddhist temple-like structure for a drum used to call prayer///Hui people who have also migrated to the south such as this Darunaman Mosque, located in Chiang Rai province, Thailand shows a mixture between Chinese and Islamic architecture The first Chinese mosque was established in the seventh century during the Tang Dynasty in Xi'an. The Great Mosque of Xi'an, whose current buildings date from the Ming Dynasty, does not replicate many of the features often associated with traditional mosques. Instead, it follows traditional Chinese architecture. Some Chinese mosques in parts of western China were more likely to incorporate minarets and domes while eastern Chinese mosques were more likely to look like pagodas. As in other regions, Chinese Islamic architecture reflects the local architecture in its style; some Chinese mosques resemble temples. In western China, mosques resemble those of the Arab World, with tall, slender minarets, curvy arches and dome shaped roofs. In northwest China where the Chinese Hui have built their mosques, there is a combination of eastern and western styles. The mosques have flared Buddhist style roofs set in walled courtyards entered through archways with miniature domes and minarets. Indonesian-Malaysian Southeast Asia was slow to adopt Middle Eastern architectural styles. Islam entered Indonesia in the 15th-century via Java island, during which period the dominant religion in Southeast Asia included a variety of pagan groups. Introduction of Islam was peaceful. Existing architectural features in Indonesia such as the candi bentar gate, paduraksa (normally marks entrance to the most sacred precincts), and the sacred pyramidal roof was used for Islamic architecture. For centuries, Indonesian mosques lacked domes or minarets, both considered a Middle Eastern origin. Indonesian original mosques feature multi-layered pyramidal roofs and no minaret. Prayer are called by striking a prayer's drum known as beduk. The minaret of the Menara Kudus Mosque is a great example of Indonesian architecture. Indonesian mosque architecture also features strong influence from the Middle Eastern architecture styles. The architecture of Javanese Indonesian mosques had a strong influence on the design of other mosques in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, and the Philippines. Today, with increasing Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, Indonesian-Malaysian mosques are developing a more standard, international style, with a dome and minaret. The Grand Mosque of the Sultanate of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, features multi-layered roof typical of Indonesian mosque architecture./Baiturrahman Grand Mosque, Indonesia, with Mughal and Dutch Colonial influences./Masjid Agung Palembang, Indonesia, Palembang Malay Architecture with Javanese influence.     Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, are 88-floor towers constructed largely of reinforced concrete, with a steel and glass facade designed to resemble motifs found in Islamic art, a reflection of Malaysia's Muslim religion. On right Masjid Kampung Laut, Malaysia, which is a typical traditional Malay mosque architecture in Malaysia. Kampung Kling Mosque, Malaysia, with a cross between Sumatran, Hindu, and the Malacca Malay influences.   Sahelian In West Africa, Muslim merchants played a vital role in the Western Sahel region since the Kingdom of Ghana. At Kumbi Saleh, locals lived in domed-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 beautiful mosques (as described by al-bakri), one centered on Friday prayer. The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was 66 feet long, 42 feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase; with the walls and chambers filled with sculpture and painting. Sahelian architecture initially grew from the two cities of Djenné and Timbuktu. The Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu, constructed from mud on timber, was similar in style to the Great Mosque of Djenné. Somali Almnara Tower Somalia/The 13th century Fakr ad-Din Mosque in Mogadishu The spread of Islam in the early medieval era of Somalia's history brought Islamic architectural influences from Arabia and Persia, which stimulated a shift from drystone and other related materials in construction to coral stone, sundried bricks, and the widespread use of limestone in Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designs such as mosques were built on the ruins of older structures, a practice that would continue over and over again throughout the following centuries.  Concordant with the ancient presence of Islam in the Horn of Africa region, mosques in Somalia are some of the oldest on the entire continent. One architectural feature that made Somali mosques distinct from other mosques in Africa were minarets. For centuries, Arba Rukun (1269), the Friday mosque of Merca (1609) and Fakr ad-Din (1269) were, in fact, the only mosques in East Africa to have minarets. Fakr ad-Din, which dates back to the Mogadishan Golden Age, was built with marble and coral stone and included a compact rectangular plan with a domed mihrab axis. Glazed tiles were also used in the decoration of the mihrab, one of which bears a dated inscription. The 13th century Al Gami University consisted of a rectangular base with a large cylindrical tower architecturally unique in the Islamic world. Shrines to honor Somali patriarchs and matriarchs evolved from ancient Somali burial customs. In Southern Somalia the preferred medieval shrine architecture was the Pillar tomb style while the North predominantly built structures consisting of domes and square plans. Interpretation Common interpretations of Islamic architecture include the following: The concept of God or Allah's infinite power is evoked by designs with repeating themes which suggest infinity. Human and animal forms are rarely depicted in decorative art as God's work is considered to be matchless. Foliage is a frequent motif but typically stylized or simplified for the same reason. Arabic Calligraphy is used to enhance the interior of a building by providing quotations from the Qur'an. Islamic architecture has been called the "architecture of the veil" because the beauty lies in the inner spaces (courtyards and rooms) which are not visible from the outside (street view). Furthermore, the use of grandiose forms such as large domes, towering minarets, and large courtyards are intended to convey power. Faisal Mosque at Islamabad, Pakistan designed by Vedat Dalokay./Museum of Islamic Art at Doha, Qatar designed by I. M. Pei. In modern times, the architecture of Islamic buildings, not just religious ones, has gone through some changes. The new architectural style doesn't stick with the same fundamental aspects that were seen in the past, but mosques for the most part still feature the same parts—the Miḥrāb, the minarets, four-iwan plan, and the pishtaq. A difference to note is the appearance of mosques without domes, as in the past mosques for the most part all had them, but these new dome-less mosques seem to follow a function over form design, and are created by those not of the Islamic faith, in most cases. The influence of Islam still pervades the style of creation itself, and provides a 'conceptual framework', for the making of a building that exemplifies the styles and beliefs of Islam. It has also been influenced by the now meeting of many different cultures, such as European styles meeting Islamic styles, leading to Islamic architects incorporating features of other architectural and cultural styles. Urban design and Islam Urban design and the tradition of Islamic styled architecture have begun to combine to form a new 'neo-Islamic' style, where the efficiency of the urban style meshes with the spirituality and aesthetic characteristics of Islamic styles. Islamic Architecture in itself is a style that showcases the values, and the culture of Islam, but in modern times sticking to tradition is falling out of practice, so a combination style formed. Examples showing this are places such as the Marrakesh Menara Airport, the Islamic Cultural Center and Museum of Tolerance, Masjid Permata Qolbu, the concept for The Vanishing Mosque, and the Mazar-e-Quaid. All of these buildings show the influence of Islam over them, but also the movements of things like minimalism which are rising to popularity in the architectural field. Designers that use the aspects of both modern styles and the Islamic styles found a way to have the Western-inspired modernism with the classical cultural aspects of Islamic architecture. This concept though brings up the controversy of the identity of the Islamic community, of the traditional Islamic community, within a space that doesn't follow the way they knew it. Debates on status as a style of architecture There are some who also debate whether Islamic Architecture can truly be called a style, as the religious aspect is seen as separate and having no bearing on the architectural style, while on the other side people also argue that the newfound trend and divergence from the style of old Islamic Architecture is what is causing the style to lose it status. There are scholars that also believe that the distinguishing features of the Islamic Architecture style were not necessarily found within the architecture, but were rather environmental markers, such as the sounds of prayer, the city around it, the events that occurred there. The example given is that we know that a building is a mosque based on what happens there, rather than any visual cues. Specific features that are notably related to Islamic Architecture—the Mihrab, the Minaret, and the Gate are seen in multiple locations and do not always serve the same use, and symbolism for being Islamic in nature is seen to be demonstrated more culturally than it is architecturally. Islamic Architecture is also sometimes referred to as a 'hidden architecture', one that doesn't necessarily show the physical traits of the style, rather it is something that is experienced. Connections and deeper meanings: Islamic architecture displays intricate patterns, colors, and details embodying the Islamic culture. Such widespread religious displays typically have deeper meanings and connections. Islamic architecture is unique in this case because interior designs often lack or have unknown religious connections. This is due to the Islamic concept of Shirk (compare Jewish Shituf) which promotes iconoclasm, unlike in Christian art, as making images of humans and animals is seen as an element of idolatry. Due to this, symbolism in Islamic architecture is not as easily accessible compared to that of Western religious architecture. Difficulty forming connections Islamic architecture is a neglected subject within historical studies. Many scholars that study historical architecture often gloss over, if not completely ignore Islamic structures. This is caused by multiple elements, one being that there is little historic literary works that express an Islamic architect's motives with their structures. Due to the massively spanning Islamic religion, there is a large variation between thousands of existing mosques with little consistency between them. Lastly, since it is against Islamic faith to idolize earthly beings, any depictions of earthly beings lack religious connection. These characteristics combine to make it difficult for historians to form symbolic connections from architecture in Islamic places of worship. Religious and societal connections Islamic architecture is unique compared to other vast religions that encompass much of the West. Unlike Christianity, Islam does not sensationalize living beings because they view it as a conflict with the Qur'an. Anything created by Allah is under his order and thus should not be idolized. This leaves typical religious Western symbols out of the picture, and replaces them with an emphasis on complex geometrical shapes and patterns. There are several aspects of Islamic architecture that to modern knowledge lack a symbolic religious meaning, but there are connections that do exist. A repeated and significant motif in mosques is calligraphy. Calligraphy plays a huge role in delivering religious connections through artistic design. Calligraphy, in a mosque setting, is specifically used to reference holy excerpts from both the Qur’an and Muhammad's teachings. These references are one of the few religious connections architects include within their work Status and hierarchy Islamic architecture varies vastly across the scope of the world. Specifically, some mosques have different goals and intentions than others. These intentions often highlighted religious and social hierarchies within the mosque. Mosques are designed to have the least significant portions of the layout closest to the entrance, as people move deeper into the building more significant religious areas are revealed. Hierarchy is also present because certain Islamic architects are tasked to design specifically for the presence of royalty, although in Islamic belief Muslims in the mosque are equal. Designated locations had been carefully chosen in the mosque to highlight an individual's position in society. This emphasis could be made through being within view to all attendees, placed in the focal point of artistry, and a maqsurah. Maintaining a sociological hierarchy within a mosque would typically represent a recognition by a higher being aware of a delegation of power. This hierarchy does exist but not with any sort of religious message as Hillenbrand points out, “in neither case is this hierarchy employed for especially portentous ends.” Hierarchy exist in the church in different forms, but is meant for purely functional purposes. Structural intentions Deeper meanings in Islamic architecture often can take form as functional purposes. For example, mosques are built around the ideal that it should not just be a place of mesmerizing aesthetics, but a place where the aesthetics’ fluidity guide the person into proper worship. A key feature of the mosque is the Mihrab, a universal part of any Islamic place of worship. The Mihrab is easily identifiable through a receding wall and a gable over head often consisting of intricate patterns. Upon entering, the most crucial religious function the architecture of the mosque serves to deliver is the Qibla. The Qibla is necessary for proper Islamic worship, and is revealed through architectural means. Aga Khan Museum II Dazzling Elements of Ancient Islamic Architecture We Still See Today By Kelly Richman-Abdou on April 18, 2018 The facade of Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque, a masterpiece of the Iranian architecture, built between 1602 – 1619 during the Safavid dynasty (Photo: Athikhom Saengchai via Shutterstock) Islamic architecture is one of the world's most celebrated building traditions. Known for its radiant colors, rich patterns, and symmetrical silhouettes, this distinctive approach has been popular in the Muslim world since the 7th century.While Islamic architecture comprises several styles across different countries and continents, there are certain characteristics that remain universally prevalent throughout. Recognizing these underlying elements—as well as understanding its geographical prevalence—is key to grasping the visually sensational and historically significant style. What is Islamic architecture? This architectural tradition is predominantly found in two types of places: Muslim-majority countries and lands conquered by Muslims during the Middle Ages. In addition to Arab states—like Algeria, Egypt, and Iraq—Islamic architecture is also prevalent in European regions with Moorish roots, including parts of Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Malta.Though often associated with the Islamic mosque—Muslims' place of worship—this approach to architecture is also apparent in other edifices, from palaces and public buildings to tombs and forts. Whether religious or secular, however, the splendid style is defined by several common characteristics. Photo: Lkadi Adil via Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4.0  Distinctive Elements- MINARETS-A minaret is a spire or tower-like structure featuring small windows and an enclosed staircase. It is one of the oldest elements of Islamic architecture, and is found next to most mosques. The primary function of the minaret is to allow the muezzin to call worshippers to prayer from an elevated point. This occurs five times a day: at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and night. Mosque at sunset. (Photo: photo desig via Shutterstock) Since the 11th century, some mosques have been outfitted with more than one minaret, traditionally indicating that it had been founded by a sultan. Court of the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey. (Photo: Pavel Dobrovsky via Shutterstock) DOMES Like many pioneering architectural movements—including Byzantine and Italian Renaissance building traditions—Islamic architects also incorporate domes into their designs. The Dome of the Rock, a 7th-century shrine in Jerusalem, is the first Islamic building to feature this architectural element. Inspired by Byzantine plans, the octagonal edifice is topped with a wooden dome, which was plated in gold during the 16th century. Unlike most Islamic domes—which rest on pendentives—the dome sits on a drum supported by 16 piers and columns. Dome of the rock in the Temple Mount, Jerusalem, Israel. (Photo: Bibiana Castagna via Shutterstock) Pendentives are tapered structures that allow a circular base for a round or elliptical dome to be placed on a square or rectangular room. In Islamic architecture, pendentives are often decorated with tiles or muqarnas, a type of sculptural decoration. Photo: Bjørn Christian Tørrissen via Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0  MUQARNAS VAULTING-Due to their sculptural composition and patterned aesthetic, Muqarnas are often compared to stalactites or honeycomb. In addition to domes and pendentives, this unique ornamentation also adorns vaults, culminating in monochromatic, sculptural ceilings that contrast the surrounding tiles. Another fixture of Islamic architecture is the arch. Evident in both entrances and interiors, Islamic arches are categorized into four main styles: pointed, ogee, horseshoe, and multifoil.The pointed arch features a rounded design with a tapered apex. This type of arch would eventually become an important element of Gothic architecture. Photo: LeCaire via Wikimedia Commons Public Domain  The ogee arch is similar to the pointed arch. However, its point is composed of two s-shaped lines, culminating in a more sinuous silhouette.  The horseshoe arch (also known as a keyhole arch) is associated with Moorish architecture. As its crown can be either rounded or pointed, this type of structure is defined by the dramatic widening and narrowing of its sides. Photo: Citizen59 via Wikimedia Commons GNU Free Documentation License  Like the horseshoe arch, the multifoil arch is characteristic of Moorish architecture. This arch features multiple foils, or “leaves,” resulting in a scalloped shape. Photo: Escarlati via Wikimedia Commons Public Domain  DECORATIVE DETAILS A final element of Islamic architecture is an attention to ornamental detail. Often reserved for interiors, this lavish approach to decoration includes jewel-like tiles arranged into geometric mosaics, patterned brickwork and kaleidoscopic stones, and exquisite calligraphic adornments. Interior of the Blue Mosque (Photo: dade72 via Shutterstock) Along with monumental domes, mesmerizing muqarnas vaulting, and distinctive arches, these eye-catching embellishments exhibit the transcendent nature of the Islamic building practice.   III Islamic classic Art and mosques Interior of the Great Mosque of Córdoba, Spain, begun 785 CE. The building is now a Christian cathedral.Alfonso Gutierrez Escera/Ostman Agency Either in its simplest form, as in Medina, or in its more-formalized shape, as in Damascus, the hypostyle tradition dominated mosque architecture from 715 to the 10th century. As it occurs at Nīshāpūr (Neyshābūr) in northeastern Iran, Sīrāf in southern Iran, Kairouan in Tunisia, and Córdoba in Spain, it can indeed be considered as the classic early Islamic type. Its masterpieces occur in Iraq and in the West. The monumentalization of the early Iraqi hypostyle is illustrated by the two ruined structures in Sāmarrāʾ, with their enormous sizes (790 by 510 feet [240 by 156 metres] for one and 700 by 440 feet [213 by 135 metres] for the other), their multiple entrances, their complex piers, and, in one instance, a striking separation of the qiblah area from the rest of the building. The best-preserved example of this type is the Mosque of Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn at Cairo (876–879), where a semi-independent governor, Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn, introduced Iraqi techniques and succeeded in creating a masterpiece of composition. Two classic examples of early mosques in the western Islamic world of interest are preserved in Tunisia and Spain. In Kairouan the Great Mosque was built in stages between 836 and 866. Its most striking feature is the formal emphasis on the building’s T-like axis punctuated by two domes, one of which hovers over the earliest preserved ensemble of mihrab, minbar, and maqṣūrah. At Córdoba the earliest section of the Great Mosque was built in 785–786. It consisted simply of 11 naves with a wider central one and a court. It was enlarged twice in length, first between 833 and 855 and again from 961 to 965 (it was in the latter phase that the celebrated maqṣūrah and mihrab, composing one of the great architectural ensembles of early Islamic art, were constructed). Finally, in 987–988 an extension of the mosque was completed to the east that increased its size by almost one-third without destroying its stylistic unity. The constant increases in the size of this mosque are a further illustration of the flexibility of the hypostyle and its adaptability to any spatial requirement. The most memorable aspects of the Córdoba mosque, however, lie in its construction and decoration. The particularly extensive and heavily decorated mihrab area exemplifies a development that started with the Medina mosque and would continue: an emphasis on the qiblah wall. Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba, Spain.Dome of the mihrab in the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba, Spain.© borisb17/Fotolia Although the hypostyle mosque was the dominant plan, it was not the only one. From very early Islamic times, a fairly large number of aberrant plans also occur. Most of them were built in smaller urban locations or were secondary mosques in larger Muslim cities. It is rather difficult, therefore, to evaluate whether their significance was purely local or they were important for the tradition as a whole. Because a simple type of square subdivided by four piers into nine-domed units occurs at Balkh in Afghanistan, at Cairo, and at Toledo, it may be considered a pan-Islamic type. Other types, a single square hall surrounded by an ambulatory, or a single long barrel-vault parallel or perpendicular to the qiblah, are rarer and should perhaps be considered as purely local. These are particularly numerous in Iran, where it does seem that the mainstream of early Islamic architecture did not penetrate very deeply. Unfortunately, the archaeological exploration of Iran is still in its infancy, and many of the mud-brick buildings from the early Islamic period have been destroyed or rebuilt beyond recognition. As a result, it is extremely difficult to determine the historical importance of monuments found at Neyrīz, Moḥammadīyeh (near Nāʾīn), Fahraj (near Yazd), or Hazareh (near Samarkand). For an understanding of the mosque’s development and of the general dynamics of Islamic architecture, however, an awareness of those secondary types, which may have existed outside Iran as well, is essential. Other types of religious buildings The function of the mosque, the central gathering place of the Muslim community, became the major and most original completely Muslim architectural effort. The mosque was not a purely religious building, at least not at the beginning, but, because it was restricted to Muslims, it is appropriate to consider it as such. This, however, was not the only type of early Islamic building to be uniquely Muslim. Three other types can be defined architecturally and a fourth one only functionally. The first type, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, is a unique building. Completed in 691, this masterwork of Islamic architecture is the earliest major Islamic monument. Its octagonal plan, use of a high dome, and building techniques are hardly original, although its decoration is unique. Its purpose, however, is what is most remarkable about the building. Since the middle of the 8th century, the Dome of the Rock has become the focal centre of the most mystical event in the life of the Prophet: his ascension into heaven from the rock around which the building was erected. According to an inscription preserved since the erection of the dome, however, it would seem that the building did not originally commemorate the Prophet’s ascension but rather the Christology of Islam and its relationship to Judaism. It seems preferable, therefore, to interpret the Dome of the Rock as a victory monument of the new faith’s ideological and religious claim on a holy city and on all the religious traditions attached to it. Dome of the Rock, completed 691 CE, Jerusalem. he second distinctly Islamic type of religious building is the little-known ribāṭ. As early as in the 8th century, the Muslim empire entrusted the protection of its frontiers, especially the remote ones, to warriors for the faith (murābiṭūn, “bound ones”) who lived, permanently or temporarily, in special institutions known as ribāṭs. Evidence for these exist in Central Asia, Anatolia, and North Africa. It is only in Tunisia that ribāṭs have been preserved. The best one is at Sousse, Tunisia; it consists of a square fortified building with a single fairly elaborate entrance and a central courtyard. It has two stories of private or communal rooms. Except for the prominence taken by an oratory, this building could be classified as a type of Muslim secular architecture. Because no later example of a ribāṭ is known, there is some uncertainty as to whether the institution ever acquired a unique architectural form of its own. The ribāṭ (monastery-fortress) of Sousse, Tunisia.-A.F. Kersting Royal mausoleum of the Samanids, completed before 942 CE, Bukhara, Uzbekistan. © lisaveya/Fotolia The last type of religious building to develop before the end of the 10th century is the mausoleum. Originally, Islam was strongly opposed to any formal commemoration of the dead. But three independent factors slowly modified an attitude that was eventually maintained only in the most strictly orthodox circles. One factor was the growth of the Shīʿite heterodoxy, which led to an actual cult of the descendants of the Prophet through his son-in-law ʿAlī. The second factor was that, as Islam strengthened its hold on conquered lands, a wide variety of local cultic practices and especially the worship of certain sacred places began to affect the Muslims, resulting in a whole movement of Islamization of ancient holy places by associating them with deceased Muslim heroes and holy men or with prophets. The third factor is not, strictly speaking, religious, but it played a major part. As more or less independent local dynasties began to grow, they sought to commemorate themselves through mausoleums. Not many mausoleums have remained from those early centuries, but literary evidence is clear on the fact that the Shīʿite sanctuaries of Karbalāʾ and Al-Najaf, both in Iraq, and Qom, Iran, already possessed monumental tombs. At Sāmarrāʾ an octagonal mausoleum had been built for three caliphs. The masterpieces of early funerary architecture occur in Central Asia, such as the royal mausoleum of the Sāmānids (known incorrectly as the mausoleum of Esmāʿīl the Sāmānid) at Bukhara (before 942), which is a superb example of Islamic brickwork. In some instances a quasi-religious character was attached to the mausoleums, such as the one at Tim (976), which already has the high facade typical of so many later monumental tombs. In all instances the Muslims took over or rediscovered the ancient tradition of the centrally planned building as the characteristic commemorative structure. Interior of the dome of the 20th-century Muḥammad V Mausoleum in Rabat, Morocco. © Michael Hynes Royal mausoleum of the Samanids The fourth kind of Muslim building is the madrasah, an institution for religious training set up independently of mosques. It is known from texts that such privately endowed schools existed in the northeastern Iranian world as early as the 9th century, but no description exists of how they looked or were planned. Secular architecture Whereas the functions of the religious buildings of early Islam could not have existed without the new faith, the functions of secular Muslim architecture have a priori no specifically Islamic character. This is all the more so since one can hardly point to a significant new need or habit that would have been brought from Arabia by the conquering Muslims and because so little was destroyed in the conquered areas. It can be assumed, therefore, that all pre-Islamic functions such as living, trading, and manufacturing continued in whatever architectural setting they may have had. Only one exception is certain. With the disappearance of Sāsānian kingship, the pre-Islamic Iranian imperial tradition ceased, and elsewhere conquered minor kings and governors left their palaces and castles. A new imperial power was created, located first in Damascus, then briefly in the northern Syrian town of Al-Ruṣāfah, and eventually in Baghdad and Sāmarrāʾ in Iraq. New governors and, later, almost independent princes took over provincial capitals, which sometimes were old seats of government and at other times were new Muslim centres. In all instances, however, there is no reason to assume that for an architecture of power or of pleasure early Muslims would have felt the need to modify pre-Islamic traditions. In fact, there is much in early Islamic secular architecture that can be used to illustrate secular arts elsewhere—in Byzantium, for example, or even in the West. If any new political or social entity is to succeed in preserving an identity of its own, however, it must give to its secular needs certain directions and emphases that will eventually establish a unique cultural image. This is what happened in the development of Umayyad and early ʿAbbāsid secular architecture. Three factors contributed to the evolution of a new secular architecture. One was that the accumulation of an immense wealth of ideas, workers, and money in the hands of the Muslim princes settled in Syria and Iraq gave rise to a unique palace architecture. The second factor was the impetus given to urban life and to trade. New cities were founded from Sijilmassa on the edge of the Moroccan Sahara to Nīshāpūr in northeastern Iran, and 9th-century Arab merchants traded as far away as China. Thus, the second topic, to be treated below, will be the urban design and commercial architecture. The third factor is that, for the first time since Alexander the Great, a world extending from the Mediterranean to India became culturally unified. As a result, decorative motifs, design ideas, structural techniques, and artisans and architects—which until then had belonged to entirely different cultural traditions—were available in the same places. Early Islamic princely architecture has become the best-known and most original aspect of early Islamic secular buildings. Palaces There are basically three kinds of these princely structures. The first type consists of 10 large rural princely complexes found in Syria, Palestine, and Transjordan dating from about 710 to 750: Al-Ruṣāfah, Qaṣr al-Ḥayr East, Qaṣr al-Ḥayr West, Jabal Says, Khirbat Minyah, Khirbat al-Mafjar, Mshattā, Qaṣr ʿAmrah, Qaṣr al-Kharānah, and Qaṣr al-Ṭūbah. Apparently, those examples of princely architecture belong to a group of more than 60 ruined or only textually identifiable rural complexes erected by Umayyad princes. In the past a romantic theory had developed about their locations, suggesting that the remoteness of their sites expressed an atavistic hankering on the part of the Umayyad Arab rulers for the desert or at least the semiarid steppe that separates the permanently cultivated areas of Syria and Palestine from their original home in the north Arabian wilderness. This theory has been disproved, for every one of those has turned out to have been a major agricultural or trade centre, some of which were developed even before the Muslim conquest. Private palaces were built, notably at Al-Ruṣāfah, Qaṣr al-Ḥayr West, Khirbat al-Mafjar, Qaṣr ʿAmrah, and Mshattā. Those must be considered as early medieval equivalents of the villae rusticae so characteristic in the ancient Roman period. Although each of those had a number of idiosyncrasies that were presumably inspired by the needs and desires of its owner, all those structures tend to share a number of features that can best be illustrated by Khirbat al-Mafjar. That palace, the richest of them all, contained a residential unit consisting of a square building with an elaborate entrance, a porticoed courtyard, and a number of rooms or halls arranged on two floors. Few of those rooms seem to have any identifiable function, although at Khirbat al-Mafjar a private oratory, a large meeting hall, and an anteroom leading to a cool underground pool have been identified. The main throne room was on the second floor above the entrance. Its plan is not known but probably resembled the preserved throne rooms or reception halls at Qaṣr ʿAmrah and Mshattā, which consisted of a three-aisled hall ending in an apse (semicircular or polygonal domed projection) in the manner of a Roman basilica. Next to an official residence, there usually was a small mosque, generally a miniaturized hypostyle in plan. The most original feature of those establishments was the bath. The bathing area itself is comparatively small, but every bath had its own elaborate entrance and contained a large hall that, at least in the instance of Khirbat al-Mafjar, was heavily decorated and of an unusual shape. It would appear that those halls were for pleasure—places for music, dancing, and probably occasional orgies. In some instances, as at Qaṣr ʿAmrah, the same setting may have been used for both pleasure and formal receptions. Those palaces are important illustrations of the luxurious taste and way of life of the new Middle Eastern aristocrats, who settled in the countryside and transformed some of it into places of pleasure. This aspect of those establishments is peculiar to the Umayyad dynasty in Syria and Palestine. Outside this area and period only one comparable structure has been found—at Ukhayḍir in Iraq, which dates from the early ʿAbbāsid period. A number of princely residences of the Central Asian or North African countryside are still too little known but appear not to have had the same development. The other important lesson to draw from them is that few of their features are original. All of them derive from the architectural vocabulary of pre-Islamic times, and it is in the artistic traditions of the Mediterranean world that most of their sources are found, although the Mshattā throne room does have a number of Sāsānian elements. For this reason, those palaces should be considered major examples of pre-Islamic secular architecture, for as interesting as they are, these monuments are not part of the Islamic tradition. A second type of princely architecture—the urban palace—has been preserved only in texts or literary sources, with the exception of the palace at Kūfah in Iraq. Datable from the very end of the 7th century, this example of princely architecture seems to have functioned both as a residence and as the dār al-imārah, or centre of government. This dual function is reflected in the use of separate building units and in the absence of much architectural decoration, which suggests that it reflected an austere official taste. Although suggestions concerning the plans used are occasionally encountered in literary sources, this information is not sufficient to define those early urban official buildings of the Muslims. Nothing is known, for instance, about the great Umayyad palace in Damascus aside from the fact that it had a green dome. Also poorly documented is a development in urban aristocratic buildings that seems to have begun with the ʿAbbāsids during the last decades of the 8th century. This involved the construction of smaller palaces, probably pavilions in the midst of gardens in or around major cities. The third type of early Islamic princely architecture is the palace-city. Several of these huge palaces are part of the enormous mass of ruins at Sāmarrāʾ, the temporary ʿAbbāsid capital from 838 to 883. Jawsaq al-Khāqānī, for instance, is a walled architectural complex nearly one mile to a side that in reality is an entire city. It contains a formal succession of large gates and courts leading to a cross-shaped throne room, a group of smaller living units, basins and fountains, and even a racetrack. Too little is known about the architectural details of those huge walled complexes to lead to more than very uncertain hypotheses. Their existence, however, suggests that they were settings for the very elaborate ceremonies developed by the ʿAbbāsid princes, especially when receiving foreign ambassadors. An account, for instance, in Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī’s (died 1071) Ta’rīkh Baghdad (“History of Baghdad”) of the arrival in Baghdad of a Byzantine envoy in 914 illustrates this point. The meeting with the caliph was preceded by a sort of formal presentation intended to impress the ambassador with the Muslim ruler’s wealth and power. Treasures were laid down; thousands of soldiers and slaves in rich clothes guarded them; lions roared in the gardens; and on gilded artificial trees mechanical devices made silver birds chirp. The ceremony was a fascinating mixture of a traditional attempt to re-create paradise on earth and a rather vulgar exhibition of wealth that required a huge space, as in the Sāmarrāʾ palaces. Another important aspect of those palace-cities is that they became part of a myth. The walled enclosure in which thousands lived a life unknown to others and into which simple mortals did not penetrate without bringing their own shroud was transformed into legend. It became the mysterious City of Brass of The Thousand and One Nights, and it is from its luxurious glory that occasionally a caliph such as Hārūn al-Rashīd escaped into the “real” world. Even information on the ʿAbbāsid palace-city is inadequate; it was clearly a unique early Islamic creation, and its impact can be detected from Byzantium to Hollywood. Urban design Islamic secular architecture has left considerable information about cities, for systematic urbanization was one of the most characteristic features of early Muslim civilization. It is much too early to draw any sort of conclusion about the actual physical organization of towns, about their subdivisions and their houses, for only at Al-Fusṭāṭ (Cairo) and Sīrāf in Iran is the evidence archaeologically clear, and much of it has not yet been properly published. A huge task remains to be done of relating immense amounts of textual material with scraps of archaeological information scattered from Central Asia to Spain, such as the outer walls and impressive gateway preserved at Al-Raqqah in Syria. In general, it can be said that there does not seem to have been any idealized master plan for the internal arrangement of an urban site, in contradistinction to Hellenistic or Roman towns. Even mosques or palaces were often located eccentrically and not in the middle of the town. Extraordinary attention was paid to water distribution and conservation, as demonstrated by the magnificent 9th-century cisterns in Tunisia, the 9th-century Nilometer (a device to measure the Nile’s level) in Cairo, and the elaborate dams, canals, and sluices of Qaṣr al-Ḥayr in Syria. The construction of commercial buildings on a monumental scale occurred. The most spectacular example is the caravansary of Qaṣr al-Ḥayr East, with its magnificent gate. The concern for palaces and cities that characterized early Islamic secular architecture shows itself most remarkably in the construction of Baghdad between 762 and 766–767 by the ʿAbbāsid caliph al-Manṣūr. It was a walled round city whose circular shape served to demonstrate Baghdad’s symbolic identity as the navel of the universe. A thick ring of residential quarters was separated by four axial commercial streets entered through spectacular gates. In the centre of the city there was a large open space with a palace, a mosque, and a few administrative buildings. By its size and number of inhabitants, Baghdad was unquestionably a city; however, its plan so strongly emphasized the presence of the caliph that it was also a palace. Building materials and technology The early Islamic period, on the whole, did not innovate much in the realm of building materials and technology but utilized what it had inherited from older traditions. Stone and brick continued to be used throughout the Mediterranean, whereas mud brick usually covered with plaster predominated in Iraq and Iran, with a few notable exceptions such as Sīrāf, where a masonry of roughly cut stones set in mortar was more common. The most important novelty was the rapid development in Iraq of a baked brick architecture in the late 8th and 9th centuries. Iraqi techniques were later used in Syria at Al-Raqqah and Qaṣr al-Ḥayr East and in Egypt. Iranian brickwork appears at Mshattā in Jordan. The mausoleum of the Sāmānids in Bukhara is the earliest remaining example of the new brick architecture in northeastern Iran. Wood was used consistently but usually has not been very well preserved, except in Palestine and Egypt, where climatic (extreme dryness of Egypt), religious (holiness of Jerusalem sanctuaries), or historic (Egypt was never conquered) factors contributed to the continuous upkeep of wooden objects and architectural elements. As supports for roofs and ceilings, early Islamic architecture used walls and single supports. Walls were generally continuous, often buttressed with half towers, and rarely (with exceptions in Central Asia) were they articulated or broken by other architectural features. The most common single support was the base-column-capital combination of Mediterranean architecture. Most columns and capitals either were reused from pre-Islamic buildings or were directly imitated from older models. In the 9th century in Iraq a brick pier was used, a form that spread to Iran and Egypt. Columns and piers were covered with arches. Most often these were semicircular arches; the pointed, or two-centred, arch was known, but it does not seem that its property of reducing the need for heavy supports had been realized. The most extraordinary technical development of arches occurs in the Great Mosque at Córdoba, where, in order to increase the height of the building in an area with only short columns, the architects created two rows of superimposed horseshoe arches. Almost immediately they realized that such a succession of superimposed arches constructed of alternating stone and brick could be modified to create a variety of patterns that would alleviate the inherent monotony of a hypostyle building. A certain ambiguity remains, however, as to whether ornamental effect or structural technology was the predominate concern in the creation of those unique arched columns. Mezquita, the great Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba, Spain. Photos.com/Thinkstock The majority of early Islamic ceilings were flat. Gabled wooden roofs, however, were erected in the Muslim world west of the Euphrates and simple barrel vaults to the east. Vaulting, either in brick or in stone, was used, especially in secular architecture. Domes were employed frequently in mosques, consistently in mausoleums, and occasionally in secular buildings. Almost all domes are on squinches (supports carried across corners to act as structural transitions to a dome). Most squinches, as in the Kairouan domes, are classical Greco-Roman niches, which transform the square room into an octagonal opening for the dome. In Córdoba’s Great Mosque a complex system of intersecting ribs is encountered, whereas at Bukhara the squinch is broken into halves by a transverse half arch. The most extraordinary use of the squinch occurs in the mausoleum at Tim, where the surface of this structural device is broken into a series of smaller three-dimensional units rearranged into a sort of pyramidal pattern. This rearrangement is the earliest extant example of muqarnas, or stalactite-like decoration that would later be an important element of Islamic architectural ornamentation. The motif is so awkwardly constructed at Tim that it must have derived from some other source, possibly the ornamental device of using curved stucco panels to cover the corners and upper parts of walls found in Iran at Nīshāpūr. Architectural decoration Early Islamic architecture is most original in its decoration. Mosaics and wall paintings followed the practices of antiquity and were primarily employed in Syria, Palestine, and Spain. Stone sculpture existed, but stucco sculpture, first limited to Iran, spread rapidly throughout the early Islamic world. Not only were stone or brick walls covered with large panels of stucco sculpture, but this technique was used for sculpture in the round in the Umayyad palaces of Qaṣr al-Ḥayr West and Khirbat al-Mafjar. The latter was a comparatively short-lived technique, although it produced some of the few instances of monumental sculpture anywhere in the early Middle Ages. A variety of techniques borrowed from the industrial arts were used for architectural ornamentation. The mihrab wall of Kairouan’s Great Mosque, for example, was covered with ceramics, whereas fragments of decorative woodwork have been preserved in Jerusalem and Egypt. Córdoba, Great Mosque of Gold mosaics adorn the walls of the mihrab in the Great Mosque of Córdoba, Spain. © Ron Gatepain (A Britannica Publishing Partner) The themes and motifs of early Islamic decoration can be divided into three major groups. The first kind of ornamentation simply emphasizes the shape or contour of an architectural unit. The themes used were vegetal bands for vertical or horizontal elements, marble imitations for the lower parts of long walls, chevrons or other types of borders on floors and domes, and even whole trees on the spandrels or soffits (undersides) of arches as in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus or the Dome of the Rock; all these motifs tend to be quite traditional, being taken from the rich decorative vocabularies of pre-Islamic Iran or of the ancient Mediterranean world. The second group consists of decorative motifs for which a concrete iconographic meaning can be given. In the Dome of the Rock and the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, as well as possibly the mosques of Córdoba and of Medina, there were probably iconographic programs. It has been shown, for example, that the huge architectural and vegetal decorative motifs at Damascus were meant to symbolize a sort of idealized paradise on earth, whereas the crowns of the Jerusalem sanctuary are thought to have been symbols of empires conquered by Islam. But it is equally certain that this use of visual forms in mosques for ideological and symbolic purposes was not easily accepted, and most later mosques are devoid of iconographically significant themes. The only exceptions fully visible are the Qurʾānic inscriptions in the mosque of Ibn Ṭūlūn at Cairo, which were used both as a reminder of the faith and as an ornamental device to emphasize the structural lines of the building. Thus, the early Islamic mosque eventually became austere in its use of symbolic ornamentation, with the exception of the mihrab, which was considered as a symbol of the unity of all believers. Like religious architecture, secular buildings seem to have been less richly decorated at the end of the early Islamic period than at the beginning. The paintings, sculptures, and mosaics of Qaṣr al-Ḥayr West, Khirbat al-Mafjar, Qaṣr ʿAmrah, and Sāmarrāʾ primarily illustrated the life of the prince. There were official iconographic compositions, such as the monarch enthroned, or ones of pleasure and luxury, such as hunting scenes or depictions of the prince surrounded by dancers, musicians, acrobats, and unclad women. Few of these so-called princely themes were iconographic inventions of the Muslims. They usually can be traced back either to the classical world of ancient Greece and Rome or to pre-Islamic Iran and Central Asia. The third type of architectural decoration consists of large panels, most often in stucco, for which no meaning or interpretation is yet known. Those panels might be called ornamental in the sense that their only apparent purpose was to beautify the buildings in which they were installed, and their relationship to the architecture is arbitrary. The Mshattā facade’s decoration of a huge band of triangles is, for instance, quite independent of the building’s architectural parts. Next to Mshattā, the most important series of examples of the third type of ornamentation come from Sāmarrāʾ, although striking examples are also to be found at Khirbat al-Mafjar, Qaṣr al-Ḥayr East and West, Al-Fusṭāṭ, Sīrāf, and Nīshāpūr. Two decorative motifs were predominately used on those panels: a great variety of vegetal motifs and geometric forms. At Sāmarrāʾ those panels eventually became so abstract that individual parts could no longer be distinguished, and the decorative design had to be viewed in terms of the relationships between line and shape, light and shade, horizontal and vertical axes, and so forth. Copied consistently from Morocco to Central Asia, the aesthetic principles of this latter type of a complex overall design influenced the development of the principle of arabesque ornamentation. Bowl from Nīshāpūr, lead-glazed earthenware with a slip decoration, 9th–10th century; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London Triangular stone relief from the facade of Mshattā, early 8th century, Jordan; in the Museum of Islamic Art, Pergamon Museum, National Museums of Berlin. Islamisches Museum, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin—Preussischer Kulturbesitz Ivory casket made for al-Mughīrah, son of ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III, from Córdoba, Spain, 968; in the Louvre, Paris. Height 15 cm. Courtesy of the Musee du Louvre, Paris; photograph Mansell—Giraudon/Art Resource, New York Islamic architectural ornamentation does not lend itself easily to chronological stylistic definition. In other words, it does not seem to share consistently a cluster of formal characteristics. The reason is that in the earliest Islamic buildings the decorative motifs were borrowed from an extraordinary variety of stylistic sources: classical themes illusionistically rendered (e.g., the mosaics of the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus), hieratic Byzantine themes (e.g., the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus and Qaṣr ʿAmrah), Sāsānian motifs, Central Asian motifs (especially the sculpture from Umayyad palaces), and the many regional styles of ornamentation that had developed in all parts of the pre-Islamic world. It is the wealth of themes and motifs, therefore, that constitutes the Umayyad style of architectural decoration. The ʿAbbāsids, on the other hand, began to be more selective in their choice of ornamentation. Decorative arts Very little is known about early Islamic gold and silver objects, although their existence is mentioned in many texts as well as suggested by the wealth of the Muslim princes. Except for a large number of silver plates and ewers belonging to the Sāsānian tradition, nothing has remained. Those silver objects were probably made for Umayyad and ʿAbbāsid princes, although there is much controversy among scholars regarding their authenticity and date of manufacture. For entirely different reasons it is impossible to present any significant generalities about the art of textiles in the early Islamic period. Problems of authenticity are few. Dating from the 10th century are a large number of Būyid silks, a group of funerary textiles with plant and animal motifs as well as poetic texts. Very little order has yet been made of an enormous mass of often well-dated textile fragments, and, therefore, except for the Būyid silks, it is still impossible to identify any one of the textile types mentioned in early medieval literary sources. Furthermore, because it can be assumed that pre-Islamic textile factories were taken over by the Muslims and because it is otherwise known that textiles were easily transported from one area of the Muslim world to the other or even beyond it, it is still very difficult to define Islamic styles as opposed to Byzantine or to Coptic ones. The obvious exception lies in those fragments that are provided with inscriptions, and the main point to make is, therefore, that one of the characteristic features of early Islamic textiles is their use of writing for identifying and decorative purposes. But, while true, this point in no way makes it possible to deny an Islamic origin to fragments that are not provided with inscriptions, and one must thus await further investigations of detail before being able to define early Islamic textiles. The most important medium of early Islamic decorative arts is pottery. Initially Muslims continued to sponsor whatever varieties of ceramics had existed before their arrival. Probably in the last quarter of the 8th century, new and more elaborate types of glazed pottery were produced. This new development did not replace the older and simpler types of pottery but added a new dimension to the art of Islamic ceramics. Because of the still incompletely published studies on the unfinished excavations carried out at Nīshāpūr, Sīrāf, Qaṣr al-Ḥayr East, and Al-Fusṭāṭ, the scholarship on those ceramics is likely to be very much modified. Therefore, this section will treat only the most general characteristics of Islamic ceramics, avoiding in particular the complex archaeological problems posed by the growth and spread of individual techniques. The area of initial technical innovation seems to have been Iraq. Trade with Central Asia brought Chinese ceramics to Mesopotamia, and Islamic ceramicists sought to imitate them. It is probably in Iraq, therefore, that the technique of lustre glazing was first developed in the Muslim world. This gave the surface of a clay object a metallic, shiny appearance. Egypt also played a leading part in the creation of the new ceramics. Because the earliest datable lustre object (a glass goblet with the name of the governor who ruled in 773, now in the Cairo Museum of Islamic Ceramics) was Egyptian, some scholars feel that it was in Egypt and not Iraq that lustre was first used. Early pottery was also produced in northeastern Iran, where excavations at Afrāsiyāb (Samarkand) and Nīshāpūr have brought to light a new art of painted underglaze pottery. Its novelty was not so much in the technique of painting designs on the slip and covering them with a transparent glaze as in the variety of subjects employed. While new ceramic techniques may have been sought to imitate other mediums (mostly metal) or other styles of pottery (mostly Chinese), the decorative devices rapidly became purely and unmistakably Islamic in style. A wide variety of motifs were combined: vegetal arabesques or single flowers and trees; inscriptions, usually legible and consisting of proverbs or of good wishes; animals that were usually birds drawn from the vast folkloric past of the Middle East; occasionally human figures drawn in a strikingly abstract fashion; geometric designs; all-over abstract patterns; single motifs on empty fields; and simple splashes of colour, with or without underglaze sgraffito designs (i.e., designs incised or sketched on the body or the slip of the object). All these motifs were used on both the high-quality ceramics of Nīshāpūr and Samarkand as well as on Islamic folk pottery. Although ceramics has appeared to be the most characteristic medium of expression in the decorative arts during the early Islamic period, it has only been because of the greater number of preserved objects. Glass was as important, but examples have been less well preserved. A tradition of ivory carving developed in Spain, and the objects dating from the last third of the 10th century onward attest to the high quality of this uniquely Iberian art. Many of those carved ivories certainly were made for princes; therefore, it is not surprising that their decorative themes were drawn from the whole vocabulary of princely art known through Umayyad painting and sculpture of the early 8th century. Those ivory carvings are also important in that they exemplify the fact that an art of sculpture in the round never totally disappeared in the Muslim world—at least in small objects. Assessment There are three general points that seem to characterize the art of the early Islamic period. It can first be said that it was an art that sought self-consciously, like the culture sponsoring it, to create artistic forms that would be identifiable as being different from those produced in preceding or contemporary non-Islamic artistic traditions. At times, as in the use of the Greco-Roman technique of mosaics or in the adoption of Persian and Roman architectural building technology, early Islamic art simply took over whatever traditions were available. At other times, as in the development of the mosque as a building type, it recomposed into new shapes the forms that had existed before. On the other hand, in ceramics or the use of calligraphic ornamentation, the early Islamic artist invented new techniques and a new decorative vocabulary. Whatever the nature of the phenomenon, it was almost always an attempt to identify itself visually as unique and different. Because there was initially no concept about what should constitute an Islamic tradition in the visual arts, the early art of the Muslims often looks like only a continuation of earlier artistic styles, forms, subjects, and techniques. Many mosaics, silver plates, or textiles, therefore, were not considered to be Islamic until recently. In order to be understood, then, as examples of the art of a new culture, those early buildings and objects have to be seen in the complete context in which they were created. When so seen, they appear as conscious choices by the new Islamic culture from its immense artistic inheritance. A second point of definition concerns the question of whether there is an early Islamic style or perhaps even several styles in some sort of succession. The fascinating fact is that there is a clear succession only in those artistic features that are Islamic inventions—nonfigurative ornament and ceramics. For it is only in development of those features that one can assume to find the conscious search for form that can create a period style. Elsewhere, especially in palace art, the Muslim world sought to relate itself to an earlier and more universal tradition of princely art; its monuments, therefore, are less Islamic than typological. In the new art of the Muslim bourgeoisie, however, uniquely Islamic artistic phenomena began to evolve. Finally, the geographical peculiarities of early Islamic art must be reiterated. Its centres were Syria, Iraq, Egypt, northwestern Iran, and Spain. Of these, Iraq was probably the most originally creative, and it is from Iraq that a peculiarly Islamic visual koine (a commonly accepted and understood system of forms) was derived and spread throughout the Islamic world. This development, of course, is logical, because the capital of the early empire and some of the first purely Muslim cities were in Iraq. In western Iran, in Afghanistan, in northern Mesopotamia, and in Morocco, the more atypical and local artistic traditions were more or less affected by the centralized imperial system of Iraq. This tension between a general pan-Islamic vocabulary and a variable number of local vocabularies was to remain a constant throughout the history of Islamic art and is certainly one of the reasons for the difficulty, if not impossibility, one faces in trying to define an Islamic style. Middle period The middle period in the development of Islamic art extends roughly from the year 1000 to 1500, when a strong central power with occasional regional political independence was replaced by a bewildering mosaic of overlapping dynasties. Ethnically, this was the time of major Turkish and Mongol invasions that brought into the Muslim world new peoples and institutions. At the same time, Imazighen (Berbers), Kurds, and Iranians, who had been within the empire from the beginning of Islam, began to play far more effective historical and cultural roles, short-lived for the Kurds but uniquely important for the Iranians. Besides political and ethnic confusion, there was also religious and cultural confusion during the middle period. The 10th century, for example, witnessed the transformation of the Shīʿite heterodoxy into a major political and possibly cultural phenomenon, while the extraordinary development taken by the personal and social mysticism known as Sufism modified enormously the nature of Muslim piety. Culturally, the most significant development was perhaps that of Persian literature as a highly original new verbal expression existing alongside the older Arabic literary tradition. Finally, the middle period was an era of geopolitical expansion in all areas except Spain, which was completely lost to the Muslims in 1492 with the conquest of the kingdom of Granada by Ferdinand II and Isabella. Anatolia and the Balkans, the Crimean Peninsula, much of Central Asia and northern India, and parts of eastern Africa all became new Islamic provinces. In some cases this expansion was the result of conquests, but in others it had been achieved through missionary work. The immense variety of impulses that affected the Muslim world during those five centuries was one of the causes of the bewildering artistic explosion that also characterizes the middle period. Although much work has been done on individual monuments, scholarship is still in its infancy. It is particularly difficult, therefore, to decide on the appropriate means of organizing this information: by geographical or cultural areas (e.g., Iran, Egypt, Morocco), by individual dynasties (e.g., Seljuqs, Timurids), by periods (e.g., 13th century before the Mongol invasions), or even by social categories (e.g., the art of princes, the art of cities). Thus, the five following divisions of Fāṭimid, Seljuq, Western Islamic, Mamlūk, and Mongol Iran (Il-Khanid and Timurid) art are partly arbitrary and to a large extent tentative. Their respective importance also varies, for what is known as Seljuq art certainly overwhelms almost all others in its importance. Fāṭimid art (909–1171) The Fāṭimids were technically an Arab dynasty professing with missionary zeal the beliefs of the Ismāʿīlī sect of the Shīʿite branch of Islam. The dynasty was established in Tunisia and Sicily in 909. In 969 the Fāṭimids moved to Egypt and founded the city of Cairo. They soon controlled Syria and Palestine. In the latter part of the 11th century, however, the Fāṭimid empire began to disintegrate internally and externally; the final demise occurred in 1171. But it is not known which of the obvious components of the Fāṭimid world was more significant in influencing the development of the visual arts: its heterodoxy, its Egyptian location, its missionary relationship with almost all provinces of Islam, or the fact that during its heyday in the 11th century it was the only wealthy Islamic centre and could thus easily gather artisans and art objects from all over the world. Ceiling of the Cappella Palatina, Palermo, Sicily. The chapel was built by the Norman kings of Sicily and decorated by Fātimid artists.//Bronze griffin, 12th century; in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Pisa, Italy. Scala/Art Resource, New York Architecture The great Fāṭimid mosques of Cairo—Al-Azhar (started in 970) and Al-Ḥākim (c. 1002–03)—were designed in the traditional hypostyle plan with axial cupolas. It is only in such architectural details as the elaborately composed facade of Al-Ḥākim, with its corner towers and vaulted portal, that innovations appear, for most earlier mosques did not have large formal gates, nor was much attention previously given to the composition of the exterior facade. Fāṭimid architectural traditionalism was certainly a conscious attempt to perpetuate the existing aesthetic system. Although much less is known about it, the Great Palace of the Fāṭimids belonged to the tradition of the enormous palace-cities typical of the ʿAbbāsids. Mediterranean rather than Iranian influences, however, played a greater part in the determination of its uses and functions. The whole city of Cairo (Arabic: Al-Qāhirah, “The Victorious”), on the other hand, has many symbolic and visual aspects that suggest a willful relationship to Baghdad. The originality of Fāṭimid architecture does not lie in works sponsored by the caliphs themselves, even though Cairo’s well-preserved gates and walls of the second half of the 11th century are among the best examples of early medieval military architecture. It is rather the patronage of lower officials and of the bourgeoisie, if not even of the humbler classes, that was responsible for the most interesting Fāṭimid buildings. The mosques of Al-Aqmar (1125) and of Al-Ṣāliḥ (c. 1160) are among the first examples of monumental small mosques constructed to serve local needs. Even though their internal arrangement is quite traditional, their plans were adapted to the space available in the urban centre. These mosques were elaborately decorated on the exterior, exhibiting a conspicuousness absent from large hypostyle mosques. A second innovation in Fāṭimid architecture was the tremendous development of mausoleums. This may be explained partially by Shīʿism’s emphasis on the succession of holy men, but the development of these buildings in terms of both quality and quantity indicates that other influential social and religious issues were also involved. Most of the mausoleums were simple square buildings surmounted by a dome. Many of these have survived in Cairo and Aswān. Only a few, such as the mashhad at Aswān, are somewhat more elaborate, with side rooms. The most original of these commemorative buildings is the Juyūshī Mosque (1085) overlooking the city of Cairo. Properly speaking, it is not a mausoleum but a monument celebrating the reestablishment of Fāṭimid order after a series of popular revolts.The Fāṭimids introduced, or developed, only two major constructional techniques: the systematization of the four-centred keel arch and the squinch. The latter innovation is of greater consequence because the squinch became the most common means of passing from a square to a dome, although pendentives were known as well. A peculiarly Egyptian development was the muqarnas squinch, which consisted of four units: a niche bracketed by two niche segments, superimposed with an additional niche. The complex profile of the muqarnas became an architectural element in itself used for windows, while the device of using niches and niche segments remained typical of Egyptian decorative design for centuries. It still is impossible to say whether the muqarnas was invented in Egypt or inspired by other architectural traditions (most likely Iranian). Fāṭimid domes were smooth or ribbed and developed a characteristic “keel” profile. In the use of materials (brick, stone, wood) and structural concepts, Fāṭimid architecture continued earlier traditions. Occasionally, local styles were incorporated, among them features of Tunisian architecture in the 10th century or of upper Mesopotamian in the late 11th century. Stone sculpture, stuccowork, and carved wood were utilized for architectural decorations. The Fāṭimids also employed mosaicists, who mostly worked in places like Jerusalem, where they imitated or repaired earlier mosaic murals. Many fragments of Fāṭimid wall paintings have survived in Egypt. Most of them, however, are too small to allow for making any iconographic or stylistic conclusions, with the exception of the mid-12th-century ceiling of the Palatine Chapel at Palermo. Built by the Norman kings of Sicily, the palace chapel was almost certainly decorated by Fāṭimid artists, or at least the artists adhered to Fāṭimid models. The hundreds of facets in the muqarnas ceiling were painted, notably with many purely ornamental vegetal and zoomorphic designs but also with scenes of daily life and many subjects that have not yet been explained. Stylistically influenced by Iraqi ʿAbbāsid art, these paintings are innovative in their more spatially aware representation of personages and of animals. Very similar tendencies appear also in the stucco and wood sculptures of Fāṭimid decoration. The stunning abstraction of the architectural decoration at Sāmarrāʾ tends to give way to more naturalistically conceived vegetal and animal designs; occasionally, whole narrative scenes appear carved on wood. Another decorative trend is especially used on 12th-century mihrabs: explicitly complicated geometric patterns, usually based on stars, which in turn generate octagons, hexagons, triangles, and rectangles. Geometry becomes a sort of network containing small vegetal units, often as inlaid pieces. Long inscriptions written in very elaborate calligraphies also became a typical form of architectural decoration on most of the major Fāṭimid buildings. A clear separation must be made between the decorative arts sought by Fāṭimid princes and the arts produced within their empire. Little has been preserved of the former, notably a small number of superb ewers in rock crystal. A text has survived, however, that describes the imperial treasures looted in the middle of the 11th century by dissatisfied mercenary troops. It lists gold, silver, enamel, and porcelain objects that have all been lost, as well as textiles (perhaps the cape of the Norman king Roger II is an example of the kind of textiles found in this treasure). The inventory also records that the Fāṭimids had in their possession many works of Byzantine, Chinese, and even Greco-Roman provenance. Altogether, then, it seems that the imperial art of the Fāṭimids was part of a sort of international royal taste that downplayed cultural or political differences. lustreware bowl Lustreware bowl by the potter Saʾad, depicting a Christian priest swinging a censer, first half of the 12th century; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. /Wheel-cut rock crystal ewer from Egypt, 11th century; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Height 21.5 cm.//Coronation mantle of King Roger II of Sicily, gold embroidery and pearls on a red silk ground, 1133; in the Hofburg, Vienna. Courtesy of the Hofburg Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna Ceramics, on the other hand, were primarily produced by local urban schools and were not an imperial art. The most-celebrated type of Fāṭimid wares were lustre-painted ceramics from Egypt itself. A large number of artisans’ names have been preserved, thereby indicating the growing prestige of these craftsmen and the aesthetic importance of their pottery. Most of the surviving lustre ceramics are plates on which the decoration of the main surface has been emphasized. The decorative themes used were quite varied and included all the traditional Islamic ones—e.g., calligraphy, vegetal and animal motifs, arabesques. The most-distinguishing feature of these Fāṭimid ceramics, however, is the representation of the human figure. Some of these ceramics have been decorated with simplified copies of illustrations of the princely themes, but others have depictions of scenes of Egyptian daily life. The style in which these themes have been represented is simultaneously the hieratic, ornamental manner traditional to Islamic painting combined with what can almost be called spatial illusionism. Wheel-cut rock crystal, glass, and bronze objects, especially animal-shaped aquamaniles (a type of water vessel) and ewers, are also attributed to the Fāṭimids. Book illustration Manifestations of nonprincely Fāṭimid art also included the art of book illustration. The few remaining fragments illustrate that probably after the middle of the 11th century there developed an art of representation other than the style used to illustrate princely themes. This was a more illusionistic style that still accompanied the traditional ornamental one in the same manner as in the paintings on ceramics. In summary it would appear that Fāṭimid art was a curiously transitional one. Although much influenced by earlier Islamic and non-Islamic Mediterranean styles, the Fāṭimids devised new structural systems and developed a new manner of painting representational subjects, which became characteristic of all Muslim art during the 12th century. Neither documentary nor theoretical research in Islamic art, however, has developed sufficiently to clearly establish whether the Fāṭimids were indeed innovators or whether their art was a local phenomenon that is only accidentally relatable to what followed. Seljuq art During the last decades of the 10th century, at the Central Asian frontiers of Islam, a migratory movement of Turkic peoples began that was to affect the whole Muslim world up to and including Egypt. The dominant political force among those Turks was the dynasty of the Seljuqs, but it was not the only one; nor can it be demonstrated, as far as the arts are concerned, that it was the major source of patronage in the period to be discussed anywhere but in Anatolia in the 12th and 13th centuries. The Seljuq empire, therefore, consisted of a succession of dynasties, and all but one (the Ayyūbids of Syria, Egypt, and northern Mesopotamia) were Turkic. Western Islamic art: Moorish The 11th to 13th centuries were not peaceful in the Maghrib. Amazigh (Berber) dynasties overthrew each other in Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula. The Christian Reconquista gradually diminished Muslim holdings in Spain and Portugal, and Tunisia was ruined during the Hilālī invasion when Bedouin tribes were sent by the Fāṭimids to prevent local independence.’ Two types of structures characterize the Almoravid (1056–1147) and Almohad (1130–1269) periods in Morocco and Spain. One comprises the large, severely designed Moroccan mosques such as those of Tinmel, of Ḥasan in Rabat, or of the Kutubiyyah (Koutoubia) in Marrakech. They are all austere hypostyles with tall, massive, square minarets. The other distinctive type of architecture was that built for military purposes, including fortifications and, especially, massive city gates with low-slung horseshoe arches, such as the Oudaia Gate at Rabat (12th century) or the Rabat Gate at Marrakech (12th century). Palaces built in central Algeria by minor dynasties such as the Zīrids were more in the Fāṭimid tradition of Egypt than in the Almoravid and Almohad traditions of western Islam. Almost nothing is known or has been studied about North African arts other than architecture, because the puritanical world of the Berber dynasties did not foster the arts of luxury. The Rabat Gate, Marrakech, Morocco, Almoravid period, 12th century. Josephine Powell, Rome Kutubiyyah Mosque, Marrakech, Morocco, Almohad period, 12th century. Jean Bottin In North Africa the artistic milieu did not change much in the 14th and 15th centuries. Hypostyle mosques such as the Great Mosque of Algiers continued to be built. Madrasahs were constructed with more elaborate plans; the Bū ʿInānīyah madrasah at Fès is one of the few monumental buildings of the period. A few mausoleums were erected, such as the so-called Marīnid tombs near Fès (second half of the 14th century) or the complex of Chella at Rabat (mostly 14th century). Architectural decoration in stucco or sculpted stone was usually limited to elaborate geometric patterns, epigraphic themes, and a few vegetal motifs. Admire the Alhambra's coloured tiles, carved stucco and wood, and calligraphy in Grenada, Spain Overview of the Alhambra, Granada, Spain. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.See all videos for this article A stunning exception to the austerity of North African architecture exists in Spain in the Alhambra palace complex at Granada. The hill site of the Alhambra had been occupied by a citadel and possibly by a palace since the 11th century, but little of those earlier constructions has remained. In the 14th century two successive princes, Yūsuf I and Muḥammad V, transformed the hill into their official residence. Outside of a number of gates built like triumphal arches and several ruined forecourts, only three parts of the palace remain intact. First there is the long Court of the Myrtles, leading to the huge Hall of the Ambassadors, located in one of the exterior towers. This was the part of the Alhambra built by Yūsuf I. Then there is the Court of the Lions, with its celebrated lion fountain in the centre. Numerous rooms open off this court, including the elaborately decorated Hall of the Two Sisters and the Hall of the Abencerrajes. The third part, slightly earlier than the first two, is the Generalife; it is a summer residence built higher up the hill and surrounded by gardens with fountains, pavilions, and portico walks. Mudéjar lustreware dish, known also as Hispano-Moresque ware, made in Valencia, early 15th century; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London Court of the Lions, Alhambra, Granada, Spain, 14th century. Raffaello Bencini—Scala/Art Resource, New York The Alhambra is especially important because it is one of the few palaces to have survived from medieval Islamic times. It illustrates superbly a number of architectural concerns occasionally documented in literary references: the contrast between an unassuming exterior and a richly decorated interior to achieve an effect of secluded or private brilliance; the constant presence of water, either as a single, static basin or as a dynamic fountain; the inclusion of oratories and baths; and the lack of an overall plan (the units are simply attached to each other). Alhambra: Partal Palace; Torre de las Damas Gardens of the Partal Palace and the Torre de las Damas (Tower of the Ladies), the Alhambra, Granada, Spain. © Toniflap/Fotolia The architectural decoration of the Alhambra was mostly of stucco. Some of it is flat, but the extraordinarily complex cupolas of muqarnas, as in the Hall of the Two Sisters, appear as huge multifaceted diadems. The decoration of the Alhambra becomes a sort of paradox as well as a tour de force. Weighty, elaborately decorated ceilings, for example, are supported by frail columns or by walls pierced with many windows (light permeates almost every part of the large, domed halls). Much of the design and decoration of the Alhambra is symbolically oriented. The poems that adorn the Alhambra as calligraphic ornamentation celebrate its cupolas as domes of heaven rotating around the prince sitting under them. Islamic art as such ceased to be produced in Spain after 1492, when Granada, the last Moorish kingdom in Spain, fell to the Christians, but the Islamic tradition continued in North Africa, which remained Muslim. In Morocco the so-called Sharīfian dynasties from the 16th century onward ornamentally developed the artistic forms created in the 14th century. Most of the best-known monuments of western Islamic art are buildings, although a very original calligraphy was developed. The other arts cannot be compared in wealth and importance either to what occurred elsewhere in Islam at the same time or to earlier objects created in Spain. There are some important examples of metalwork, wood inlaid with ivory, and a lustre-glaze pottery known as Hispano-Moresque ware. The fact that the latter was made in Valencia or Málaga after the termination of Muslim rule demonstrates that Islamic traditions in the decorative arts continued to be adhered to, if only partially. The term Mudéjar, therefore, is used to refer to all the things made in a Muslim style but under Christian rule. Numerous examples of Mudéjar art exist in ceramics and textiles, as well as in architectural monuments such as the synagogues of Toledo and the Alcazba in Sevilla (Seville), where even the name of the ruling Christian prince, Don Pedro, was written in Arabic letters. The Mudéjar spirit, in fact, permeated most of Spanish architectural ornament and decorative arts for centuries, and its influence can even be found in Spanish America. . Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London Mudéjar art must be carefully distinguished from Mozarabic art, the art of Christians under Muslim rule. Mozarabic art primarily flourished in Spain during the earlier periods of Muslim rule. Its major manifestations are architectural decorations, decorative objects, and illuminated manuscripts. Dating mostly from the 10th and 11th centuries, the celebrated illuminations for the commentary on the Revelation to John by an 8th-century Spanish abbot, Beatus of Liébana, are purely Christian subjects treated in styles possibly influenced by Muslim miniature painting or book illustration. The most-celebrated example, known as the Saint-Sever Apocalypse, is in the collection of the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. Mozarabic art The Mozarabic horseshoe-shaped arches of Santiago de Peñalba church, El Bierzo, Spain. Lourdes Cardenal Mamlūk art The Mamlūks were originally white male slaves, chiefly Turks and Circassians from the Caucasus and Central Asia, who formed the mercenary army of the various feudal states of Syria and Egypt. During the 13th century the importance of this military caste grew as the older feudal order weakened and military commanders took over power, generally as nonhereditary sultans. They succeeded in arresting the Mongol onslaught in 1260 and, through a judicious but complicated system of alliance with the urban elite class, managed to maintain themselves in power in Egypt, Palestine, and Syria until 1517. During the Mamlūk period Egypt and Syria were rich commercial emporiums. This wealth explains the quality and quantity of Mamlūk art. Most of the existing monuments in the old quarters of Cairo, Damascus, Tripoli, and Aleppo are Mamlūk; in Jerusalem almost everything visible on the Ḥaram al-Sharīf, with the exception of the Dome of the Rock, is Mamlūk. Museum collections of Islamic art generally abound with Mamlūk metalwork and glass. Some of the oldest remaining carpets are Mamlūk. This creativity required, of course, more than wealth. It also required a certain will to transform wealth into art. This will was in part the desire of parvenu rulers and their cohorts to be remembered. Furthermore, architectural patronage flourished because of the institutionalization of the waqf, an economic system in which investments made for holy purposes were inalienable. This law allowed the wealthy to avoid confiscation of their properties at the whim of the caliph by investing their funds in religious institutions. In the Mamlūk period, therefore, there was a multiplication of madrasahs, khānqāhs, ribāṭs, and mosques, often with tombs of founders attached to them. The Mamlūk establishment also repaired and kept up all the institutions, religious or secular, that had been inherited by them, as can be demonstrated by the well-documented repairs carried on in Jerusalem and Damascus. Architecture The Mamlūks created a monumental setting for Syria and Egypt that has lasted into the 21st century. It was at its most remarkable in architecture, and nearly 3,000 major monuments have been preserved or are known from texts in cities from the Euphrates to Cairo. No new architectural types came into being, although many more urban commercial buildings and private houses have been preserved than from previous centuries. The hypostyle form continued to be used for mosques and oratories, as in the Cairene mosques of Baybars I (1262–63), Nāṣir (1335), and Muʾayyad Shaykh (1415–20). Madrasahs used eyvāns, and the justly celebrated madrasah of Sultan Ḥasan in Cairo (1356–62) is one of the few perfect four-eyvān madrasahs in the Islamic world. Mausoleums were squares or polygons covered with domes. In other words, there were only minor modifications in the typology of architecture, and even the 15th-century buildings with interiors totally covered with ornamentation have possible prototypes in the architecture of the Seljuqs. Yet there are formal and functional features that do distinguish Mamlūk buildings. One is the tendency to build structures of different functions in a complex or cluster. Thus, the Qalāʾūn mosque (1284–85) in Cairo has a mausoleum, a madrasah, and a hospital erected as one architectural unit. Another characteristic is the tendency of Mamlūk patrons to build their major monuments near each other. As a result, certain streets of Cairo, such as Bayn al-Qaṣrayn, became galleries of architectural masterpieces. The plans of those buildings may have had to be adapted to the exigencies of the city, but their spectacular facades and minarets competed with each other for effect. From the second half of the 14th century onward, building space for mausoleums began to be limited in Cairo, and a vast complex of commemorative monuments was created in the city’s western cemetery. In Aleppo and Damascus similar phenomena can be observed. Although Mamlūk architecture was essentially conservative in its development of building types, more originality is evident in the constructional systems used, although traditional structural features continued to be employed—e.g., cupolas raised on squinches, or more commonly, pendentives, barrel and groin vaults, and wooden ceilings covering large areas supported by columns and piers. The main innovations are of three kinds. First, minarets became particularly elaborate and, toward the end of the period, almost absurd in their ornamentation. Facades were huge, with overwhelming portals 25 to 35 feet (7.5 to 10.5 metres) high. A second characteristically Mamlūk feature was technical virtuosity in stone construction. At times this led to a superb purity of form, as in the Gate of the Cotton Merchants in Jerusalem or the complex of the Barqūq mosque in Cairo. At other times, as in the Mamlūk architecture of Baybars and Qāʾit Bāy, there was an almost wild playfulness with forms. Another aspect of courtyard of the madrasah of Sultan Ḥasan The courtyard of the madrasah of Sultan Ḥasan, Cairo, 1356–62. GEKS Hanging mosque lamp, enameled and gilded glass, from Aleppo, Syria, c. 1300; in the Museum of Islamic Art, Pergamon Museum, National Museums of Berlin. Mamlūk masonry was the alternation of stones of different colours to provide variations on the surfaces of buildings. Mamlūk tombs, Cairo, 14th–15th centuries.H. Roger-Viollet The third element of change in Mamlūk art was perhaps the most important: almost all formal artistic achievements rapidly became part of the common vocabulary of the whole culture, thus ensuring high quality of construction and decorative technique throughout the period. With the exception of portals and qiblah walls, architectural decoration was usually subordinated to the architectural elements of the design. Generally, the material of construction (usually stone) was carved with ornamental motifs. Stucco decoration was primarily used in early Mamlūk architecture, while coloured tile was a late decorative device that was rarely employed. Other arts Like architecture, the other arts of the Mamlūk period achieved a high level of technical perfection but were often lacking in originality. The so-called Baptistère de Saint Louis (c. 1310) is the most impressive example of inlaid metalwork preserved from this period. Several Mamlūk illustrated manuscripts, such as the Maqāmāt (1334) in the National Library, Vienna, display an amazing ornamental sense in the use of colour on gold backgrounds. Mamlūk mosque lamps provide some of the finest examples of medieval glass. The wooden objects made by Mamlūk craftsmen were widely celebrated for the quality of their painted, inlaid, or carved designs. And the bold inscriptions that decorate the hundreds of remaining bronzes testify to the Mamlūk mastery of calligraphy. Mongol Iran: Il-Khanid and Timurid periods Seen from the vantage point of contemporary or later chronicles, the 13th century in Iran was a period of destructive wars and invasions. Such cities as Balkh, Nīshāpūr, and Rayy, which had been centres of Islamic culture for nearly six centuries, were eradicated as the Mongol army swept through Iran. The turning point toward some sort of stability took place in 1295 with the accession of Maḥmūd Ghāzān to the Mongol throne. Under him and his successors (the Il-Khan dynasty), order was reestablished throughout Iran, and cities in northeastern Iran, especially Tabrīz and Solṭānīyeh, became the main creative centres of the new Mongol regime. At Tabrīz, for example, the Rashīdīyeh (a sort of academy of sciences and arts to which books, scholars, and ideas from all over the world were collected) was established in the early 14th century. Existing under the Mongol rulers were a number of secondary dynasties that flourished in various provinces of Iran: the Jalāyirid dynasty, centred in Baghdad, controlled most of western Iran; the Moẓaffarid dynasty of southwestern Iran contained the cities of Eṣfahān, Yazd, and Shīrāz; and the Karts reigned in Khorāsān. Until the last decade of the 14th century, however, all the major cultural centres were in western Iran. Under Timur (1336–1405) and his successors (the Timurid dynasty), however, northeastern Iran, especially the cities of Samarkand and Herāt, became focal points of artistic and intellectual activity. But Timurid culture affected the whole of Iran either directly or through minor local dynasties. Many Timurid monuments, therefore, are found in western or southern Iran. Mausoleum of Öljeitü at Solṭānīyeh, Iran, 1305–13, Il-Khanid period.Josephine Powell, RomeThe Gūr-e Amīr (mausoleum of Timur), Samarkand, Uzbekistan.Alex Langley/Photo Researchers Architecture Stylistically, Il-Khanid architecture is defined best by buildings such as the mosque of Varāmīn (1322–26) and the mausoleums at Sarakhs, Merv, Rād-Kān, and Marāgheh. In all those examples, the elements of architectural composition, decoration, and construction that had been developed earlier were refined by Il-Khanid architects. Eyvāns were shallower but better integrated with the courts, facades were more thoughtfully composed, the muqarnas became more linear and varied, and coloured tiles were used to enhance the building’s character. The architectural masterpiece of the Il-Khanid period is the mausoleum of Öljeitü at Solṭānīyeh. With its double system of galleries, eight minarets, large blue-tiled dome, and an interior measuring 80 feet (25 metres), it is clear that the building was intended to be imposing. Il-Khanid attention to impressiveness of scale also accounted for the ʿAlī Shāh mosque in Tabrīz, whose eyvān measuring 150 by 80 by 100 feet (45 by 25 by 30 metres) was meant to be the largest ever built. The eyvān vault collapsed almost immediately after it had been constructed, but its walls, 35 feet (10 metres) thick, remain as a symbol of the grandiose taste of the Il-Khanids. In the regions of Eṣfahān and Yazd numerous smaller mosques (often with unusual plans) and less ostentatious mausoleums, as well as palaces with elaborate gardens, were built in the 14th century. Those buildings were constructed to provide a monumental setting for the Islamic faith and to demonstrate the authority of the state. The Timurid period began architecturally in 1390 with the sanctuary of Aḥmad Yasavī in Turkistan. Between 1390 and the last works of Sultan Ḥusayn Bāyqarā almost a century later, hundreds of buildings were constructed at Herāt, many of which have been preserved. The most spectacular examples of Timurid architecture are found in Samarkand, Herāt, Mashhad, Khargird, Tayābād, Baku, and Tabrīz, although important Timurid structures were also erected in southern Iran. Architectural projects were well patronized by the Timurids as a means to commemorate their respective reigns. Every ruler or local governor constructed his own sanctuaries, mosques, and, especially, memorial buildings dedicated to holy men of the past. While the Shāh-e Zendah in Samarkand—a long street of mausoleums comparable to the Mamlūk cemetery of Cairo—is perhaps the most accessible of the sites of Timurid commemorative architecture, more spectacular ones are to be seen at Mashhad, Torbat-e Jām, and Mazār-e Sharīf. The Timurid princes also erected mausoleums for themselves, such as the Gūr-e Amīr and the ʿIshrat-Khāneh in Samarkand. Major Timurid buildings—such as the mosque of Bībī Khānom and the Gūr-e Amīr mausoleum, both in Samarkand; the mosque of Gowhar Shād in Mashhad; or the madrasahs at Khargird and Herāt—are all characterized by strong axial symmetry. Often the facade on the inner court repeats the design of the outer facade, and minarets are used to frame the composition. Changes took place in the technique of dome construction. The muqarnas was not entirely abandoned but was often replaced by a geometrically rigorous net of intersecting arches that could be adapted to various shapes by modifying the width or span of the dome. The Khargird madrasah and the ʿIshrat-Khāneh mausoleum in Samarkand are particularly striking examples of this structural development. The Timurids also made use of double domes on high drums. In the Timurid period the use of colour in architecture reached a high point. Every architectural unit was divided, on both the exterior and interior, into panels of brilliantly coloured tiles that sometimes were mixed with stucco or terra-cotta architectural decorations. Detail of relief tile work from the mausoleum of Bayram Khān at Fatḥābād, Uzbekistan, late 14th to early 15th century; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Length 1.52 m. Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London; photograph John Webb Painting A new period of Persian painting began in the Mongol era; even though here and there one can recognize the impact of Seljuq painting, on the whole it is a limited one. Although the new style was primarily expressed in miniature painting, it is known from literary sources that mural painting flourished as well. Masterpieces of Persian literature were illustrated: first the Shāh-nāmeh (“Book of Kings”) by the 11th-century poet Ferdowsī and then, from the second half of the 14th century, lyrical and mystical works, primarily those by the 12th-century poet Neẓāmī. Historical texts or chronicles such as Rashīd al-Dīn’s Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh (“The Collection of Chronicles”) were also illustrated, especially in the early Mongol period. Mongol warriors, miniature from Rashīd al-Dīn's History of the World, 1307; in the Edinburgh University Library, Scotland. Miniature only, 25 × 11.4 cm. Courtesy of the Edinburgh University Library, Scotland The first major monument of Persian painting in the Mongol period is a group of manuscripts of the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh. The miniatures are historical narrative scenes. Stylistically, they are related to Chinese painting—an influence introduced by the Mongols during the Il-Khanid period. Chinese influence can still be discovered in the masterpiece of 14th-century Persian painting, the so-called Demotte Shāh-nāmeh (named for the French dealer Georges Demotte who destroyed the binding in the early 20th century), also called the Great Mongol Shāh-nāmeh. Illustrated between 1320 and 1360, its 56 preserved miniatures have been dispersed all over the world. The compositional complexity of those paintings can be attributed to the fact that several painters probably were involved in the illustration of the manuscript and that the artists drew from a wide variety of different stylistic sources (e.g., Chinese, European, local Iranian traditions). Its main importance lies in the fact that it is the earliest known illustrative work that sought to depict in a strikingly dramatic fashion the meaning of the Iranian epic. Its battle scenes, its descriptions of fights with monsters, its enthronement scenes are all powerful representations of the colourful and often cruel legend of Iranian kingship. The artists also tried to express human powerlessness when confronted by fate in a series of mourning and death scenes. Bahrām Gūr killing a dragon, illustration from the Demotte Shāh-nāmeh (“Book of Kings”) of Ferdowsī, 1320–60, from Tabrīz, Iran; in the Cleveland Museum of Art. Height 40.6 cm. Courtesy of the Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio, Grace Rainey Rogers Fund The Demotte Shāh-nāmeh is but the most remarkable of a whole series of 14th-century manuscripts, all of which suggest an art of painting in search of a coherent style. At the very end of the period, a manuscript such as that of the poems of Sultan Aḥmad still exhibits an effective variety of established themes, while some of the miniatures of the period illustrate the astounding variety of styles studied or copied by Persian masters. Diwān of Sultan Aḥmad Diwān of Sultan Aḥmad, pastoral border painted by Junayd, c. 1405, from Baghdad; in the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. 29.2 × 20.3 cm. A more organized and stylistically coherent period in Persian painting began about 1396 with the Khwāju Kermānī manuscript and culminated between 1420 and 1440 in the paintings produced by the Herāt school, an academy created by Timur’s son Shāh Rokh and developed by Shāh Rokh’s son Baysunqur Mīrzā to codify, copy, and illustrate classical Iranian literature. Although several Shāh-nāmehs are known from this time, the mood of those manuscripts is no longer epic but lyrical. Puppetlike figures almost unemotionally engage in a variety of activities always set in an idealized garden or palace depicted against a rich gold background. It is a world of sensuous pleasure that also embodies the themes of a mystically interpreted lyrical poetry, for what is represented is not the real world but a divine paradise in the guise of a royal palace or garden. Those miniatures easily became clichés, for later artists endlessly repeated stereotyped formulas. But at its best, as in the illustrated manuscripts of Neẓāmī (Niẓāmī) held by New York City’s Metropolitan Museum of Art, this style of Persian painting succeeds in defining something more than mere ornamental colourfulness. It expresses in its controlled lyricism a fascinating search for the divine, similar to the search of such epic characters as those presented in the works of Neẓāmī, Rūmī, or Ḥāfeẓ, at times earthly and vulgar, at other times quite ambiguous and hermetic, but often providing a language for the ways in which human beings can talk about God. Another major change in Persian painting occurred during the second half of the 15th century at Herāt under Ḥusayn Bāyqarā. This change is associated with the first major painter of Islamic art, Behzād. Many problems of attribution are still posed about Behzād’s art. In the examples that follow, works by his school, as well as images by the master’s own hand, are included. In the Garrett Ẓafar-nāmeh (c. 1490, housed at Princeton University), the Egyptian Cairo National Library’s Būstān (1488), or the British Museum’s Neẓāmī (1493–94), the stereotyped formulas of the earlier lyric style were endowed with new vitality. Behzād’s interest in observing his environment resulted in the introduction of more realistic poses and the introduction of numerous details of daily life or genre elements. His works also reflect a concern for a psychological interpretation of the scenes and events depicted. It is thus not by chance that portraits have been attributed to Behzād. Capture of the fortress of the Knights Hospitallers at Smyrna, miniature from a Ẓafar-nāmeh (a life of Timur) by Behzād, c. 1490, from Herāt; in the John Work Garrett Library, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. 25.2 × 13 cm. Courtesy of the John Work Garrett Library, Johns Hopkins University; photograph Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore Persian art of the Mongol period differs in a very important way from any of the other traditions of the middle period of Islamic art. Even though Iran, like all other areas at that time, was not ethnically homogeneous, its art tended to be uniquely “national.” In architecture, nationalism was mostly a matter of function, for during this period the Shīʿites grew in importance, and new monumental settings were required for their holy places. Iranian individualism is especially apparent in painting, in which Chinese and other foreign styles were consistently adapted to express intensely Iranian subjects, thereby creating a uniquely Persian style. Late period The last period of an Islamic artistic expression created within a context of political and intellectual independence was centred in the Ottoman, Ṣafavid, and Mughal empires. Although culturally very different from each other, those three imperial states shared a common past and a common consciousness of the nature of their ancestry and of the artistic forms associated with it. Painters and architects moved from one empire to the other, especially from Iran to India; Ottoman princes wrote Persian poetry, and Ṣafavid rulers spoke Turkish. But most of all, they were aware of the fact that they were much closer to each other than to any non-Islamic cultural entity. However different their individual artistic forms may have been, they collected each other’s works, exchanged gifts, and felt that they belonged to the same world. Ottoman art The Ottomans were originally only one of the small Turkmen principalities (beyliks) that sprang up in Anatolia about 1300, after the collapse of Seljuq rule. In many ways, all the beyliks shared the same culture, but it was the extraordinary political and social attributes of the Ottomans that led them eventually to swallow up the other kingdoms, to conquer the Balkans, to take Constantinople (now Istanbul) in 1453, and to control almost the whole of the Arab world by 1520. Only in the 19th century did this complex empire begin to crumble. Thus, while Ottoman art, especially architecture, is best known through the monuments in Turkey, there is, in fact, evidence of Ottoman art extending from Algiers to Cairo in North Africa, to Damascus in the Architecture The grand tradition of Ottoman architecture, established in the 16th century, was derived from two main sources. One was the rather complex development of new architectural forms that occurred all over Anatolia, especially at Manisa, İznik, Bursa, and Selçuk in the 14th and early 15th centuries. In addition to the usual mosques, mausoleums, and madrasahs, a number of buildings called tekkes (Arabic zāwiyahs, Persian khānqāhs) were constructed to house dervishes (members of mystical fraternities) and other holy men who lived communally. The tekke (or zeviye) was often joined to a mosque or mausoleum. The entire complex was then called a külliye. All those buildings continued to develop the domed, central-plan structure constructed by the Seljuqs in Anatolia. The other source of Ottoman architecture is Christian art. The Byzantine tradition, especially as embodied in Hagia Sophia, became a major source of inspiration. Byzantine influence appears in such features as stone and brick used together or in the use of pendentive dome construction. Also artistically influential were the contacts that the early Ottomans had with Italy. Thus, in several mosques at Bursa, Turkey, there are stylistic parallels in the designs of the exterior facade and of windows, gates, and roofs to features found in Italian architecture. A distinctive feature of Ottoman architecture is that it drew from both Islamic and European artistic traditions and was, therefore, a part of both. The apogee of Ottoman architecture was achieved in the great series of külliyes and mosques that still dominate the Istanbul skyline: the Fatih külliye (1463–70), the Bayezid Mosque (after 1491), the Selim Mosque (1522), the Şehzade külliye (1548), and the Süleyman külliye (after 1550). The Şehzade and Süleyman külliyes were built by Sinan, the greatest Ottoman architect, whose masterpiece is the Selim Mosque at Edirne, Turkey (1569–75). All those buildings exhibit total clarity and logic in both plan and elevation; every part has been considered in relation to the whole, and each architectural element has acquired a hierarchic function in the total composition. Whatever is unnecessary has been eliminated. This simplicity of design in the late 15th and 16th centuries has often been attributed to the fact that Sinan and many other Ottoman architects were first trained as military engineers. Everything in those buildings was subordinated to an imposing central dome. A sort of cascade of descending half domes, vaults, and ascending buttresses leads the eye up and down the building’s exterior. Minarets, slender and numerous, frame the exterior composition, while the open space of the surrounding courts prevents the building from being swallowed by the surrounding city. These masterpieces of Ottoman architecture seem to be the final perfection of two great traditions: a stylistic and aesthetic tradition that had been indigenous to Istanbul since the construction of the Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia in the 6th century and the other Islamic tradition of domical construction dating to the 10th century. Selim, Mosque of Mosque of Selim (Selimiye Cami), Edirne, Turkey. Nevit Dilmen The tragedy of Ottoman architecture is that it never managed to renew its 16th-century brilliance. Later buildings, such as the impressive Sultan Ahmed mosque in Istanbul, were mostly variations on Sinan’s architecture, and sometimes there were revivals of older building types, especially in the provinces. Occasionally, as in the early 18th-century Nûruosman mosque in Istanbul, interesting new variants appear illustrating the little-known Turkish Baroque style. The latter, however, is more visible in ornamental details or in smaller buildings, especially the numerous fountains built in Istanbul in the 18th century. The sources of the Turkish Baroque are probably to be sought in the Baroque architecture of Vienna and the bordering Austro-Hungarian states. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, a consistent Europeanization of a local tradition occurs in the Ottoman Empire. Turkish Baroque style exemplified by the Fountain of Ahmed III, Istanbul, 1728. While mosques and külliyes are the most characteristic monuments of Ottoman architecture, important secular buildings were also built: baths, caravansaries, and especially the huge palace complex of Topkapı Saray at Istanbul, in which 300 years of royal architecture are preserved in its elaborate pavilions, halls, and fountains. Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul Other arts Architectural decoration was generally subordinated to the structural forms or architectonic features of the building. A wide variety of themes and techniques originating from many different sources were used. One decorative device, the Ottoman version of colour tile decoration, deserves particular mention, for it succeeds in transforming smaller buildings such as the mosque of Rüstem Paşa in Istanbul into a visual spectacle of brilliant colours. The history and development of this type of ceramic decoration is intimately tied to the complex and much-controverted problem of the growth of several distinctive Ottoman schools of pottery: İznik, Rhodian, and Damascus ware. Both in technique and in design, Ottoman ceramics are the only major examples of pottery produced in the late Islamic period. İznik ware dish, second half of the 16th century; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Diameter 30.5 cm.//Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London; photograph John Webb Interior of the Rüstem Paşa Mosque, Istanbul, showing its coloured tile decoration. Ara Guler/Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. octagonal tile Octagonal tile, ceramic composite body, underglaze, painting in black, cobalt blue, apple green, and manganese purple on a white background, from Syria, mid-16th century; in the Brooklyn Museum, New York. Photograph by Katie Chao. Brooklyn Museum, New York, gift of Jack A. Josephson, 1990.21 Ottoman miniature painting does not compare in quality to Persian painting, which originally influenced the Turkish school. Yet Ottoman miniatures do have a character of their own, either in the almost folk art effect of religious images or in the precise depictions of such daily events as military expeditions or great festivals. Among the finest examples of the latter is the manuscript Surname-i Vehbi painted by Abdülcelil Levnî in the early 18th century. The production of metalwork, wood inlaid with ivory, Ushak carpets, and textiles flourished under the Ottomans, both in Istanbul workshops sponsored by the sultan and in numerous provincial centres. The influence of those ornamental objects on European decorative arts from the 16th through the 19th century was considerable. Ṣafavid ceramic bottle Bottle depicting a hunting scene, ceramic, Iran, Ṣafavid dynasty, first half of the 17th century; in the Brooklyn Museum, New York. 28.5 × 21 cm. Photograph by Katie Chao. Brooklyn Museum, New York, Brooklyn Museum Collection, 34.6024 Ewer Ewer, ceramic with painted underglaze, from İznik, Turkey, late 16th century; in the Brooklyn Museum, New York. Photograph by Lisa O'Hara. Brooklyn Museum, New York, Museum Collection Fund, 06.4 Ṣafavid art The Ṣafavid dynasty was founded by Ismāʿīl I (ruled 1501–24). The art of this dynasty was especially noteworthy during the reigns of Ṭahmāsp I (1524–76) and ʿAbbās I (1588–1629). This phase of the Ṣafavid period also marked the last significant development of Islamic art in Iran, for after the middle of the 17th century original creativity disappeared in all mediums. Rugs and objects in silver, gold, and enamel continued to be made and exhibited a considerable technical virtuosity, even when they were lacking in inventiveness. The Ṣafavids abandoned Central Asia and northeastern Iran to a new Uzbek dynasty that maintained the Timurid style in many buildings (especially at Bukhara) and briefly sponsored a minor and derivative school of painting. Only the great sanctuary of Mashhad was being kept up and built up, but, like many of the other religious sanctuaries of the time—Qom, Al-Najaf, Karbalāʾ—it is still far too little known to lend itself to coherent analysis. This was the time when Shīʿism became a state religion, and for the first time in Islam there appeared an organized ecclesiastical system rather than the more or less loose spiritual and practical leadership of old. The main centres of the Ṣafavid empire were Tabrīz and Ardabīl in the northwest, with Kazvin in the central region and, especially, Eṣfahān in the west. The Ṣafavid period, like the Ottoman era, was an imperial age, and therefore there is hardly a part of Iran where either Ṣafavid buildings or major Ṣafavid restorations cannot be found. The dynasty spent much money and effort on the building of bridges, roads, and caravansaries to encourage trade. Architecture The best-known Ṣafavid monuments are located at Eṣfahān, where ʿAbbās I built a whole new city. According to one description, it contained 162 mosques, 48 madrasahs, 1,802 commercial buildings, and 283 baths. Most of those buildings no longer survive, but the structures that remain constitute some of the finest monuments of Islamic architecture. At the centre of Eṣfahān is the Maydān-e Shāh (now Maydān-e Emām), a large open space, about 1,670 by 520 feet (510 by 158 metres), originally surrounded by trees. Used for polo games and parades, it could be illuminated with 50,000 lamps. Each side of the maydān was provided with the monumental facade of a building. On one of the smaller sides was the entrance to a large mosque, the celebrated Masjed-e Shāh (now Masjed-e Emām). On the other side was the entrance into the bazaar or marketplace. On the longer sides were the small funerary mosque of Shaykh Luṭf Allāh and, facing it, the ʿAlī Qāpū, the “Lofty Gate,” the first unit of a succession of palaces and gardens that extended beyond the maydān, most of which have now disappeared except for the Chehel Sotūn (“Forty Columns”), a palace built as an audience hall. The ʿAlī Qāpū was, in its lower floors, a semipublic place to which petitions could be brought, while its upper floors were a world of pure fantasy—a succession of rooms, halls, and balconies overlooking the city, which were purely for the prince’s pleasure. The Maydān-e Emām (formerly the Maydān-e Shāh), originally built as a polo ground by Shāh ʿAbbās I the Great (reigned 1588–1629), at Eṣfahān, Iran. Facing the square on the left is the mosque of Shaykh Luṭf Allāh, in the centre the Masjed-e Emām (formerly the Masjed-e Shāh), and at right the palace of ʿAlī Qāpū. Inge Morath/Magnum Photos The Maydān-e Emām unites in a single composition all the concerns of medieval Islamic architecture: prayer, commemoration, princely pleasure, trade, and spatial effect. None of the hundreds of other remaining Ṣafavid monuments can match its historical importance, and in it also are found the major traits of Ṣafavid construction and decoration. The forms are traditional, for the most part, and, even in vaulting techniques and the use of coloured tiles, it is to Timurid art that the Ṣafavids looked for their models. The Persian architects of the early 17th century sought to achieve a monumentality in exterior spatial composition (an interesting parallel to the interior spaciousness created at the same time by the Ottomans); a logical precision in vaulting, which was successful in the Masjed-e Emām but rapidly led to cheap effects or to stucco imitations; and a coloristic brilliance that has made the domes and portals of Eṣfahān justly famous. Painting In the 16th and 17th centuries, possibly for the first time in Islamic art, painters were conscious of historical styles—even self-conscious. Miniatures from the past were collected, copied, and imitated. Patronage, however, was fickle. A royal whim would gather painters together or exile them. Many names of painters have been preserved, and there is little doubt that the whim of patrons was being countered by the artists’ will to be socially and economically independent as well as individually recognized for their artistic talents. Too many different impulses, therefore, existed in Ṣafavid Iran for painting to follow any clear line of development. Three major painting styles, or schools (excluding a number of interesting provincial schools), existed in the Ṣafavid period. One school of miniature painting is exemplified by such masterpieces as the Houghton Shāh-nāmeh (completed in 1537), the Jāmī Haft owrang (1556–1665), and the illustrations to stories from Ḥāfeẓ. However different they are from each other, those large, colourful miniatures all were executed in a grand manner. Their compositions are complex, individual faces appear in crowded masses, there is much diversification in landscape, and, despite a few ferocious details of monsters or of strongly caricatured poses and expressions, these book illustrations are concerned with an idealized vision of life. The sources of this school lie with the Timurid academy. Behzād, Sulṭān Muḥammad, Sheykhzādeh, Mīr Sayyid ʿAlī, Āqā Mīrak, and Maḥmūd Muṣavvīr continued and modified, each in his own way, the ideal of a balance between an overall composition and precise rendering of details. The miniatures of the second tradition of Ṣafavid painting seem at first to be like a detail out of the work of the previously discussed school. The same purity of colour, elegance of poses, interest in details, and assertion of the individual figure is found. Rezā ʿAbbāsī (active in the late 16th and early 17th century) excelled in these extraordinary portrayals of poets, musicians, courtiers, and aristocratic life in general. Reẕā ʿAbbāsī: Khosrow Makes His Elephant Trample the Enemy Khosrow Makes His Elephant Trample the Enemy, miniature by Reẕā ʿAbbāsī, Eṣfahān school, early 17th century, from Khosrow o-Shīrīn by Neẓāmī; fol. 88, in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London In both traditions of painting, the beautiful personages depicted frequently are satirized; this note of satirical criticism is even more pronounced in portraiture of the time. But it is in pen or brush drawings, mostly dating from the 17th century, that the third aspect of Ṣafavid painting appeared: an interest in genre, or the depiction of minor events of daily life (e.g., a washerwoman at work, a tailor sewing, an animal). With stunning precision, Ṣafavid artists showed a whole society falling apart with a cruel sympathy totally absent from the literary documents of the time. While architecture and painting were the main artistic vehicles of the Ṣafavids, the making of textiles and carpets was also of great importance. It is in the 16th century that a thitherto primarily nomadic and folk medium of the decorative arts was transformed into an expression of royal and urban tasks by the creation of court workshops. The predominantly geometric themes of earlier Iranian carpets were not abandoned entirely but tended to be replaced by vegetal, animal, and even occasional human motifs. Great schools of carpet making developed particularly at Tabrīz, Kāshan̄, and Kermān. Mughal art Because the culture of the Mughals was intimately connected with the indigenous Hindu traditions of the Indian subcontinent, their art will be treated only synoptically in this article. (For a more-detailed account, the reader should see the sections on Mughal art in the visual arts of the Indian subcontinent portion of the article South Asian arts, notably Islamic architecture in India: Mughal style and Indian painting: Mughal style). The art of the Mughals was similar to that of the Ottomans in that it was a late imperial art of Muslim princes. Both styles were rooted in several centuries (at least from the 13th century onward) of adaptation of Islamic functions to indigenous forms. It was in the 14th-century architecture of South Asian sites such as Tughluqabad, Gaur, and Ahmadabad that a uniquely Indian type of Islamic hypostyle mosque was created, with a triple axial nave, corner towers, axial minarets, and cupolas. It was also during those centuries that the first mausoleums set in scenically spectacular locations were built. By then the conquering Muslims had fully learned how to utilize local methods of construction, and they adapted South Asian decorative techniques and motifs. Mughal art was in continuous contact with Iran or, rather, with the Timurid world of the second half of the 15th century. The models and the memories were in Herāt or Samarkand, but the artists were raided from Ṣafavid Iran, and the continuous flow of painters from Iran to the Mughal Empire is a key factor in understanding Mughal painting. The mausoleum of Humāyūn in Delhi (1570; in 1993 designated a UNESCO World Heritage site), the city of Fatehpur Sikri (founded 1569; in 1986 designated a World Heritage site), and the Taj Mahal at Agra (1631–53; in 1983 designated a World Heritage site) summarize the development of Mughal architecture. In all three examples it can be seen that what Mughal architecture brought to the Islamic tradition (other than traditional Indian themes, especially in decoration) was technical perfection in the use of red sandstone or marble as building and decorative materials. In Mughal painting, the kind of subject that tended to be illustrated was remarkably close to those used in Ṣafavid history books—legendary stories, local events, portraits, genre scenes. What evolved quickly was a new manner of execution, and this style can be seen as early as about 1567, when the celebrated manuscript Dāstān-e Amīr Ḥamzeh (“Stories of Amīr Ḥamzeh”) was painted (some 200 miniatures remain and are found in most major collections of Indian miniatures, especially at the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.). Traditional Iranian themes—battles, receptions, feasts—acquired monumentality, not only because of the inordinate size of the images but also because almost all of the objects and figures depicted were seen in terms of mass rather than line. Something of the colourfulness of Iranian painting was lost, but instead images acquired a greater expressive power. Mughal portraiture gave more of a sense of the individual than did the portraits of the Ṣafavids. As in a celebrated representation of a dying courtier in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Mughal drawings could be poignantly naturalistic. Mood was important to the Mughal artist; in many paintings of animals there is a playful mood, and a sensuous mood is evident in the first Muslim images to glorify the female body and the erotic. In summary it can be said that the Mughals produced an art of extraordinary stylistic contrasts that reflected the complexities of its origins and of its aristocratic patronage. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-arts/Seljuq-art IV A Dome as an Architectural Element A dome (from Latin: domus) is an architectural element similar to the hollow upper half of a sphere; there is significant overlap with the term cupola, which may also refer to a dome or a structure on top of a dome. The precise definition of a dome has been a matter of controversy and there are a wide variety of forms and specialized terms to describe them. Aufriss und Mosaikflächen Dom des Heiligen Sava ABOVE A dome can rest directly upon a rotunda wall, a drum, or a system of squinches or pendentives used to accommodate the transition in shape from a rectangular or square space to the round or polygonal base of the dome. A dome's apex may be closed or may be open in the form of an oculus, which may itself be covered with a roof lantern and cupola. Domes have a long architectural lineage that extends back into prehistory. Domes were built in ancient Mesopotamia, and they have been found in Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, and Chinese architecture in the ancient world, as well as among a number of indigenous building traditions throughout the world. Dome structures were common in both Byzantine architecture and Sasanian architecture, which influenced that of the rest of Europe and Islam, respectively, in the Middle Ages. The domes of European Renaissance architecture spread from Italy in the early modern period, while domes were frequently employed in Ottoman architecture at the same time. Baroque and Neoclassical architecture took inspiration from Roman domes. Advancements in mathematics, materials, and production techniques resulted in new dome types. Domes have been constructed over the centuries from mud, snow, stone, wood, brick, concrete, metal, glass, and plastic. The symbolism associated with domes includes mortuary, celestial, and governmental traditions that have likewise altered over time. The domes of the modern world can be found over religious buildings, legislative chambers, sports stadiums, and various functions. The English word "dome" ultimately derives from the ancient Greek and Latin domus ("house"), which, up through the Renaissance, labeled a revered house, such as a Domus Dei, or "House of God", regardless of the shape of its roof. This is reflected in the uses of the Italian word duomo, the German/Icelandic/Danish word dom ("cathedral"), and the English word dome as late as 1656, when it meant a "Town-House, Guild-Hall, State-House, and Meeting-House in a city." The French word dosme came to acquire the meaning of a cupola vault, specifically, by 1660. This French definition gradually became the standard usage of the English dome in the eighteenth century as many of the most impressive Houses of God were built with monumental domes, and in response to the scientific need for more technical terms. Elements of a Dome: The word "cupola" is another word for "dome", and is usually used for a small dome upon a roof or turret. "Cupola" has also been used to describe the inner side of a dome. The top of a dome is the "crown". The inner side of a dome is called the "intrados" and the outer side is called the "extrados". As with arches, the "springing" of a dome is the base level from which the dome rises and the "haunch" is the part that lies roughly halfway between the base and the top. Domes can be supported by an elliptical or circular wall called a "drum". If this structure extends to ground level, the round building may be called a "rotunda". Drums are also called "tholobates" and may or may not contain windows. A "tambour" or "lantern" is the equivalent structure over a dome's oculus, supporting a cupola. When the base of the dome does not match the plan of the supporting walls beneath it (for example, a dome's circular base over a square bay), techniques are employed to bridge the two.[8] One technique is to use corbelling, progressively projecting horizontal layers from the top of the supporting wall to the base of the dome, such as the corbelled triangles often used in Seljuk and Ottoman architecture. The simplest technique is to use diagonal lintels across the corners of the walls to create an octagonal base. Another is to use arches to span the corners, which can support more weight.  A variety of these techniques use what are called "squinches".[11] A squinch can be a single arch or a set of multiple projecting nested arches placed diagonally over an internal corner. Squinches can take a variety of other forms, as well, including trumpet arches and niche heads, or half-domes.[11] The invention of pendentives superseded the squinch technique. Pendentives are triangular sections of a sphere, like concave spandrels between arches, and transition from the corners of a square bay to the circular base of a dome. The curvature of the pendentives is that of a sphere with a diameter equal to the diagonal of the square bay. Definitions: Across the ancient world, curved-roof structures that would today be called domes had a number of different names reflecting a variety of shapes, traditions, and symbolic associations. The shapes were derived from traditions of pre-historic shelters made from various impermanent pliable materials and were only later reproduced as vaulting in more durable materials. The hemispherical shape often associated with domes today derives from Greek geometry and Roman standardization, but other shapes persisted, including a pointed and bulbous tradition inherited by some early Islamic mosques. Modern academic study of the topic has been controversial and confused by inconsistent definitions, such as those for cloister vaults and domical vaults. Dictionary definitions of the term "dome" are often general and imprecise. Generally-speaking, it "is non-specific, a blanket-word to describe an hemispherical or similar spanning element." Published definitions include: hemispherical roofs alone; revolved arches; and vaults on a circular base alone, circular or polygonal base, circular, elliptical, or polygonal base or an undefined area. Definitions specifying vertical sections include: semicircular, pointed, or bulbous; semicircular, segmental or pointed; semicircular, segmental, pointed, or bulbous; semicircular, segmental, elliptical, or bulbous; and high profile, hemispherical, or flattened. Comparison of a generic "true" arch (left) and a corbel arch (right)TYPES OF ARCHES Sometimes called "false" domes, corbel domes achieve their shape by extending each horizontal layer of stones inward slightly farther than the lower one until they meet at the top.  A "false" dome may also refer to a wooden dome. The Italian use of the term finto, meaning "false", can be traced back to the 17th century in the use of vaulting made of reed mats and gypsum mortar. "True" domes are said to be those whose structure is in a state of compression, with constituent elements of wedge-shaped voussoirs, the joints of which align with a central point. The validity of this is unclear, as domes built underground with corbelled stone layers are in compression from the surrounding earth. The precise definition of "pendentive" has also been a source of academic contention, such as whether or not corbelling is permitted under the definition and whether or not the lower portions of a sail vault should be considered pendentives. Domes with pendentives can be divided into two kinds: simple and compound. In the case of the simple dome, the pendentives are part of the same sphere as the dome itself; however, such domes are rare. In the case of the more common compound dome, the pendentives are part of the surface of a larger sphere below that of the dome itself and form a circular base for either the dome or a drum section. The fields of engineering and architecture have lacked common language for domes, with engineering focused on structural behavior and architecture focused on form and symbolism. Additionally, new materials and structural systems in the 20th century have allowed for large dome-shaped structures that deviate from the traditional compressive structural behavior of masonry domes and popular usage of the term has expanded to mean "almost any long-span roofing system" Materials: The earliest domes in the Middle East were built with mud-brick and, eventually, with baked brick and stone. Domes of wood allowed for wide spans due to the relatively light and flexible nature of the material and were the normal method for domed churches by the 7th century, although most domes were built with the other less flexible materials. Wooden domes were protected from the weather by roofing, such as copper or lead sheeting.  Domes of cut stone were more expensive and never as large, and timber was used for large spans where brick was unavailable Roman concrete used an aggregate of stone with a powerful mortar. The aggregate transitioned over the centuries to pieces of fired clay, then to Roman bricks. By the sixth century, bricks with large amounts of mortar were the principle vaulting materials. Pozzolana appears to have only been used in central Italy.  Brick domes were the favored choice for large-space monumental coverings until the Industrial Age, due to their convenience and dependability.  Ties and chains of iron or wood could be used to resist stresses. The new building materials of the 19th century and a better understanding of the forces within structures from the 20th century opened up new possibilities. Iron and steel beams, steel cables, and pre-stressed concrete eliminated the need for external buttressing and enabled much thinner domes. Whereas earlier masonry domes may have had a radius to thickness ratio of 50, the ratio for modern domes can be in excess of 800. The lighter weight of these domes not only permitted far greater spans, but also allowed for the creation of large movable domes over modern sports stadiums.[26] Experimental rammed earth domes were made as part of work on sustainable architecture at the University of Kassel in 1983 Shapes and Internal Forces: A masonry dome produces thrusts downward and outward. They are thought of in terms of two kinds of forces at right angles from one another: meridional forces (like the meridians, or lines of longitude, on a globe) are compressive only, and increase towards the base, while hoop forces (like the lines of latitude on a globe) are in compression at the top and tension at the base, with the transition in a hemispherical dome occurring at an angle of 51.8 degrees from the top. The thrusts generated by a dome are directly proportional to the weight of its materials. Grounded hemispherical domes generate significant horizontal thrusts at their haunches. The outward thrusts in the lower portion of a hemispherical masonry dome can be counteracted with the use of chains incorporated around the circumference or with external buttressing, although cracking along the meridians is natural. For small or tall domes with less horizontal thrust, the thickness of the supporting arches or walls can be enough to resist deformation, which is why drums tend to be much thicker than the domes they support. Unlike voussoir arches, which require support for each element until the keystone is in place, domes are stable during construction as each level is made a complete and self-supporting ring. The upper portion of a masonry dome is always in compression and is supported laterally, so it does not collapse except as a whole unit and a range of deviations from the ideal in this shallow upper cap are equally stable. Because voussoir domes have lateral support, they can be made much thinner than corresponding arches of the same span. For example, a hemispherical dome can be 2.5 times thinner than a semicircular arch, and a dome with the profile of an equilateral arch can be thinner still. The optimal shape for a masonry dome of equal thickness provides for perfect compression, with none of the tension or bending forces against which masonry is weak.[30] For a particular material, the optimal dome geometry is called the funicular surface, the comparable shape in three dimensions to a catenary curve for a two-dimensional arch. Adding a weight to the top of a pointed dome, such as the heavy cupola at the top of Florence Cathedral, changes the optimal shape to more closely match the actual pointed shape of the dome. The pointed profiles of many Gothic domes more closely approximate the optimal dome shape than do hemispheres, which were favored by Roman and Byzantine architects due to the circle being considered the most perfect of forms. Symbolism of domes The symbolic meaning of the dome has developed over millennia. Although the precise origins are unknown, a mortuary tradition of domes existed across the ancient world, as well as a symbolic association with the sky. Both of these traditions may have a common root in the use of the domed hut, a shape which was translated into tombs and associated with the heavens. The mortuary tradition has been expressed in domed mausoleums, martyriums, and baptisteries. The celestial symbolism was adopted by rulers in the Middle East to emphasize their divine legitimacy and was inherited by later civilizations down to the present day as a general symbol of governmental authority. The meaning of the dome has been extensively analyzed by architectural historians. According to Nicola Camerlenghi, it may not be possible to arrive at a single "fixed meaning and universal significance" for domes across all building types and locations throughout history, since the shape, function, and context for individual buildings were determined locally, even if inspired by distant predecessors, and meaning could change over time. Mortuary tradition According to E. Baldwin Smith, from the late Stone Age the dome-shaped tomb was used as a reproduction of the ancestral, god-given shelter made permanent as a venerated home of the dead. The instinctive desire to do this resulted in widespread domical mortuary traditions across the ancient world, from the stupas of India to the tholos tombs of Iberia. Celestial tradition Smith also writes that in the process of transforming the hut shape from its original pliable materials into more difficult stone construction, the dome had also become associated with celestial and cosmic significance, as evident from decoration such as stars and celestial chariots on the ceilings of domed tombs. This cosmological thinking was not limited to domed ceilings, being part of a symbolic association between any house, tomb, or sanctuary and the universe as a whole, but it popularized the use of the domical shape. Divine rule A circle/An octagon/A square Herbert Howe writes that throughout the Middle East domes were symbolic of "the tent of the ruler, and especially of the god who dwells in the tent of the heavens." Passages in the Old Testament and inter-testamental literature document this, such as Psalms 123:1, Isaiah 40:22, I Kings 8:30, Isaiah 66:1, Psalms 19:4, and Job 22:14. Domes and tent-canopies were also associated with the heavens in Ancient Persia and the Hellenistic-Roman world. A dome over a square base reflected the geometric symbolism of those shapes. The circle represented perfection, eternity, and the heavens. The square represented the earth. An octagon was intermediate between the two. According to Michael Walter, a tradition of the "golden dome" identifying the ruler with the cosmos, sun, and astrological values originated in Persia and spread to later Roman and Turkic courts.[10] Persian kings used domed tents in their official audiences to symbolize their divinity, and this practice was adopted by Alexander the Great. According to Smith, the distinct symbolism of the heavenly or cosmic tent stemming from the royal audience tents of Achaemenid and Indian rulers was adopted by Roman rulers in imitation of Alexander, becoming the imperial baldachin. This probably began with Nero, whose Domus Aurea, meaning "Golden House", also made the dome a feature of Roman palace architecture. Michele Melaragno writes that the allegory of Alexander the Great's domical tent in Roman imperial architecture coincided with the "divinification" of Roman emperors and served as a symbol of this. According to Nicholas Temple, Nero's octagonal domed room in his Domus Aurea was an early example of an imperial reception hall, the symbolism of which "signaled an elevation of the status of the emperor as living deity, which in the case of Nero related specifically to his incarnation as Helios and the Persian Mithra." The semi-domed apse became a symbol of Roman imperial authority under Domitian and depictions into the Byzantine period used overhead domes or semi-domes to identify emperors. Karl Swoboda writes that even by the time of Diocletian, the dome probably symbolized sovereignty over the whole world. Roman imperial reception halls or throne rooms were often domed with circular or octagonal plans and, according to Nicholas Temple, "functioned as a ceremonial space between the emperor, his court and the gods", becoming a common feature of imperial palaces from the time of Constantine onwards. Acoustics: Because domes are concave from below, they can reflect sound and create echoes. A dome may have a "whispering gallery" at its base that at certain places transmits distinct sound to other distant places in the gallery. The half-domes over the apses of Byzantine churches helped to project the chants of the clergy. Although this can complement music, it may make speech less intelligible, leading Francesco Giorgi in 1535 to recommend vaulted ceilings for the choir areas of a church, but a flat ceiling filled with as many coffers as possible for where preaching would occur. Cavities in the form of jars built into the inner surface of a dome may serve to compensate for this interference by diffusing sound in all directions, eliminating echoes while creating a "divine effect in the atmosphere of worship." This technique was written about by Vitruvius in his Ten Books on Architecture, which describes bronze and earthenware resonators. The material, shape, contents, and placement of these cavity resonators determine the effect they have: reinforcing certain frequencies or absorbing them. Beehive dome Also called a corbelled dome, or false dome, these are different from a 'true dome' in that they consist of purely horizontal layers. As the layers get higher, each is slightly cantilevered, or corbeled, toward the center until meeting at the top. A monumental example is the Mycenaean Treasury of Atreus from the late Bronze Age. Braced dome A single/double layer space frame in the form of a dome, a braced dome is a generic term that includes ribbed, Schwedler, 3way grid, lamella or Kiewitt, lattice, and geodesic domes. The different terms reflect different arrangements in the surface members. Braced domes often have a very low weight and are usually used to cover spans of up to 150 meters. Often prefabricated, their component members can either lie on the dome's surface of revolution, or be straight lengths with the connecting points or nodes lying upon the surface of revolution. Single-layer structures are called frame or skeleton types and double-layer structures are truss types, which are used for large spans. When the covering also forms part of the structural system, it is called a stressed skin type. The formed surface type consists of sheets joined together at bent edges to form the structure. Cloister vault Also called domical vaults (a term sometimes also applied to sail vaults), polygonal domes, coved domes, gored domes, segmental domes (a term sometimes also used for saucer domes), paneled vaults, or pavilion vaults, these are domes that maintain a polygonal shape in their horizontal cross section. The earliest known examples date to the first century BC, such as the Tabularium of Rome from 78 BC. Others include the Baths of Antoninus in Carthage (145–160) and the Palatine Chapel at Aachen (13th – 14th century). Compound dome Also called domes on pendentives or pendentive domes (a term also applied to sail vaults), compound domes have pendentives that support a smaller diameter dome immediately above them, as in the Hagia Sophia, or a drum and dome, as in many Renaissance and post-Renaissance domes, with both forms resulting in greater height. Crossed-arch dome One of the earliest types of ribbed vault, the first known examples are found in the Great Mosque of Córdoba in the 10th century. Rather than meeting in the center of the dome, the ribs characteristically intersect one another off-center, forming an empty polygonal space in the center. Geometry is a key element of the designs, with the octagon being perhaps the most popular shape used. Whether the arches are structural or purely decorative remains a matter of debate. The type may have an eastern origin, although the issue is also unsettled. Examples are found in Spain, North Africa, Armenia, Iran, France, and Italy. A corbel dome/ A domical vault/ A compound dome/ A crossed-arch dome Ellipsoidal dome The ellipsoidal dome is a surface formed by the rotation around a vertical axis of a semi-ellipse. Like other "rotational domes" formed by the rotation of a curve around a vertical axis, ellipsoidal domes have circular bases and horizontal sections and are a type of "circular dome" for that reason. Geodesic dome Geodesic domes are the upper portion of geodesic spheres. They are composed of a framework of triangles in a polyhedron pattern. The structures are named for geodesics and are based upon geometric shapes such as icosahedrons, octahedrons or tetrahedrons. Such domes can be created using a limited number of simple elements and joints and efficiently resolve a dome's internal forces. Their efficiency is said to increase with size. Although not first invented by Buckminster Fuller, they are associated with him because he designed many geodesic domes and patented them in the United States. Hemispherical dome The hemispherical dome is a surface formed by the rotation around a vertical axis of a semicircle. Like other "rotational domes" formed by the rotation of a curve around a vertical axis, hemispherical domes have circular bases and horizontal sections and are a type of "circular dome" for that reason. They experience vertical compression along their meridians, but horizontally experience compression only in the portion above 51.8 degrees from the top. Below this point, hemispherical domes experience tension horizontally, and usually require buttressing to counteract it. According to E. Baldwin Smith, it was a shape likely known to the Assyrians, defined by Greek theoretical mathematicians, and standardized by Roman builders. Onion dome Bulbous domes bulge out beyond their base diameters, offering a profile greater than a hemisphere. An onion dome is a greater than hemispherical dome with a pointed top in an ogee profile. They are found in the Near East, Middle East, Persia, and India and may not have had a single point of origin. Their appearance in northern Russian architecture predates the Tatar occupation of Russia and so is not easily explained as the result of that influence. They became popular in the second half of the 15th century in the Low Countries of Northern Europe, possibly inspired by the finials of minarets in Egypt and Syria, and developed in the 16th and 17th centuries in the Netherlands before spreading to Germany, becoming a popular element of the baroque architecture of Central Europe. German bulbous domes were also influenced by Russian and Eastern European domes. The examples found in various European architectural styles are typically wooden. Examples include Kazan Church in Kolomenskoye and the Brighton Pavilion by John Nash. In Islamic architecture, they are typically made of masonry, rather than timber, with the thick and heavy bulging portion serving to buttress against the tendency of masonry domes to spread at their bases. The Taj Mahal is a famous example. Oval dome An oval dome is a dome of oval shape in plan, profile, or both. The term comes from the Latin ovum, meaning "egg". The earliest oval domes were used by convenience in corbelled stone huts as rounded but geometrically undefined coverings, and the first examples in Asia Minor date to around 4000 B.C. The geometry was eventually defined using combinations of circular arcs, transitioning at points of tangency. A geodesic dome/A hemispherical dome/An oval dome Paraboloid dome A paraboloid dome is a surface formed by the rotation around a vertical axis of a sector of a parabola. Like other "rotational domes" formed by the rotation of a curve around a vertical axis, paraboloid domes have circular bases and horizontal sections and are a type of "circular dome" for that reason. Because of their shape, paraboloid domes experience only compression, both radially and horizontally. Sail dome  Sail domes are based upon the shape of a hemisphere and are not to be confused with elliptic parabolic vaults, which appear similar but have different characteristics. Saucer dome Also called segmental domes (a term sometimes also used for cloister vaults), or calottes,[8] these have profiles of less than half a circle. Because they reduce the portion of the dome in tension, these domes are strong but have increased radial thrust.[83] Many of the largest existing domes are of this shape. Umbrella dome Also called gadrooned, fluted, organ-piped, pumpkin, melon, ribbed, parachute, scalloped, or lobed domes, these are a type of dome divided at the base into curved segments, which follow the curve of the elevation. "Fluted" may refer specifically to this pattern as an external feature, such as was common in Mamluk Egypt. The "ribs" of a dome are the radial lines of masonry that extend from the crown down to the springing. The central dome of the Hagia Sophia uses the ribbed method, which accommodates a ring of windows between the ribs at the base of the dome. The central dome of St. Peter's Basilica also uses this method. A sail vaultA saucer domAn umbrella dome Arabic and Western European domes Umayyad Caliphate The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, the earliest surviving Islamic building, was completed in 691 by Umayyad caliph Abd Al-Malik. Its design was that of a ciborium, or reliquary, such as those common to Byzantine martyria and the major Christian churches of the city. The rotunda of the nearby Church of the Holy Sepulchre, in particular, has a similar design and almost the same dimensions. The building was reportedly burned in the eleventh century and then rebuilt, which would still make it one of the oldest timber buildings in the world. The dome, a double shell design made of wood, is 20.44 meters in diameter. The dome's bulbous shape "probably dates from the eleventh century." Several restorations since 1958 to address structural damage have resulted in the extensive replacement of tiles, mosaics, ceilings, and walls such that "nearly everything that one sees in this marvelous building was put there in the second half of the twentieth century", but without significant change to its original form and structure. It is currently covered in gilded aluminum. In addition to religious shrines, domes were used over the audience and throne halls of Umayyad palaces, and as part of porches, pavilions, fountains, towers and the calderia of baths. Blending the architectural features of both the Byzantine and Persian architecture, the domes used both pendentives and squinches and were made in a variety of shapes and materials. A dome stood at the center of the palace-city of Baghdad and, similarly but on a smaller scale, there are literary accounts of a domed audience hall in the palace of Abu Muslim in Merv at the meeting point of four iwans arranged along the cardinal directions. Muslim palaces included domical halls as early as the eighth century, well before domes became standard elements of mosque architecture. The early eighth century palace of Khirbat al-Minya included a domed gateway. The palace of Qasr Mshatta and a ninth century palace at Samarra included domed throne rooms. A domed structure covered a shallow pool in the main courtyard of the mid eighth century palace of Khirbat al-Mafjar. Similar examples at mosques, such as the domed fountains at the Mosque of Ibn Tulun (destroyed in 987 and replaced with a different structure), at Maarrat al-Numan,in Nishapur, Tripoli, and at the Mosque of Damascus seem to be related to this element of palace architecture, although they were later used as part of ritual ablution. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem . The calderia of early Islamic bath complexes at Amra, Sarraj, and Anjar were roofed with stone or brick domes. The caldarium of the early Islamic bath at Qasr Amra contains "the most completely preserved astronomical cupola decoration", a decorative idea for bath domes that would long continue in the Islamic world. The placement of a dome in front of the mihrab of a mosque probably began with the rebuilding of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina by Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid. This was likely to emphasize the place of the ruler, although domes would eventually become focal points of decoration and architectural composition or indicate the direction of prayer. Later developments of this feature would include additional domes oriented axially to the mihrab dome. Byzantine workmen built the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus and its hemispherical dome for al Walid in 705. The dome rests upon an octagonal base formed by squinches. The dome, called the "Dome of the Eagle" or "Dome of the Gable", was originally made of wood but nothing remains of it. It is supposed to have rested upon large cross beams. Although architecture in the region would decline following the movement of the capital to Iraq under the Abbasids in 750, mosques built after a revival in the late 11th century usually followed the Umayyad model, especially that of the Mosque of Damascus. Domed examples include the mosques at Sarmin (1305-6) and al-Bab (1305). The typical Damascus dome is smooth and supported by a double zone of squinches: four squinches create an eight sided transition that includes eight more squinches, and these create a sixteen-sided drum with windows in alternate sides. The Syria and Palestine area has a long tradition of domical architecture, including wooden domes in shapes described as "conoid", or similar to pine cones. When the Arab Muslim forces conquered the region, they employed local craftsmen for their buildings and, by the end of the 7th century, the dome had begun to become an architectural symbol of Islam. In addition to religious shrines, such as the Dome of the Rock, domes were used over the audience and throne halls of Umayyad palaces, and as part of porches, pavilions, fountains, towers and the calderia of baths. Blending the architectural features of both Byzantine and Persian architecture, the domes used both pendentives and squinches and were made in a variety of shapes and materials. Although architecture in the region would decline following the movement of the capital to Iraq under the Abbasids in 750, mosques built after a revival in the late 11th century usually followed the Umayyad model. Early versions of bulbous domes can be seen in mosaic illustrations in Syria dating to the Umayyad period. They were used to cover large buildings in Syria after the eleventh century. CHAPTER V Mosque Architecture  of the Hypostyle Tradition 715 to the 10th century. Interior of the Great Mosque of Córdoba, Spain, begun 785 CE. The building is now a Christian cathedral.Alfonso Gutierrez Escera/Ostman Agency Either in its simplest form, as in Medina, or in its more-formalized shape, as in Damascus, the hypostyle tradition dominated mosque architecture from 715 to the 10th century. As it occurs at Nīshāpūr (Neyshābūr) in northeastern Iran, Sīrāf in southern Iran, Kairouan in Tunisia, and Córdoba in Spain, it can indeed be considered as the classic early Islamic type. Its masterpieces occur in Iraq and in the West. The monumentalization of the early Iraqi hypostyle is illustrated by the two ruined structures in Sāmarrāʾ, with their enormous sizes (790 by 510 feet [240 by 156 metres] for one and 700 by 440 feet [213 by 135 metres] for the other), their multiple entrances, their complex piers, and, in one instance, a striking separation of the qiblah area from the rest of the building. The best-preserved example of this type is the Mosque of Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn at Cairo (876–879), where a semi-independent governor, Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn, introduced Iraqi techniques and succeeded in creating a masterpiece of composition. Two classic examples of early mosques in the western Islamic world of interest are preserved in Tunisia and Spain. In Kairouan the Great Mosque was built in stages between 836 and 866. Its most striking feature is the formal emphasis on the building’s T-like axis punctuated by two domes, one of which hovers over the earliest preserved ensemble of mihrab, minbar, and maqṣūrah. At Córdoba the earliest section of the Great Mosque was built in 785–786. It consisted simply of 11 naves with a wider central one and a court. It was enlarged twice in length, first between 833 and 855 and again from 961 to 965 (it was in the latter phase that the celebrated maqṣūrah and mihrab, composing one of the great architectural ensembles of early Islamic art, were constructed). Finally, in 987–988 an extension of the mosque was completed to the east that increased its size by almost one-third without destroying its stylistic unity. The constant increases in the size of this mosque are a further illustration of the flexibility of the hypostyle and its adaptability to any spatial requirement. The most memorable aspects of the Córdoba mosque, however, lie in its construction and decoration. The particularly extensive and heavily decorated mihrab area exemplifies a development that started with the Medina mosque and would continue: an emphasis on the qiblah wall. Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba, Spain.Dome of the mihrab in the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba, Spain.© borisb17/Fotolia Although the hypostyle mosque was the dominant plan, it was not the only one. From very early Islamic times, a fairly large number of aberrant plans also occur. Most of them were built in smaller urban locations or were secondary mosques in larger Muslim cities. It is rather difficult, therefore, to evaluate whether their significance was purely local or they were important for the tradition as a whole. Because a simple type of square subdivided by four piers into nine-domed units occurs at Balkh in Afghanistan, at Cairo, and at Toledo, it may be considered a pan-Islamic type. Other types, a single square hall surrounded by an ambulatory, or a single long barrel-vault parallel or perpendicular to the qiblah, are rarer and should perhaps be considered as purely local. These are particularly numerous in Iran, where it does seem that the mainstream of early Islamic architecture did not penetrate very deeply. Unfortunately, the archaeological exploration of Iran is still in its infancy, and many of the mud-brick buildings from the early Islamic period have been destroyed or rebuilt beyond recognition. As a result, it is extremely difficult to determine the historical importance of monuments found at Neyrīz, Moḥammadīyeh (near Nāʾīn), Fahraj (near Yazd), or Hazareh (near Samarkand). For an understanding of the mosque’s development and of the general dynamics of Islamic architecture, however, an awareness of those secondary types, which may have existed outside Iran as well, is essential. Other types of religious buildings The function of the mosque, the central gathering place of the Muslim community, became the major and most original completely Muslim architectural effort. The mosque was not a purely religious building, at least not at the beginning, but, because it was restricted to Muslims, it is appropriate to consider it as such. This, however, was not the only type of early Islamic building to be uniquely Muslim. Three other types can be defined architecturally and a fourth one only functionally. The first type, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, is a unique building. Completed in 691, this masterwork of Islamic architecture is the earliest major Islamic monument. Its octagonal plan, use of a high dome, and building techniques are hardly original, although its decoration is unique. Its purpose, however, is what is most remarkable about the building. Since the middle of the 8th century, the Dome of the Rock has become the focal centre of the most mystical event in the life of the Prophet: his ascension into heaven from the rock around which the building was erected. According to an inscription preserved since the erection of the dome, however, it would seem that the building did not originally commemorate the Prophet’s ascension but rather the Christology of Islam and its relationship to Judaism. It seems preferable, therefore, to interpret the Dome of the Rock as a victory monument of the new faith’s ideological and religious claim on a holy city and on all the religious traditions attached to it. Dome of the Rock, completed 691 CE, Jerusalem.-© 2006 Index Open The second distinctly Islamic type of religious building is the little-known ribāṭ. As early as in the 8th century, the Muslim empire entrusted the protection of its frontiers, especially the remote ones, to warriors for the faith (murābiṭūn, “bound ones”) who lived, permanently or temporarily, in special institutions known as ribāṭs. Evidence for these exist in Central Asia, Anatolia, and North Africa. It is only in Tunisia that ribāṭs have been preserved. The best one is at Sousse, Tunisia; it consists of a square fortified building with a single fairly elaborate entrance and a central courtyard. It has two stories of private or communal rooms. Except for the prominence taken by an oratory, this building could be classified as a type of Muslim secular architecture. Because no later example of a ribāṭ is known, there is some uncertainty as to whether the institution ever acquired a unique architectural form of its own. The ribāṭ (monastery-fortress) of Sousse, Tunisia.-A.F. Kersting Royal mausoleum of the Samanids, completed before 942 CE, Bukhara, Uzbekistan.© lisaveya/Fotolia The last type of religious building to develop before the end of the 10th century is the mausoleum. Originally, Islam was strongly opposed to any formal commemoration of the dead. But three independent factors slowly modified an attitude that was eventually maintained only in the most strictly orthodox circles. One factor was the growth of the Shīʿite heterodoxy, which led to an actual cult of the descendants of the Prophet through his son-in-law ʿAlī. The second factor was that, as Islam strengthened its hold on conquered lands, a wide variety of local cultic practices and especially the worship of certain sacred places began to affect the Muslims, resulting in a whole movement of Islamization of ancient holy places by associating them with deceased Muslim heroes and holy men or with prophets. The third factor is not, strictly speaking, religious, but it played a major part. As more or less independent local dynasties began to grow, they sought to commemorate themselves through mausoleums. Not many mausoleums have remained from those early centuries, but literary evidence is clear on the fact that the Shīʿite sanctuaries of Karbalāʾ and Al-Najaf, both in Iraq, and Qom, Iran, already possessed monumental tombs. At Sāmarrāʾ an octagonal mausoleum had been built for three caliphs. The masterpieces of early funerary architecture occur in Central Asia, such as the royal mausoleum of the Sāmānids (known incorrectly as the mausoleum of Esmāʿīl the Sāmānid) at Bukhara (before 942), which is a superb example of Islamic brickwork. In some instances a quasi-religious character was attached to the mausoleums, such as the one at Tim (976), which already has the high facade typical of so many later monumental tombs. In all instances the Muslims took over or rediscovered the ancient tradition of the centrally planned building as the characteristic commemorative structure. Interior of the dome of the 20th-century Muḥammad V Mausoleum in Rabat, Morocco. © Michael Hynes Building materials and technology The early Islamic period, on the whole, did not innovate much in the realm of building materials and technology but utilized what it had inherited from older traditions. Stone and brick continued to be used throughout the Mediterranean, whereas mud brick usually covered with plaster predominated in Iraq and Iran, with a few notable exceptions such as Sīrāf, where a masonry of roughly cut stones set in mortar was more common. The most important novelty was the rapid development in Iraq of a baked brick architecture in the late 8th and 9th centuries. Iraqi techniques were later used in Syria at Al-Raqqah and Qaṣr al-Ḥayr East and in Egypt. Iranian brickwork appears at Mshattā in Jordan. The mausoleum of the Sāmānids in Bukhara is the earliest remaining example of the new brick architecture in northeastern Iran. Wood was used consistently but usually has not been very well preserved, except in Palestine and Egypt, where climatic (extreme dryness of Egypt), religious (holiness of Jerusalem sanctuaries), or historic (Egypt was never conquered) factors contributed to the continuous upkeep of wooden objects and architectural elements. As supports for roofs and ceilings, early Islamic architecture used walls and single supports. Walls were generally continuous, often buttressed with half towers, and rarely (with exceptions in Central Asia) were they articulated or broken by other architectural features. The most common single support was the base-column-capital combination of Mediterranean architecture. Most columns and capitals either were reused from pre-Islamic buildings or were directly imitated from older models. In the 9th century in Iraq a brick pier was used, a form that spread to Iran and Egypt. Columns and piers were covered with arches. Most often these were semicircular arches; the pointed, or two-centred, arch was known, but it does not seem that its property of reducing the need for heavy supports had been realized. The most extraordinary technical development of arches occurs in the Great Mosque at Córdoba, where, in order to increase the height of the building in an area with only short columns, the architects created two rows of superimposed horseshoe arches. Almost immediately they realized that such a succession of superimposed arches constructed of alternating stone and brick could be modified to create a variety of patterns that would alleviate the inherent monotony of a hypostyle building. A certain ambiguity remains, however, as to whether ornamental effect or structural technology was the predominate concern in the creation of those unique arched columns. Mezquita, the great Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba, Spain.Photos.com/Thinkstock The majority of early Islamic ceilings were flat. Gabled wooden roofs, however, were erected in the Muslim world west of the Euphrates and simple barrel vaults to the east. Vaulting, either in brick or in stone, was used, especially in secular architecture. Domes were employed frequently in mosques, consistently in mausoleums, and occasionally in secular buildings. Almost all domes are on squinches (supports carried across corners to act as structural transitions to a dome). Most squinches, as in the Kairouan domes, are classical Greco-Roman niches, which transform the square room into an octagonal opening for the dome. In Córdoba’s Great Mosque a complex system of intersecting ribs is encountered, whereas at Bukhara the squinch is broken into halves by a transverse half arch. The most extraordinary use of the squinch occurs in the mausoleum at Tim, where the surface of this structural device is broken into a series of smaller three-dimensional units rearranged into a sort of pyramidal pattern. This rearrangement is the earliest extant example of muqarnas, or stalactite-like decoration that would later be an important element of Islamic architectural ornamentation. The motif is so awkwardly constructed at Tim that it must have derived from some other source, possibly the ornamental device of using curved stucco panels to cover the corners and upper parts of walls found in Iran at Nīshāpūr. Architectural decoration Early Islamic architecture is most original in its decoration. Mosaics and wall paintings followed the practices of antiquity and were primarily employed in Syria, Palestine, and Spain. Stone sculpture existed, but stucco sculpture, first limited to Iran, spread rapidly throughout the early Islamic world. Not only were stone or brick walls covered with large panels of stucco sculpture, but this technique was used for sculpture in the round in the Umayyad palaces of Qaṣr al-Ḥayr West and Khirbat al-Mafjar. The latter was a comparatively short-lived technique, although it produced some of the few instances of monumental sculpture anywhere in the early Middle Ages. A variety of techniques borrowed from the industrial arts were used for architectural ornamentation. The mihrab wall of Kairouan’s Great Mosque, for example, was covered with ceramics, whereas fragments of decorative woodwork have been preserved in Jerusalem and Egypt. Córdoba, Great Mosque of Gold mosaics adorn the walls of the mihrab in the Great Mosque of Córdoba, Spain. © Ron Gatepain (A Britannica Publishing Partner) The themes and motifs of early Islamic decoration can be divided into three major groups. The first kind of ornamentation simply emphasizes the shape or contour of an architectural unit. The themes used were vegetal bands for vertical or horizontal elements, marble imitations for the lower parts of long walls, chevrons or other types of borders on floors and domes, and even whole trees on the spandrels or soffits (undersides) of arches as in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus or the Dome of the Rock; all these motifs tend to be quite traditional, being taken from the rich decorative vocabularies of pre-Islamic Iran or of the ancient Mediterranean world. The second group consists of decorative motifs for which a concrete iconographic meaning can be given. In the Dome of the Rock and the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, as well as possibly the mosques of Córdoba and of Medina, there were probably iconographic programs. It has been shown, for example, that the huge architectural and vegetal decorative motifs at Damascus were meant to symbolize a sort of idealized paradise on earth, whereas the crowns of the Jerusalem sanctuary are thought to have been symbols of empires conquered by Islam. But it is equally certain that this use of visual forms in mosques for ideological and symbolic purposes was not easily accepted, and most later mosques are devoid of iconographically significant themes. The only exceptions fully visible are the Qurʾānic inscriptions in the mosque of Ibn Ṭūlūn at Cairo, which were used both as a reminder of the faith and as an ornamental device to emphasize the structural lines of the building. Thus, the early Islamic mosque eventually became austere in its use of symbolic ornamentation, with the exception of the mihrab, which was considered as a symbol of the unity of all believers. Like religious architecture, secular buildings seem to have been less richly decorated at the end of the early Islamic period than at the beginning. The paintings, sculptures, and mosaics of Qaṣr al-Ḥayr West, Khirbat al-Mafjar, Qaṣr ʿAmrah, and Sāmarrāʾ primarily illustrated the life of the prince. There were official iconographic compositions, such as the monarch enthroned, or ones of pleasure and luxury, such as hunting scenes or depictions of the prince surrounded by dancers, musicians, acrobats, and unclad women. Few of these so-called princely themes were iconographic inventions of the Muslims. They usually can be traced back either to the classical world of ancient Greece and Rome or to pre-Islamic Iran and Central Asia. The third type of architectural decoration consists of large panels, most often in stucco, for which no meaning or interpretation is yet known. Those panels might be called ornamental in the sense that their only apparent purpose was to beautify the buildings in which they were installed, and their relationship to the architecture is arbitrary. The Mshattā facade’s decoration of a huge band of triangles is, for instance, quite independent of the building’s architectural parts. Next to Mshattā, the most important series of examples of the third type of ornamentation come from Sāmarrāʾ, although striking examples are also to be found at Khirbat al-Mafjar, Qaṣr al-Ḥayr East and West, Al-Fusṭāṭ, Sīrāf, and Nīshāpūr. Two decorative motifs were predominately used on those panels: a great variety of vegetal motifs and geometric forms. At Sāmarrāʾ those panels eventually became so abstract that individual parts could no longer be distinguished, and the decorative design had to be viewed in terms of the relationships between line and shape, light and shade, horizontal and vertical axes, and so forth. Copied consistently from Morocco to Central Asia, the aesthetic principles of this latter type of a complex overall design influenced the development of the principle of arabesque ornamentation. 1.Triangular stone relief from the facade of Mshattā, early 8th century, Jordan; in the Museum of Islamic Art, Pergamon Museum, National Museums of Berlin. 2.Ivory casket made for al-Mughīrah, son of ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III, from Córdoba, Spain, 968; in the Louvre, Paris. Height 15 cm.Courtesy of the Musee du Louvre, Paris; photograph Mansell—Giraudon/Art Resource, New York 3. Bowl from Nīshāpūr, lead-glazed earthenware with a slip decoration, 9th–10th century; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London Islamic architectural ornamentation does not lend itself easily to chronological stylistic definition. In other words, it does not seem to share consistently a cluster of formal characteristics. The reason is that in the earliest Islamic buildings the decorative motifs were borrowed from an extraordinary variety of stylistic sources: classical themes illusionistically rendered (e.g., the mosaics of the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus), hieratic Byzantine themes (e.g., the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus and Qaṣr ʿAmrah), Sāsānian motifs, Central Asian motifs (especially the sculpture from Umayyad palaces), and the many regional styles of ornamentation that had developed in all parts of the pre-Islamic world. It is the wealth of themes and motifs, therefore, that constitutes the Umayyad style of architectural decoration. The ʿAbbāsids, on the other hand, began to be more selective in their choice of ornamentation. Decorative arts Very little is known about early Islamic gold and silver objects, although their existence is mentioned in many texts as well as suggested by the wealth of the Muslim princes. Except for a large number of silver plates and ewers belonging to the Sāsānian tradition, nothing has remained. Those silver objects were probably made for Umayyad and ʿAbbāsid princes, although there is much controversy among scholars regarding their authenticity and date of manufacture. For entirely different reasons it is impossible to present any significant generalities about the art of textiles in the early Islamic period. Problems of authenticity are few. Dating from the 10th century are a large number of Būyid silks, a group of funerary textiles with plant and animal motifs as well as poetic texts. Very little order has yet been made of an enormous mass of often well-dated textile fragments, and, therefore, except for the Būyid silks, it is still impossible to identify any one of the textile types mentioned in early medieval literary sources. Furthermore, because it can be assumed that pre-Islamic textile factories were taken over by the Muslims and because it is otherwise known that textiles were easily transported from one area of the Muslim world to the other or even beyond it, it is still very difficult to define Islamic styles as opposed to Byzantine or to Coptic ones. The obvious exception lies in those fragments that are provided with inscriptions, and the main point to make is, therefore, that one of the characteristic features of early Islamic textiles is their use of writing for identifying and decorative purposes. But, while true, this point in no way makes it possible to deny an Islamic origin to fragments that are not provided with inscriptions, and one must thus await further investigations of detail before being able to define early Islamic textiles. The most important medium of early Islamic decorative arts is pottery. Initially Muslims continued to sponsor whatever varieties of ceramics had existed before their arrival. Probably in the last quarter of the 8th century, new and more elaborate types of glazed pottery were produced. This new development did not replace the older and simpler types of pottery but added a new dimension to the art of Islamic ceramics. Because of the still incompletely published studies on the unfinished excavations carried out at Nīshāpūr, Sīrāf, Qaṣr al-Ḥayr East, and Al-Fusṭāṭ, the scholarship on those ceramics is likely to be very much modified. Therefore, this section will treat only the most general characteristics of Islamic ceramics, avoiding in particular the complex archaeological problems posed by the growth and spread of individual techniques. The area of initial technical innovation seems to have been Iraq. Trade with Central Asia brought Chinese ceramics to Mesopotamia, and Islamic ceramicists sought to imitate them. It is probably in Iraq, therefore, that the technique of lustre glazing was first developed in the Muslim world. This gave the surface of a clay object a metallic, shiny appearance. Egypt also played a leading part in the creation of the new ceramics. Because the earliest datable lustre object (a glass goblet with the name of the governor who ruled in 773, now in the Cairo Museum of Islamic Ceramics) was Egyptian, some scholars feel that it was in Egypt and not Iraq that lustre was first used. Early pottery was also produced in northeastern Iran, where excavations at Afrāsiyāb (Samarkand) and Nīshāpūr have brought to light a new art of painted underglaze pottery. Its novelty was not so much in the technique of painting designs on the slip and covering them with a transparent glaze as in the variety of subjects employed. While new ceramic techniques may have been sought to imitate other mediums (mostly metal) or other styles of pottery (mostly Chinese), the decorative devices rapidly became purely and unmistakably Islamic in style. A wide variety of motifs were combined: vegetal arabesques or single flowers and trees; inscriptions, usually legible and consisting of proverbs or of good wishes; animals that were usually birds drawn from the vast folkloric past of the Middle East; occasionally human figures drawn in a strikingly abstract fashion; geometric designs; all-over abstract patterns; single motifs on empty fields; and simple splashes of colour, with or without underglaze sgraffito designs (i.e., designs incised or sketched on the body or the slip of the object). All these motifs were used on both the high-quality ceramics of Nīshāpūr and Samarkand as well as on Islamic folk pottery. Although ceramics has appeared to be the most characteristic medium of expression in the decorative arts during the early Islamic period, it has only been because of the greater number of preserved objects. Glass was as important, but examples have been less well preserved. A tradition of ivory carving developed in Spain, and the objects dating from the last third of the 10th century onward attest to the high quality of this uniquely Iberian art. Many of those carved ivories certainly were made for princes; therefore, it is not surprising that their decorative themes were drawn from the whole vocabulary of princely art known through Umayyad painting and sculpture of the early 8th century. Those ivory carvings are also important in that they exemplify the fact that an art of sculpture in the round never totally disappeared in the Muslim world—at least in small objects. Assessment There are three general points that seem to characterize the art of the early Islamic period. It can first be said that it was an art that sought self-consciously, like the culture sponsoring it, to create artistic forms that would be identifiable as being different from those produced in preceding or contemporary non-Islamic artistic traditions. At times, as in the use of the Greco-Roman technique of mosaics or in the adoption of Persian and Roman architectural building technology, early Islamic art simply took over whatever traditions were available. At other times, as in the development of the mosque as a building type, it recomposed into new shapes the forms that had existed before. On the other hand, in ceramics or the use of calligraphic ornamentation, the early Islamic artist invented new techniques and a new decorative vocabulary. Whatever the nature of the phenomenon, it was almost always an attempt to identify itself visually as unique and different. Because there was initially no concept about what should constitute an Islamic tradition in the visual arts, the early art of the Muslims often looks like only a continuation of earlier artistic styles, forms, subjects, and techniques. Many mosaics, silver plates, or textiles, therefore, were not considered to be Islamic until recently. In order to be understood, then, as examples of the art of a new culture, those early buildings and objects have to be seen in the complete context in which they were created. When so seen, they appear as conscious choices by the new Islamic culture from its immense artistic inheritance. A second point of definition concerns the question of whether there is an early Islamic style or perhaps even several styles in some sort of succession. The fascinating fact is that there is a clear succession only in those artistic features that are Islamic inventions—nonfigurative ornament and ceramics. For it is only in development of those features that one can assume to find the conscious search for form that can create a period style. Elsewhere, especially in palace art, the Muslim world sought to relate itself to an earlier and more universal tradition of princely art; its monuments, therefore, are less Islamic than typological. In the new art of the Muslim bourgeoisie, however, uniquely Islamic artistic phenomena began to evolve. Finally, the geographical peculiarities of early Islamic art must be reiterated. Its centres were Syria, Iraq, Egypt, northwestern Iran, and Spain. Of these, Iraq was probably the most originally creative, and it is from Iraq that a peculiarly Islamic visual koine (a commonly accepted and understood system of forms) was derived and spread throughout the Islamic world. This development, of course, is logical, because the capital of the early empire and some of the first purely Muslim cities were in Iraq. In western Iran, in Afghanistan, in northern Mesopotamia, and in Morocco, the more atypical and local artistic traditions were more or less affected by the centralized imperial system of Iraq. This tension between a general pan-Islamic vocabulary and a variable number of local vocabularies was to remain a constant throughout the history of Islamic art and is certainly one of the reasons for the difficulty, if not impossibility, one faces in trying to define an Islamic style. VI Dome of the Rock https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-arts/Seljuq-art The Dome of the Rock is a 7th-century edifice located in Jerusalem. It enshrines the rock from which Muḥammad is said to have ascended to heaven. Sometimes erroneously called the Mosque of Umar, from a tradition that it was built by Caliph Umar I, the Dome of the Rock was actually built by Caliph Abd al-Malik between 687 and 691. The first domed shrine to be built, the Dome of the Rock is a masterpiece of Islamic architecture. The octagonal plan and the rotunda dome of wood are of Byzantine design. The Persian tiles on the exterior and the marble slabs that decorate the interior were added by Suleiman I in 1561. The Dome of the Rock is located on a rocky outcrop known as Mount Moriah, where, according to Jewish belief, Abraham offered his son Isaac as a sacrifice. The inscriptions inside the building glorify Islam as the final true revelation and culmination of the faiths of Judaism and Christianity. The building is actually not a mosque but a ciborium, erected over a sacred site. According to later Islamic tradition, the Rock (al-Sakhra) in the midst of the building was the spot from which Mohammed ascended to heaven after his miraculous night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem on the winged steed al-Buraq. A tradition states that by building the dome, Abd al-Malik was attempting to transfer the Islamic hajj to Jerusalem from Mecca in Saudi Arabia. The 60-foot-diameter, timber-framed double dome, covered internally with colored and gilded stucco and originally roofed with lead covered in gold, rises 35 meters over the holy rock. It is carried on a tall drum, originally faced with glass mosaics, which rests on a circular arcade of 12 marble columns, set in threes between four large rectangular piers. At the top of the drum, 16 colored glass windows light the central space. Inside and outside, the Dome of the Rock was enriched with marble columns and facings and floral mosaic patterns. During the Crusades, the Dome of the Rock was commandeered as a Christian shrine before returning to Islamic hands. Many medieval people believed it to be the famous Temple of King Solomon. Today, it is at the very core of a bitter dispute between Palestinians and Israelis. Although sometimes referred to as the Mosque of Omar, the Dome of the Rock is in fact not a mosque. Nevertheless, as the oldest extant Islamic monument, it served as a model for architecture and other artistic endeavors across three continents for a millennium. Built between 685 and 691 C.E., this shrine is the first piece of Islamic architecture sponsored by a Muslim ruler that was created as a work of art. Built to transcend its function by the quality of its forms and expression, the Dome is still standing in much of its original shape and with a good portion of its original decoration. Its wooden gilt dome, which is approximately 20 meters in diameter, rises to a height of some 30 meters above the surrounding stone-paved platform. It is supported by a circular arcade of four piers and twelve columns. Surrounding this circle is an octagonal arcade of eight piers and sixteen columns, which help support the dome. The outer wall repeats this octagon, each of the eight sides being about 18 meters wide and 8 meters high. Both the dome and the exterior walls contain many windows. Extensive decoration from a variety of periods, including mosaics, painted wood, marble, multi-colored tiles, carpets, and carved stone, covers most of the exterior and interior of the building. Many of the 45,000 blue and gold exterior tiles were installed under Suleiman the Magnificent in the 1500s. Inside, 1,280 square meters of elaborate mosaics cover the walls that enshrine the mystical rock under the dome. The intricate patterns and geometric shapes of the mosaics replace figurative art since, according to Muslim belief, it would be impossible to represent Allah in any figurative form. Instead, the shrine conveys its own message through color and shape. In Islamic art, blue, the color of the sky, suggests infinity, while gold represents the color of the knowledge of God. The shape of the dome itself is a powerful symbol of the soaring ascent to heaven, its circle representing the wholeness and balance essential to the Muslim faith. riginally a mashhad, a shrine for pilgrims, the Dome of the Rock was commissioned for not only religious but also political purposes. Chaliph Abd El-Malik placed the monument on the Haram as-Sharif, the Noble Sanctuary, in order to enshrine the sacred rock from which, Muslims believe, Muhammad made al-isra’, the Night Journey and ascended to visit Allah in heaven (Koran 17:1). Along with the theological component, however, there was also a political purpose for the construction of the Dome. During the late seventh century, the Muslim world was torn by conflict between a variety of Muslim groups, each of which claimed to be Muhammad’s sole heir. According to tradition, Muhammad first selected Jerusalem as theqibla, the direction the faithful should face during prayer. Later, the prophet redirected his followers to face the city of Mecca when praying, to symbolize Islam’s independence from the other monotheistic religions that had chosen Jerusalem as their most holy city. In the late seventh century, however, Chaliph Abd El-Malik wanted to discourage his followers from making the pilgrimage to Mecca because he feared that they might fall under the influence of one of his Muslim rivals. He, therefore, constructed the Dome in the hopes of establishing Jerusalem as the major Muslim pilgrimage destination, so that he could keep his followers and attract new ones. While Mecca has remained the qibla for Muslims, Jerusalem is revered by Muslims as the third holiest place in the world. The pilgrimage to Jerusalem, known as the taqdis, is the final destination of the main pilgrimage (hajj), allowing Muslims to commemorate the significance of the city to their faith. The golden Dome of the Rock, claimed and restored during a tumultuous century of conflict between Muslims and Christians, rises above the Old City’s walls as an icon of Jerusalem’s enduring significance to the Muslim faith. The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhra) Google ClassroomFacebookTwitter Email The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhra), Umayyad, stone masonry, wooden roof, decorated with glazed ceramic tile, mosaics, and gilt aluminum and bronze dome, 691-2, with multiple renovations, patron the Caliph Abd al-Malik, Jerusalem (photo: Orientalist, CC BY 3.0) The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhra), Umayyad, stone masonry, wooden roof, decorated with glazed ceramic tile, mosaics, and gilt aluminum and bronze dome, 691-2, with multiple renovations, patron the Caliph Abd al-Malik, Jerusalem (photo: Orientalist, CC BY 3.0) The Dome of the Rock is a building of extraordinary beauty, solidity, elegance, and singularity of shape… Both outside and inside, the decoration is so magnificent and the workmanship so surpassing as to defy description. The greater part is covered with gold so that the eyes of one who gazes on its beauties are dazzled by its brilliance, now glowing like a mass of light, now flashing like lightning.                                                                            —Ibn Battuta (14th century travel writer) A glorious mystery One of the most iconic images of the Middle East is undoubtedly the Dome of the Rock shimmering in the setting sun of Jerusalem. Sitting atop the Haram al-Sharif, the highest point in old Jerusalem, the Dome of the Rock’s golden-color Dome and Turkish Faience tiles dominates the cityscape of Old Jerusalem and in the 7th century served as a testament to the power of the new faith of Islam. The Dome of the Rock is one of the earliest surviving buildings from the Islamic world. This remarkable building is not a mosque, as is commonly assumed and scholars still debate its original function and meaning. Interior of the Dome of the Rock (photo: Robert Smythe Hitchens, public domain) Between the death of the prophet Muhammad in 632 and 691/2, when the Dome of the Rock was completed, there was intermittent warfare in Arabia and Holy Land around Jerusalem. The first Arab armies who emerged from the Arabian peninsula were focused on conquering and establishing an empire—not building. Thus, the Dome of the Rock was one of the first Islamic buildings ever constructed. It was built between 685 and 691/2 by Abd al-Malik, probably the most important Umayyad caliph, as a religious focal point for his supporters, while he was fighting a civil war against Ibn Zubayr. When Abd al-Malik began construction on the Dome of the Rock, he did not have control of the Kaaba, the holiest shrine in Islam, which is located in Mecca. The Dome is located on the Haram al-Sharif, an enormous open-air platform that now houses Al-Aqsa mosque, madrasas and several other religious buildings. Few places are as holy for Christians, Jews and Muslims as the Haram al-Sharif. It is the Temple Mount, the site of the Jewish second temple, which the Roman Emperor Titus destroyed in 70 C.E. while subduing the Jewish revolt; a Roman temple was later built on the site. The Temple Mount was abandoned in Late Antiquity.The Rock in the Dome of the Rock At the center of the Dome of the Rock sits a large rock, which is believed to be the location where Abraham was prepared to sacrifice his son Ismail (Isaac in the Judeo/Christian tradition). Today, Muslims believe that the Rock commemorates the night journey of Muhammad. One night the Angel Gabriel came to Muhammad while he slept near the Kaaba in Mecca and took him to al-Masjid al-Aqsa (the farthest mosque) in Jerusalem. From the Rock, Muhammad journeyed to heaven, where he met other prophets, such as Moses and Christ, witnessed paradise and hell and finally saw God enthroned and circumambulated by angels. K.A.C. Creswell, Sectional axonometric view through dome, ©Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, Image courtesy of Fine Arts Library, Harvard College Library K.A.C. Creswell, Sectional axonometric view through dome, ©Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, Image courtesy of Fine Arts Library, Harvard College Library The Rock is enclosed by two ambulatories (in this case the aisles that circle the rock) and an octagonal exterior wall. The central colonnade (row of columns) was composed of four piers and twelve columns supporting a rounded drum that transitions into the two-layered dome more than 20 meters in diameter. The colonnades are clad in marble on their lower registers, and their upper registers are adorned with exceptional mosaics. The ethereal interior atmosphere is a result of light that pours in from grilled windows located in the drum and exterior walls. Golden mosaics depicting jewels shimmer in this glittering light. Byzantine and Sassanian crowns in the midst of vegetal motifs are also visible. The Byzantine Empire stood to the North and to the West of the new Islamic Empire until 1453, when its capital, Constantinople, fell to the Ottoman Turks. To the East, the old Sasanian Empire of Persia imploded under pressure from the Arabs, but nevertheless provided winged crown motifs that can be found in the Dome of the Rock. Mosaics Wall and ceiling mosaics became very popular in Late Antiquity and adorn many Byzantine churches, including San Vitale in Ravenna and Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. Thus, the use of mosaics reflects an artistic tie to the world of Late Antiquity. Late Antiquity is a period from about 300-800, when the Classical world dissolves and the Medieval period emerges. The mosaics in the Dome of the Rock contain no human figures or animals. While Islam does not prohibit the use of figurative art per se, it seems that in religious buildings, this proscription was upheld. Instead, we see vegetative scrolls and motifs, as well as vessels and winged crowns, which were worn by Sasanian kings. Thus, the iconography of the Dome of the Rock also includes the other major pre-Islamic civilization of the region, the Sasanian Empire, which the Arab armies had defeated. A reference to Burial Places The building enclosing the Rock also seems to take its form from the imperial mausolea (the burial places) of Roman emperors, such as Augustus or Hadrian. Its circular form and Dome also reference the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. The circular Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem was built to enclose the tomb of Christ. The Church of the Holy Sepulcher and the Dome of the Rock have domes that are almost identical in size; this suggests that the elevated position of the Dome of the Rock and the comparable size of its dome was a way that Muslims in the late 8th century proclaimed the superiority of their newly formed faith over Christians. The Inscription The Dome of the Rock also contains an inscription, 240 meters long, that includes some of the earliest surviving examples of verses from the Qur‘an – in an architectural context or otherwise. The bismillah (in the name of God, the merciful and compassionate), the phrase that starts each verse of the Qu’ran, and the shahada, the Islamic confession of faith, which states that there is only one God and Muhammad is his prophet, are also included in the inscription. The inscription also refers to Mary and Christ and proclaim that Christ was not divine but a prophet. Thus the inscription also proclaims some of the core values of the newly formed religion of Islam. Below the Rock is a small chamber, whose purpose is not fully understood even to this day. For those who are fortunate enough to be able to enter the Dome of the Rock, the experience is moving, regardless of one’s faith. Essay by Dr. Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis The Temple Mount and the National Geographic The Temple of Jerusalem For a Christian, the Holy City brings together the most precious memories of the passage on earth of our Savior, because in Jerusalem Jesus died and rose from the dead. It was also the setting for his preaching and miracles and the place where the Church was born. Traces of our faith Once the time for the purification of the Mother has been completed, according to the Law of Moses, it is necessary to go with the Child to Jerusalem to present him to the Lord . (Holy Rosary, IV joyful mystery). For a Christian, the Holy City brings together the most precious memories of the passage on earth of our Savior, because in Jerusalem Jesus died and rose from the dead. It was also the scene of his preaching and miracles, and of the intense hours that preceded his Passion, during which he instituted the madness of love of the Eucharist. In that same place - the Cenacle - the Church was born which, gathered around Mary, received the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost. Download the article in pdf format History of the Holy City The Cedron stream seen from the Mount of Olives. Photo: Alfred Driessen In reality, the protagonism of Jerusalem in the history of salvation had already begun much earlier, with the reign of David, between the years 1010 and 970 before Christ. Due to its topographical situation, the city had constituted as an enclave of the Jebusite people, impregnable to the Israelites in their conquest of the promised land. It occupied the top of a series of hills arranged as steps in ascending order: in the southern part of the highest area - still known today as Ofel or City of David - was the Jebusite fortress; in the northern part, Mount Moria, which the Jewish tradition identified with the place of the sacrifice of Isaac (Cfr. Gn 22, 2; and 2 Cr 3,1). The massif, with an average height of 760 meters above sea level, was surrounded by two deep streams: the Cedron on the eastern side - which separates the city from the Mount of Olives -, and the Ginon or Gehenna on the western and southern side. The two joined with a third, the Tiropeòn, which crossed the hills from north to south. When David took Jerusalem, he settled in the fortress and built several buildings (cf. 2 Sam 5, 6-12), making it the capital of the kingdom. He also converted it as a religious center of Israel by carrying the Ark of the Covenant, which was the sign of God's presence among his people (Cf. Sam 6, 1-23), and by deciding to build Lord a temple that would serve as his dwelling (cf. 2 Sam 7, 1-7. And also 1 Cr 22, 1-19; 28, 1-21; and 29, 1-9). According to biblical sources, his son Solomon began the construction works of the Temple in the fourth year of his reign, and consecrated it in the eleventh year (cf. 1 Kings 6, 37-38), that is to say around 960 BC. C. Although it is not possible to arrive at archaeological evidence - due to the difficulty of excavating in that area -, Place of encounter with God From Herod's Temple to the present day. From "National Geographic". The Temple was the place of encounter with God through prayer and, above all, through sacrifices; it was the symbol of divine protection over the people, of the presence of the Lord always willing to listen to requests and to help those who resorted to him in need. This is evident in God's words to Solomon: -I listened to your prayer; I have chosen this place as a home to sacrifice. (…). Now my eyes will be open and my ears attentive to the prayer made in this place. Now I have chosen myself and consecrated this house so that my name will always remain there; my eyes and my heart will be there every day. As for you, if you walk ahead of me as your father David walked, doing what I commanded you, and keep my laws and regulations, I will establish the throne of your kingdom as I promised your father David, saying : "A descendant who reigns in Israel will not be taken away from you." But if you deviate and abandon the laws and regulations that I have proposed to you, if you go and serve other gods and bow down to them, I will exterminate you from the land that I have given you, I will repudiate this temple which I have consecrated to my name, I will make it the fable and the laughing stock of all peoples. This Temple, which appeared so exalted to the eyes of those who passed in front of it, will be converted into ruins- (Cfr. 2 Cr 7, 12-21. 1 Kings 9, 1-9). The history of the following centuries shows the extent to which these words were fulfilled. After Solomon's death, the kingdom was divided in two: that of Israel in the north, with Samaria as its capital, which was conquered by the Assyrians in 722 BC. C .; and the kingdom of Judah to the south, with Jerusalem as its capital, which was subjected to vassalage by Nebuchadnezzar in 597. His army razed the city, including the Temple, in the year 587, and deported most of the population to Babylon. Before the destruction of Jerusalem, there was no lack of prophets sent by God who denounced formalistic worship and idolatry, and led to a profound interior conversion; they also remembered that God had conditioned his presence in the Temple on fidelity to the Covenant, and they exhorted us to keep hope in a definitive restoration. In this way the conviction, inspired by God, grew that salvation would come through the fidelity of a servant of the Lord who, by obeying, would take upon himself the sins of the people. The second temple and the arrival of the Romans It did not take many years for the Israelites to feel the protection of the Lord again: in 539 BC. C., Cyrus, king of Persia, conquered Babylon and granted them the freedom to return to Jerusalem: in the same place where the first temple was built, the second, more modest one was built, which was dedicated in 515. The lack of independence politics for nearly two centuries did not prevent the development of an intense religious life. This relative tranquility continued during the invasion of Alexander the Great in 332 BC. C. and also during the rule of his Egyptian successors, the Ptolemaic dynasty. Jerusalem in the time of Jesus Christ. J. Gil The situation changed in 200 BC. C. with the conquest of Jerusalem by the Seleucids, another dynasty of Macedonian origin that had settled in Syria. His attempts to impose Hellenization on the Jewish people, which culminated in the desecration of the Temple in 175, provoked a popular uprising. The triumph of the Maccabean revolt allowed not only to restore the worship of the Temple in 167, but also favored their descendants, the Hasmoneans, to reign in Judea. In 63 a. C., Palestine fell into the hands of the Roman general Pompey, starting a new era. Herod the Great made himself king by Rome who provided him with an army. In 37, after consolidating his power also using means not exempt from brutality, he conquered Jerusalem and began to embellish it with new buildings: the most ambitious of all was the restoration and expansion of the Temple, which he carried out starting from 20 BC. C. The pilgrimage of the Holy Family to the Temple Pilgrims used to arrive at the temple from the southwest. Photo: Alfred Driessen Saint Mary and Saint Joseph will have made pilgrimages to the Temple in their childhood, and therefore they already knew the Temple when, having completed the days of purification, they went there with Jesus to present it to the Lord (Lk 2:22). It took several hours to cover the ten kilometers that separate Bethlehem from the Holy City on foot or on horseback. They were probably impatient to fulfill the prescription of which they did not suspect the true meaning: "the presentation of Jesus in the Temple shows him as the Firstborn who belongs to the Lord" (Catechism of the Catholic Church, n.529). In order to remember the liberation from Egypt, the Law of Moses ordered the consecration to God of the first male child (Cfr. Ex 13, 1-2 and 11-16); his parents had to redeem him through an offer, which consisted of an amount of silver equivalent to twenty days' wages. The Law also established the legal purification of mothers after giving birth (Cfr. Lv 12, 2-8); Mary Immaculate, always a virgin, wanted to submit with simplicity to this precept, even if in fact she was not obliged to do so. Archaeological excavation area south of the Temple Mount. Photo: Leobard Hinfelaar The road to Jerusalem follows the undulation of the hills with a slight slope. By the time they were close, they would have seen the Temple Mount looming on the horizon from some bend. Herod had doubled the area of ​​the esplanade by building enormous retaining walls - some four and a half meters thick - and filling the spaces with earth or a structure of underground arches. He thus formed a quadrangular platform whose sides measure 485 meters to the west, 314 to the north, 469 to the east and 280 to the south. In the center, surrounded in turn by another enclosure, stood the Temple proper: it was an imposing building, covered with white stone and gold plates, 50 meters high. The road from Bethlehem ended at the Jaffa Gate, located on the west side of the city walls. From here, several narrow streets led almost in a straight line to the Temple. Pilgrims used to enter from the south side. At the foot of the wall there were numerous shops where St. Joseph and the Madonna could buy the offer for the purification prescribed for the poor: a couple of turtle doves or pigeons. Going up one of the wide stairways and crossing what was called the Double Door, one entered the esplanade through some monumental underground corridors. The passage led into the courtyard of the Gentiles, the largest part of that gigantic surface. It was divided into two areas: the one that occupied the extensions ordered by Herod, whose external perimeter was equipped with some magnificent arcades; and the one corresponding to the extension of the previous esplanade, the walls of which had been respected. Always noisy from the shouting of the multitudes, the courtyard indiscriminately welcomed those who wished to gather there, foreigners and Israelites, pilgrims and inhabitants of Jerusalem. This noise was also mixed with the noise of the workers, who continued to work in many areas not yet finished. The enclosure of the Temple: the meeting with Simeon Dome of the Rock Mosque. Photo: Alfred Driessen St. Joseph and the Madonna did not stay there. Crossing through the gates of Hulda the wall that divided the atrium, and leaving behind the soreg - the balustrade that delimited the part forbidden to Gentiles under penalty of death -, they finally reached the temple enclosure, which was entered from the eastern side. . It was probably then, in the women's hall, that the elderly Simeon approached them. He had gone there "moved by the Spirit" (Lk 2:27), sure that day he would see the Savior, and he sought him among the multitude. "Vultum tuum, Domine, requiram!" St. Josemaría repeated at the end of his life to express his keen desire for contemplation. I would be lying if I denied that I am so moved by the desire to contemplate the face of Jesus Christ. Vultum tuum, Domine, requiram. I will seek, Lord, your face. It fills me with joy to close my eyes, and to think that the moment will come, when God wills, when I will be able to see him, not "as in a mirror or through opaque images ... but face to face" (1 Cor, 13-12) (St. Josemaría, Notes collected in a family reunion, 10 April 1974). In the end Simeon recognized the Messiah in the Child, took him in his arms and blessed God, saying: - Now you can let your servant go in peace, according to your word, because my eyes have seen your salvation. , prepared by you before all peoples - (Lk 2, 28-31). From the Temple of Solomon to the Dome of the Rock. From "National Geographic" “In this evangelical scene - Benedict XVI teaches - the mystery of the Son of the Virgin is revealed, the consecrated one of the Father, who came into the world to faithfully carry out his will (cf. Heb 10: 5-7). Simeon points to him as "light to illuminate the nations" (Lk 2:32) and announces his supreme offering to God and his final victory with a prophetic word (cf. It is the meeting of the two Testaments, Old and New. Jesus enters the ancient temple, He who is the new Temple of God: he comes to visit his people, fulfilling obedience to the Law and inaugurating the last times of salvation. (Benedict XVI, Homily in the celebration of Vespers on the feast of the Presentation of the Lord, 2-II-2011). Simeon blessed the young spouses and then turned to Our Lady: - "Behold, he is here for the fall and resurrection of many in Israel and as a sign of contradiction - and a sword will pierce your soul too - so that the thoughts of many hearts revealed. " (Lk 2, 34-35). In the environment of light and joy that surrounds the coming of the Redeemer, these words complete what God has revealed: they remind us that Jesus was born to offer a perfect and unique oblation, that of the Cross (Cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 529). As for Mary, “her role in the history of salvation does not end in the mystery of the Incarnation, but is completed in the loving and painful participation in the death and resurrection of her Son. Carrying the Son to Jerusalem, . The purification of the Virgin Model of Herod's Temple, located in the Israel Museum. Photo: Alberto Peral- Israel Tourism. Still struck by the words of Simeon, which was followed by the meeting with the prophetess Anna, St. Joseph and the Madonna will have headed to the door of Nicanore, located between the atrium of the women and that of the Israelites. They will have climbed the fifteen steps of the semicircular staircase to present themselves before the priest, who would have received the offerings and blessed the young bride with a sprinkling rite. With this ceremony the Son was redeemed and the Mother purified. You see? wrote St. Josemaría contemplating the scene, She - the Immaculate! - submits to the Law as if it were impure. My child, will you also learn from this example not to be foolish and to carry out the Holy Law of God despite all the sacrifices it requires? Purify yourself! The two of us need purification! - Atone, to find love beyond the expiation. - A love that cauterizes, that burns the dross of our soul, that is a fire that lights up the misery of our heart with a divine flame (Holy Rosary, IV joyful mystery). The Church condenses the aspects of this mystery in her liturgical prayer: "Almighty and eternal God, look upon your faithful gathered on the feast of the Presentation in the temple of your only Son made man, and allow us too to be presented to you fully renewed in the spirit ”(Cf. Roman Missal, Collect prayer on the feast of the Presentation of the Lord). The destruction of the Temple Jesus Christ had prophesied that no stone upon stone would remain of the Temple (cf. Mt 24, 2; Mk 13, 2; Lk 19, 44 and 21, 6). These words were fulfilled in 70, when it was set on fire during the siege of the Roman legions. Fifty years later, the second uprising was suppressed and the Jews from Jerusalem expelled, on pain of death, the emperor Hadrian ordered to build a new city on the ruins of the ancient one. He called her Aelia Capitolina. Monuments with the statues of Jupiter and the emperor himself were erected above the ruins of the Temple. In the 4th century, when Jerusalem became a Christian city, numerous churches and basilicas were built in the Holy Places. However, the Temple Mount remained abandoned, although Jews were allowed access once a year to pray at the foot of the western wall, in front of what is still called the Wailing Wall today. The expansion of Islam, which reached Jerusalem in 638, six years after Muhammad's death, changed everything. The first rulers focused their attention on the Temple esplanade. According to one tradition, Muhammad ascended to heaven from there. Two mosques were immediately built: one in the center, above the place that must have previously been occupied by the Holy of Holies, that of the dome of the Rocca, completed in the year 691, which still retains the original architecture; to the south, where the largest portico of Herod's time was located, the Al-Aqsa mosque, which was finished in 715, although it has undergone several important restorations throughout history. Since then, except for the brief reigns of the crusaders of the 12th and 13th centuries, Muslims have always held the right to this place: called Haram al-Sharif - the Noble Sanctuary - they consider it the third holiest place in Islam, after Mecca and Medina. Jerusalem in the time of Jesus Christ. From "National Geographic" The Acts of the Apostles have given us numerous testimonies of how the Twelve and the first Christians went to the Temple to pray and give testimony of the resurrection of Jesus before the people (cf. Acts 2, 46; 3, 1; 5, 12.20-25) . At the same time they gathered in the houses for the breaking of bread (Cfr. Acts 2, 42 and 46), that is, to celebrate the Eucharist: from the beginning, they were aware of the fact that “the age of the temple has passed. A new cult arrives in a temple not built by men. This temple is his Body, the Risen One who gathers peoples and unites them in the sacrament of his Body and Blood "(Joseph Ratzinger / Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth. From the Entry into Jerusalem to the Resurrection, p. 32) . https://opusdei.org/it-it/article/il-tempio-di-gerusalemme/ Gates of Jerusalem From: James Fleming - Biblical Archeology Review (Accordance Bible Software) LION’S GATE – The Lions Gate is also known as St. Stephen’s Gate, it is the location that Paul (Saul) witnessed the stoning of Steven. The Lion’s Gate is located in the east wall, and leads to the Via Dolorosa. Near the top of the Lion’s Gate are four figures of lions, two on the left and two on the right. Israeli paratroops from the 55th Paratroop Brigade came through this gate during the Six Day War in 1967.   HEROD’S GATE – Herod’s Gate is in East Jerusalem located on the North Wall of the Old City and leads into the Moslem quarter of the Old City.   DAMASCUS GATE – The road to Damascus once came out of this Gate, you will also notice a smaller Roman Gate to the left, it would have been the Gate the Messiah came through with the Cross. The Damascus Gate is located on the northern wall, it is the busiest and most magnificent of all Jerusalem’s gates. It consists of one large center gate originally intended for use by persons of high station, and two smaller side entrances for commoners.   NEW GATE – The New Gate is located on the Northwest corner of the old city walls. Yes, the New Gate is about 600 years old. It is the newest gate and it was remodeled in 1889.   JAFFA GATE – The Jaffa Gate is located on the Western wall of the Old City. This gate has a lot of history over the past 100 years. The Jaffa gate marked the end of the highway leading from the Jaffa coast and now leads into the Muslim and Armenian quarters. A road allows cars to enter the Old City through a wide gap in the wall between Jaffa Gate and the Citadel. This passage was originally opened in 1898 when Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany visited Jerusalem. The ruling Ottoman Turks opened it so the German Emperor would not have to dismount his carriage to enter the city. ZION GATE – The Zion Gate is located in the south part of the Old City. The Zion Gate was used by the Israel Defense Forces in 1967 to enter and capture the Old City. The stones surrounding the gate are still pockmarked by weapons fire. This entrance leads to the Jewish and Armenian quarters. You can see the bullet holes in the gate from the 6 day war in 1967.   DUNG GATE – This Gate leads into the Temple Mount Area and the Western Wall of the Temple Mount. Solomon’s stables were close to this gate. The Dung Gate is located in the south wall. Since the 2nd century, refuse has been hauled out of the city through this gate, hence the name Dung Gate.   GOLDEN GATE – You will notice is closed, The Moslems know the Jewish Messiah will come through this Gate, so they filled it with 16 feet of cement. They also know a Gadol Cohen (High Priest) can’t walk in a graveyard so they bury their dead there. The Golden Gate faces the Mount of Olives on the East wall of the Old City. The Golden Gate was constructed in the post-Byzantine period and the Muslims sealed the gate during the rule of Suleiman.   The area around the Golden Gate, above and below ground. [From Accordance Bible Software—Biblical Archeology Review Archive—January/February 1893 • Volume 9 Number 1] How to Understand the Golden Gate (Excerpt from "The Undiscovered Gate Beneath Jerusalem's Golden Gate" by James Fleming—BAR, Jan/Feb 1983 Issue) The Golden Gate is located in a turret protruding from the eastern wall of the Old City of Jerusalem. The two arched portals of the Golden Gate are now mortared closed, but if you could walk through them, you would find yourself on the Temple Mount, which is located in the southeastern corner of the Old City. In short, the southern part of the eastern wall of the Old City is also the eastern wall of the Temple Mount, and if it were open, the Golden Gate would lead into the Old City directly onto the Temple Mount. On the interior (western side) of the Gate is an elaborate structure that includes domed chambers that may be entered from steps leading down from the Temple Mount. Outside the Golden Gate is a Moslem cemetery. It covers the slope down to the Kidron Valley (also called the Valley of Jehosaphat). In the drawing [above], we see, above ground, the Golden Gate and the eastern wall. We also see several structures below ground—in particular, the sealed Lower Gate below the Golden Gate, an underground eastern wall, and a massive curving wall in front (east) of the Lower Gate. The author [James Fleming] of this article stumbled into the large tomb in front of the left portal of the Golden Gate. At the bottom of the tomb, on the face of the wall, he observed wedge-shaped stones, indicating the top of an arch. In the drawing above, the stones that he actually saw are drawn in solid lines inside the tomb. If the partial arch he saw is, in fact, complete, it forms an arched gateway exactly under the left portal of the Golden Gate. Presumably, a similar arched portal is under the right portal of the Golden Gate, thus forming a double-portaled Lower Gate. Except for the stones in the left arch of the Lower Gate that were actually observed, the Lower Gate is drawn with dotted lines to show that it is a reconstruction. [Below is one of the actual pictures taken by James Fleming inside the tomb in 1969.] The Lower Gate was built on a stone foundation and was set into an earlier city wall. The present 16th-century A.D. wall was built on top of this earlier wall. Two to three courses of this earlier wall may still be seen above ground level and are shown in the drawing as rectangular stones with rough, projecting faces and three-to six-inch margins around their edges. These stones are much larger than and different from the masonry in the wall built on top of them... Forty-one feet below ground level and 46 feet in front of the eastern wall of the Old City is a wall discovered in 1867 by Captain Charles Warren. Warren encountered the wall after he sank a shaft 143 feet east of the Golden Gate and then burrowed westward underground along bedrock toward the Temple Mount. This underground wall obstructed his progress, so he tried to chisel through it in order to reach the Old City wall. After penetrating 5.5 feet into the underground wall and failing to come out on the other side, he decided to tunnel south to try to get around the wall. After tunneling 14 feet south without coming to the end, Warren turned around and dug north for 55 feet until an earthfall in the tunnel stopped him. Shortly before he was forced to stop tunneling, Warren observed that this underground wall obstructing his progress had started to curve west toward the Golden Gate and the Old City wall. Warren further observed that the masonry in this curving underground wall resembles the masonry of the earlier Old City wall exposed above ground in courses numbered 1 and 2 on either side of the Golden Gate. It also resembles the masonry in the seven lower courses immediately north of the Straight Joint. The author uses these comparisons of masonry to try to date the earlier wall and the Lower Gate that was built into it. http://www.templemount.org/jerusalem-gates/gates.html VII The Journey of Islamic Art Dr UDAY DOKRAS Architect SRISHTI DOKRAS Islam Islamic art encompasses visual arts produced from the seventh century onwards by culturally Islamic populations. It is however, not the art of a specific religion, time, place, or of a single medium . Instead it spans some 1400 years, covers many lands and populations, and includes a range of artistic fields including architecture, calligraphy , painting, glass, ceramics , and textiles, among others. Islamic religious art differs from Christian religious art in that it is non-figural because many Muslims believe that the depiction of the human form is idolatry , and thereby a sin against God, forbidden in the Qur’an. Calligraphy and architectural elements are given important religious significance in Islamic art. Islamic art developed from many sources: Roman, early Christian art, and Byzantine styles ; Sassanian art of pre-Islamic Persia; Central Asian styles brought by various nomadic incursions, and Chinese influences appear on Islamic painting, pottery , and textiles. Islamic Art Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the seventh century onward by both Muslims and non-Muslims who lived within the territory that was inhabited by, or ruled by, culturally Islamic populations. It is thus a very difficult art to define because it spans some 1400 years, covering many lands and populations. This art is also not of a specific religion, time, place, or single medium. Instead Islamic art covers a range of artistic fields including architecture, calligraphy, painting, glass, ceramics, and textiles, among others. Islamic art is not restricted to religious art, but instead includes all of the art of the rich and varied cultures of Islamic societies. It frequently includes secular elements and elements that are forbidden by some Islamic theologians. Islamic religious art differs greatly from Christian religious art traditions. Because figural representations are generally considered to be forbidden in Islam, the word takes on religious meaning in art as seen in the tradition of calligraphic inscriptions. Calligraphy and the decoration of manuscript Qu’rans is an important aspect of Islamic art as the word takes on religious and artistic significance. Islamic architecture, such as mosques and palatial gardens of paradise, are also embedded with religious significance. While examples of Islamic figurative painting do exist, and may cover religious scenes, these examples are typically from secular contexts, such as the walls of palaces or illuminated books of poetry. Other religious art, such as glass mosque lamps, Girih tiles, woodwork, and carpets usually demonstrate the same style and motifs as contemporary secular art, although they exhibit more prominent religious inscriptions. a A calligraphic panel by Mustafa Râkim (late 18th–early 19th century) : Islamic art has focused on the depiction of patterns and Arabic calligraphy, rather than on figures, because it is feared by many Muslims that the depiction of the human form is idolatry. The panel reads: “God, there is no god but He, the Lord of His prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and the Lord of all that has been created.” Islamic art was influenced by Greek, Roman, early Christian, and Byzantine art styles, as well as the Sassanian art of pre-Islamic Persia. Central Asian styles were brought in with various nomadic incursions; and Chinese influences had a formative effect on Islamic painting, pottery, and textiles. Islam is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a book considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Allah) and the teachings of Muhammad , who is considered to be the last prophet of God. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim. Most Muslims are of two denominations: Sunni (75–90%),[7] or Shia (10–20%). Its essential religious concepts and practices include the five pillars of Islam, which are basic concepts and obligatory acts of worship, and the following of Islamic law, which touches on every aspect of life and society. The five pillars are: Shahadah (belief or confession of faith) Salat (worship in the form of prayer) Sawm Ramadan (fasting during the month of Ramadan) Zakat (alms or charitable giving) Hajj (the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime) Themes of Islamic Art There are repeating elements in Islamic art, such as the use of stylized , geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as the arabesque . The arabesque in Islamic art is often used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible and infinite nature of God. Some scholars believe that mistakes in repetitions may be intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believe only God can produce perfection. Arabesque inlays at the Mughal Agra Fort, India: Geometrical designs in repetition, know as Arabesque, are used in Islamic art to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible, and infinite nature of God. Typically, though not entirely, Islamic art has focused on the depiction of patterns and Arabic calligraphy, rather than human or animal figures, because it is believed by many Muslims that the depiction of the human form is idolatry and thereby a sin against God that is forbidden in the Qur’an. However, depictions of the human form and animals can be found in all eras of Islamic secular art. Depictions of the human form in art intended for the purpose of worship is considered idolatry and is forbidden in Islamic law, known as Sharia law. Islamic Architecture Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of styles and the principal example is the mosque. A specifically recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged soon after Muhammad’s time that incorporated Roman building traditions with the addition of localized adaptations of the former Sassanid and Byzantine models. The Islamic mosque has historically been both a place of prayer and a community meeting space . The early mosques are believed to be inspired by Muhammad’s home in Medina, which was the first mosque. Islamic Architecture Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles. The principal Islamic architectural example is the mosque. A specifically recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged soon after Muhammad’s time that incorporated Roman building traditions with the addition of localized adaptations of the former Sassanid and Byzantine models. Early Mosques The Islamic mosque has historically been both a place of prayer and a community meeting space. The early mosques are believed to be inspired by Muhammad’s home in Medina, which was the first mosque. The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) is one of the best preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques. Founded in 670, it contains all of the architectural features that distinguish early mosques: a minaret , a large courtyard surrounded by porticos , and a hypostyle prayer hall. Ottoman Mosques Ottoman mosques and other architecture first emerged in the cities of Bursa and Edirne in the 14th and 15th centuries, developing from earlier Seljuk Turk architecture, with additional influences from Byzantine, Persian, and Islamic Mamluk traditions. Dome of the mihrab (9th century) in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, also known as the Mosque of Uqba, in Kairouan, Tunisia: This is considered to be the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world. Sultan Mehmed II would later fuse European traditions in his rebuilding programs at Istanbul in the 19th century. Byzantine styles as seen in the Hagia Sophia served as particularly important models for Ottoman mosques, such as the mosque constructed by Sinan. Building reached its peak in the 16th century when Ottoman architects mastered the technique of building vast inner spaces surmounted by seemingly weightless yet incredibly massive domes , and achieved perfect harmony between inner and outer spaces, as well as articulated light and shadow. They incorporated vaults , domes, square dome plans, slender corner minarets, and columns into their mosques, which became sanctuaries of transcendently aesthetic and technical balance, as may be observed in the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey. The Blue Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey: The Blue Mosque represents the culmination of Ottoman construction with its numerous domes, slender minarets and overall harmony. Architecture flourished in the Safavid Dynasty , attaining a high point with the building program of Shah Abbas in Isfahan, which included numerous gardens, palaces (such as Ali Qapu), an immense bazaar, and a large imperial mosque. Isfahan, the capital  of both the Seljuk and Safavid dynasties, bears the most prominent samples of the Safavid architecture, such as the the Imperial Mosque, which was constructed in the years after Shah Abbas I permanently moved the capital there in 1598. Imperial Mosque, Isfahan, Iran: Isfahan, the capital of both the Seljuk and Safavid dynasties, bears the most prominent samples of the Safavid architecture. Islamic Glass Making luxury arts: Highly decorative goods made of precious materials for the wealthy classes.glassmaking: The craft or industry of producing glass. Glassmaking was the most important Islamic luxury art of the early Middle Ages. Between the 8th and early 11th centuries, the emphasis in luxury glass was on effects achieved by manipulating the surface of the glass, initially by incising into the glass on a wheel, and later by cutting away the background to leave a design in relief . Lustre painting uses techniques similar to lustreware in pottery and dates back to the 8th century in Egypt; it became widespread in the 12th century. Islamic Glass For most of the Middle Ages , Islamic luxury glass was the most sophisticated in Eurasia , exported to both Europe and China. Islam took over much of the traditional glass-producing territory of Sassanian and Ancient Roman glass. Since figurative decoration played a small part in pre-Islamic glass, the change in style was not abrupt—except that the whole area initially formed a political whole, and, for example, Persian innovations were now almost immediately taken up in Egypt. For this reason it is often impossible to distinguish between the various centers of production (of which Egypt, Syria, and Persia were the most important), except by scientific analysis of the material, which itself has difficulties. From various documentary references, glassmaking and glass-trading seems to have been a specialty of the Jewish minority. Between the 8th and early 11th centuries, the emphasis in luxury glass was on effects achieved by manipulating the surface of the glass, initially by incising into the glass on a wheel, and later by cutting away the background to leave a design in relief. The very massive Hedwig glasses, only found in Europe, but normally considered Islamic (or possibly from Muslim craftsmen in Norman Sicily), are an example of this, though they are puzzlingly late in date. These and other glass pieces probably represented cheaper versions of vessels of carved rock crystal (clear quartz)—themselves influenced by earlier glass vessels—and there is some evidence that at this period glass and hard-stone cutting were regarded as the same craft. From the 12th century, the glass industry in Persia and Mesopotamia declined, and the main production of luxury glass shifted to Egypt and Syria. Throughout this period, local centers made simpler wares, such as Hebron glass in Palestine. The Luck of Edenhall : This is a 13th-century Syrian beaker, in England since the Middle Ages. For most of the Middle Ages, Islamic glass was the most sophisticated in Eurasia, exported to both Europe and China. Mosque lamp : Produced in Egypt, c. 1360. Lustre painting Lustre painting, by techniques similar to lustreware in pottery, dates back to the 8th century in Egypt, and involves the application of metallic pigments during the glass-making process. Another technique used by artisans was decoration with threads of glass of a different color, worked into the main surface, and sometimes manipulated by combing and other effects. Gilded, painted, and enameled glass were added to the repertoire, as were shapes and motifs borrowed from other media , such as pottery and metalwork . Some of the finest work was in mosque lamps donated by a ruler or wealthy man. As decoration grew more elaborate, the quality of the basic glass decreased, and it often exhibited bubbles and a brownish-yellow tinge. Aleppo ceased to be a major center after the Mongol invasion of 1260, and Timur appears to have ended the Syrian glass industry around 1400 by carrying off the skilled workers to Samarkand. By about 1500, the Venetians were receiving large orders for mosque lamps. Some of the finest work was in mosque lamps donated by a ruler or wealthy man. As decoration grew more elaborate, the quality of the basic glass decreased, and it often exhibited bubbles and a brownish-yellow tinge. Aleppo ceased to be a major center after the Mongol invasion of 1260, and Timur appears to have ended the Syrian industry around 1400 by carrying off the skilled workers to Samarkand. By about 1500, the Venetians were receiving large orders for mosque lamps. Islamic Calligraphy Calligraphic design was omnipresent in Islamic art in the Middle Ages, and is seen in all types of art including architecture and the decorative arts. In a religion where figural representations are considered an act of idolatry , it is no surprise that the word and its artistic representation became an important aspect in Islamic art. The earliest form of Arabic calligraphy is Kufic script .Besides Quranic verses, other inscriptions include verses of poetry, and inscriptions recording ownership or donation. In a religion where figural representations are considered an act of idolatry, it is no surprise that  the word and its artistic representation became an important aspect in Islamic art. The most important religious text in Islam is the Quran, which is believed to be the word of God. There are many examples of calligraphy and calligraphic inscriptions pertaining to verses from the Quran in Islamic arts. 9th century Quran: This early Quran demonstrates the Kufic script, noted for its angular form and as the earliest form of Arabic calligraphy . The earliest form of Arabic calligraphy is Kufic script, which is noted for its angular form.  Arabic is read from right to left and only the consonants are written.  The black ink in the image above from a 9th century Quran marks the consonants for the reader.  The red dots that are visible on the page note the vowels. However, calligraphic design is not limited to the book in Islamic art. Calligraphy is found in several different types of art, such as architecture. The interior of the Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem, circa 691), for example, features calligraphic inscriptions of verses from the Quran as well as from additional sources. As in Europe in the Middle Ages , religious exhortations such as Quranic verses may be included in secular objects, especially coins, tiles, and metalwork . Interior view of the Dome of the Rock : The interior of The Dome of the Rock features many calligraphic inscriptions, from both the Quran and other sources; it demonstrates the importance of calligraphy in Islamic art and its use in several different media. Calligraphic inscriptions were not exclusive to the Quran, but also included verses of poetry or recorded ownership or donation. Calligraphers were highly regarded in Islam, which reinforces the importance of the word and its religious and artistic significance. Islamic Book Painting Manuscript painting in the late medieval Islamic world reached its height in Persia, Syria, Iraq, and the Ottoman Empire. The art of the Persian book was born under the Ilkhanid dynasty and encouraged by the patronage of aristocrats for large illuminated manuscripts . Islamic manuscript painting witnessed its first golden age in the 13th century when it was influenced by the Byzantine visual vocabulary and combined with Mongol facial types from 12th-century book frontispieces. Under the rule of the Safavids in Iran (1501 to 1786), the art of manuscript illumination achieves new heights, in particular in the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp, an immense copy of Ferdowsi’s epic poem that contains more than 250 paintings. The medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat were some of the earliest coffee-table books and among the first Islamic art to mirror daily life. Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include the two books of festivals, one from the end of the 16th century and the other from the era of Sultan Murad III. Mongols: An umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan in the 13th century. illuminated manuscripts: A book in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia), and miniature illustrations. miniature: An illustration in an ancient or medieval illuminated manuscript. muraqqa: An album in book form containing Islamic miniature paintings and specimens of Islamic calligraphy, normally from several different sources, and perhaps other matter. Maqamat: The plural for Maqāma, an Arabic literary genre of rhymed prose with intervals of poetry that often ruminates on spiritual topics. Islamic Book Painting Book painting in the late medieval Islamic world reached its height in Persia, Syria, Iraq, and the Ottoman Empire . The art form blossomed across the different regions and was inspired by a range of cultural reference points. The evolution of book painting first began in the 13th century, when the Mongols, under the leadership of Genghis Khan, swept through the Islamic world. Upon the death of Genghis Khan, his empire was divided among his sons and dynasties formed: the Yuan in China, the Ilkhanids in Iran, and the Golden Horde in northern Iran and southern Russia. The Ilkhanids The Ilkhanids were a rich civilization that developed under the little khans in Iran. Architectural activity intensified as the Mongols became sedentary yet retained traces of their nomadic origins, such as the north–south orientation of buildings. Persian, Islamic, and East Asian traditions melded together during this period and a process of Iranization took place, in which construction according to previously established types, such as the Iranian-plan mosques , was resumed. The art of the Persian book was born under the Ilkhanid dynasty and encouraged by the patronage of aristocrats for large illuminated manuscripts, such as the Jami’ al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani. Islamic book painting witnessed its first golden age in the 13th century, mostly within Syria and Iraq. Miniatures The tradition of the Persian miniature (a small painting on paper) developed during this period, and it strongly influenced the Ottoman miniature of Turkey and the Mughal miniature in India. Because illuminated manuscripts were an art of the court, and not seen in public, constraints on the depiction of the human figure were much more relaxed and the human form is represented with frequency within this medium. Influence from the Byzantine visual vocabulary (blue and gold coloring, angelic and victorious motifs, symbology of drapery) was combined with Mongol facial types seen in 12th-century book frontispieces. Chinese influences in Islamic book painting include the early adoption of the vertical format natural to a book. Motifs such as peonies, clouds, dragons, and phoenixes were adapted from China as well, and incorporated into manuscript illumination. Persian Miniature The largest commissions of illustrated books were usually classics of Persian poetry, such as the Shahnameh. Under the rule of the Safavids in Iran (1501 to 1786), the art of manuscript illumination achieved new heights. The most noteworthy example of this is the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp, an immense copy of Ferdowsi’s epic poem that contains more than 250 paintings. The Court of Gayumars, from the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp: Illuminated manuscripts of the Shahnameh were often commissioned by royal patrons. Maqamat and Albums The medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat that were copied and illustrated by Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti, were some of the earliest coffee-table books. They were among the first texts in Islamic art to hold a mirror to daily life, portraying humorous stories and showing little adherence to prior pictorial traditions. In the 17th century a new type of painting developed based around the album (muraqqa). The albums were the creations of connoisseurs who bound together single sheets of paintings, drawings, or calligraphy by various artists; they were sometimes excised from earlier books and other times created as independent works. The paintings of Reza Abbasi figure largely in this new form of book art. The form depicts one or two larger figures, typically idealized beauties in a garden setting, and often use the grisaille techniques previously used for background border paintings . Mughal and Ottoman Manuscripts The Mughals and Ottomans both produced lavish manuscripts of more recent history with the autobiographies of the Mughal emperors and purely military chronicles of Turkish conquests. Portraits of rulers developed in the 16th century, and later in Persia, where they became very popular. Mughal portraits, normally in profile, are very finely drawn in a realist style , while the best Ottoman ones are vigorously stylized . Album miniatures typically featured picnic scenes, portraits of individuals, or (in India especially) animals, or idealized youthful beauties of either sex. Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include the two books of festivals, one from the end of the 16th century and the other from the era of Sultan Murad III. These books contain numerous illustrations and exhibit a strong Safavid influence, perhaps inspired by books captured in the course of the Ottoman–Safavid wars of the 16th century. Islamic Ceramics Islamic art has notable achievements in ceramics that reached heights unmatched by other cultures.The first Islamic opaque glazes date to around the 8th century, and another significant contribution was the development of stonepaste ceramics in 9th century Iraq. Lusterwares with iridescent colors were either invented or considerably developed in Persia and Syria from the 9th century onward. The techniques, shapes, and decorative motifs of Chinese ceramics were admired and emulated by Islamic potters, especially after the Mongol and Timurid invasions. The Hispano–Moresque style emerged in the 8th century, with more refined production happening later, presumably by Muslim potters working in areas reconquered by Christian kingdoms. Hispano–Moresque style: A style of Islamic pottery created in Al-Andaluz, or Muslim Spain, which continued to be produced under Christian rule in styles that blended Islamic and European elements. lusterware: A type of pottery or porcelain having an iridescent metallic glaze. glaze: The vitreous coating of pottery or porcelain, or a transparent or semi-transparent layer of paint. ceramics: Inorganic, nonmetallic solids created by the action of heat and their subsequent cooling. Most common ceramics are crystalline and the earliest uses of ceramics were in pottery. Islamic Ceramics Islamic art has notable achievements in ceramics, both in pottery and tiles for buildings, which reached heights unmatched by other cultures . Early pottery had usually been unglazed, but a tin-opacified glazing technique was developed by Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century. Another significant contribution was the development of stonepaste ceramics, originating from 9th century Iraq. The first industrial complex for glass and pottery production was built in Ar-Raqqah, Syria, in the 8th century. Other centers for innovative pottery in the Islamic world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600), and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550). Lusterware Lusterware is a type of pottery or porcelain that has an iridescent metallic glaze. Luster first began as a painting technique in glassmaking , which was then translated to pottery in Mesopotamia in the 9th century. 10th century dish: Islamic art has very notable achievements in ceramics, both in pottery and tiles for walls, which reached heights unmatched by other cultures. This dish is from East Persia or Central Asia. The techniques, shapes, and decorative motifs of Chinese ceramics were admired and emulated by Islamic potters, especially after the Mongol and Timurid invasions. Until the Early Modern period, Western ceramics had little influence, but Islamic pottery was highly sought after in Europe, and was often copied. An example of this is the albarello, a type of earthenware jar originally designed to hold apothecary ointments and dry drugs. The development of this type of pharmacy jar had its roots in the Islamic Middle East. Hispano–Moresque examples were exported to Italy, inspiring the earliest Italian examples, from 15th century Florence. Hispano–Moresque Style The Hispano–Moresque style emerged in Al-Andaluz, or Muslim Spain, in the 8th century, under Egyptian influence. More refined production happened much later, presumably by Muslim potters who worked in the areas reconquered by the Christian kingdoms. The Hispano–Moresque style mixed Islamic and European elements in its designs and was exported to neighboring European countries. The style introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe: Glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze. Painting in metallic lusters. Ottoman Iznik pottery produced most of the finest ceramics of the 16th century—tiles and large vessels boldly decorated with floral motifs that were influenced by Chinese Yuan and Ming ceramics. These were still in earthenware, since porcelain was not made in Islamic countries until modern times. The medieval Islamic world also painted pottery with animal and human imagery . Examples are found throughout the medieval Islamic world, particularly in Persia and Egypt. Islamic Textiles The most important textile produced in the Medieval and Early Modern Islamic Empires was the carpet. The production and trade of textiles pre-dates Islam , and had long been important to Middle Eastern cultures and cities, many of which flourished due to the Silk Road . When the Islamic dynasties formed and grew more powerful they gained control over textile production in the region, which was arguably the most important craft of the era. textile arts: The production of arts and crafts that use plant, animal, or synthetic fibers to create objects. Islam and the Textile Arts The textile arts refer to the production of arts and crafts that use plant, animal, or synthetic fibers to create objects. These objects can be for everyday use, or they can be decorative and luxury items. The production and trade of textiles pre-dates Islam, and had long been important to Middle Eastern cultures and cities, many of which flourished due to the Silk Road. When the Islamic dynasties formed and grew more powerful they gained control over textile production in the region, which was arguably the most important craft of the era. The most important textile produced in Medieval and Early Modern Islamic Empires was the carpet. The Ottoman Empire and Carpet Production The art of carpet weaving was particularly important in the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman state was founded by Turkish tribes in northwestern Anatolia in 1299 and became an empire in 1453 after the momentous conquest of Constantinople. Stretching across Asia, Europe, and Africa, the Empire was vast and long lived, lasting until 1922 when the monarchy was abolished in Turkey. Within the Ottoman Empire, carpets were immensely valued as decorative furnishings and for their practical value . They were used not just on floors but also as wall and door hangings, where they provided additional insulation. These intricately knotted carpets were made of silk, or a combination of silk and cotton, and were often rich in religious and other symbolism. Hereke silk carpets, which were made in the coastal town of Hereke, were the most valued of the Ottoman carpets because of their fine weave. The Hereke carpets were typically used to furnish royal palaces. Manial Palace of Prince Mohammed Ali. Syrian Hal(LEFT) Persian Carpets The Iranian Safavid Empire (1501–1786) is distinguished from the Mughal and Ottoman dynasties by the Shia faith of its shahs, which was the majority Islamic denomination in Persia. Safavid art is contributed to several aesthetic traditions, particularly to the textile arts. In the sixteenth century, carpet weaving evolved from a nomadic and peasant craft to a well-executed industry that used specialized design and manufacturing techniques on quality fibers such as silk. The carpets of Ardabil, for example, were commissioned to commemorate the Safavid dynasty and are now considered to be the best examples of classical Persian weaving, particularly for their use of graphical perspective. Textiles became a large export, and Persian weaving became one of the most popular imported goods of Europe. Islamic carpets were a luxury item in Europe and there are several examples of European Renaissance paintings that document the presence of Islamic textiles in European homes during that time. Henry VIII’s Amazing Collection It will come as no surprise to most people that Henry VIII was no slouch when it came to acquiring expensive things, and carpet was no exception. When most of his contemporary Tudors were slumming it with rushes (or occasionally rush matting), he was making an investment in pile carpet. In those days the word carpet encompassed tapestries, tablecloths, upholstery and so forth - anything used to brighten up the banqueting hall. Upon his death, Henry had amassed over 400 turkish carpets - at least 60 of them seized from the disgraced Cardinal Wolsey, who purchased them at a cost of 600 ducats - a huge sum at the time. You can see this in his numerous portraits - he is often shown standing on luxurious floorcoverings in the Ottomon style, also known as ‘Holbein’ after Hans Holbein the painter, who made a point of including them in his art - not very noteworthy to the modern observer, but to the Tudor eye this was a clear indication of class and status, showing off Henry’s wealth for all to see. The Ardabil Carpet, Persia, 1540: The Ardabil Carpet is the finest example of 16th century Persian carpet production.RIGHT Javanese court batik: The development and refinement of Indonesian batik cloth was closely linked to Islam. Indonesian Batik Islamic textile production, however, was not limited to the carpet. Royal factories were founded for the purpose of textile production that also included cloth and garments. The development and refinement of Indonesian batik cloth was closely linked to Islam. The Islamic prohibition on certain images encouraged batik design to become more abstract and intricate. Realistic depictions of animals and humans are rare on traditional batik, but serpents, puppet-shaped humans, and the Garuda of pre-Islamic mythology are all commonplace. Although its existence in Indonesia pre-dates Islam, batik reached its high point in the royal Muslim courts, such as Mataram and Yogyakarta, whose Muslim rulers encouraged and patronized batik production. Today, batik has undergone a revival, and cloths are used for other purposes besides wearing, such as wrapping the Quran. VIII The Art and Architecture of Al ZAYED GRAND MOSQUE at Abu Dhabi جَامِع ٱلشَّيْخ زَايِد ٱلْكَبِيْر‎ Dr Uday Dokras,PhD Stockholm SWEDEN SRISHTI DOKRAS,Visiting Architect-Dubai,Australia& USA 3600 PANORAMIC VIEW AT ---https://www.360cities.net/image/sheikh-zayed-mosque INTRODUCTION The United Arab Emirates has a diverse and multicultural society. Emirati culture mainly revolves around the religion of Islam and traditional Arab, and Bedouin culture. Being a highly cosmopolitan society, the UAE has a diverse and vibrant culture. Traditional Architecture in UAE is mainly in the form of vernacular style. The structure which has locally existing resources or/and traditions ideas to address the construction is called Vernacular architecture. This kind of architecture show the environmental, cultural and historical context of the building in which it exists. It is usually fundamental and simple, but some has a valuable design. UAE being a new country that started in 1971, and before that only desert, one cannot say that it had to stay as a desert to remain a traditional country. And because it is a rich country it has faster modernizing movements that grabs all the world attention. It also give them an idea that we want to change our country from sand to skyscrapers. For this reason some say that the new projects have no UAE identity, and they explain that by the country overview that it has so many tall modernize buildings. Here an important question must be asked to these people, UAE did not have buildings in its history, how would they want these projects to have UAE style and identity? UAE buildings have their unique identity but I mean there is nothing that we compare buildings with to say that we are coping others! And because UAE did not have any tall buildings before does not mean it cannot have know! Second, they say that our buildings have many influence, its normal because as I mention we are a  multicultural society! But this also do not mean that we do not have our unique traditional design and Islamic architecture. The influence of Islamic and Arab culture on the country architecture is very prominent. In this Blog, I will try to show pictures of constructions in the UAE that has a traditional or/and an Islamic design, but I will focus more on Abu-Dhabi and Dubai cities because both cities receives most of the criticize   The traditional architecture of UAE is basically the result of two main factors: the hot and humid climate and people’s social lives and religion. I will mention two most known elements to retain this hot climate. The first architectural elements for a constructions in the country to sustain and maintain its hot weather is the traditional architectural wind-towers, called in Arabic barajils. Houses used this in the early twentieth century as simple air condition. Wind-towers have four open sides, each of which is hollowed into a concave v-shape, which deflects the wind down, cooling the rooms below. Water thrown on the floor beneath the tower cools the house as the water evaporates. When cool air is not necessary, the vents can be closed. The need of  Wind-towers is not necessary nowadays because of technology, but yet you can find old wind-towers design in new houses just for its beautiful design.   The second tradition elements for the hot weather is that buildings were constructed close to each other and have narrow alleys between them, called in Arabic sikkas. These alleys are shaded during the day because of the walls of the houses or the tall buildings. People benefit from these narrow alleys because they assist the fresh winds from the north to pass to circulate freely, and it also create an easier transportation between these buildings.The second part of the tradition elements is the effect people’s social lives and Islamic religion on the vernacular architecture of the country. This effect concluded the reason why the rooms of the home generally faces the courtyard. The exterior walls of these houses have with a small amount of windows or some ventilation holes high up in the wall. This is because of  modesty and privacy that  people’s social lives and their religion advance. Islamic architecture has covered a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam by the prophet Mohamed to our present day. It has influenced the design and construction of buildings and structures inside the Islamic culture. The standard architectural types of Islamic architecture are; the Tomb, the Mosque, the Fort and the Palace. There is never one type of decoration for one type of building or object; on the contrary, there are decorative principles that are pan-Islamic and applicable to all types of buildings and objects at all times.(Islamic Art). Islamic architecture elements of decoration are Calligraphy, Geometry, Floral patterns, and water. Calligraphy is considered one of the most important of the Islamic arts, its words may be a quote from the Qur’an, lines of poetry, or names and dates.    Another Islamic architecture element is geometric patterns, it is to an extend complex and sophistic. These patterns demonstrate the Islamic “interest in repetition, symmetry and continuous generation of pattern”.  (The Concept Of Decoration in Islamic architecture)In addition to the above elements, the floral patterns is also an Islamic architectures element. It represent nature, such as flowers, leaves, and trees. They are used as the motifs for the decoration of textiles, objects and buildings.   Last but not least is the water element, it reflect architecture and multiply the decorative themes and emphasizing the visual axes. It is usually in hot Islamic climates, water is found in courtyard pools and fountains cools as it decorates. (Dubai Architecture: Burj Dubai) This picture show Burj Dubai unique design that was inspired from desert flowers. The second is the Palm island which in also located in Dubai. It is one of the world largest human-made islands and is built on the coast of the Dubai emirate. Its shape is designed as a date palm tree and every branch has its individual name. Each branch of the island has a name of date kind, which gives others a chance to know their kinds and names. The island have luxurious hotels, residential villas, apartments, ports, water theme parks, restaurants, shopping malls, etc. Another project that I will point out is the most expensive hotel ever built, the Emirates Palace. It is located in the Cornish street in the emirate of Abu-Dhabi. This hotel is full of luxury, even its design! It was designed in a modern tradition design that shows the tradition elements in its exterior look. In addition to that it has some beautiful Islamic architecture elements, as the tombs, patterns, and windows design The forth project is Burj Al-Arab five star hotel, it was built in the shape of a traditional dhow. The British architect who designed it is Tom Wright, he said about it design: “The client wanted a building that would become an iconic or symbolic statement for Dubai; this is very similar to Sydney with its Opera House, or Paris with the Eiffel Tower. It needed to be a building that would become synonymous with the name of the country.” (Construction). I think Tom Wright did what was asked from him, Burj Al-Arab now is a synonymous of Dubai city. Its is also in all dubai car number plates. The last but not the least modern and famous project is Sheikh Zayed mosque in Abu-Dhabi. The mosque is named after the first president and founder of the UAE, who was buried at the Mosque site after his death on 03 November 2004. However the officially open of the mosque was in the Islamic month of Ramadan in 2007. The mosque is also called the Grand Mosque because of its huge size of the mosque. The designer is a Syrian architect called Yusef Abdelki (Yousef Abdelky). The design was inspired by Mughal and Moorish mosque architecture and its minarets classically Arab. (Sheikh Zayed Mosque“Grand Mosque”) This impressive and inspiring Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque is one of the world’s largest mosques and the only one that captures the unique interactions between Islam and other world cultures. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, the Founder of the UAE, had a very specific vision for this mosque: to incorporate architectural styles from different Muslim civilisations and celebrate cultural diversity by creating a haven that is truly welcoming and inspirational in its foundation. The mosque’s architects were British, Italian and Emirati, with design ideas borrowed from parts of Turkey, Morocco, Pakistan and Egypt, among other Islamic countries. The end result is a breathtaking, gleaming architectural marvel. The welcoming mosque’s open-door policy encourages visitors from around the world, from families to groups, solo travellers to celebrants, to not only witness its beauty but also gain a deeper understanding of the emirate’s cultural beliefs in a space that encourages open dialogue. The largest mosque in Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque can welcome up to 55,000 worshippers and visitors every day. Completed in just over a decade, the mosque was built to embody Islam’s foremost message of peace and tolerance and welcome people of all beliefs. Its 1,096 amethyst-and-jasper-embedded columns, 82 white marble domes, reflective pools, gold-plated Swarovski chandeliers, iconic prayer hall, and courtyard featuring one of the largest marble mosaic artworks in the world, make it a stunning place to explore and take photographs. The mosque holds a Guinness World Record for the largest hand-woven carpet and also boasts one of the largest chandeliers in a mosque. Don’t miss the calligraphy encircling the hollows of its domes, etched with verses from the Quran and painted with gold leaf in An-Naskh lettering. Revival for Emirati mosques It is hard to believe in a country where minarets dot the skyline. But the oil boom wiped away many traditional mosques. Now guidelines on new constructions are set to herald a rebirth of Emirati tradition, writes Anna Zacharias Worshippers at the Sheikh Mohammed bin Salem Al Qassimi mosque in old Ras Al Khaimah. Early Emirati mosques were not so different from the Prophet Mohammed’s mosque in Medina. Antonie Robertson / The National In recent months specialists have scoured the UAE on a mission to discover what makes a mosque Emirati.In a country where minarets punctuate the skyline, it does not sound like a difficult task. But the mosques of the pre-oil era have disappeared long ago from Abu Dhabi’s cityscape.The hunt for the quintessential Emirati mosque took Abu Dhabi’s Mosque Development Committee to pearling settlements on the West Region islands, to palm orchards in Al Ain and to a mountain village at the edge of the Indian Ocean. When Abu Dhabi Executive Council decreed that all new mosques in the emirate should be built in a traditional Emirati vernacular, it fell to the Urban Planning Council (UPC) to define what a traditional Emirati mosque is, and what it could be.The council’s Mosque Development Committee made a survey of 10 traditional mosques to create a framework for the design of all future Abu Dhabi mosques. The guidelines, announced in June, will revive Emirati mosque architecture: simple and bold. Emirati mosques without ornamentation, rectangular in shape, mute in colour and flat-roofed, built to symbolise modesty before God and offer a clean place for prayer and reflection in an unforgiving environment. “What we’re striving for is to say really in 100 years time people will look back and say this is an Emirati mosque,” said Ali Al Zahid, a senior associate planner at the Mosque Development Committee. “It’s about leaving a legacy behind; it’s about researching historic built form and trying to manifest that in existing and future architecture.” At a local level, the decree is part of a larger initiative to regulate mosque distribution, design and maintenance for a growing population. Surveyors collected photos, blue prints, satellite imagery and historic maps and worked with researchers from the Abu Dhabi Tourism and Culture Authority, the Emirates Centre of Strategic Studies and Research and the National Centre for Documentation and Research. “I think the UPC were very clear from the beginning that although they wanted to have forward-looking architecture and use the best of modern materials, they also wanted very much to try to create a structure that would have all the surviving bits of Emirati architecture to be carried forward,” said Peter Hellyer, a historical consultant on the project and a columnist at The National. The committee found that until late last century, Emirati mosques were not so different from the Prophet Mohammed’s mosque in Medina.The traditional Emirati mosque followed a spatial progression from the profane to the spiritual: a well-defined boundary wall with a clear entry portal, an inner courtyard (sahan), an arcade (riwaq), a prayer hall and prayer niche (mihrab) to indicate the direction of the Kaaba.In the tradition of early Arabian and East African mosques, Emirati mosques usually lacked a minaret. Minarets, first used in Damascus, were needed in dense urban populations but unnecessary in the small communities of the Gulf. Instead, people used prayer platforms.Minarets that did exist were short and stout, cylindrical or tapered in body, with round, pyramidal or conical shaped tops. Indigenous materials: Mosques were built with materials from the sea, desert and mountain: gypsum and limestone, mudbrick and stone, beach stone and coral, date palm fibres. Mosques had a modular design determined by the span of palm trees or imported mangrove poles. One example is Delma island’s Al Muhannadi Mosque, which is based on a 3.6 metre module, the average height of a local date palm. The constraint posed by roofing poles is an aspect of traditional architecture that dates back to at least 2,700 years to the Columned Hall at Muweilah in Sharjah.This limitation was only overcome in recent decades. As such, the same ratios will be applied to Abu Dhabi’s future mosques. Any unit length can be used as long as the ratios are followed.Mosques held traces of the country’s maritime and Indian Ocean heritage. They were crafted with coral stone and ceilings were often built with mangrove poles from East Africa. The Muhannadi Mosque that served the Delma Island pearling community had sailing ships carved into its crumbling plaster. Yet for the most part, the mosques had little ornamentation. Columns had minimal detailing, plain niches held Qurans, and mihrabs were simple, with a vaulted or domed ceiling. Decorative screens provided ventilation and reduced glare. The framework takes composition and traditional ornamentation, or lack thereof, into account. It will allow for an “infinite variety” of designs, from traditional to contemporary, that employ these spatial components, character and understated design. “We’ve moved away out of proscribing a set design and the architects can be as creative as they want,” says Mr Al Zahid. “You can come up with any number of designs and that’s what we want to encourage. It’s not about copying and pasting.” New mosques, like the region’s first mosques, will make use of scarce resources. The Government’s Estidama standards for sustainability are integrated into the new requirements. Designers will be given a choice of credits that allows them to achieve a two-pearl Estidama rating. This is particularly important in water conservation, because mosques’ ablution requires more water than any public building.New mosques will have automatic faucets and water meters. To save electricity, large Friday mosques will be partitioned and partially closed during the week. “The whole concept of sustainability is embedded in the teachings of Islam and what we’re doing is reinforcing that in the modern architecture and lifestyle,” says Mr Al Zahid. New mosques will have prayer areas reserved for women.Two new model mosques that are in the works will be among the emirate’s new mosques that seek and recognise national identity through art and design. Mosques were the first buildings to be replaced with the advent of wealth and oil in the UAE, and mosque construction proliferated from the 1970s.“With the coming of the oil and money there was enormous rebuilding of everything,” writes Dr Geoffrey King, an expert in Islamic art and archaeology at the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London, in The Historical Mosque Tradition of the Coasts of Abu Dhabi.“It was religious piety, not destructiveness; people thought they should have better mosques for Muslims. But the result was that between the coming of the oil and the mid-1980s, almost everything just disappeared. All of old Abu Dhabi was just swept away.”Post-oil mosques were built and designed by expatriate workers in traditions of a dozen homelands, making the UAE mosque design one of great diversity and fancy. Rich Islamic architectural heritages were incorporated into the UAE’s rising cities: Mamluk and Mughal, Ottoman and Umayyad.Mosque expenditure grew with the nation and by the millennium, monolithic mosques started to appear on the skyline. Built in the name of Gulf royals and wealthy patrons, these structures replicated Islamic architectural masterpieces. Kuwait’s Dh16million Al Sadeeqa Fatimatul Zahra Mosque was a smaller likeness of the 17th century Taj Mahal mausoleum, transformed into mosque form with Quranic inscriptions. Dubai’s Al Farooq Omar ibn Al Khattab mosque, an exact replica of Istanbul’s Blue Mosque by the business man Khalaf Al Habtoor, opened in 2011. Fujairah’s skyline is dominated by the Sheikh Zayed Mosque, another Ottoman inspiration with an Umayad interior. Abu Dhabi’s Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque tours emphasis the mosque’s multicultural story: Iranian carpet, German gold gilded chandeliers and British prayer clocks. Now in its fifth decade, the UAE has pushed for a reawakening of national identity and heritage. The shift can be seen across the Arabian Gulf. Weeks after the Abu Dhabi announcement in June, Qatar announced that all of its new mosques must use one of 19 designs based on its traditional architecture. Abu Dhabi’s existing mosques will be maintained and can be extended in keeping with their existing architectural style. They will remain a symbol of the Emirates’ multiculturalism before the renaissance of Emirati tradition.1 Features of the Arab and Islamic heritage Some of the distinct features of the Arab and Islamic heritage are hospitality, tolerance, family cohesion and solidarity among members of the society along with honour and pride associated with being part of this heritage. Validation of the UAE's heritage The city of Al Ain in the emirate of Abu Dhabi is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The cultural sites include six oases and the archaeological sites of Bida bint Saud, Hafeet and Hili. Read more about Al Ain, a UNESCO World Heritage site. The emirate of Sharjah has gained two prestigious titles for bearing the torch of the UAE's culture and heritage. In 1998, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) named it 'The Cultural Capital of the Arab World'. In 2014, it was named the capital of Islamic culture for 2014 by Organisation of Islamic Countries. Efforts of the UAE Government in preserving the heritage Government entities have taken and continue to take several measure not only to preserve the heritage but also to create awareness about it. It has achieved this through: holding festivals and events forming clubs establishing heritage villages establishing and maintaining museums constructing and maintaining mosques. Festivals and events Annual festivals such as Qasr Al Hosn Festival, Sheikh Zayed Heritage Festival, Sultan bin Zayed Heritage Festival, Sharjah Heritage Days bring alive the UAE's heritage and gives the chance for the new generation to experience and value it. These festivals are very popular and draw huge crowds. Clubs Clubs such as Emirates Heritage Club and Juma Al Majid Center for Culture and Heritage conduct research on the heritage and organise activities to promote awareness about the heritage. Heritage villages Heritage villages are a complex of structures that include traditional houses, schools, markets and public spaces. It is like a replica of structures in the olden days. All emirates have at least one heritage village. The heritage villages offer a peek into the different aspects of the lives of Emiratis in the olden times. Read about the heritage villages in: Museums Museums in the UAE have contributed a lot towards preservation of the culture of the UAE. There are several museums in the UAE. They display artwork, rare pictures, utensils, armoury, maritime equipment, currencies and other items from the olden times. Museums that have opened in original structures that served as forts or palaces in the olden days reflect the heritage of the UAE in a unique way.  New museums Several new museums such as The Louvre Abu Dhabi, Guggenheim Abu Dhabi, Zayed National Museum and Maritime Museum are coming up in Saadiyat Cultural District of Abu Dhabi. Each of these museums will have a state of the art building. The Louvre and Guggenheim will exhibit unique collections from all over the world. Constructing and maintaining mosques General Authority of Islamic Affairs and Endowments is the federal authority responsible for constructing mosques in the UAE. There are about 4818 mosques in the UAE open all day to call for piety, righteousness and peace. Al Bidya Mosque in Fujairah is the oldest mosque in the UAE. Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in Abu Dhabi reflects the grandeur of the Mamluk, Ottoman and Fatimid architectural styles. Late Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, the founding President of the UAE, was laid to rest in the complex of the mosque. Jumeirah Mosque in Dubai was built entirely from white stone in the medieval Fatimid tradition, with towering twin minarets framing a large central dome. It can hold up to 1,200 worshippers. All these three mosques are open for visits by non-Muslims. Islamic Architecture: Parts of a Mosque A mosque (masjid in Arabic) is a place of worship in Islam. Although prayers can be said privately, either indoors or outdoors, nearly every community of Muslims dedicates a space or building for congregational prayer. The main architectural components of a mosque are practical in purpose and provide both continuity and a sense of tradition among Muslims worldwide. There is a great deal of variation among mosques around the world. Building materials and design depend on the culture, heritage, and resources of each local Muslim community. However, there are a number of features that nearly all mosques have in common. Minaret A minaret is a slim tower with balconies or open galleries from which a mosque's muezzin calls the faithful to prayer five times each day. Minarets are distinctive traditional features of many mosques, though they vary in height, style, and number. Minarets may be square, round, hexagonal, octagonal, or even spiral and they are usually covered with a pointed roof. The word minaret derives from the Arabic word for "lighthouse" or "beacon." Dome Many mosques are decorated with a dome rooftop, particularly in the Middle East. In some traditions, the dome symbolizes the vault of heaven. The interior of a dome is usually highly decorated with floral, geometric and other patterns. The main dome of a mosque usually covers the main prayer hall of the structure. Some mosques may have secondary domes, as well.  Prayer Hall Inside, the central area for prayer is called a musalla (literally, "place for prayer").  It is deliberately left quite bare. No furniture is needed, as worshippers sit, kneel, and bow directly on the floor. There may be a few chairs or benches to assist elderly or disabled worshippers who have difficulty with mobility. Along the walls and pillars of the prayer hall, there are usually bookshelves to hold copies of the Qur'an, wooden book stands (rihal), other religious reading material, and individual prayer rugs. Beyond this, the prayer hall is otherwise a large, open space. Mihrab The mihrab is an ornamental, semi-circular indentation in the wall of the prayer room of a mosque that marks the direction of the qiblah—the direction facing Mecca which Muslims face during prayer. Mihrabs vary in size and color, but they are usually shaped like a doorway and decorated with mosaic tiles and calligraphy to make space stand out. Minbar The minbar is a raised platform in the front area of a mosque prayer hall, from which sermons or speeches are given. The minbar is usually made of carved wood, stone, or brick. It includes a short staircase leading to the top platform, which is sometimes covered by a small dome. Ablution Area Ablutions (ritual washing or wudu) are part of the preparation for Muslim prayer. Sometimes a space for ablutions is set aside in a restroom or washroom. Alternatively, there may be a fountain-like structure along a wall or in a courtyard. Running water is available, often with small stools or seats to make it easier to sit down to wash the feet. Prayer Rugs During Islamic prayers, worshippers bow, kneel, and prostrate on the ground in humility before God. The only requirement in Islam is that prayers be performed in an area that is clean. Rugs and carpets have become a traditional way to ensure the cleanliness of the place of prayer, and to provide some cushioning on the floor. Traditional prayer rugs include an arch-shaped symbol at one end. This symbol represents the mihrab and must point toward Mecca during prayer. In mosques, the prayer area is often covered with large prayer carpets. Smaller prayer rugs may be stacked on a nearby shelf for individual use. Shoe Shelf The shoe shelf is a practical feature of many mosques worldwide. Muslims remove their shoes before entering a mosque in order to preserve the cleanliness of the prayer space. Rather than dumping piles of shoes near the door, shelves are strategically placed near mosque entrances so that visitors can neatly organize, and later find their shoes.2 Emirati architects like Ahmed Al-Ali from X Architects and Hamad Khoory from Loci, Bukhash are currently looking at ways of rethinking traditional architecture that makes sense for Dubai’s local context and incorporates modernist principles. Having completed a number of residential projects over the last five years with his firm, Bukhash has found himself questioning factors like having a place in the home that faces the Qibla to make praying for Muslim residents a little simpler or removing balconies from homes, since courtyards are preferred among certain populations. “I believe if you can get the residential typology right, you can adapt that to any type of other typology,” he said, “such as office buildings or cultural projects. [You need to get] that principle right, which unfortunately, we still haven’t perfected at this stage. If you visit the residential areas in Dubai, you will find ‘Greek-Roman’ typologies of architecture next to very modern buildings. Both are following trends, and timeless architecture should not be about following trends.“Timeless architecture is context-driven. For example, balconies? No one uses them in the local context. And you still have a lot of glazing or decorative elements on the outside of buildings, but if you look at the traditional houses in the older Al Fahidi area, they are very bland on the outside, and on the inside they’re the reverse – the extravagance and elegance is on the inside. We follow similar principles at Archidentity. We believe that the direction that architecture in the UAE should be headed towards is a more timeless, contextual architecture.” While at Archidentity, Bukhash is working on a number of residential and hospitality projects, like townhouses in Jumeirah, private villas and a three-star hotel, his role in the Dubai Creative Clusters Authority allows him to review new master developments launched by Dubai Holding and Meraas, from the Dubai Creek Harbour project to the Last Exits along Sheikh Zayed Road located between the emirates. “My hope is to connect every single cluster in Dubai, creating a unified framework,” Bukhash said. “At the time of the country’s boom, different master developers were established in order to allow for the parallel development of the city at a high rate, which was very successful. I think now, though, it’s time to link them all together. And the development of public transportation and the metro is a good stepping stone in order to encourage a walkable city. “That’s my passion – to create context-driven architecture as well as context-driven masterplans, so whenever you do a shading analysis, it’s not a matter of simply illustrating diagrams, but looking at the actual place and using technology to study how people move. And then looking at how to make it comfortable to walk between different clusters of the city.According to Bukhash, this is now possible with the Dubai Canal Extension, which allows pedestrians to navigate the emirate from “Old Dubai to New Dubai”. What should happen around that development, he added, and how people connect to it, whether through bicycle networks or more pedestrian pathways is the next stage, and that is what he tries to encourage through his reviews of masterplan proposals. He also wants to ensure that there are enough community facilities for people to gather, including schools, mosques and cultural hubs. And while Bukhash has his eyes set on moving Dubai’s architectural fabric forward, he’s realistic about the challenges that face the industry, listing time restraints at the top.“The government has given us all the tools we need in order to develop this new type of architecture, but we’re always strained on time. No one takes the time to think about how to move forward in a new, innovative way, and to take that risk and launch a prototype that encapsulates that,” he said. “In Japan, every single architect is interpreting their culture in a new way, and each project has its own beauty in terms of converging built form with open spaces that have been reserved exclusively for the public… There are a lot of Emirati architects creating architecture, and they have been well recognised; however, I think there could be many more, and I think there could be more support from clientele to allow us to produce architecture and give us that trust. That would be the next stage – that would help create this new prototype that resolves various issues facing Dubai’s urban fabric,” he added. “The good thing about working with Dubai Creative Clusters Authority is that you get exposed to all types of projects from various master developers, who are keen on pursuing such innovative approaches.” Top of Form Complexity of Islamic architecture Islamic architecture is one of architecture engineering field. It is not just buildings and mosques built in various Islamic eras but it is complex science in architecture. Islamic architecture developed significantly from the early days of Islam. It is also necessary to distinguish between different types of the architecture according to different periods and Islamic regions in order to achieve a simplification of complex Islamic architecture. There are a variety of different styles of Islamic architecture and vary according to the date and area of appearance. The most popular models are 1- Old Islamic style: Islam is characterized by its simplicity and strictness. These two characteristics have been reflected in Islamic architecture at this time. If we look at the mosque of Quba, the Mosque with the Qibla and the Prophet’s Mosque in its first form, we find examples of this simple style in architecture.                                                                  The Prophet’s Mosque 2- Umayyad style: Syria, Palestine and all the Levants were a Christian province and part of the Byzantine Empire. The early Umayyads were influenced by the style of Christian architecture, which was clearly influenced by the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. At that time, the Al-Aqsa mosque and the Dome of the Rock were rebuilt in a way that referred to the Christian influence and introduced some of the characteristics of the new Islamic architecture. The domes, beacons and the style of Arab decoration were added to the Christian architecture to be the Umayyad style of architecture. The addition of Arabic script to parts of the Holy Quran or modern Arabic.                                                                        The Al-Aqsa mosque                                                                          The mosque of Quba 3- Abbasid style: The Abbasids formed their own style of domes and developed Islamic and Umayyad lighthouses. The Abbasid style also has a unique form of columns, pillars, and motifs between domes in the form of domes in large mosques. The best example of the Abbasid model in mosques is the mosque in Samarra, the mosque of al-Riqa and the mosque of Abu Dhulf, all in Iraq, Ibn Tulun Mosque in Cairo Ibn Tulun Mosque was built in 256 AH / 878 AD during the reign of Ahmed Ibn Tulun, who was appointed governor of Abasia and then declared the establishment of the Tulunian state.                                                                   Ibn Tulun Mosque                                                                The mosque in Samarra 4- Marrakesh and Andalusian style: The Andalusian style in architecture is similar to the Umayyad style in Damascus and the Levant in general. After the fall of the Umayyad state in Andalusia, Andalusia became under the Morawi rule, then the Mahdi in Morocco and then the Nazarene who moved the capital from the Mediterranean to Andalusia. In those three eras, the architecture flourished greatly and influenced the style of Umayyad, Andalusian and Moroccan architecture. This rich mix resulted in the appearance of the Marrakesh style, which appeared, grew and thrived on both sides of the Mediterranean Sea in Andalusia and Morocco. A unique example of Marrakech architecture is the Hambra Palace.                                                                     The Hambra Palace                                                                  The Hambra Palace 5- Fatimid style “Obaidi”: In the first Fatimid period, the Fatimids were in North Africa, and architecture was characterized by the simplicity with great influence on local Berber architecture, Marrakesh architecture and neighbouring Andalusian architecture. The best example of architecture in this era is the Mahdia Mosque in the Fatimid capital of Mahdia (now Tunisia). After the transition of the Fatimid capital to Egypt and the establishment of Cairo, the architecture differed considerably. The influence of the Berber tribes of North Africa has disappeared with their simple local tribal mosques, and the influence of Egyptians accustomed to large mosques. The Fatimids built larger mosques, the first of which was the Al-Azhar Mosque, the Al-Hakim Bamr  Allah  Mosque and the Mosque of the Elsaleh. All these mosques show the social aspect that characterized the Fatimid mosques.                                                                            The Al-Azhar Mosque                                                                       The Mahdia Mosque 6- Ayyubid style: The Ayyubid style was influenced by the war and its preparations. Most of the installations in the Ayyubid period were highly fortified and prepared for war. The richness of the Ayyubid era was evident in the battlefields, the construction of fortified palaces and castles, city walls, fortifications, renovations and the rebuilding of mosques and shrines destroyed by the Crusaders. Some of the architectural designs of the Ayyubid era include Salah al-Din Citadel in Cairo, Alep Citadel, and the Castle of the Mountain in Cairo, and the schools spread in Egypt that was built to spread Sunni Islam.                                                                Salah al-Din Citadel                                                             Salah al-Din Citadel 7- Safavian Style: It is characterized by fine decoration works and was influenced by the Persian-Mongolian style in the work of domes and lighthouses with the addition of colours and decorations. It is unique in interior decoration, especially in the decoration of ceilings, cornices and marble columns. The most important example of Safavid architecture is the Shah School in Isfahan and the Imam Mosque (the Shah Mosque) in Isfahan.                                                                The Shah Mosque                                                                   The Shah Mosque 8- Pashto style: It is a simple architectural style characterized by the artistic gift that God has given to Afghans, especially Pashtu tribes. Pashtuns and Afghans are adept at the art of mosaics and ornaments. Examples of this architectural art are Al-Harat Mosque and the Blue Mosque of Mazar-e-Sharif. The Pashto lighthouses are similar to those of the Indian-Mongol style, and the entrances resemble the entrances of the Persian-Mongolian style.                                             The Blue Mosque of Mazar-e-Sharif                                               The Blue Mosque of Mazar-e-Sharif  9- Ottoman style: Ottoman architecture was influenced by the Seljuks until the domes and lighthouses in the Ottoman and Seljuk styles were identical, but the Ottoman architecture was more charming and rich in the diversity of sources. While the difference was in the interior shape of the mosques. The Ottomans were moving in the rich regions of Europe and in the meantime they adopted some different Christian arts and even we can see the similarity between the Ottoman mosques and the churches and cathedrals in Christian Europe. The Ottomans excelled in woodworking, metalworking, and carpet industry. The best example of the Ottoman mosques in Turkey is the Sultan Ahmed Mosque and the Sulaymaniyah Mosque, while the Adza Mosque in Foca (Bosnia) is a good example of the Ottoman mosques in the Balkans.                                                                 Sultan-Ahmed-Mosque                                                       The Sulaymaniyah Mosque The architecture of the United Arab Emirates has undergone dramatic transformation in recent decades, from operating as a collection of fishing villages to a global business hub known for its innovation and dynamism. Between the 1960s and 1970s, architecture in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) remained solely traditional, with narrow alleys and windtower houses still in use, reflective of a strong Bedouin heritage. Architecture is influenced by elements of Islamic, Arabian and Persian culture. In the early 1970s, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, the then ruler of Dubai, employed British architect John R Harris to create the stylish modernist architecture for which the major cities of the UAE are known today. The introduction of exposed glass curtain walls represented the beginning of a movement, used extensively in the design of almost every commercial and high rise building façade in the Persian Gulf. In less commercial areas, Emirati architecture continues to heavily reflects the custom and traditional lifestyles of the native people. Building materials are simple, in contrast with the refined images of Dubai and Abu Dhabi today. Traditional architecture in the United Arab Emirates was heavily influenced by the desert landscape, culture, lifestyle and available building materials.[5] The Bedouin, a nomadic Arabic tribe who traditionally live in the desert were well known for using palm frond shelters, known as arish in the summer months. Frames for arish houses were often made with mangrove poles, imported from East Africa. In colder months, a move towards using animal skin shelters would be made. The Bedouin tent was a useful and adaptable structure often made of sheep wool, camels’ hair or goat hair by the women of the tribe. Such structures were called Bait al Sha’ar, meaning ‘House of Hair’.Other materials such as a mixture of seashells and limestone were used as building resources in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The nomadic nature of the Bedouin tribe demanded the need for light disposable materials that could be found along coastal lines. In contrast, permanent houses inland were constructed with a mud mixture formed into bricks, strengthened using stones bonded together with a mixture of red clay and manure.The geographical context of a tribe or group determined the type of materials that were used in the construction of buildings, meaning that most structures were made of materials drawn from the surrounding environment. These ranged from coral, mud and stone through to palm fronds and animal hair. The harsh climate of the United Arab Emirates created a need for ventilation due to high temperature periods of the year. This resulted in the introduction of Iranian windtowers, known as barjeels. These vertical shafts allow for a downward flow of cool air and a distribution of water to become available at the bottom of the structure, allowing for the inside temperature of the building to be cooled. Ancient Architecture A view over Green Mubazzarah in Al-Ain, at the base of Jebel Hafeet (Mount Hafeet) While human settlement in the United Arab Emirates can be traced back to the Stone Age (6,000–3,200 BC), it was not until the Bronze Age (3,200–1,300 BC) that larger establishments began to form. Such settlements were developed in inland oases and coastal areas, populated by farmers, animal herders and fisherman.[11] The first recorded large settlement was the town of Al Ain, through which inhabitants would export agricultural products through the port of Umm Al Nar, located off Abu Dhabi Island.[12] This was a permanent establishment made up of well-constructed buildings built from cut and dressed stone, complete with circular tower-like tombs. Evidence from these sites indicates a strong trade evolving from pottery production and the export of copper, particularly between these settlements and surrounding civilisations such as Mesopotamia. Cross section of a qanat A water irrigation system known as qanat emerged in the Iron Age (1,300–300 BC). This system provided a relatively constant water supply all year round by taking advantage of underground water supplies, leading to a change in settlement patterns as groups would follow the route of the water source.[13] Up until the mid 20th century (marking the beginning of Western attention to the area), most building fell into five categories: religious, residential, markets, public, and defensive buildings. Buildings that were constructed up until then remained within traditional styles. Unlike other styles of Islamic and Persian architecture, there is little ornamentation found in traditional architecture of the UAE. Only a small number of mosques offer any form of ornamentation, reflecting the lack of resources at hand and general reliance on simple but effective structures. The onset of the Globalisation era of the 1980s saw the United Arab Emirates become one of the most developed countries in the Persian Gulf region. The country saw a major economic boost with transforming into a commodity based economy, with shipments of oil and natural gas accounting for 40% of total exports and 38% of GDP. In the past two decades, significant effort has been made to diversify the economy and reduce dependency on oil revenues, with huge investments in tourism, financial and construction sectors. Since the late 1980s, architecture of the United Arab Emirates has become renowned for its urban image, becoming highly westernised but still retaining elements of traditional Emirati culture. Graphical depiction of UAE's product exports in 28 colour-coded categories Initial economic development in the UAE during the 1950s and 1960s was based heavily on the oil and gas industry, since diversifying into manufacturing, construction and commerce. The oil and gas sector accounts for approximately two thirds of the UAE’s revenue, employing one percent of the work force while Trades and Repairs Services, Construction ad Manufacturing account for 50% of the work force. In the past decades, high population growth in the UAE has been accompanied by high economic growth. GDP growth rate averaged 4.51% from 2000 until 2017, reaching an all-time high of 9.80% in 2006.[19] This has been followed with a greater standard of living, with the current Human Development Index (HDI) standing at 0.863, ranking the UAE 34th in the world. The overall economic outlook for the UAE is for continued growth with faster development than any other major Gulf State, encouraged significantly by tourism, manufacturing and financial sectors. In contrast to other countries in the Persian Gulf, in which oil wealth tends to be centralised around the governing royal family, the UAE aims to distribute and invest such wealth from natural resources into the infrastructure of the nation. Within the last 40 years, the government of the UAE has developed sufficient infrastructure for the Emirati population, including electricity, transport, housing, telecommunications and hospitals. These are all heavily subsidised. An open economic policy has allowed for multinational corporations to develop and operate through industrial and commercial businesses. This has resulted in the dynamic and internationally faceted infrastructure for which the UAE is renowned for. Additionally, the UAE has taken the commercial and technological resources offered by the West to promote and integrate their economy into a global setting. Architecture of the state is heavily influenced by the inflow of wealth that has resulted from the economic boom of recent decades. Nonetheless, recent urban and commercial development in all major cities of the UAE continued to be influenced by Islamic architecture, giving these global metropoles a distinct Arabic background. Economic Downturns: Dubai Skyline of Downtown Dubai with Burj Khalifa Early construction after the expansion of Dubai as a global city paid little attention to traditional Islamic architecture and concerns for the environment were not considered. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, glass towers became prominent in the city of Dubai, all of which required enormous amounts of electricity to keep cool. Recently, builders and architects have become aware of both Arabic heritage and environmental concerns, leading to more harmonious development overseen by Dubai’s rulers in the last 20 years.[22] Efficient heat resistant materials are increasingly used in construction, combined with traditional Arabic designs. This can be seen in the buildings for which Dubai has attracted worldwide attention for, including the Burj Khalifa and Burj Al Arab. The Burj Khalifa was inaugurated in January 2010, unveiled as the world’s tallest freestanding structure at 829.8 m (2.722 ft.). The structure is host to several mixed facilities, including commercial shops, offices, entertainment venues and residential sectors. In designing the building, the lead architect Adrian Smith undertook elements of traditional Islamic architecture, which uses stepped ascending spirals. This reflected elements of Islamic design while creating a strategic shape to ensure the mass of the building reduces with height, allowing for a stronger and more fortified structure. The building supposedly ascends from a flower shaped based, imitating the Hymenocallis, a white lily native to the surrounding desert. The Burj Al Arab (translated to ‘Arabian tower’) was designed by architect Tom Wright to resemble a J-class yacht. The structure is made of a steel frame exterior wrapped around a concrete tower, with white Teflon encased fibreglass forming the ‘sail’. The Burj Al Arab stands on an artificial island 280 m (918.6 ft.) from Jumeirah Beach. The architect claimed that "the client wanted a building that would become a symbolic statement for Dubai, similar to Sydney with its Opera House, London with Big Ben or Paris with the Eiffel Tower. It needed to be a building that would become synonymous with the name of the city." The building opened in 1999 after five years of construction. Abu Dhabi Etihad Towers in the evening In 1967, Abu Dhabi's architecture was planned under the guidance of Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan by Japanese architect Katsuhiko Takahashi. In areas of high population density, there is a large amount of medium and high rise buildings, amongst the city’s notable skyscrapers; the Etihad towers, the National Bank of Abu Dhabi headquarters,[27] the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority Tower, the Aldar headquarters and the Emirates Palace, heavily influenced by its Arab heritage. Abu Dhabi is home to several supertall skyscrapers. The development of tall buildings has been encouraged in the Abu Dhabi Plan 2030.The expansion of Abu Dhabi’s central business district continues to grow, with several skyscraper buildings under construction in the city. Some of the tallest buildings in Abu Dhabi include the Central Market Residential Tower at 328m (1,253.28 ft.), The Landmark at 324m (1,062.99 ft.) and the Sky Tower at 310 m (1017.06 ft.). In contrast to the heavily modernised skyscrapers of the city, the Sheikh Zayed Mosque continues to stand out as one of the most treasured sites of contemporary UAE society. Its design and construction began in November 1996, aiming to ‘unite the world’, employing artisans and materials from several countries including Germany, Italy, Turkey, Iran, Morocco, Pakistan, the UAE, Greece, New Zealand and China. The mosque is made of materials such as marble, stone, gold, ceramics and crystals, all chosen for their long-lasting qualities. As such, the structure is an ode to the globalised nature of modern architecture, but does by still incorporating many traditional facets of traditional Arabic design. l or Verirati Architecture Traditional house with windtowers in Dubai In less commercialised areas of the United Arab Emirates, architecture remains largely traditional, with barjeel structures still in use for practical purposes. Much of the UAE’s traditional vernacular architecture developed in the 18th and 19th centuries remains in less westernised areas of the state. Such settlements are established in response to specific social and environmental conditions; homes, market places, mosques and fortified buildings are all reflective of the interconnected influences between a group’s culture and trade.[34] To this day, building materials are simple and reflective of resources at hand. The usage of stone guss, a lime mixture derived from seashells and a chalk and water paste is characteristic of more permanent inland houses. The structure of such houses is indicative of privacy and ventilation as central needs of the population, with high walls and limited visibility into buildings. Courtyard housing features are still utilised, designed to allow public interaction between male members of the household while preserving dignity and privacy of female family members. This is an example of traditional societal standards being well preserved through architectural fixtures in less commercialised areas. Rural and village architecture in the UAE is solely based on protecting occupants from the harsh environmental elements and climate of the geographical area.[36] At a basic level, protection is needed from high temperatures, high humidity, high solar radiation, dust storms and desert winds. This is heavily reflected in the traditional and current use of courtyard houses and arish (houses built of palm tree leaves). he mosque was built on a platform nine meters above ground level at the main entrance of Abu Dhabi. The general plan is a classical hypostile originally modelled from Moroccan mosques, combined with domed Ottoman mosque architecture (figure 1). It consists of a large prayer hall, two small prayer rooms, one for daily prayers and another for female worshippers. The halls open into a large courtyard surrounded by arcaded galleries made of pointed horse-shoe North African arches raised on double columns. The total building area exceeds 22,412 m², about the size of five football fields, built in two phases. The first stage consisted of building a reinforced concrete shell of the mosque then followed by another phase which included marble cladding for the whole structure, inlaid decoration and carvings as well as landscaping works. Figure 2: Below:Marble mihrab or niche made of a narrow niche decorated in gold-glass mosaic while calligraphy work incorporating the ninety nine names (attributes) of Allah inlaid in carefully elaborated scheme of floral and vegetal motifs. The prayer hall extends over an area of 55 m x 50 m with a capacity of 7,000 worshippers. The Qibla wall (which represents the direction of prayer towards Mecca) lies in the western side adorned with ninety nine names (attributes) of Allah in kufic script, which are carefully distributed around the wall surface. The calligraphy work is laid out in an elaborated scheme of floral and vegetal motifs, finely back-illuminated with fibre-optic lighting. At the centre of the wall a marble mihrab (or niche where the Imam leads the prayer) made of a narrow niche decorated in gold-glass mosaic symbolising the shining light of Islam coming from Mecca (figure 2). The size, design and decoration of the prayer hall create an atmosphere of peace and calmness essential for worshippers. Figure 3: Below:  The roof of the prayer hall is dominated by three giant egg shaped domes. The roof is 33 m high made of a series of small egg shaped cupolas arranged around three central domes, eight for each dome (figure 3). There are eighty two domes crowning the roof of the mosque including the galleries around the courtyard. The largest dome, however, is found in the prayer hall, in front of the mihrab, the focal point of the whole mosque. The outer shell of the dome is 32.8m in diameter and 85 m high (from outside), features which make it the largest of its kind in the world. The dome carries the largest chandelier in the world made of thousands of German Swarovski crystals arranged in 24 carat gold plated stainless steel frame of between 10 meter diameter and 15 meter height and costing over 30-million dirhams [3]. Above the chandelier gypsum friezes of arabesque designs and calligraphic bands incorporating verses from the Quran adorn the interior of the dome. Figure 4:Below: The eight pointed star plan of the central space of the prayer hall. The genius of the architect reaches climax in the design scheme he provided for the central space around the mihrab area, which received a particular attention. The space is designed in the shape of an eight-pointed star defined by the regular eight sides polygon of the dome and the eight pillars carrying it (figure 4). Some people refer to it as being a symbol the Divine Throne which is transported by eight angels [4]. This focal point has particular sanctity in Islam; it holds the mihrab, the indicator of qibla, the minbar (or pulpit from which the Friday sermon is delivered), and it marks the location of the imam who leads the prayers. Indeed if one raises his gazes to the giant dome he would observe a huge eight pointed crown which covers the entire area, raised on eight robust pillars, each one being made of four marble columns carrying huge pointed horseshoe arches. Above them smaller arches were intersected in the Cordoban manner, transforming the polygon into a circle carrying the dome (figure 5). Two other smaller domes of beautiful but simpler design accompany the main dome. A total of ninety six columns and twenty four arches are used, transforming the prayer hall into a peaceful forest of robust pillars (figure 6). The columns are decorated with semi precious stones such as dark lapis lazuli, white mother of pearl and fancy jasper, a scheme which is repeated in columns of the courtyard galleries and all columns of the mosque using over 20,000 hand made panels of these stones [5]. Figure 5: The Cordoban style consists of the use of intersecting arches to transform the polygon into a circle carrying the dome. Figure 6: Prayer hall looking like a forest of robust pillars. The floor of the prayer hall is covered with one of the largest carpets ever made. It was designed by the distinguished Iranian artist Ali Qaliqi, who based his pattern on three giant medallions fitted under the three domes, with the largest being at the centre corresponding to the central giant dome and having a diameter of 20 m. The carpet has a total area of 7,119 m², made from a total of 2,268,000 knots, weighing about 47 tonnes – 35 tonnes of wool, and 12 tonnes of cotton. It is unique in its designs and colours which are said to exceed twenty five colours. The carpet was originally manufactured into pieces hand-woven by a selection of fine Iranian artisans, totalling 1,200 weavers, 20 technicians and 30 workers. The pieces were later knitted together by artisans who were flown over form Iran for this specific task  Below Figure 7: The galleries around the courtyard made of succession of pointed horseshoe arches raised on double columns. The courtyard or sahn of the mosque extends beyond the prayer hall over an area of about 17,000 m² capable of accommodating up to 30,000 worshippers. Two aisled arcades surround the court, carried by some 1048 columns arranged in pairs carrying the roof which contains some 34 small domes (figure 7). The columns are made of concrete but covered with white marble cladding which is decorated with precious stones in the shape of floral and vegetal motifs and topped with capitals carved into palm trees with golden plated finish. The mosque has four corner minarets, 107 m high incorporating a complex design scheme; starting with a square plan, changing to octagonal and finishing in a circular form (figure 8). Below Figure 8: The 107 m high minaret showing the three sections: square base, octagonal centre and circular top. The works are still underway for the final touches to complete the ablution area and a series of reflective water ponds and lakes which will cover an area of about 7874 m² surrounding the mosque. Ali Al Hosani, Promotions Director of the Abu Dhabi Tourism Authority commented on the potentialities of the mosque: “The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque will become one of the landmarks not only of Abu Dhabi but of the whole of the UAE. As well as becoming an important place of worship, the mosque is extremely valuable as an attraction for visitors to the emirate .” SUBLIME BEAUTY A mosque of historic impact that blends architectural styles and embodies Islam’s message of tolerance and peace The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque is one the world’s largest mosques and a massive architectural work of art that intentionally blends different Islamic architectural schools. It features 82 domes, more than 1,000 columns, 24-carat-gold gilded chandeliers and the world's largest hand-knotted carpet. The main prayer hall is dominated by one of the world’s largest chandeliers. The late Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan built this mosque to convey historic consequence and to embody the Islamic message of peace, tolerance and diversity. He intended that the Grand Mosque be a living reference of modern Islamic architecture that links the past with the present and creates a place of Islamic science and learning that would reflect genuine Islamic values.   KEY ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS Perhaps the most noticeable element of the mosque is the collection of 82 domes, the largest of which is located in the centre of the main prayer hall. The domes feature pure white marble cladding, onion shaped ‘crowns’, and crescent-shaped finials decorated with gold-glass mosaic.  The mosque’s minarets combine Mameluke, Ottoman and Fatimid styles in a manner that fuses diverse Islamic architectural styles into one expression of art and beauty.  The use of natural multi-coloured marble creates novel artistic outcomes, including decorated crowned columns where the crowns are not located on the top of the columns but at the bottom. This extraordinary technique is innovative to Islamic architecture. The colours of the walls, columns and the carpet are harmonised in a manner that transforms the mosque into an artistic masterpiece and a symphony of colours and shades. Another important feature is the artistic glass work. Mosaic, carved and sand-blasted glass displays traditional Islamic designs of symmetry and repetition.   MINARETS The mosque has four minarets, each approximately 106 meters tall. Each minaret is comprised of three different geometric shapes. The first is a square that forms the minaret's base. Its architectural style reflects that of Moroccan, Andalusian and Mameluke styles.  The second section of the minaret has an octagonal shape, which is a design that goes back to the Mameluke era (13th to 16th centuries). The third section is cylindrical in shape, a design element from the Ottoman era (14th to 20th centuries). The crowning lantern covered with gold-glass mosaic goes back to the Fatimid era (10th to 12th centuries).   CARPET The main prayer hall houses the world’s largest hand-knotted carpet. The intricate Islamic medallion design was made by third-generation carpet maker and artist Dr Ali Khaliqi.   The predominantly wool, single-piece carpet is 5,700 square meters and was hand-crafted by approximately 1,200 artisans. The total project took two years, including eight months for the design and 12 months for the knotting.    CHANDELIERS The mosque features seven crystal chandeliers by Faustig of Munich, Germany. The largest is 10 metres across, 15 metres tall and weighs 12 tonnes. There are two smaller versions of the same design, also located in the main prayer hall. These weight 8 tons each.  Four blue-coloured chandeliers of similar design and size are located in the foyer entrances surrounding the mosque. The largest weights about 2 tons and is located in the main foyer entrance. TIMELINE Late 1980s - 2007 1996 Construction begins on November 5 with plans to build a structure that can accommodate up to 50,000 worshippers. 1996 2007 The prayer halls are opened to worshippers on Eid Al Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice). 2007 Late 1980s Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan begins consideration of the idea to build the mosque. 1980s GALLERY Sheikh Zayed Mosque The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque (Arabic: جَامِع ٱلشَّيْخ زَايِد ٱلْكَبِيْر‎, romanized: Jāmiʿ Ash-Shaykh Zāyid Al-Kabīr) is located in Abu Dhabi, the capital city of the United Arab Emirates. The largest mosque in the country, it is the key place of worship for daily, Friday and Eid prayers. During Eid, it may be visited by more than 41,000 people.[2] History: The Grand Mosque was constructed between 1996 and 2007.[3] It was designed by Syrian architect Yousef Abdelky. The building complex measures approximately 290 by 420 m (950 by 1,380 ft), covering an area of more than 12 hectares (30 acres), excluding exterior landscaping and vehicle parking. The main axis of the building is rotated about 11° south of true west, aligning it in the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The project was launched by the late president of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, who wanted to establish a structure that would unite the cultural diversity of the Islamic world with the historical and modern values of architecture and art.[5] In 2004, Sheikh Zayed died and was buried in the courtyard of the mosque. DESIGN Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque Center (SZGMC) offices are located in the west minarets. SZGMC manages the day-to-day operations and serves as a center of learning and discovery through its educational cultural activities and visitor programs. The library, located in the northeast minaret, serves the community with classic books and publications addressing a range of Islamic subjects: sciences, civilization, calligraphy, the arts, and coins, including some rare publications dating back more than 200 years. The collection comprises material in a broad range of languages, including Arabic, English, French, Italian, Spanish, German, and Korean. For two years running, it was voted the world's second favorite landmark by TripAdvisor.[6] The design of the Sheikh Zayed Mosque has been inspired by Persian, Mughal, and the Alexandrian Mosque of Abu al-Abbas al-Mursi Mosque in Egypt, also the Indo-Islamic mosque architecture, particularly the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, Pakistan being direct influences. The dome layout and floorplan of the mosque was inspired by the Badshahi Mosque. Its archways are quintessentially Moorish, and its minarets classically Arab. Under lead contractor Impregilo (Italy), more than 3,000 workers and 38 sub-contracting companies were conscripted in its construction. The mosque was completed under a second contract by a Joint Venture between ACC and Six Construct (part of BESIX ) between 2004 and 2007.[7][8][9] Natural materials were chosen for much of its design and construction due to their long-lasting qualities, including marble stone, gold, semi-precious stones, crystals and ceramics. Artisans and materials came from many countries including India, Italy, Germany, Egypt, Turkey, Morocco,  Malaysia, Iran, China, United Kingdom, New Zealand, North Macedonia and the UAE DIMENSIONS & STATISTICS The mosque is large enough to accommodate over 40,000 worshippers, while the main prayer hall can hold over 7,000. There are two smaller prayer halls, with a capacity of 1,500 each, one of which is the women's prayer hall. There are four minarets on the four corners of the courtyard which rise about 107 m (351 ft) in height. The courtyard, with its floral design, measures about 17,000 m2 (180,000 sq ft), and is considered to be the largest example of marble mosaic in the world. Marble used in the construction included: Sivec from Prilep, North Macedonia was used on the external cladding (115,119 m2 (1,239,130 sq ft) of cladding has been used on the mosque, including the minarets) Lasa from Laas, South Tyrol, Italy was used in the internal elevations Makrana from Makrana, India was used in the annexes and offices Acquabianca and Bianco P from Italy East White and Ming Green from China. To compare, the King Faisal Mosque of Sharjah, formerly the largest mosque in Sharjah and country, measures 10,000–12,000 m2 (110,000–130,000 sq ft. KEY ARCHITECTURE The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque has many special and unique elements: The carpet in the main prayer hall is considered to be the world's largest carpet made by Iran's Carpet Company and designed by Iranian artist Ali Khaliqi.[12] This carpet measures 5,627 m2 (60,570 sq ft), and was made by around 1,200-1,300 carpet knotters. The weight of this carpet is 35 ton and is predominantly made from wool (originating from New Zealand and Iran). There are 2,268,000,000 knots within the carpet and it took approximately two years to complete. The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque has seven imported chandeliers from the company Faustig in Munich, Germany that incorporate millions of Swarovski crystals. The largest chandelier is the second largest known chandelier inside a mosque, the third largest in the world,[clarification needed] and has a 10 m (33 ft) diameter and a 15 m (49 ft) height. The pools along the arcades reflect the mosque's columns, which become illuminated at night. The unique lighting system was designed by lighting architects Speirs and Major Associates to reflect the phases of the moon. Beautiful bluish gray clouds are projected in lights onto the external walls and get brighter and darker according to the phase of the moon.[citation needed] The 96 columns in the main prayer hall are clad with marble and inlaid with mother of pearl, one of the few places where one can see this craftsmanship. The 99 names (qualities or attributes) of God (Allah) are featured on the Qibla wall in traditional Kufic calligraphy, designed by the prominent UAE calligrapher — Mohammed Mandi Al Tamimi. The Qibla wall also features subtle fibre-optic lighting, which is integrated as part of the organic design. In total, three calligraphy styles — Naskhi, Thuluth and Kufic — are used throughout the mosque and were drafted by Mohammed Mandi Al Tamimi of the UAE, Farouk Haddad of Syria and Mohammed Allam of Jordan.[2] In 2013, US-based singer Rihanna received negative criticism for taking photographs, with the Mosque in the background, during a private visit. During the incident she was reported to have posed in a manner deemed offensive and provocative. Staff asked her to leave following the incident. Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque is an imposing religious and national landmark in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Initiated by the late president HH Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque’s architectural design is a blend of Moroccan and traditional Turkish with many global features. The Grand Mosque features 82 domes of Moroccan design all decorated with white marble. It has approximately 1,000 columns in its outer areas which are clad with more than 20,000 marble panels inlaid with semi-precious stones. The main prayer hall features the world’s largest chandelier under the main dome, as well as the world’s largest hand-knotted carpet made in Iran. IWhy the Sheikh Zayed Mosque Is the Most Beautiful Mosque in the UAE Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque | © mohamad atif mohamad nadzir/Flickr There is no shortage of mosques in the United Arab Emirates, Abu Dhabi alone has approximately 1,500 places of worship for Islamic devotees to attend. However, there is one mosque that stands out when compared to the rest. Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque is one of the eight largest in the world and is impressive not only for its size but for its architecture. With marble walls, intricate stone work and crystal chandeliers, this mosque truly is jaw-droppingly beautiful. A brief history The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque takes the name of the first ruler of the UAE, the Late Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan. It was His Highness’s dream and vision to build this mosque and he set its foundation stone. The Late Sheikh’s burial space is located right next to the mosque, making it an emotional location for UAE residents. The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque was built to be a symbol of tolerance and respect, allowing different cultures to understand each other and acquire a greater knowledge of Islam. The main message behind the mosque is as beautiful as its construction: peace, love and tolerance. Pure white marble walls The walls of the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque were built entirely of marble from Macedonia. The color white is one of the most astonishing characteristics of the mosque; chosen by the late Sheikh Zayed as an illustration of purity. The marble walls are complimented with colorful stones in the shape of flowers all over the mosque. From the columns to the walls of the entrance, to the main prayer hall, visitors can marvel at the intricate detail of the flowers, giving a pop of color to the beautiful white walls. Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque © Abdul Awaes/Flickr Main Prayer Hall The prayer hall is a work of art of its own. From floor to ceiling, the exquisite detail put into every inch of the space will leave visitors in complete awe. The floors are covered by what is the world’s largest hand-knotted carpet. Approximately 1,200 artisans were required to bring the vision of third generation carper maker, Dr Ali Khaliqi, to life. As impressive as the carpets are, looking up is just as stunning. The mosque has seven crystal chandeliers altogether, however the largest is located in the main prayer hall and weighs around 12 tons. The “smaller” chandeliers in the hall weight 8 tons each. They were made with impressive detail and even have Swarovski crystal decorating them. The walls of the main prayer hall are again made of marble and are covered in beautiful designs, along with the ceiling. The main well which faces Mecca where the Iman stands on the Pulpit or Menbar while conducting prayer, is decorated with the 99 names of Allah in Arabic. This is a sign of enormous devotion and respect. Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque © Bert Roelse/Flickr Domes and outdoor details The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque has an overall 82 domes varying in size. These are made of marble like the rest of the mosque and carry details in gold-glass on top of them. Below the domes are windows which allow natural light to enter the mosque’s prayer halls. The largest of these domes is located atop the main prayer hall. The mosque has 22 light towers for outdoor illumination during the evening hours, but even the lighting of the mosque is special. The lighting represents the phases of the moon, starting with darker clouds to illustrate the beginning of the month with the crescent moon and changing gradually to more vibrant lighting as the full moon approaches. Overall, the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque truly is an architectural work of art and undoubtedly the most beautiful mosque in the United Arab Emirates. Every tourist should feast their eyes on this beautiful symbol of Islam when they visit the UAE. Sheikh Zayed Mosque: The legacy of its founder, and a symbol of modern values In ten years the Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan Grand Mosque has encouraged people to value the virtues of tolerance and coexistence. Millions of people around the world, in viewing the stunning patterns of Islamic Art, in appreciating its magnificence and charm, and in hearing the Ayahs of the Quran, have been convinced that Islam is a religion of peace. Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque, which is located in the heart of Abu Dhabi, was constructed as a monument to consolidate Islamic culture, and to act as a recognized center for Islamic sciences. The mosque is the third largest in the world after those in Medina and Mecca in Saudi Arabia, with 82 domes, four minarets (each 107m tall), and an area of 22,412m2. With a diameter of 32.8 meters, the largest dome is unrivalled for size by any other mosque. Similarly, the courtyard, which covers 17,000m2, is the largest open space at a mosque anywhere in the world. It contains 1048 columns, and is paved with a mosaic design. More than 3500 workers and 38 companies were involved in the process of creating this wonder of Islamic art. After the first stage, linking the concrete structure and foundations, the mosque was completed with the purest types of marble in the world, of Italian and Greek origin. For the interior design, calligraphers from the United Arab Emirates, Jordan and Syria supervised the work of artists from around the world. In three types of Arabic calligraphy, verses from the Holy Quran are written. As well as being a favored place for prayers, the mosque has become a landmark in Abu Dhabi and the UAE. In a 2017 poll by Tripadvisor, Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque was ranked by travellers as the world’s second favorite landmark, out of 706 landmarks in 82 states. Placing after Angkor Wat, in Cambodia, in the ‘Top 25 Landmarks – World’ category, the Grand Mosque surpassed such well-known world landmarks as St. Peter’s Basilica in Vatican City (4th), the Taj Mahal in India (5th), and the Eiffel Tower (13th). The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque also took first place in TripAdvisor’s ‘Things to Do in Abu Dhabi’ category, with more than 20,660 reviews. The scale and beauty of this monument is equaled to that of its purpose, and with this in mind, it is perhaps more relevant to note the fact that since 2004, Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque has been the last resting place of its visionary founder and namesake, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan. A picture taken on November 17, 2017 shows a view of the interior of the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in the UAE capital Abu Dhabi. (AFP) The legacy of Sheikh Zayed In his book With United Strength, HH Muhammad Bin Zayed Al Nahyan explains that ‘[Sheikh Zayed’s] great ambition was to found a masjid where many thousands could congregate for Friday prayers, and he began to make plans for this building that would stand at the heart of the UAE’ (2013: 297). From the late 1980s, Sheikh Zayed developed his ideas for the architectural style of the mosque. While travelling he noticed the beautiful features of mosques around the world, and the final design in 1990s was informed by his impressions. The architectural concepts were his own: he chose the location, approved every significant detail, and he decided that the whole building should be covered with white marble. Finally, Sheikh Zayed appointed architect Yousef Abdelky to realise the design, and oversaw the construction of the magnificent monument. His dedication to the nation, and his vision of progress, marked the building of a mosque which unites thousands of Emirates, and the Muslim community worldwide. This vision was central to the project’s success. In 1953, while Sheikh Zayed was the Ruler’s Representative in Al Ain, he visited Paris with his elder brother Sheikh Shakhbut, who ruled Abu Dhabi between 1928 and 1966. Abdul Rahman Ziyad, in Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan: A life of Achievement, states that during this visit, Sheikh Zayed had an opportunity to view a modern city, and was fascinated by landmarks such as the Champs Elysees and the Eiffel Tower (1982:22). He was also impressed by modern French hospitals with their crèches ‘while he knew that in that time in Abu Dhabi malnourished babies were lying in their desert cradles, in conditions virtually unchanged from about BC 2000’. This visit changed Sheikh Zayed’s vision of nation-building, according to Abdul Rahman Ziyad, who explains that the Sheikh wondered when these ‘gifts of progress’ would arrive in his own country. Visits to other countries changed the course of Zayed’s thinking; ‘From this time on, through his regular visits to other countries and also through the medium of radio and the occasional film that found its way to Al-Ain, he became more and more convinced of the need for progress’ (ibid, 1982:22). As a consequence of Sheikh Zayed’s efforts to realise his ambitions, the UAE has become a favourite destination for millions of tourists who have been impressed by the country’s rapid development, and leaders around the world now learn from the UAE’s experience and development. In other words, just as Sheikh Zayed was impressed in 1953 by symbolic landmarks such as the Eiffel Tower, so now has his creation, Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque, become a powerful and popular internationally recognised symbol. For Sheikh Zayed, a sense of belonging to the nation, and a desire to build a society that benefits everyone, was as important as, if not integral to, maintaining union. In 1968, when the British declared their intention to withdraw from the Trucial States by the end of 1971, Sheikh Zayed, the ruler of Abu Dhabi from 1966, led discussions to establish a federation between the emirates. In 1971 the new state, the United Arab Emirates, was established, and the UAE today carefully preserves the tradition of union. In its unique combination of modern technologies and history, the Etihad Museum demonstrates the story of the founders of the Emirates. Especially emotional is the pavilion Seeds of Unity, a visual showcase of the meeting between Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan and Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, where they agreed that the Sheikh Zayed would become the first President of the United Arab Emirates. The collection of quotes of Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Flashes of Wisdom (2015:119), described the role of the founders, specifically Sheikh Zayed and Sheikh Rashid: ‘How does history judge Zayed and Rashid? Are they still remembered today? Of course. I personally know many a man whose eyes well up with tears at the memory of Zayed and Rashid. Such is history’s judgment’. Deeply believing that the only way to prosperity was unity, Sheikh Zayed built the foundations and values on which the modern UAE was developed. This vision and wisdom of Sheikh Zayed included not only the unity of the nation, but union between Arabs and with other states. Abdul Rahman Ziyad (1982:32) cites Sheikh Zayed’s declaration that the ‘first priority is to unite for the sake of Islam and the Arab world, then we extend our relationship with the Third World and finally the international community of nations as a whole’. Sheikh Zayed considered the success of one state to strongly depend on cooperation with others: ‘…the biggest job of persuasion is to make human beings all over the world create relationships with one another so that they can obtain advantages from each other. […] Any country wishing to behave in an isolated manner will not succeed in the long run’ (ibid, 1982:32). Moreover, in the Collection of Speeches, Stances, Meetings and Instructions of H.H. Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan Al-Nahyan, President of the United Arab Emirates ‘Leadership’ since 1971 to 1987, Muhammed Khaleel Al-Siksek and Shams Al-Din Al-Doaifi (1998:258) refer to the Sheikh Zayed’s explanation of the importance of coexistence and friendship between different parts of the world: ‘The east is working together with the west and the west is working together with the east. Both of them are far away (geographically) from each other… Between them lie terrains and distance… Nevertheless, friendship between them has been established’. The values on which Sheikh Zayed built policies were coexistence and tolerance, and these values are connected with another explanation of the reasons for building the Mosque. The custodians of the Mosque have defined at some length the purpose and symbolic significance of the construction: The late Sheikh Zayed aimed to establish a historic Mosque, personifying the Islamic message of peace, tolerance and diversity. He intended to turn the Grand Mosque into a living reference in modern Islamic architecture linking the past with the present in a harmonious melody. The Mosque is the fruit of Sheikh Zayed’s unique vision. The father of the UAE has created an Islamic monument, a center for Islamic sciences and an emblem of genuine Islamic values, in order to illuminate the horizons of Islamic thought rooted in tolerance, love and peace. Global unity and tolerance, coexistence and friendship are other key values of Sheikh Zayed’s legacy; and the mosque helps to preserve and promote these founder’s values by hosting millions from both the west and east. The wisdom and legacy of Sheikh Zayed is preserved by the UAE leadership and every Emirati citizen. Sheikh Zayed declared the importance of learning from the past to live a better future, and the Emirates today follows this path, using its experience to make progress while avoiding the mistakes of previous generations (Al-Siksek and Al-Doaifi, 1998:96). The UAE has declared 2018 as ‘Sheikh Zayed Year’, to commemorate the 100th birthday of their late founding father. The President of the UAE, HH Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed states: ‘ The Year of Zayed is great national occasion when we will proudly share memories of the life of the founding father, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, and his gift to us of deeply-rooted values, principles and traditions that have become part of our Emirati identity.’ In addition, HH Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed highlights that Sheikh Zayed applied a unique system of noble values and morals that transformed the conscience of the UAE people, establishing a positive image of the UAE worldwide. ‘The UAE’s image is founded on a core belief system of tolerance and coexistence’. He also added that ‘The late Sheikh Zayed established a global school of tolerance and coexistence because he knew that from the Union’s beginnings, the UAE’s uniqueness lay in its ability to welcome different races, religions, and cultures without abandoning its social and cultural identity. The principles in which the late ruler believed, and strived for, were aimed at creating a world of coexistence and peace’. In fulfilling the vision of Sheikh Zayed, the UAE leadership has not only preserved Sheikh Zayed’s legacy, but found a niche in international politics of building internal and foreign policies on principles of tolerance and coexistence. The greatest legacies of Sheikh Zayed, such as the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque, help to make the UAE a leader in promoting these principles. Britain’s Queen Elizabeth and her husband Prince Philip stand next to Abu Dhabi’s Crown Prince Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed during their visit at the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in Abu Dhabi November 24, 2010. (Reuters) Place-branding and soft power Along with its importance for the UAE as the main masjid, uniting Emiratis and Muslims for prayers, and as the legacy left by the founder of the nation, the Mosque also serves as a political tool for the UAE, via place-branding and soft power. These two concepts are widely used in academia, especially in the context of GCC strategies, but the difference between them is rarely explained. Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque plays a significant role in identifying the UAE with magnificence and modernity, suggesting an Arab fairy tale brought into reality, and for these reasons it attracts tourists from around the world. Last year, the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque hosted 5,209,801. Moreover, above-mentioned facts that the Mosque the second year became the world’s second favorite landmark and the published online posts about the Mosque describe it as ‘stunning – a modern wonder’, ‘peaceful’ and ‘beautiful’ reveal how the Mosque plays an important role in place building. The UAE similarly found its niche in international politics by suggesting a new world order based on the values of tolerance and coexistence. In a speech at the UN Assembly in September 2016, HH Sheikh Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan highlighted that the UAE’s efforts to restore stability in the region were through promoting tolerance, compassion and inclusion: ‘My country works with regional and international partners to put in place mechanisms which remind our youth of our shared human values and counter the rhetoric of the terrorists. [ … ] We have learned from experience that we must expose extremist and terrorist rhetoric and defeat it intellectually, and provide an alternative narrative based on the principles of peaceful coexistence and tolerance’. In order to make people around the world feel welcome and comfortable in their home, regardless of their nationalities or faiths, the UAE promotes these on an international scale. As a symbol of the state and its values, the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque strengthens this process in the same way that Microsoft, Harvard and Hollywood did for the USA. One example is that when visiting the Mosque, people view the stunning architecture without questioning the need to wear veils, abayas or other aspects of Muslim tradition that are considered appropriate when visiting a mosque. In doing so, these visitors become acclimatized to the idea that veils or other Muslim clothing requirements are part of the culture and religion, not a sign of extremist ideology, and take this idea back to their own country. While the coexistence of different religions is possible under one roof at the Mosque, it is also possible in the international arena, as Sheikh Zayed’s legacy shows us. For every state, only time can measure the success and tactical accuracy of the founders’ vision. Considering Sheikh Zayed’s legacy, the rapid and dynamic development of the UAE today is undoubtedly an indication that the state was fortunate to have such a leader of the nation, whose vision in the past brought success in the present. His wisdom and his values of union, tolerance and coexistence with others extended to the international arena, just as the modern UAE leadership approach promotes such principles internally and internationally. Meanwhile, the Mosque, part of the legacy of Sheikh Zayed, preserves in itself all of his values. The value of learning from history is expressed in the mosque, as its design draws on the best mosque architecture from around the world. The value of constant progress and development is reflected in the fact that despite preserving the traditions of the past, it is a modern building that has impressed millions with its beauty, using the patterns of modern Islamic art. The values of union and tolerance are literally and symbolically demonstrated by the mosque which, by opening its doors to those of all nations, languages and faiths, unites the world. Moreover, as the mosque’s founder played a key political role in his nation as the first President of the UAE, the mosque also serves a political purpose: it is the state’s best example of place branding and soft power, promoting domestic and foreign policies based on tolerance and peaceful coexistence. https://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/features/2017/12/01/Sheikh-Zayed-Grand-Mosque-The-Legacy-of-its-Founder-and-a-Symbol-of-Modern-Values Making mosques greener in the UAE: how building retrofit solutions are decreasing energy The UAE is characterized by a desert climate with temperatures climbing up to 50°C and rarely dropping below 30°C in the summer. This means that cooling accounts for over 70% of energy consumption in the country. To ensure sustainable development while preserving the environment, the UAE government is moving forward with smart city goals. The country’s Energy Strategy 2050 seeks to increase the consumption efficiency of individuals and corporations by 40%. With over 4,800 mosques in the UAE welcoming tens of thousands of worshipers every day, mosques are a vital part of the culture of the country. With this in mind, mosques could take a visible lead in the UAE’s sustainability efforts by reducing their carbon footprint in a relatively simple and cost effective way using advanced building technologies. How advanced retrofitting solutions are creating perfect places in the UAE These technologies can help create sustainable and comfortable mosques that are both better for the environment and provide a greater experience for worshipers and visitors. Siemens recently partnered with DEWA's Etihad ESCO to aid the Islamic Affairs and Charitable Activities Department (IACAD) with reducing the energy consumption of 115 mosques. The project guarantees a 20% reduction in annual energy use through heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) as well as water and lighting retrofit solutions and control systems. The decrease in energy consumption will account for AED 3,000,000 in savings yearly. Siemens has also supplied and installed a building management and control system for the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque, the largest mosque in the UAE and one of the country’s most significant landmarks. In the first half of 2019 alone, almost 4.5 million people visited the mosque. Using the Desigo Insight building management system, the temperature and air quality in the main sanctuary is maintained while considering the needs of the space. The system uses 8,000 data points to regulate room temperature and ventilation, the fire alarm and central battery systems, as well as the generators. The solution increases the building’s performance, reduces cost and provides security and comfort for visitors. With two decades of experience in building management and digital transformation, Siemens has already optimized over 7,000 buildings and currently services over 30,000 facilities around the world. Every building is different, but with building data analytics that enable continuous optimization and retrofit solutions that create real value to operations, Siemens can assist building owners with creating prefect places. Temperature and Air Quality Management at the Mosque In the Middle East, creating a perfect place is about enhancing building performance to optimize reliability, comfort, and water and electricity consumption alongside environmental and sustainability goals. With two decades of experience in the region, our Building Technologies Division can help you manage the entire lifecycle of your commercial, industrial and public buildings and infrastructures. Our established expertise along with our integrated technology for efficient building automation and proven fire and safety systems make us the perfect partner to create your perfect place.   Siemens pioneering smart building technologies are helping improve experiences and manage costs in regional landmarks like the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in Abu Dhabi, and the Atlantis Hotel, the Dubai Opera, Yas Marina Race Track and the 3D-printed Office of the Future in Dubai. To monitor and controls the environment inside the UAE’s landmark mosque for maximum comfort and energy efficiency german tech is used.“The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque is a perfect example of how smart building technology can balance the needs of people with those of the environment,” says Dietmar Siersdorfer, CEO, Siemens Middle East and UAE. “In a building like the Grand Mosque - which has fluctuating levels of occupancy throughout the day – we can use smart technology to ensure the building is always operating at its most efficient, without compromising the comfort of those using it.”  With its 82 domes and four minarets standing over 100 meters high, the Grand Mosque is truly a world-class landmark. Visitors of all nationalities and faiths are invited to share its splendor. The mosque can accommodate 41,000 worshippers and the main sanctuary alone has space for 9,000 people. Challenge An intelligent building management system was needed to monitor the air quality during services and reduce costs without compromising the comfort of those in attendance. Solution Siemens supplied and installed a Desigo Insight building management system with 8,000 data points. A fire alarm system, a central battery system and generators were integrated using BACnet/IP and the LON protocol. LonMark fan coil unit (FCU) controllers for regulating the room temperature with fan convectors are also controlled and monitored by the Desigo Insight building management system. Benefits The integrated solution monitors the temperature and air quality in the main sanctuary on the basis of a specific sequence control developed in collaboration with the planner for the space. The strategy allows substantial energy savings to be achieved and provides for excellent indoor air quality. As the Middle East region faces soaring temperatures during summer months, Siemens has proved that by implementing two key technologies for building management and district cooling, the amount of energy required for cooling can be reduced by up to 40 percent.                                                                                                                          “Cooling is considered to be responsible for approximately 70 percent of the GCC’s electricity demand during peak summer months, so it’s extremely important that we evaluate the entire cooling chain to identify where technology can generate savings,” said Koen Bogers, Senior Executive Vice President, Building Technologies Division, Siemens Middle East. “Digital technologies have huge potential to make our cities more sustainable, and we have proved it is possible to almost halve the energy used for cooling by applying two technologies to the supply and demand sides.”   Siemens Demand Flow technology uses specialized algorithms to optimize the entire chilled water system of a cooling plant, delivering energy savings of between 15 and 30 percent. By simplifying operations, increasing the cooling capacity and improving efficiency, the system is able to reduce flow in periods of lesser demand, lowering operation and maintenance costs and significantly lowering energy use. The system is already in place at the iconic WAFI Mall in Dubai.   The second technology, Desigo CC, is a building management platform which reduces energy usage by controlling and optimizing a building’s systems, including ventilation, air conditioning, lighting, shading, fire safety and security services. The impact on a typical building is a saving of between 10 and 25 percent of the energy required for cooling. Earlier versions of the Desigo building management platform have been implemented in numerous buildings across the Middle East, including Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in Abu Dhabi, Qatar’s Tornado Tower, the Atlantis Hotel in Dubai and Siemens’ own regional headquarters in Abu Dhabi’s Masdar City.     Siemens Building Technologies Division is the world market leader for safe, energy efficient and environmentally friendly buildings and infrastructure. It offers products, solutions and services that optimize the energy costs, reliability, comfort and performance of buildings while meeting ecological and sustainability requirements. As a technology partner, consultant, service provider, system integrator and product supplier, Siemens offers fire safety, security, building automation, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) as well as energy management products and services. The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque, which attracts more than three million visitors and worshippers per year, has an integrated building management platform from Siemens with 8,000 data points. Running problem-free for more than eight years, and carefully hidden from view, the platform uses sensors to measure the quality and temperature of the air in the main sanctuary. The system automatically senses when the occupancy is increasing – for instance during prayer times – and adjusts the amount of cooling and fresh air required for these peak periods. At quiet periods, when less cooling is required, the system automatically runs at a more energy efficient level. With air temperature; the air quality is also very important, when the sensors detect a reduction in the quality of air, the building management system automatically brings in fresh, cool air to maintain a consistently high quality, at a temperature appropriate to the occupancy. In addition to the cooling, the Siemens building management system also monitors information from the mosque‘s other systems including electrical, plumbing and fire protection to ensure the safety of occupants at all times. The same Siemens technology contributes to the record-breaking energy efficiency levels at the company’s regional headquarters in Abu Dhabi’s Masdar City, which saved 60 percent of energy in its first year compared to a standard office building. The Desigo platform is also installed at the recently inaugurated Siemens AG headquarters in Munich, where it contributes to an electricity saving of 90 percent over the previous building.  The new visitor centre at the Mosque  Project Name: Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque Visitor Centre Overall Project Size: 110,000sqm Overall Built-up Area: 55,000sqm Workers On-Site: 1,700 (2,000 at peak) The centre is set to create an enhanced experience for visitors to the Abu Dhabi mosque. Gavin Davids pays an exclusive visit to the site for Big Project Middle East Ever since it opened for worship in 2007, the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque has been one of the most visited cultural and tourism landmarks in the UAE, with thousands of visitors passing through its marbled halls every day of the year. Designed to represent the unification of the world, the mosque combines architectural influences from across Arab Islamic history to create an extravagant and wonderful display of craftsmanship and design. Large enough to accommodate more than 40,000 worshippers, the mosque is one of the largest in the world, and the main prayer hall can hold more than 7,000 people alone. Furthermore, the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque complex also houses a library and a centre of learning and discovery, which holds educational cultural activities and visitor programmes. Because of all of this, the mosque is one of the most active cultural landmarks in the UAE. It is estimated that Eid prayers alone attract more than 41,000 worshippers. Coupled with the thousands of tourists visiting every day, managing the flow of people to and from the complex becomes a tremendously challenging task. It is precisely because of this challenge that the Ministry of Presidential Affairs (MOPA), the government authority in charge of the mosque, decided that it would be necessary to develop a new visitor centre for the mosque. This new centre will not only help manage the smooth flow of visitors through the southern side of the mosque, but it will also provide a commercial and educational space for visitors. “The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque was designed to receive worshippers and visitors,” says Mohamed Al Maeeni, director of the Projects Department at MOPA. “There was a need for a visitor centre to cater to the large number of tourists, prior to entering the mosque, to sort the visitors before they start their visit.” Divided evenly between two levels – basement and ground floors – the new visitor centre will cover a total area of 110,000sqm, divided between the two floors. The basement level will mainly contain the visitor centre and commercial spaces, which will include a retail component. The ground level’s main use will be for landscaping and surface parking, while two glass domes that mirror the design aesthetic of the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque will provide the entry and exit points to the underground centre. These two steel-framed dome structures are supported on the ground level and have been designed to flood the spaces below with daylight in appropriate areas, which will allow light-sensitive exhibitions and natural light into display areas. Talking about the design of the visitor centre, Maeeni says it was crucial to ensure that there was no distraction from the mosque itself. “The Sheikh Zayed Mosque is an architectural masterpiece. Therefore, the design of the visitor centre cannot compete with the importance and the architecture of the mosque. That’s why the idea came about to design the project underground, and to provide big glass portal domes, similar in shape and geometry to the ones in the mosque, where their functions shall be to be entrances and light wells to the project,” he explains. In addition to the retail, commercial and educational elements, the visitor centre will also link up with the Grand Mosque through a 500m pedestrian tunnel, which will provide visitors with an interactive experience as they walk to and from the mosque, along with giving them access to several facilities such as cafés, restaurants, and retail outlets in a souk style environment. Keeping the project underground and limiting the amount of above-ground construction is a key factor of the design, with the focus intended to be firmly on the mosque itself, adds Mohammed Majed, operations manager for Masri Engineering and Contracting, the main contractors on the project. “Visitors will enter the mosque from this centre. They’ll be able to go visit the mosque and then come back here for commercial issues. They’ll need a place for resting, eating and shopping. While it’s not finalised, it’s planned that the visitor centre will have an auditorium, a VIP lounge, a library, as well as offices for the centre and employees of the Grand Mosque,” he tells Big Project ME during a tour of the site. “Starting from the entrance of the centre, going through the underground tunnel towards the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque, the entire history of the mosque shall be illustrated in the 360m-long tunnel, until they arrive at the visitor centre services complex in front of the main mosque entrance,” outlines Maeeni, as he explains the vision behind the project. “The entire ID design of the visitor centre has been inspired from the mosque itself, starting from the white marble colour, to the mosaic elements and the engraved RCP. Visitors shall see the similarity of the ID elements between the mosque and the centre all through their journey.” Construction on the project has been in progress for the last two years, with completion of the project scheduled for later this year. With the project being built underground and consisting of huge open spaces, MOPA brought on board DeSimone Consulting Engineers to assess the structural engineering design. Although initially tasked with structural engineering design assist and peer reviewing all the structural elements, DeSimone’s scope of work grew to include the reviewing of the engineering construction documents, including the specifications. Additionally, the firm has maintained a presence on-site during the construction of the visitor centre to review the shop drawings produced by the contractor and ensure that everything goes per plan and as per the design requirements, says Ahmed M Osman, managing principal for DeSimone Consulting Engineers, also present during the site tour. “The project covers a very large area of 110,000sqm. The overall built-up area is approximately 55,000sqm – it’s considered as 55,000sqm below ground and another 55,000sqm up top. That’s 110,000sqm divided across two levels,” Osman says. “The project is comprised of a structural reinforced concrete skeleton system. The ground floor slab is a PT slab supported by concrete columns (500 columns) with drop panels that are resting on pile caps and piles. Furthermore, the basement slab is designed as a suspended structural slab, supported directly on pile caps and piles. The vertical elements, such as the columns and the walls, are constructed out of reinforced concrete.” Mohammed Majid adds that the design and construction team were careful to ensure that the project contains a lot of spaces that are just core and shell, with plenty of leeway left for clients and operators to fit out the interiors as they saw fit. “They’ll be bringing in their own designs, so we needed to have big open spaces so that we could have the flexibility for fit-out and in how the space is used. There’s also one important thing to consider – the 55,000sqm has been made not to obstruct the mosque. It must be visible from every angle. These two domes are meant to direct visitors and indicate that there is something downstairs. One dome will be the entrance to the visitor centre, while the other will be for the commercial centre.” Maeeni points out that the open area on the top of the centre has been designed as an open, landscaped space that will serve the entire community, as well as providing visitors with a space to walk around and view the mosque. With handover scheduled for the end of this year, 70% of the work on the project has been completed. This has been possible due to the considerable effort made to encourage collaboration and communication on-site between all stakeholders. “From day one, when we were approached by the client, we all worked as one team at the client’s side. The contractor and us, we all worked as one team and we have had open conversations and discussions about all issues,” asserts Osman. “Nothing is really off the table, and it’s because of this collaboration culture that this project has been really successful. Everybody understands what each team member’s requirements are and has respected that. I think we’ve worked well together.” Having that collaboration has been vital for the project team, given some of the challenges they’ve faced over the construction period, they add.“One very important issue is that this is a big site,” says Osman. “It requires shoring, and we’re next to a lot of major services, as well as the main mosque. We must make sure that there’s shoring all around the site. Since it’s horizontal construction, we needed to finalise all the concrete works ahead of stopping the dewatering, which is a very elaborate process.”“In this case, you’ll not be able to start finishing activities till you stop the dewatering. There are high-end finishes in this underground structure, which is rare to find in buildings or structures that are submerged (i.e, below the water table). Usually, when you’re underground, you have service roads, parking and so on. You don’t have the water affecting high-end finishes, which you have over here. You’ll rarely find that situation here in Abu Dhabi.” “We’ve started all the ceiling, cladding and all wall works. We’ve kept the flooring to end, which means that we’re taking the minimum risk before stopping the dewatering. This approach also changed a lot of sequences in the construction programme. We also had changes in the design, which was to incorporate structural design. That has also been delaying these finishes,” Majid continues, pointing out that the quality and safety of the high-end finishes was also a priority for the team. With around 1,700 workers currently on-site and some 2,000 workers there at peak construction, another challenge was maintaining health and safety, along with managing logistics and deliveries on site. Again, this was achieved through collaboration and cooperation, say both. While the project was obviously high-priority, the team took care to involve government bodies and authorities to ensure that progress was made in as stress-free a manner as possible. “During the two years of the execution of the project, we haven’t had many complaints regarding the logistics and access to the site,” says Majid. “At the beginning, the main access road to the south parking was in the middle of the project, but we changed that and made another road, which is where people enter through now.” “Another road that we’ve madeo connects the south parking of the mosque to the main road. We’ve split the entrance frm the site completely. We haven’t had any complaints about obstructions or anything since. It’s a very smooth logistics plan that we’ve had in place since the beginning.” The team currently works 24 hours a day on the project, with two shifts a day. While they often work seven days a week, it’s not always the case, Majid adds. “We have a team of safety and HSE managers on-site. We also have fire safety officers and their teams, to make sure that all the construction activities are safe and that the logistics are safe. Obviously, we’re dealing with a very popular area, with VIPs coming to the mosque on Fridays and on special occasions. The site is exposed, and so we have to keep HSE to the highest standards,” he says. With the site tour of the new visitor centre coming to an end, Majid and Osman both express their admiration and pride in the project, highlighting the effort and passion that has gone into creating a structure that will measure up to the standards set by the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque. However, engineer Mohamed Al Maeeni, director of the Engineering and Technical Projects Directorate in the Ministry of Presidential Affairs and head of the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque Technical Committee, chooses instead to praise the work done by all the stakeholders on the project to realise the ultimate vision of the visitor centre and the mosque it supports. The visitor centre services complex has been designed to serve the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque, in terms of sorting the tourists, educating them prior to entering the mosque, and providing all the facilities and utilities a visitor would need, from washrooms through to restaurants, coffee shops and souvenir shops. On average, visiting the mosque takes about an hour. We hope that visitors can come back and spend at least three to four hours enjoying the visitor centre.There is shopping and restaurants located in the centre, that are dedicated cultural spaces, starting from the library through to the exhibition hall and the auditorium, where visitors can watch a short documentary about Abu Dhabi and the mosque. The exhibition hall has periodic events on different cultural programmes. The library will hold a wealth of Islamic books, as well as all the records and documents relating to the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque.This centre will one day be a destination for all tourists in the UAE. We hope that the facilities will be to their requirements. LIGHTING the Mosque: The British lighting design company Speirs & Major Associates was entrusted with the interior lighting design for all front-of-house areas of the Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan Al Nahyan Mosque or simply the Grand Mosque of Abu Dhabi, a true religious icon in the United Arab Emirates. The challenge was to create well lit spaces highlighting architectural features, yet providing substantial functional light without exposing luminaires. Another objective was to create strong lit image for normal, civic and TV events. The Mosque, which accommodates more than 30,000 worshippers and is the sixth largest in the world, provided the perfect canvas for Speirs & Major to win the best interior lighting design for a Public Building and the coveted prize for Project of the Year at the Middle East Lighting Design Awards. Along with concept design and workshops, mock-ups were required such that layered lighting effects created a single lit composition. Well concealed light sources in feature designed coves, niches, ledges and behind musharabia details hid many of the light sources. The result is that the building appears to emit light and glow with a natural luminance. Each of the 34 constantly lit domes within the arcade have separate calligraphy inscriptions from the Koran. The illuminated halo effect around the curved surface proved complex to conceal. Lighting accentuates marble panels and mosaic, glass mosaic and carved gypsum panels and calligraphy. Each material lit with an appropriate lighting technique revealing texture and natural veining of material. The Qibla is a unique art piece with fibre optic channels and lit harness enhancing the design. Lighting brings the wall to life; materials are no longer physical but part of a symbolic luminous panel. Fibre channels illuminate a gold curtain behind the 99 names of Allah, edge glow fibres reveal organic forms of vine-leaves and fronds. Constraints included complexity of architectural and interior design plus installation speed. Coordination was solved on site through drawings. Many interior areas are predominately artificially lit, therefore lighting is an integral part of the appearance of the building. List of Mosques in the United Arab Emirates. Name Images Location Year Remarks Sheikh Zayed Mosque Abu Dhabi 2008 National mosque, largest mosque in the UAE Mary, Mother of Jesus Mosque Abu Dhabi 1989 Sheikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Al Nahyan Mosque Al Ain Under construction Expected to be the largest mosque in the city and one of the largest in the UAE.[1][2] It is near an ancient mosque dated to the Islamic Golden Age, possibly the oldest mosque in the country.[3][4] Grand Mosque of Dubai Dubai Jumeirah Mosque Dubai 1979 Iranian Mosque, Bur Dubai Dubai Al Farooq Omar Bin Al Khattab Mosque Dubai 2011 Al Bidya Mosque Fujairah 1446 Oldest extant mosque in the UAE Sheikh Zayed Mosque, Fujairah Fujairah City 2015 Second largest mosque in the UAE[5] Sharjah Mosque Sharjah 2019 Largest in Sharjah King Faisal Mosque Sharjah 1987 Formerly the largest in Sharjah and the country Al Noor Mosque Sharjah 2005 3600 PANORAMIC VIEW AT ---https://www.360cities.net/image/sheikh-zayed-mosque R E F E R E N C E S https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/revival-for-emirati-mosques-1.401622#:~:text=The%20guidelines%2C%20announced%20in%20June%2C%20will%20revive%20Emirati,for%20prayer%20and%20reflection%20in%20an%20unforgiving%20environment. 2.Huda. "Islamic Architecture: Parts of a Mosque." Learn Religions, Aug. 28, 2020, learnreligions.com/parts-of-a-mosque-2004464. IX Great Mosque of Djenné & Construction of BRICKS Dr Uday Dokras Two different types of mud walls.  One on the right pre-dates the 1930s when the bricks were made by mixing sheep butter and mud.  These were put in the shade to cure.  Behind mud bricks (pictured above) and then plastered with the mud and hull of rice mixture. A brick is a type of block used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Properly, the term brick denotes a block composed of dried clay, but is now also used informally to denote other chemically cured construction blocks. Bricks can be joined together using mortar, adhesives or by interlocking them. Bricks are produced in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region and time period, and are produced in bulk quantities. Block is a similar term referring to a rectangular building unit composed of similar materials, but is usually larger than a brick. Lightweight bricks (also called lightweight blocks) are made from expanded clay aggregate. Fired bricks are one of the longest-lasting and strongest building materials, sometimes referred to as artificial stone, and have been used since circa 4000 BC. Air-dried bricks, also known as mudbricks, have a history older than fired bricks, and have an additional ingredient of a mechanical binder such as straw. Bricks are laid in courses and numerous patterns known as bonds, collectively known as brickwork, and may be laid in various kinds of mortar to hold the bricks together to make a durable structure. A mudbrick or mud-brick is an air-dried brick, made of a mixture of loam, mud, sand and water mixed with a binding material such as rice husks or straw. Mudbricks are known from 9000 BCE, though since 4000 BC, bricks have also been fired, to increase their strength and durability. In warm regions with very little timber available to fuel a kiln, bricks were generally sun-dried. In some cases, brickmakers extended the life of mud bricks by putting fired bricks on top or covering them with stucco. The 9000 BCE dwellings of Jericho, were constructed from mudbricks affixed with mud, as would those at numerous sites across the Levant over the following millennia. While well preserved Mudbricks from a site at Tel Tsaf, in the Jordan Valley, have been dated to 5200 BCE, though there is no evidence that either site was the first to use the technology. Mud-brick stamped with seal impression of raised relief of the Treasury of the Vizier. From Lahun, Fayum, Egypt. 12th Dynasty. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London . The South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh constructed and lived in mud-brick houses between 7000–3300 BC. Mud bricks were used at more than 15 reported sites attributed to the 3rd millennium BC in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization. In the Mature Harappan phase fired bricks were used. The Mesopotamians used sun-dried bricks in their city construction; typically these bricks were flat on the bottom and curved on the top, called plano-convex mud bricks. Some were formed in a square mould and rounded so that the middle was thicker than the ends. Some walls had a few courses of fired bricks from their bases up to the splash line to extend the life of the building. In Minoan Crete, at the Knossos site, there is archaeological evidence that sun-dried bricks were used in the Neolithic period (prior to 3400 BC). In Ancient Egypt, workers gathered mud from the Nile river and poured it into a pit. Workers then tramped on the mud while straw was added to solidify the mold.The mudbricks were chemically suitable as fertilizer, leading to the destruction of many ancient Egyptian ruins, such as at Edfu. A well-preserved site is Amarna.[8] Mudbrick use increased at the time of Roman influence. In the Ancient Greek world, mudbrick was commonly used for the building of walls, fortifications and citadels, such as the walls of the Citadel of Troy (Troy II). Adobe In areas of Spanish influence, mud-brick construction is called adobe, and developed over time into a complete system of wall protection, flat roofing and finishes which in modern English usage is often referred to as adobe style, regardless of the construction method. Great Mosque of Djenné/Grande mosquée de Djenné الجامع الكبير في جينيه‎ The Great Mosque of Djenné is a well-known Mosque located in Djenné, Mali, and the largest mudbrick structure in the world. The Great Mosque of Djenné, in central Mali, is the world's largest mudbrick structure. It, like much Sahelian architecture, is built with a mudbrick called Banco, a recipe of mud and grain husks, fermented, and either formed into bricks or applied on surfaces as a plaster like paste in broad strokes. This plaster must be reapplied annually. The Great Mosque of Djenné (French: Grande mosquée de Djenné ) Is a large banco or adobe building that is considered by many architects to be one of the greatest achievements of the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style. The mosque is located in the city of Djenné, Mali, on the flood plain of the Bani River. The first mosque on the site was built around the 13th century, but the current structure dates from 1907. As well as being the centre of the community of Djenné, it is one of the most famous landmarks in Africa. Along with the "Old Towns of Djenné" it was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988. The first mosque The actual date of construction of the first mosque in Djenné is unknown, but dates as early as 1200 and as late as 1330 have been suggested. The earliest document mentioning the mosque is Abd al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan which gives the early history, presumably from the oral tradition as it existed in the mid-seventeenth century. The Tarikh states that a Sultan Kunburu became a Muslim and had his palace pulled down and the site turned into a mosque. He built another palace for himself near the mosque on the east side. His immediate successor built the towers of the mosque while the following Sultan built the surrounding wall. There is no other written information on the Great Mosque until the French explorer René Caillié visited Djenné in 1828 years after it had been allowed to fall into ruin, and wrote "In Jenné is a mosque built of earth, surmounted by two massive but not high towers; it is rudely constructed, though very large. It is abandoned to thousands of swallows, which build their nests in it. This occasions a very disagreeable smell, to avoid which, the custom of saying prayers in a small outer court has become common.’ Seku Amadu's mosque BELOW The current mosque, photographed in 2003, behind the town's market/ Seku Amadu's mosque from the southwest as it looked in 1895. From Félix Dubois' Tombouctou la Mystérieuse. Ten years before René Caillié's visit, the Fulani leader Seku Amadu had launched his jihad and conquered the town. Seku Amadu appears to have disapproved of the existing mosque and allowed it to fall into disrepair. This would have been the building that Caillié saw. Seku Amadu had also closed all the small neighbourhood mosques. Between 1834 and 1836, Seku Amadu built a new mosque to the east of the existing mosque on the site of the former palace. The new mosque was a large, low building lacking any towers or ornamentation.[6] French forces led by Louis Archinard captured Djenné in April 1893. Soon after, the French journalist Félix Dubois visited the town and described the ruins of the original mosque.At the time of his visit, the interior of the ruined mosque was being used as a cemetery.  In his 1897 book, Tombouctou la Mystérieuse (Timbuktu the mysterious), Dubois provides a plan and a drawing as to how he imagined the mosque looked before being abandoned. Present mosque In 1906, the French administration in the town arranged for the original mosque to be rebuilt and at the same time for a school to be constructed on the site of Seku Amadu's mosque. The rebuilding was completed in 1907 using forced labour under the direction of Ismaila Traoré, head of Djenné's guild of masons. From photographs taken at the time, it appears the position of at least some of the outer walls follows those of the original mosque but it is unclear as to whether the columns supporting the roof kept to the previous arrangement. What was almost certainly novel in the rebuilt mosque was the symmetric arrangement of three large towers in the qibla wall. There has been debate as to what extent the design of the rebuilt mosque was subject to French influence. Dubois revisited Djenné in 1910 and was shocked by the new building. He believed that the French colonial administration were responsible for the design and wrote that it looked like a cross between a hedgehog and a church organ. He thought that the cones made the building resemble a baroque temple dedicated to the god of suppositories. By contrast, Jean-Louis Bourgeois has argued that the French had little influence except perhaps for the internal arches and that the design is "basically African." French ethnologist Michel Leiris, in his account of travelling through Mali in 1931, states that the new mosque is indeed the work of Europeans. He also says that local people were so unhappy with the new building that they refused to clean it, only doing so when threatened with prison. The terrace in front of the eastern wall includes two tombs. The larger tomb to the south contains the remains of Almany Ismaïla, an important imam of the 18th century. Early in the French colonial period, a pond located on the eastern side of the mosque was filled with earth to create the open area that is now used for the weekly market. Electrical wiring and indoor plumbing have been added to many mosques in Mali. In some cases, the original surfaces of a mosque have even been tiled over, destroying its historical appearance and in some cases compromising the building's structural integrity. While the Great Mosque has been equipped with a loudspeaker system, the citizens of Djenné have resisted modernization in favor of the building's historical integrity. Many historical preservationists have praised the community's preservation effort, and interest in this aspect of the building grew in the 1990s. In 1996, Vogue magazine held a fashion shoot inside the mosque. Vogue's pictures of scantily-dressed women outraged local opinion, and as a result, non-Muslims have been banned from entering the mosque ever since. The Mosque is seen in the 2005 film Sahara. ARCHITECTURE: View of the Great Mosque from the northeast as it looked in 1910. From Félix Dubois' Notre beau Niger. The walls of the Great Mosque are made of sun-baked earth bricks (called ferey), and sand and earth based mortar, and are coated with a plaster which gives the building its smooth, sculpted look. The walls of the building are decorated with bundles of rodier palm (Borassus aethiopum) sticks, called toron, that project about 60 cm (2.0 ft) from the surface. The toron also serve as readymade scaffolding for the annual repairs. Ceramic half-pipes also extend from the roofline and direct rain water from the roof away from the walls.[16] The mosque is built on a platform measuring about 75 m × 75 m (246 ft × 246 ft) that is raised by 3 metres (9.8 feet) above the level of the marketplace. The platform prevents damage to the mosque when the Bani River floods. It is accessed by six sets of stairs, each decorated with pinnacles. The main entrance is on the northern side of the building. The outer walls of the Great Mosque are not precisely orthogonal to one another so that the plan of the building has a noticeable trapezoidal outline. The prayer wall or qibla of the Great Mosque faces east towards Mecca and overlooks the city marketplace. The qibla is dominated by three large, box-like towers or minarets jutting out from the main wall. The central tower is around 16 meters in height. The cone shaped spires or pinnacles at the top of each minaret are topped with ostrich eggs. The eastern wall is about a meter (3 ft) in thickness and is strengthened on the exterior by eighteen pilaster like buttresses, each of which is topped by a pinnacle. The corners are formed by rectangular shaped buttresses decorated with toron and topped by pinnacles. The prayer hall, measuring about 26 by 50 meters (85 by 164 ft), occupies the eastern half of the mosque behind the qibla wall. The mud-covered, rodier-palm roof is supported by nine interior walls running north–south which are pierced by pointed arches that reach up almost to the roof. This design creates a forest of ninety massive rectangular pillars that span the interior prayer hall and severely reduce the field of view. The small, irregularly-positioned windows on the north and south walls allow little natural light to reach the interior of the hall. The floor is composed of sandy earth Bundles of rodier palm sticks embedded in the walls of the Great Mosque are used for decoration and serve as scaffolding for annual repairs. In the prayer hall, each of the three towers in the qibla wall has a niche or mihrab. The imam conducts the prayers from the mihrab in the larger central tower. A narrow opening in the ceiling of the central mihrab connects with a small room situated above roof level in the tower. In earlier times, a crier would repeat the words of the imam to people in the town. To the right of the mihrab in the central tower is a second niche, the pulpit or minbar, from which the imam preaches his Friday sermon. The towers in the qibla wall do not contain stairs linking the prayer hall with the roof. Instead there are two square towers housing stairs leading to the roof. One set of stairs is located at the south western corner of the prayer hall while the other set, situated near the main entrance on the northern side, is only accessible from the exterior of the mosque. Small vents in the roof are topped with removable inverted kiln-fired bowls, which when removed allow hot air to rise out of the building and so ventilate the interior. The interior courtyard to the west of the prayer hall, measuring 20 m × 46 m (66 ft × 151 ft), is surrounded on three sides by galleries. The walls of the galleries facing the courtyard are punctuated by arched openings. The western gallery is reserved for use by women. Though it benefits from regular maintenance, since the facade's construction in 1907 only small changes have been made to the design. Rather than a single central niche, the mirhab tower originally had a pair of large recesses echoing the form of the entrance arches in the north wall. The mosque also had many fewer toron with none on the corner buttresses. It is evident from published photographs that two additional rows of toron were added to the walls in the early 1990s. The main entrance is in the north wall The entire community of Djenné takes an active role in the mosque's maintenance via a unique annual festival. This includes music and food, but has the primary objective of repairing the damage inflicted on the mosque in the past year (mostly erosion caused by the annual rains and cracks caused by changes in temperature and humidity). In the days leading up to the festival, the plaster is prepared in pits. It requires several days to cure but needs to be periodically stirred, a task usually falling to young boys who play in the mixture, thus stirring up the contents. Men climb onto the mosque's built-in scaffolding and ladders made of palm wood and smear the plaster over the face of the mosque. Another group of men carries the plaster from the pits to the workmen on the mosque. A race is held at the beginning of the festival to see who will be the first to deliver the plaster to the mosque. Women and girls carry water to the pits before the festival and to the workmen on the mosque during it. Members of Djenné's masons guild direct the work, while elderly members of the community, who have already participated in the festival many times, sit in a place of honor in the market square watching the proceedings. In 1930, an inexact replica of the Djenné Mosque was built in the town of Fréjus in southern France. The imitation, the Mosquée Missiri  was built in cement and painted in red ochre to resemble the colour of the original. It was intended to serve as a mosque for the Tirailleurs sénégalais, the West African colonial troops in the French Army who were posted to the region during the winter. A 1930 replica of the mosque in the French commune of Fréjus The original mosque presided over one of the most important Islamic learning centers in Africa during the Middle Ages, with thousands of students coming to study the Quran in Djenné's madrassas. The historic areas of Djenné, including the Great Mosque, were designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988. While there are many mosques that are older than its current incarnation, the Great Mosque remains the most prominent symbol of both the city of Djenné and the nation of Mali. On 20 January 2006 the sight of a team of men hacking at the roof of the mosque sparked a riot in the town. The team were inspecting the roof as part of a restoration project financed by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture. The men quickly disappeared to avoid being lynched. In the mosque the mob ripped out the ventilation fans that had been presented by the US Embassy at the time of the Iraq War and then went on a rampage through the town. The crowd ransacked the Cultural Mission, the mayor's home, destroyed the car belonging to the imam's younger brother and damaged three cars belonging to the Imam himself. The local police were overwhelmed and had to call in reinforcements from Mopti. One man died during the disturbances. On Thursday 5 November 2009, the upper section of the southern large tower of the qibla wall collapsed after 75 mm (3 in.) of rain had fallen in a 24-hour period. The Aga Khan Trust for Culture funded the rebuilding of the tower.[31] The mosque features on the coat of arms of Mali. Mud-Brick Masonry Made during the dry season from a mixture of earth, straw, and other organic materials, masons shape mud bricks into rectangular or, more traditionally, cylindrical shapes before setting them out to dry in the hot sun. Mud Plaster (Banco) Dried mud plaster, or banco. The mud brick superstructure of a mosque is finished with a layer of mud plaster or banco. The actual mixture used varies considerably, but in addition to local soils, the mixture typically includes much finer organic particles, included finely chopped straw, rice hulls, ash, and even soil from termite mounds. The resulting mixture may be used immediately, or can be fermented over a number of days to increase its cohesion and strength. It is this banco layer that most quickly erodes during seasonal rains, and must be regularly renewed to maintain the structural integrity of the overall building. Towers of Mud Brick A mosque's tower or minaret serves as the structure's principal vertical element. The minaret or minarets are the site where the muezzin or, more recently, a loudspeaker, can announce to call to prayer, but it also serves as a landmark within the city or neighborhood. Beyond this function, the actual form of the minaret varies extensively throughout the Muslim world. Even within Mali, the shape and number of minarets can vary from region to region and town to town. While many minarets in the Muslim world are freestanding, the mud-brick minarets of Mali's mosques are typically heavily buttressed and associated with one of the mosque's courtyard walls or prayer hall facades. Great Mosque at Djenné  The minarets of the Great Mosque at Djenné (lower left) are completely associated with the mosque's qibla wall, the wall oriented in the direction of Mecca. Djenné's great mosque appears to have three mihrab on this wall, and the walls of the prayer hall have been extended outward to accommodate the prayer niches inside. Each of these projecting wall sections also serves as the base for a corresponding minaret. Internal stairways are said to lead up the roof of each of box-like towers. Mosque in the Village of Kara The minaret in the community mosque of Kara (upper left), a town near the Niger River, is four-sided, but also retains something of the conical shape of Mali's many pre-Islamic eathen shrines. The mud-brick structure has been built with a number of protruding palm-wood beams (toron) and covered in a layer of wet earth plaster (banco). The minaret probably has been built over the mosque's mihrab, or prayer niche, and serves as the mosque's qibla wall, indicating the direction of Mecca. Mosque in the Village of Sengaben The minaret in the rural community of Sengaben (upper left), a Dogon community east of the Bandiagara Escarpment region, is similarly built above the mosque's mihrab on its qibla facade. The pyramidal minaret, with its evenly-spaced toron, appears to have been restored in the relatively recent past at the time the photograph was taken. Djingareyber and Sankore Mosques, Timbuktu The minarets of the Djingareyber and Sankore mosques (center left), from the city of Timbuktu, are much more evidently built on a four-sided in plan, although the Sankore mosque is more pyramidal in shape. Both of these large towers are thoroughly studded with toron, with some effort to arrange the exposed beams into regularly-space rows. Neither minaret has been built over the mosque's mihrab. The Djingareber's minaret once occupied the northwest corner of the mosque, only to be engulfed by later additions to the structure. It is reached by an internal stair from a small, enclosed courtyard located on the north end of the mosque compound. The heavily buttressed Sankore minaret forms part of the southern wall of the mosque. Its inner face looks down upon the mosque's colonnaded courtyard or sahn. Prayer Niches (Mihrab) The wall marking the direction of Mecca is the mosque's qibla wall. The prayer niche built at the mid-point of that wall is called the mihrab, generally located in the mosque's interior prayer hall. John Archer generally photographed the exteriors of Mali's mosques, and his collection does not include images of the mihrabs of the mosques he photographed. The image to the left is a prayer niche built on the east wall of the Djingareyber mosque's exterior courtyard or sahn, and it is not clear if it served as a mihrab for worshippers who remained outside of the prayer hall. The entryways on either side of the niche lead into the prayer hall itself. Palm Wood Beams (Toron) Palm Wood Beams (toron) Bundles of palm wood beams play a number of structural roles in the walls and ceilings of Mali's mosques. Particularly on the most decorative facades, generally the mosque's qibla wall, masons extend the beam ends beyond the facade itself, forming a scaffolding of regularly spaced beams. The arrangement enables masons to easily repair damaged facades with a fresh coating of banco, but the even spacing of toron along a facade also lends an additional aesthetic dimension to the mosque. These dual practical and aesthetic elements are apparent in the image of toron projecting outward above an ornate window opening at Kotaka's Great Mosque (left). Comparison of typical brick countries with isometric projections and sizes of assorted dimensions in millimeters.Loose ones at RIGHT Mosque, Village of Sengaben, Mali Sidi Yahia Mosque Entryway Entryway. Great Mosque at Djenné. Entryway. Great Mosque at Mopti. Entryway. Mosque at Kotaka. Bridging Two Worlds Despite the different aesthetic traditions that influence a mosque's exterior, part of the function of the exterior facade is to conceal the mosque's interior from outsiders. The mosque's entryway bridges these two worlds. The relative splendor of a mosque's entry is to some extent a reflection of the community's wealth, or that of the mosque's patrons, but it is also a focus of vernacular architectural traditions Mosque, Village of Sengaben, Mali/ Sidi Yahia Mosque Entryway Entryway. Great Mosque at Djenné. Entryway. Great Mosque at Mopti. The Grand Mosque of Mopti (French: Grande Mosquée de Mopti), also known as Komoguel Mosque, is a mosque located in the city of Mopti, in the Mopti Region of Mali. The mosque itself consists of a covered building and a courtyard, as well as a 2-3 meter tall protective wall. Construction of the mosque began as early as 1908.This site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List on March 19, 2009, in the Cultural category. History Mopti is located at the confluence of the Niger and Bani Rivers. The region has a long history of habitation, but the contemporary city dates to the nineteenth century during the period of the Fulbe revolt against the Segou Babara State. The city was later taken by the forces of Hajj Umar Tall and then by the French expeditionary forces. Today Mopti is a vibrant port and the fourth largest city in Mali. Like Mali's capital Bamako, which was positioned on a key point of the West African railroad system, the growth of Mopti is closely linked to the expantion of the French colonial administration. When French forces reached Mopti at the end of the nineteenth century, they noted its potential as a strategic port. They soon built up the town infrastructure as a base for expansion to the north. By 1914, Mopti replaced Djenne as the regional administrative center of the colonial government. The French in turn put great effort into developing an urban infrastructure, including construction of the dykes and small causeways linking the islands to the mainland. M. Cocheteaux, the French Resident Administrator of the Mopti region, directed the construction of the Great Mosque in 1935. This new mosque was built on the site of a previous one dating from 1908. He is credited with its design as well, basing his efforts on the Great Mosque of Djenne, which had been reconstructed about thirty years earlier. Imitating this "Sudanese" style was a priority for Cocheteaux, but his design is significantly more vertical and symmetrical than Djenne and other regional mosques. The Resident Administrator was also keenly aware of the tourist experience of approaching and viewing the Mosque. Cocheteaux even built two nearly identical facades with this in mind, maintaining the mosque's orientation towards Mecca and its position in the urban environment while creating dramatic views from the city and the river, (see Prussin, 1994 and Bourgeois, 1987 to compare to Djenne). The Great Mosque was listed by the Malian Government as a National Monument in 2005 and restored between 2004 and 2006 under the support of the Aga Khan Foundation. The National Cultural Heritage Department of Mali’s Ministry of Culture, regional authorities, the city of Mopti and the Mosque’s committee directed these efforts. Local master masons and their apprentices executed the restoration work. Bridging Two Worlds Despite the different aesthetic traditions that influence a mosque's exterior, part of the function of the exterior facade is to conceal the mosque's interior from outsiders. The mosque's entryway bridges these two worlds. The relative splendor of a mosque's entry is to some extent a reflection of the community's wealth, or that of the mosque's patrons, but it is also a focus of vernacular architectural traditions X Ḥaram al-ʾImām ʿAlī -The Tomb of the Imam حَرَم ٱلْإِمَام عَلِيّ ابن ابو فراس‎ "God chose that land [Najaf] as the abode of the Prophets. I swear to God that no one more honourable than the Commander of the Believers [Ali] has ever lived there after (the time of) his purified fathers, Ādam and Nuh." — Ja'far as-Sādiq The Imam Ali Shrine is located in the heart of Najaf old town, the historic Islamic pilgrimage city. It is one of the great icons of Islamic religion and architecture, especially for the Shi’a, and is regarded by many as the finest masterpiece of Iraqi heritage. The Sanctuary of Imam 'Ali (the Mosque of 'Ali (Arabic: مَسْجِد عَلِيّ‎, romanized: Masjid ʿAlī), located in Najaf, Iraq, is a Shi'ite Muslim mosque housing the tomb of 'Alī ibn Abī Tālib, the cousin of Muhammad and the first Shi'ite Imam after him, and the fourth Sunni Rashid Caliph. According to Shi'ite belief, buried next to Ali within this mosque are the remains of Adam and Nuh (Noah). Each year millions of pilgrims visit the Shrine and pay tribute to Imam Ali. Historically, Najaf was to become one of the most important cities in the Islamic World, when Imam Ali chose Kufa (now a suburb of Najaf) as the Islamic capital in 656. More than a half century after his death in 661, the Imam Ali tomb was founded, and as a result a new district developed around it. In the following two centuries, the Shrine location grew in size and status as a distinct urban district, managed by the adjacent city of Kufa for most of its administrative affairs The Mosque in 1932 The Abassid Caliph Harun al-Rashid built the first structure over the tomb of Imam 'Ali in 786, which included a green dome.The Caliph Al-Mutawakkil flooded the site in 850, but Abu'l-Hayja, the Hamdanid ruler of Mosul and Aleppo, rebuilt the shrine in 923, which included a large dome. In 979–980, the Buyid dynasty Shi'i sovereign 'Adud al-Dawla, expanded the shrine, which included a cenotaph over the burial site and a new dome. This included hanging textiles and carpets. He also protected Najaf with a wall and citadel, while providing water from the Euphrates via a qanat. Seljuq Sultan Malik-Shah I contributed large gifts to the shrine in 1086, as did Caliph Al-Nasir. The vizier Shams al-Din Juvayni added facilities to serve the pilgrims in 1267, and Sultan Ghazan Khan added the Dar al-Siyada wing for the sayyids in 1303. A fire destroyed the shrine in 1354 but was rebuilt around 1358 by Jalairid Sultan Shaikh Awais Jalayir. He also interred his father's remains, Hasan Buzurg in the courtyard. Timur ordered the restoration of the shrine after a visit to Najaf. Suleiman the Magnificent also offered gifts, which probably helped restore the shrine, after a visit in 1534. The Safavid Shah Ismail I visited in 1508, but it was Abbas I who visited Najaf twice and commissioned 500 men to rebuild the shrine in 1623. The restoration was completed by his grandson Shah Safi al-Din in 1632. This restoration included a new dome, expanded courtyard, a hospital, kitchen, and hospice, so as to accommodate the numerous pilgrims. The cenotaph was restored in 1713 and the dome stabilized in 1716. In 1742, Nader Shah gilded the dome and minaret, and this was chronicled by Nasrallah al-Haeri in his famous poem, iḏhā ḍhāmak al-dahra yawman wa jārā (Arabic: إذا ضامك الدهر يوماً وجارا‎). Nader Shah's wife paid for the walls and courtyard to be rebuilt and the retiling of the iwan faience. In 1745, the iwan was rebuilt as a gilt muqarnas of nine tiers. In 1791, a raised stone floor covered the tombs in the courtyard, creating a cellar space for them. The Ottoman Sultan Abdülaziz rebuilt the Clock Portal (Bab al-Sa'a) and the Portal of Muslim Ibn 'Aqil in 1863 and the former gilded in 1888 by Qajar Sultan Naser al-Din Shah Qajar.[6] In 1886, Sultan Naser al-Din, also repaired the dome because there were breaks in it due to the weather. Ibn Battuta visited the shrine in 1326, noting that it was "carpeted with various sorts of carpets of silk and other materials, and contains candelabra of gold and silver, large and small." Between the three tombs, "are dishes of gold and silver, containing rose-water, musk and various kinds of perfumes. The visitor dips his hand in this and anoints his face with it for a blessing."[7] The first European visitors included Carsten Niebuhr in 1765, William Loftus in 1853, and Johann Ludwig Burckhardt in 1864. During the uprising of March 1991, following the Persian Gulf War, Saddam Hussein's Republican Guards damaged the shrine, where members of the Shia opposition were cornered, in storming the shrine and massacring virtually all its occupants. Afterwards, the shrine was closed for two years, officially for repairs. Saddam Hussein also deported to Iran a large number of the residents of the area who were of Iranian descent. Religious Status: As the burial site of Shia Islam's second most important figure, this Mosque is considered by all Shi'ites as the fourth holiest Islamic site. The Boston Globe reports "for the Muslim Shias, Najaf is the fourth holiest city, behind Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia and Al-Aqsa Mosque in Palestine." It is estimated that only Karbala, Mecca and Medina receive more Muslim pilgrims. A hadith attributed to Ja'far as-Sādiq, the Sixth Imami Shī'ite Imām, mentions the site as one of "five definitive holy places that we respect very much".. The site is visited annually by at least 8 million pilgrims on average, which is estimated to increase to 20 million in years to come. Many Shī'ites believe that 'Alī did not want his grave to be desecrated by his enemies and consequently asked his friends and family to bury him secretly. This secret gravesite is supposed to have been revealed later during the Abbasid caliphate by As-Sadiq. Most Shī'ites accept that 'Alī is buried in Imām 'Alī Mosque, in what is now the city of Najaf, which grew around the shrine. It has also been narrated from As-Sadiq that Imām 'Alī Mosque is the third of five holy places: Mecca, Medina, Imām 'Alī Mosque in Najaf, Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbalā, and the Shrine of his daughter Fāṭimah in Qom. "God chose that land [Najaf] as the abode of the Prophets. I swear to God that no one more honourable than the Commander of the Believers [Ali] has ever lived there after (the time of) his purified fathers, Ādam and Nuh." — Ja'far as-Sādiq Architecture: The mosque is well known for its big dome. Near its big door are two minarets. The big dome is covered in 7777 brick slabs painted in gold, there are also turquoise mosaics that cover the side and back walls. Entrance to the shrine is through three main monumental portals on the eastern, northern and southern sides, called the Main or Clock Portal, al-Tusi Portal and the Qibla Portal respectively. There are two additional monumental portals, the Portal of Muslim Ibn 'Aqil, north of the Clock Gate, and the al-'Amara, or al-Faraj Portal, at the southwestern corner. A courtyard surrounds the inner shrine, while the inner shrine is linked on the west to the Al-Ra's Mosque. The inner shrine is a large cube with chamfered edges, topped by an onion-shaped dome 42 m (138 ft) in height, and flanked by twin 38 m (125 ft) tall minarets. The main architectural elements of Imam Ali Shrine [8]. The current Imam Ali Shrine plan and sections . The Shrine complex is located in a large paved pedestrian square, covering a great area. There are commercial frontages on the perimeter and some secondary religious sites beyond the security fence . Despite the approach demolitions that lead loosened the relationship between the shrine and its surroundings, the shrine is still standing as a jewel in the core of the city. Therefore, it can be said that there is a strong relationship between the Shrine and Najaf old town. Overall, although not included in the World Heritage list, the architectural significance of the Shrine occupies a prominent position in Iraqi memory and Shia culture. Imam Ali Shrine plan: 1: The tomb. 2: Imran Mosque. 3: Al-Rass Mosque. 4: The Golden Iwan. 5: The courtyard. 6: the Inner rooms. 7: Al-Taqea Al-Baqashtea. 8: Al-Sabat Imam Ali Shrine, institution and cultural monument: the implications of cultural significance and its impact on local conservation management-. K. AbidSchool of Architecture, University of Sheffield, UK CHAPTER XI The Uzbek Architecture of Afghanistan Bernard O’Kane-https://journals.openedition.org/asiecentrale/600 We are fortunate that an extensive account of the patronage of the Uzbeks in Afghanistan has been incorporated by Robert McChesney into his pioneering work Waqf in Central Asia. However, it is arguable that the standing remains (including those now destroyed but documented in photographs) have not received the attention they deserve. It is a measure of the underestimation of Uzbek architecture in the Balkh region that several buildings which have been ascribed to their predecessors, the Timurids, are more probably the work of various Uzbek dynasties. Chief among these is the mazâr (shrine) of Khwaja Abu Nasr Parsa at Balkh, the others being the mazâr of Khwaja ‘Akkasha at Balkh and two mausoleums at Mazar-i Sharif which were destroyed after the 1930s. The Historical Setting The word Uzbek today is conventionally used in two senses, firstly to refer to the political system of the khans of Transoxiana of the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, and secondly to refer to the tribal groups who provided the amirial power for these ruling khans. The khans derived their legitimacy from their descent from Chingis Khan3. In addition to the khans and the Uzbek amirs, the third major power group within the state, and one especially relevant to the patronage of architecture, was the uluma and sheykhs. 3The state was based upon the appanage system, the four major ones being the regions of Bukhara, Samarqand, Tashkent and Balkh. Balkh was briefly brought under Uzbek control by the founder of the dynasty, Mohammad Shibani Khan, in 1505, but only after 1526, when the Shibanid Kistan Qara Soltan began his eighteen year governorship of the town, did Uzbek rule become lasting. Kistan Qara Soltan chose to be buried at the nearby ‘Alid shrine (the mazâr-i sharif) upon his death in 1544, a move clearly in keeping with the impression of permanent Uzbek control over the region. Another long governorship of Pir Mohammad b. Jani Beg (1546-67) cemented the stability of the appanage, even if we know nothing of any patronage undertaken by this governor. Abd Allâh Khan was the nephew of Pir Mohammad, and his campaign to end the internal Uzbek feuding that had broken out since the death of ‘Obeyd Allâh in 1540 was launched from Balkh. However, after Pir Mohammad’s death in 1567 ‘Abd Allâh opened hostilities against the Balkh appanage and ended by capturing it in 1573. He made a pilgrimage to Mazar-i Sharif at the same time. ‘Abd Allâh succeeded his father Iskandar in 1582 as Khan of Bukhara, and promptly gave his son ‘Abd al-Mo’men the governorship of Balkh. In 1588-9 ‘Abd al-Mo’men and his father captured Herat after an arduous eleventh month siege4; during the next eight years, most of the cities of Khorasan fell to ‘Abd al-Mo’men’s campaigns. The booty that would have accrued from these conquests would obviously have been more than sufficient to finance his substantial building ventures in Balkh and Mazar-i Sharif. However, these successful military ventures and his ambitions led to strained relations with his father and his father’s amirs. As a result, when ‘Abd al-Mo’men succeeded his father in 1598 his reign lasted a mere six months before he was assassinated at the hands of those amirs who feared for their lives. His death sparked another round of internal fighting, with a different Chingisid branch, the Toqay-Timurid Khans, emerging as the victors. The first Toqay-Timurid governor of Balkh, Vali Mohammad (1601-6, ruling subsequently as Khan 1606-12), ordered a number of improvements to the shrine, including a chahâr-bâgh surrounding it and a new tree-shaded road leading to it from Balkh, but no traces of these remain. From the point of view of patronage, the last governor of importance for this study is Sobhan Qoli, who had an exceptionally long rule of thirty years at Balkh (1651-81) during which his brother ‘Abd al-’Aziz ruled as Khan at Bukhara. Although the prosperity of Central Asia declined with that of the silk route in this period7, there were sufficient funds available for the erection of large madrasas by both Sobhan Qoli and ‘Abd al-’Aziz Khan. Sobhan Qoli’s reign was marked by good relations with the uluma and Sufi communities, exemplified by the foundation ceremony of his madrasa in Balkh (see below) where in a show of humility he handed bricks and mortar to various religious dignitaries8. Mazar-i Sharif The shrine of the shah-i mardân, as the supposed tomb of ‘Ali is called locally, is the reason for the existence of the town, which in the past century has supplanted Balkh in importance. The main shrine building consists of a dome chamber and a preceding vaulted oratory. As McChesney has shown, this oratory was not part of the original Timurid construction, as had been previously suggested9, but can be equated with the jâmi’-ye âstâna (shrine congregational mosque) which Mahmud b. Amir Vali says was built by ‘Abd al-Mo’men. Mahmud b. Amir Vali also writes that the tomb of Kistan Qara Soltan was located on the south side of the shrine. This can probably be identified as one of two mausoleums that used to exist, until the 1930s at least, to the southeast and southwest of the shrine at Mazar . One of them is illustrated in detail by Niedermayer, the other by him from afar. But fortunately extensive photographic documentation of them is present in the Byron and Schroeder archives. The best evidence for the identification of these comes from C. E. Yate, who mentions a couple of mausoleums near the shrine. He continues: the eastern building apparently contains tombs only of ladies of royal descent; but unfortunately the stones mostly either have either no name or no date, and the only real legible inscriptions are those to the memory of Kansh, daughter of Kilich Kara Soltan, dated A.D. 1543, and Sharifah Soltan, dated A.D. 1619. The tombstones in the western building are mostly similarly defaced, but among them are the names of Khan Kara Soltan, A.D. 1543; Kara Soltan, son of Jani Beg, A.D. 1545; Kilich Kara Soltan, son of Kastin Kara Soltan, A.D. 1555; and Ibrahim Muḥammad Bahadur, son of Siunj Bahadur, dated A.D. 1601. » According to Mahmud b. Amir Vali the gonbad of Kistan Qara Soltan b. Jani Beg Khan was indeed adjacent to the south side of the shrine. In the Târikh-i Mazâr-i Sharif the tomb of Kistan Qara Soltan is called the Gonbad-i Kabud, and Kistan Qara Soltan’s wife Tursun Begum is credited with having first built it for herself. The tombstones in the western mausoleum would seem to indicate that it may well have been the tomb of Kistan Qara Soltan. Kilich Qara Soltan was certainly the son of Kistan Qara Soltan, and is mentioned in Hafiz Tanish as having been active up to 959/155216; Ibrahim Muḥammad Bahadur b. Suyunch Bahadur is probably a misreading for Muḥammad Ibrahim b. Suyunch Perhaps Kara Soltan b. Jani Beg should be identified with Kistan Qara Soltan, although the date of his death should be 1547 and not 1545. If the tomb was first built by Kistan Qara Soltan’s wife Tursun Begum it would not be surprising to find him interred there after his death, as was the case in Herat, for example, with Gawhar Shad and her husband Shah Rukh.Both mausoleums also were transformed into dynastic ones by numerous later burials. The identity of the other mausoleum is unclear – one would have thought that, as it is as substantial as the tomb of Kistan Qara Soltan, Mahmud b. Amir Vali would also have mentioned it in his description of the shrine surroundings in 1634-5. Its location does seems to correspond with the ḥaẓira (i.e. an open tomb with a low walled surround) of Ayum Bibi, one of the wives of Nazr Mohammad – he mentions the tomb of Kistan Qara Soltan after it, and then mentions that both were on the southern side of the tomb, the first (i.e. that of Ayum Bibi) on the right of the Khiyaban, the second on the left. However, the mausoleum is obviously a gonbad and not just a ḥaẓira, and, assuming Yate is right, it contained much earlier women’s tombs, including one daughter of Kistan Qara Soltan. However, it was not unusual for builders of dynastic mausoleums to re-inter their ancestors within them. What can be ascertained about the buildings from the standing remains as they appeared in earlier photographs? The tomb of Kistan Qara Soltan shows a circular drum pierced by eight windows above an octagonal collar . Within the drum was a smaller octagonal lantern dome, similar to the arrangement at the madrasa at Khargird, for example. Between each window the drum was revetted with arched panels which alternated with geometric and floral designs. The use of small tesserae which contributed to the fineness of the designs within the arched panels is also evident on the remains of the thuluth inscriptions above the windows which is in keeping with a date close to its Timurid prototypes, within the governorship (1526-44) of Kistan Qara Soltan. The dome chamber was cruciform, with semi-domed niches on the main axes. A subsidiary chamber preceded it on the south, for the remains of the springing of the vault on the two flanking piers can be seen in Fig. 3. The corners seem to have been taken up with smaller subsidiary rooms, although from the meagre remains it is impossible to say whether they were bevelled to make an octagonal plan, or were square, in which case a plan similar to the Timurid Aq Saray at Samarqand would have resulted. Recently, evidence supporting a Timurid origin for the shrine has come to light in the form of a passage from Qadi Soltan Mohammad’s Majma’ al-gharâ’eb, where the Timurid amir Mazid Arghun30 is stated to have build the lofty dome (gonbad-e ‘alî) of the mazâr (shine). This mazâr32 was also used as a mausoleum, as Khwandamir informs us that Mirak Jalal al-Din Qasem, who died on 29 April 1496, was buried within it. In a later passage Khwandamir also provides other interesting information regarding the plan and use of the mazâr. The story concerns a plot against Badi’ al-Zaman Mirza in which the conspirators unwisely tried to recruit an amir, Mohammad Baqer, who in fact was loyal to Badi’ al-Zaman. Mohammad Baqer arrived early at the rendezvous, the jamâ’atkhâna of the mazâr of Khwaja Abu Nasr Parsa, and installed another amir of Badi’ al-Zaman, Pahlavan ‘Ali, in a locked chamber (hojra) of the jamâ’atkhâna, where he could overhear the conspirators and confirm Mohammad Baqer’s account. The term used for the main room of the mazâr, an assembly-hall (jamâ’atkhâna), is that used by Esfezari to describe the shrine of Sheykh Zeyn al-Din at Taybad (848/1444-5), a building which has much in common with the present shrine of Khwaja Parsa in that it has a large cruciform prayer hall with adjacent chambers built opposite the grave of the person it commemorates36. However, neither at Taybad nor at Balkh do the adjacent chambers open on to the assembly hall, a necessary condition for the eavesdropping mentioned by Khwandamir. This leads to the suspicion that the edifice may have been rebuilt. 20Other evidence for rebuilding is readily forthcoming, although in earlier reports it tends to emerge in garbled fashion. In 1886 Peacocke was told that the mazâr was the work of ‘Abd Allâh Khan and that there was a date and an inscription to that effect on the building. Dupree, writing of the shrine, mentions that Khwaja Parsa died in 1597, the date which Pugachenkova gives for restoration of the tilework of the building by ‘Abd al-Mo’men Khan. Frye and Togan had also ascribed the building to the Uzbeks41. There are two sources for this information, one being an inscription on the building that was extant at least until the 1930’s, the other being two passages in Mohammad Yusof Monshi’s Tarikh-i Moqim Khâni. The first, in the context of describing the location of the madrasa of Sobhan Qoli, mentions that ‘Abd al-Mo’men was the builder of the shrine; the second says that he was responsible for restoring the tilework on a number of buildings, such as the arch and dome (tâq u gonbad) of the mazâr of Khwaja Abu Nasr Parsa, the portal of the gate of the citadel of Balkh (tâq-e darvâza-ye arg-i Balkh), the mazâr of Khwaja ‘Akkasha, the dome of the Baba Janbaz market (chahârsu), and the shrine of ‘Ali at Mazar-i Sharif (mazâr-i ḥażrat-i shâh-i mardân) Although the inscription has now vanished, it can be seen in a detail of a photograph of the shrine by Byron . It formed part of an epigraphic medallion situated above the apex of the arch. The enlarged section of the photograph is near the limits of clarity, but on the left hand side it is nevertheless possible to make out al-‘adl abo’l-ghazi ‘Abd al-Mo’men Khan, sana 1005 (1597-8).. Does this inscription commemorate just the restoration of the tilework by ‘Abd al-Mo’men, or was he responsible for more – for replacing all of the tilework, for redecorating the interior, for rebuilding the whole? As mentioned above, the description by Khwandamir of a room opening off the main interior space suggests that the plan has been altered since the original building of the shrine. 23The scale of the monument is itself an argument for rebuilding. While it is true that some amirs or vazirs of Shah Rukh’s and Sultan Husain’s court built large monument of the highest quality, the period after the reign of Shah Rukh was one of internecine wars that considerably weakened the economy. There is little evidence for architectural patronage by the Timurid Sultan Abu Sa‘id (r. 1459-69), let alone by any of his amirs, such as Mazid Arghun. However, ‘Abd al-Mo’men’s booty from his raids on Khurasan would have provided ample funds for an undertaking of this size. A number of stylistic details also testify to at the very least a thorough redecoration of the building. These include the limited palette of the tilework, the size of the tile-mosaic tesserae, the form of the foundation inscription; the script used for the inscription on the mihrab, the proportions of the dado decoration, the form of vaulting in the interior, and the painted decoration. These may be examined in turn. The poverty of the tilework has been noticed before: “It is coarse, and the palette has shrunk; the two blues and black and white are used almost exclusively.” In fact black was used here very sparingly too . What parallels can we find for this reduced palette? The combination of white, light- and dark-blue was a common one in fourteenth century underglaze-painted tiles, although the technique itself was not common in Timurid buildings. Shibanid buildings at Bukhara with the same colour scheme in underglaze painted tiles include the Madar-i Khan madrasa (1567) (within the entrance eyvân) and the Gowkushan madrasa (in the foundation inscription of 978/1568-9). However, the much rarer use of the palette in tile-mosaic can also be seen in Shibanid buildings. The first is the entrance portal of the Kalan mosque in Bukhara where the inscription (dated 920/1514-5) is restricted to white and dark-blue, with just occasional pieces of light-blue. At the khânaqâh of the Char Bakr complex outside Bukhara not only is the foundation inscription of 970/1562-3 restricted to these three colours, but the arabesque tile-mosaic decoration of the spandrels below it has the same palette, providing a very close parallel to that of the shrine of Khwaja Parsa. The decoration also displays several forms incongruous with Timurid prototypes. The foundation inscription in the medallion is admittedly as unusual in a Shibanid as a Timurid context, but the frame of the portal screen is a constant repeat of the first half of the shahâda in large bannâ’i tiles, where in a Timurid monument one almost invariably sees a foundation or Quranic inscription in fine tile-mosaic. A similar repeating inscription can be seen on top of the portal screen of the Kokeltash madrasa (1568) in Bukhara. A comparison of the mihrab in the interior with that of the shrine at Azadan50 (Figs. 16-17) should make clear the difference between Shibanid and Timurid aesthetics. Although the palette has been widened here to include brown and green the coarseness of the tesserae, and hence of the designs, makes the mihrab seem cruder than its Timurid counterpart. At Balkh the finest tesserae are reserved for the pattern framing the mihrab, but even so they form a poor contrast to the elegant thuluth calligraphy of Azadan. The inscription at Balkh is in just two colours, brown on dark-blue and is in nasta’liq, a script virtually unknown in Timurid architecture. The bloated frame of the dado next to the mihrab is another sure Shibanid sign, as on that of the mausoleum within the Mir-i’Arab madrasa at Bukhara (Fig. 18), the thin Timurid norm being apparent at Azadan. 27The vaulting of the interior is notable for the way in which the squinch-nets composed of intersecting arches are signaled mainly by their painted outlines, rather than by three-dimensional variations in their placing. Their artificiality is further underlined by the irregular geometric figures painted above them within the cruciform niches of the dome chamber (e.g. within the semi-dome above the mihrab). This is familiar from a Shibanid monument such as the khânaqâh (970/1562-3) of Char Bakr (Fig. 20) and may again be contrasted with the Timurid example of Azadan. In the corners of the dome chamber the muqarnas is decorated with a number of inset tile-mosaic stars. This was common in Timurid and Safavid buildings in southeast Iran, but not in Khorasan. However, it can be seen in the madrasa erected by ‘Abd al-Mo’men’s father ‘Abd Allâh Khan (1588-90) at Bukhara. If the painted decoration of polylobed arches on the walls clearly bears no resemblance to any Timurid scheme, neither does it conform to Shibanid models. The ”polylobing,” while based on a scheme that goes back to Mozaffarid and Timurid models has reached a stage of abstraction where the lobes have been transformed into floral motifs, a common form in nineteenth century Central Asia, e.g. in the Khwaja Khizr mosque in Samarqand. The astonishingly good state of preservation of the painting within the open niches flanking the pishṭâq would also argue for a relatively recent date for this work. The unusual technique of brick decoration on the pishṭâq has been noted before. The brick core is set back 27 cm from the revetment. At intervals of 30 cm a row of bricks protrudes, on to which the revetment was applied. This might at first lead to the thought that it is a revetment on top of an original Timurid core. But no signs of a finished exterior are visible beneath the revetment, the only parallel for this technique being on the madrasa of Sobhan Qoli Khan, built within sixty years of Khwaja Parsa, and never subsequently repaired, as far as we know. Sobhan Qoli Khan is credited with restoring the pishṭâq of Khwaja Parsa, but it is unlikely that he would have carried out major works and left ‘Abd al-Mo’men’s foundation inscription intact. It is more probable that this was a local building technique that made its first appearance (to us – many examples of it have undoubtedly been destroyed) under ‘Abd al-Mo’men, and which was used more extensively some sixty years later in Sobhan Qoli Khan’s madrasa. The technique undoubtedly contributed to the decay of the remaining revetment on both buildings. At present the outside of the mazâr has a rather peculiar appearance on the three other sides than the pishṭâq. The two corners have single story semi-octagonal niches each with a staircase leading to what is now a flat space with a vertical wall behind leading to the drum. On the main axes are simple recesses, again with a blank wall leading up to the base of the drum. The south recess has the remains of a vault that was clearly inserted later (it is not bonded with the rear wall); these remains are part of a series of domes on this side that were visible until the 1930s . On either side of each of these three recesses the wall turns at a forty-five degree angle to form a vertical moulding c. 70 cm wide, and as high as the wall reaches – 11 m in the case of the two mouldings abutting the southeast and northeast sides. Neither these mouldings, nor the semi-circular mouldings that flank the southwest and northwest corner niches are completed at the top. The angled mouldings at the corners of the axial recesses are the standard transition between courtyard (or outer wall) and eyvân in Timurid and Shibanid architecture. The conclusion, strangely neglected in the literature up to now, is that the building is substantially unfinished, and that the original scheme called for axial eyvâns and two-story niches in between . 30It is not difficult to understand why it might have been unfinished. Granted that the towering east eyvân and the dome behind it were always intended to be the focal point of the complex, the addition of three other eyvâns, even if smaller, joined by two-story niches, would have rendered the fine tilework on the exterior of the drum, and much of the dome itself, all but invisible from ground level. However, the conception is nonetheless intriguing, not least for the link it provides with the plans of the great Mughal mausoleums of India, that of Homayun and the Taj Mahal. Rawza-i Sharif or Mazar-i Sharif (lit. Tomb of the Exalted) in northern Afghanistan is considered by Afghan Shi'a to be the final resting place of fourth caliph 'Ali bin Abi Talib (d. 661 A.H.). Legend contends that the caliph's body was moved from Najaf to a secret tomb near Balkh, which was "re-discovered" by a mullah in the village of Khwaja Khayran in early twelfth century. Seljuk sultan Sanjar erected a shrine on this site in 1136, which was probably destroyed in Mongol invasion of 1220. Timurid sultan Husain Baiqara (1469-1506) built the present shrine in 1480-81/885 A.H. furthering to the town's development into a large urban center. The shrine was restored extensively in the mid-twentieth century and draws Shi'a pilgrims throughout the year, and especially during the celebration of New Year (Neuroz). The shrine is roughly rectangular in plan, and measures about fifty-three meters by thirty-eight meters at the largest. It is aligned northwest-southeast and is enclosed within a fenced precinct that includes the large mosque built in mid-twentieth century to the southwest of the shrine. A site plan of the shrine complex sketched by Niedermayer in 1916-1917 shows a smaller walled precinct, with bazaar streets leading out from the shrine to the southeast and, possibly, to the northwest. These historic structures were razed to create parklands later in the twentieth century, leaving only their monumental portals that now serve as gateways for the shrine. The taller northwest gateway faces the shrine with a grand pishtaq flanked by bi-level loggias and tall engaged minarets. It is included inside the paved grounds whereas the southeast gateway - a similar structure with a shallow arch and shorter minarets on the shrine side - is incorporated into the precinct fence and serves as the main entrance. (Its tiled street facade was built after the destruction of the adjoining bazaar.) The northeast gateway, which is seen as a gateway in Niedermayer's photographs, has a simpler structure composed of a screen wall pierced by twin archways. The Timurid core of the shrine contains the tomb chamber of Ali and its ziaratkhana, whose blue-tiled domes rise above the shrine's roofline. A grand pishtaq flanked by bi-level loggias leads into the ziaratkhana, an ante-chamber dedicated to prayer and worship, from the southeast. Inside, the chamber has a cruciform plan extended with polygonal bays to the northeast and southwest. It is covered with a central dome about ten meters in diameter and opens into the caliph's room to its northwest. The larger tomb chamber is also cruciform in plan and is crowned by a taller dome of about fifteen meters in diameter. A doorway is centered at the end of each cross arm: the northeast door leads into an octagonal chamber that projects beyond the shrine's wall, while the northwest door opens onto a triple-domed portico, now enclosed with wooden screens. The southwest doorway, now a view-window with a metal grill, belongs to the monumental side portal. Tombs of various shape and size belonging to Afghan rulers and religious leaders were added to the Timurid shrine through the centuries, creating its current irregular profile. The square domed tomb of Amir Dost Muhammad (1826-1863) and his family adjoins the southeast portal to its southwest. A similar tomb containing the graves of Amir Sher Ali (1863-1879) is located between this tomb and the side portal on the southwest facade. The shrine's exterior is covered entirely with polychrome tile mosaic and painted tile panels dominated by shades of blue. Many of these tiles were renewed or replaced during twentieth century renovations. A continuous parapet and decorative turrets unify the jagged cornice line. Timurid interiors of the shrine have retained their original squinch-net vaulting; their epigraphic decoration, on the other hand, is mostly from the nineteenth century. The interior of the ziaratkhana dome, which is adorned with concentric rows of muqarnas on a sixteen-sided base, features painted arabesque decoration that may be of the Timurid period. The shrine has a rich treasury that contains, among other objects, a marble slab remaining from the Seljuk shrine inscribed with the words "Ali, Lion of God." XIII Timeless Beauty Of Afghanistan's Blue Mosque, Charles Recknagel, 2011 The shrine of Hazrat-e Ali, also called the Blue Mosque, in Mazar-e Sharif, in northern Afghanistan It could look like the oasis of peace that is the Blue Mosque standing in its flower-filled park in the center of Mazar-e Sharif. Afghanistan once attracted thousands of tourists before its decades of war began, and here it is easy to see why. The block-sized park is surrounded by the noise of a modern city. It is girded on every side by streets with racing traffic, small shops, and sidewalk bazaars filled with crowds. But as soon as you enter the park, the urban noise recedes. There is the laughter of children and the cooing of doves. Dozens of children with their parents and hundreds, no thousands, of snow white doves waddling across the rose-lined paths, pecking at the ground, and soaring overhead. The white doves act like they live here and they do. They have been raised by the Blue Mosque's attendants since it was built in the 12th century and they have become one of its famous symbols. Legend has it that the doves are pure white because of the sanctity of the mosque itself; if a dove with a speck of color flies in and stays, it too will turn white as snow. To one side of the mosque complex is the pigeon house. It is a large, low concrete box with small windows and most of its space below ground. This is where the doves nest and breed year-round. It is also where they are fed. The pigeon caretaker outside the shrine On the building's flat roof, an old man is scattering seed by the tinful, appearing and disappearing in a cloud of white wings. But it is the Blue Mosque in the center of the park that rivets your attention. It is truly blue, with its sides dressed in thousands of colorful and intricately patterned tiles that shimmer in the sunlight like a mirage. All the paths lead to it, and almost everyone who comes to the park visits it. Well Worn At the door of the mosque complex, you check your shoes and enter an ancient setting. Between prayers, families stroll the mosque's flagstone court and some visit the mosque's small museum. There are many pilgrims here, too, who have come from all over Afghanistan and beyond. They visit the shrine of Hazrat Ali, which forms the largest wing of the complex and can only be entered by the faithful. The shrine houses the tomb of Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. People here believe his body was moved to Afghanistan from its original burial place in Al-Najaf, Iraq, sometime early in the history of Islam. Women in strict Islamic dress enter the Blue Mosque complex. It was a local mullah who discovered Ali's new resting place at the beginning of the 12th century. He had a dream in which Ali appeared to reveal that he had been secretly buried near the ancient city of Balkh, whose ruins still stand some 20 kilometers west of Mazar-e Sharif. The Seljuk sultan of the time, Ahmed Sanjar, ordered a shrine to be built on the location revealed to the mullah and that shrine is today's Blue Mosque. The shrine itself has had a tumultuous history. It was destroyed by Genghis Khan and his Mongol army in the 13th century. But it was rebuilt and has always been the most significant place of pilgrimage in Afghanistan, both for Shi'ite and Sunni Muslims. When it is time for prayer, the sound of the muezzin's voice rings out over the mosque complex from one of the four corner minarets. Calling The Faithful It is possible to meet the muezzin as he leaves his room at the base of the minaret and joins the crowd heading to the prayer hall. Qari Shir Ahmad Ansari says he has been chanting the call to prayer at the Blue Mosque for 18 years and that his father did so before him. Little has changed over the generations, he adds, apart from adding a loudspeaker system. In his father's time, four muezzins stood at the top of the minaret and called out in perfect unison, each facing a different direction. Then, just as today, the call could be heard across the center of the city. "Based on the Hadith, or the Prophet [Muhammad's] saying, when we chant we raise our hands up to our ears and start the Azan with the phrase 'God is great,'" Ansari says. "The special thing about Azan is that we take ablution [beforehand] and then call the faithful to come pray at a sacred place." The muezzin hurries off to pray, leaving visitors to admire the tiles that cover the mosque's exterior. There are countless thousands of individual tiles, most about the size of a hand, and each composing a piece of a larger mosaic pattern. The larger patterns themselves vary from one part of the mosque's exterior to another, turning the whole into a swirling, abstract, and almost otherworldly vision. Constant Upkeep The sense of otherworldliness is an ancient trick of Islamic architecture. Distracted by the colors and designs of the tiles, the viewer forgets to notice the solid structure of the building itself or think about the physical laws that hold it up. Instead, the building appears weightless, like a miracle hovering on earth. Where do these beautiful tiles come from? The men who make the tiles have a small workshop just outside the mosque complex. They are surprised to receive visitors but ready to offer tea and answer questions. "I am Mohammad Shah, head tile maker at the Blue Mosque," one says by way of introduction. "I have been in the business for 24 years. Whenever there is something wrong with the tiles on the walls, or if some visitors pry off some tiles and take them away, we fix the damage." In the workshop, one of Shah's assistants is making clay by pouring water over a mound of earth on the floor and treading on it to get the right consistency. Others are taking dry tiles and tracing patterns on them before they are painted and fired in the kiln. The workshop looks surprisingly busy. Shah says the Blue Mosque needs constant upkeep. Pilgrims often break small corners off its famous tiles to take home as treasured mementos. But the real damage is from the elements, because there is little money, apart from the pilgrims' donations that support the mosque, to weatherproof the walls as needed. "This apparatus produces 6 square meters of tile per month," Shah says, as he shows off the workshop's aging kiln. "And all of the six meters square is used; even one tile does not remain unused. This is because the Rawza-e Sharif [the mosque] has been ruined very much; many tiles are damaged and have fallen off. If this tile-producing kiln were not available, the mosque would have turned into a ruined place." A close-up of Blue Mosque tiles Each damaged tile, he notes, has to be individually duplicated by the artisans. There is a row of broken tiles awaiting replication in the alcove where he and another master tile maker sit. The two masters are teaching their skills to seven apprentices whom they hope will continue preserving the mosque for another generation. Outside, the Blue Mosque staggers visitors with its beauty. If tiles are missing here and there, it is not what the eye notices. The tile makers may feel they are in an impossible race to keep up, but the mosque ensemble itself rises above such concerns. CHAPTER XIV Mukhaiem Sanctuary The Mukhaiem Sanctuary is the place where the tents of Imam Hussein’s family were on the day of Ashura.The Imam Hussain Shrine has held an opening ceremony for the new lattice-enclosed monuments and the completion of the roofing project of the Mukhaiem Sanctuary. A great deal of people, including officials, attended the ceremony in which the custodian of the Imam Hussain Shrine, sheikh Abdul-Mehdi ElKerbela’i, delivered a speech in which he shed light on the importance of starting cultural, health, and educational projects that lead to serving people.” ElKerbela’i added that the projects, such as roofing the Mukhaiem Sanctuary and building the Zainebian Mound Sanctuary, the Imam Hussain Shrine has been leading are to provide pilgrims with various services.He expressed his thankfulness to the parties, such as governmental offices, ministries, and the city of Kerbela, that assisted the Imam Hussain Shrine and made it easy to execute the projects. Artistic shots of Mukhaiem Sanctuary (Tenting ground where Imam Hussain's family lived) Photography: Ahmed Elquraishy  Photography: Resool ElAwadi  All Rights Reserved © 2003 - 2020 . Imam Hussein Holy Shrine CHAPTER VIII Modern Shia Architecture Building on faith: Inside Toronto’s new Aga Khan Museum, designed by the world’s leading architects All photos by Tom Arban A MAJESTIC STRUCTURE IN A PLAIN TORONTO SUBURB, THE AMBITIOUS AGA KHAN MUSEUM PAYS TRIBUTE TO AN ANCIENT CULTURE BY SETTING A NEW STANDARD IN CONTEMPORARY DESIGN, ALEX BOZIKOVIC WRITES. If you have driven north along the Don Valley Parkway, one of Toronto’s major highways, you may have glimpsed a mysterious sight as you leave the downtown. Since 2010, two handsome monoliths have been rising next to the highway in the Don Mills neighbourhood. One is a torqued box of glimmering white stone; the other, a pale limestone disc capped by a crystalline blue dome. These mysterious volumes are two of Canada’s most remarkable new buildings. In September they will open as the Aga Khan Museum, a celebration of Islamic art and culture, and a new community centre and prayer hall for Ismaili Muslims. This 17-acre campus will be a special place, not only for the region’s Ismailis but also for the city and for the country. And it may alter Toronto’s cultural map as well. There’s no question it is worth the 13-kilometre trip from the downtown core. The museum and Ismaili Centre buildings, both inflected by Islamic traditions in architecture and art, are designed by architects of global stature: Japanese Pritzker Prize-winner Fumihiko Maki and Indian modernist Charles Correa, together with Toronto’s Moriyama & Teshima Architects. The surrounding 10 acres of public gardens were created by Lebanese landscape architect Vladimir Djurovic as a contemporary take on Persian Islamic gardens. The complex is the work of the Aga Khan Development Network, a group of international development organizations and social enterprises overseen by the Aga Khan, spiritual leader of the globe’s 15 million Ismailis and a worldly figure who is a champion of pluralism, a noted breeder of racehorses and a serious patron of architecture. When I toured the site recently, it was being polished to its final readiness. In the gardens, workers were adjusting the black-granite surfaces of the reflecting pools to make them perfectly level. A canvas-thin layer of water lapped quietly over the edges of the stone, refracting the equally smooth planes of the sky and the limestone and granite facades nearby. For Toronto’s Ismailis, the community centre – one of only six of its kind in the world – will be a place for social and cultural events, and for prayer. For other visitors, the museum, its auditorium and the gardens will be a place to learn about the history and contemporary culture of the Islamic world. The museum has “a very broad ambition in terms of programming and our audience,” says director Henry Kim. It aims to introduce the art, material culture and performing arts of Islamic civilizations – with artifacts largely from the Aga Khan’s family collections, spanning more than 1,000 years of history from Europe to India, and from manuscripts to contemporary dance. The museum building is designed by Maki, who at 85 is one of the world’s leading architects. He favours a subtle language of lightweight panels and precise grids. The exterior of the 113,000-square-foot building is wrapped in white Brazilian granite, polished to a low lustre. When you run your hands across the facade, you find that every angle and cranny is precisely finished. Within, the museum’s galleries are rational white boxes, with teak flooring and indirect light from a series of skylights scooped from the building’s roof line. A restaurant, shop and large auditorium are arranged around a central courtyard. In the courtyard, glass walls are printed with an ornamental pattern drawn from an eight-pointed star – based on mashrabiya, the patterned wooden screens used to modulate the sun in many Middle Eastern buildings. The courtyard, too, is a common device of that region’s architecture; here it brings together the different functions of the building in a grand central promenade, caressed by the shifting tracery of the mashrabiya’s shadows. The cultural fusion is rich, and subtle. Combined with the quality of materials – including a silky plaster that makes long expanses of wall feel like a textile – it creates a remarkable quality of place. This is no accident. The Aga Khan, now 77, is one of the world’s most sophisticated patrons of architecture; he oversees a set of international prizes in architecture, and projects of the Aga Khan Development Network around the world include housing, urban infrastructure and historic preservation. Daniel Teramura, a partner at Moriyama & Teshima who is overseeing the Ismaili Centre, recalls the Aga Khan, on a winter visit to the site, standing in the cold to study samples of limestone in the Don Mills daylight. “I don’t remember another client who has taken that kind of interest in the details,” Teramura says. This project also serves an agenda of cultural diplomacy. The Aga Khan had long been seeking a site for a major museum that would showcase the collection of Islamic art and artifacts, in keeping with his and the Ismaili community’s emphasis on cross-cultural dialogue. The location in Don Mills was locked up in 2002, after the Aga Khan’s plans to build the museum in central London, across the Thames from Parliament, fell apart. The Aga Khan’s organizations decided instead to focus on Don Mills, where the Ismaili Centre was already in the works. They bought the site of the former Bata Shoe headquarters, a significant building by the Toronto modernist office of John B. Parkin Associates. But after studying the site, the Aga Khan’s agencies decided that the building couldn’t be reused and demolished it in 2007. That was a substantial loss, but the new complex offers more than fair compensation. The urbanity of the project is remarkable: Most of the parking is underground, in a 600-space garage, allowing most of the site to be preserved as open space. Allowing people to wander the gardens and to “sample” the museum’s galleries and evening performances is an important part of the museum’s strategy, says Kim, who came to this project from the Ashmolean Museum at the University of Oxford. He realizes that the location of the Aga Khan Museum might be a challenge in attracting visitors. But the new Eglinton Crosstown transit line will run past its doorstep, and by car it is as easily accessible as the Ontario Science Centre, just around the corner. “What we have is a potentially very interesting cultural centre away from downtown,” he argues. That is an exciting prospect. Don Mills once was a locus for innovation in architecture and planning, with offices and warehouse buildings designed by some of Canada’s top architects in the 1960s. That modernist legacy has been badly diluted by new buildings, but the absurdly fine quality of the museum and Ismaili Centre will set a new standard. The Ismaili community in Toronto is also gaining a beautiful new amenity. The Ismaili Centre is the work of Correa, arguably India’s greatest contemporary architect, and the prayer hall, or jamat khana, especially, is unmatched. The space is expansive, capped with a glass roof that stretches 21 metres as it bends, weaves and reaches for the sky. This room, which will be restricted to Ismailis during times of prayer, may be the most beautiful sacred space in the country. The rest of the centre serves secular purposes, with interiors designed mainly by Toronto’s Arriz & Co. Designer Arriz Hassam, an Ismaili whose family arrived in Canada as refugees from Uganda in 1974, fused Islamic tradition (ornate floors, inset with Turkish and Italian marble) and Canadian maple to craft a serene, spare setting. It reflects, in its details, the Ismaili experience in Canada. “Many Islamic buildings build on societies’ local traditions,” Hassam notes. “How do you develop a building that would identify with the Ismaili community in a Canadian context? This is their home now.” Just outside the main prayer hall is an anteroom. Here, maple slats on the walls – expressions of tasteful Canadian modernism – are interspersed with a subtle pattern that repeats again and again. It is, in calligraphic script, the name of Allah. ALEX BOZIKOVIC-ARCHITECTURE CRITIC, 2014 https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/home-and-garden/architecture/building-on-faith-inside-torontos-new-aga-khan-museum-designed-by-the-worlds-leading-architects/article19887289/ 183