Mindfulness
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-024-02355-0
ORIGINAL PAPER
The Twelve-Step Path? Mindfulness and Ethics in Buddhist Addiction
Recovery Literature
Catherine Hartmann1
Accepted: 12 April 2024
This is a U.S. Government work and not under copyright protection in the US; foreign copyright protection may apply 2024
Abstract
Buddhist recovery manuals, a genre that has emerged in the last 30 years, aim to use Buddhist ideas and practices to
address the challenges of addiction. These books draw on classical Buddhist thought and Twelve-Step programs such as
Alcoholics Anonymous. Both of these influences share the framework of a step-wise path of transformation from a state of
maladaptive compulsion to a state of freedom. This article analyzes the paths laid out by these Buddhist recovery manuals
and compares them to classical Buddhist and Twelve-Step paths. This comparison demonstrates that Buddhist recovery
manuals creatively draw on classical Buddhism and Twelve-Step but also differ from them in important ways as they reimagine a path from addiction to recovery. This article documents the growing genre of Buddhist recovery manuals, thus
expanding our understanding of Anglophone Buddhism and providing substance abuse professionals with a knowledge of
the Buddhist recovery landscape. The article also argues that Buddhist recovery manuals differ from classical Buddhism
by emphasizing meditation at the beginning of the path, rather than placing it after training in giving and ethical discipline.
Buddhist recovery manuals, a genre that has emerged in
the last 30 years, aim to use Buddhist ideas and practices to
address the challenges of addiction. These books draw on
classical Buddhist thought and Twelve-Step programs such
as Alcoholics Anonymous. Both of these influences share
the framework of a step-wise path of transformation from
a state of maladaptive compulsion to a state of freedom.
This freedom is conceptualized differently—recovery from
addiction or freedom from suffering—but the overarching
structure of path remains. In responding to Buddhism and
Twelve-Step, Buddhist recovery manuals largely adopt this
notion of a step-by-step path, although they re-imagine the
steps along the path in ways that shed new light on the shifting relationship between mindfulness and ethics in contemporary Anglophone Buddhism.
This article analyzes the pathways laid out by these Buddhist recovery manuals and compares them to classical
Buddhist and Twelve-Step pathways. How are these paths
structured? What are key steps along the way, and how are
they understood? What does this suggest about how Buddhism is being translated into contemporary Anglophone
Catherine Hartmann
Catherine.Hartmann@uwyo.edu
1
contexts? This comparison between classical Buddhist,
Twelve-Step, and Buddhist recovery pathways argues that,
even as Buddhist recovery manuals draw on classical Buddhism and on Twelve-Step, they often develop new understandings of the path that are distinct from either. Among
other changes, they envision a different role for meditation
and mindfulness and place them early in the path. By foregrounding meditation in this way, these books re-envision
the relationship between ethics and meditation. Whereas
classical Buddhist frameworks insist that ethical discipline
(Pāli: sīla) precedes meditation, contemporary Buddhist
recovery manuals largely posit that meditation leads to ethical discipline, right behavior, and freedom from addiction.
This article will proceed by first introducing the growing genre of Buddhist recovery manuals. It will then present
brief overviews of the two central influences on Buddhist
recovery manuals—classical Buddhism and Twelve-Step—
focusing on their accounts of the path. To facilitate analysis
of Buddhist recovery manuals, it identifies five key steps on
classical Buddhist accounts of the path. These will then be
used to analyze the pathways of Buddhist recovery manuals.
The article will end with conclusions that emerge from this
comparison. It will devote particular attention to the shifting role of meditation and mindfulness between classical
Buddhism and Buddhist recovery manuals, and reflect on
University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071, USA
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what these findings suggest about the ethics of mindfulness,
which is the focus of this themed journal volume.
This article makes three contributions to the study of
Buddhism, mindfulness, and ethics. First, it documents the
growing genre of Buddhist recovery manuals. There is a
growing interest in the encounter between Buddhism and
the modern West (McMahan, 2008, 2023; Coleman, 2001;
Prebish & Baumann, 2002; Gleig, 2019). But although
Buddhist addiction recovery forms an important part of the
landscape of contemporary Buddhism, very little has been
written about it (exceptions include Gleig, 2019, p. 109 and
124; Prebish & Baumann, 2002, p. 225). Second, in doing
so, this study will contribute to scholars’ understanding of
the ongoing cultural development of Buddhism in the West
and to substance abuse treatment professionals’ knowledge
of this growing landscape. Third, it will argue that the relationship between meditation and ethics is being re-conceptualized as Buddhist ethical theory is being translated
into new cultural contexts. Specifically, Buddhist recovery
manuals differ from the classical Buddhist understanding of
mindfulness and meditation as necessarily preceded by ethical training. Instead, meditation is practiced throughout the
path, and enables ethical transformation.
With these three contributions, this article hopes to speak
to audiences in Buddhist Studies who may know little about
Buddhism’s use in contemporary recovery movements, as
well as to audiences in the study of substance use disorder
treatment who may know little about the history of Buddhism. For the sake of scholars of Buddhism, it includes
Sanskrit and Pāli terms and textual references. Similarly, for
the sake of those studying substance use treatment disorder, who may be unfamiliar with the history of Buddhism, it
includes references to secondary literature in Buddhist Studies where more information on these topics can be found.
This article does not make judgements about which pathways are better or worse, nor to suggest that any pathway is
more or less “Buddhist” than any other. The approach taken
in this article is that of an intellectual historian—examining
texts in order to trace how ideas develop and change over
time—rather than the approach of a counselor, practitioner,
substance abuse treatment expert, or medical professional.
This article takes a historical approach, and reads contemporary Buddhist recovery manuals as primary sources for
understanding newly emerging forms of Buddhism in the
modern world. It interprets them as part of a long and rich
history of people adapting Buddhist ideas and practices to
fit new times and places, and to address new challenges.
This contributes to our understanding of the role Buddhist
recovery manuals play in contemporary addiction recovery. Given this historical rather than scientific approach, it
will not try to assess the effectiveness of Buddhist recovery
programs, will not provide recommendations for substance
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abuse treatment professionals, and will not cite the growing
body of research assessing mindfulness interventions for
substance use disorder. However, this historical approach
can enrich social scientists’ understanding of the history of
ideas associated with mindfulness, thus enhancing research.
It can also educate substance use treatment professionals
about the growing landscape of Buddhist recovery, which
may be helpful to those for whom traditional Twelve-Step
does not work.
What are Buddhist Recovery Manuals?
This article focuses on twenty-one English-language books
that can be classified as Buddhist recovery manuals. Because
these books have not yet been studied, the term “Buddhist
recovery manuals” is being introduced in this article. As
such, it is worth explaining what each of the words in this
category means, the inclusion and exclusion criteria, and the
method for finding the books considered. A brief overview
of all the books, as well as descriptions of the Buddhist tradition they affiliate with, their affiliation with Twelve-Step,
and their conception of the path, can be found on Table 1.
Table 1 also briefly describes how these books imagine
the path from addiction to recovery. For ease, we can think
of them as forming five groups (see Table 1 for more specific descriptions of each book). First, some books structure
themselves according to the 12 steps, while incorporating
Buddhist concepts, personal reflections, and meditation
instructions (Alexander, 2010; Laura, 2006; Griffin, 2018;
Littlejohn, 2019; Rode, 2014; Jacobs-Stewart, 2010; Rainbeau, 2016; Anonymous, 2006). A second group of books
outline a path based on the Four Noble Truths and Eightfold
Path, rewritten to reflect addiction and sometimes incorporating steps from Twelve-Step (Levine, 2014; Anonymous,
2019; Mason-John & Groves, 2018). One must first understand the nature of suffering, then people’s habitual patterns
of avoiding it. Only after that can one realize that there is
hope and implement the steps of the Eightfold Path. The
third group of books adopt entirely novel organizational
structures and accounts of the path that differ both from classical Buddhist and traditional Twelve-Step models, though
they often draw on resources from both traditions, as well
(Clark, 2022; Ash, 1993; Webb, 2020). These accounts vary,
and readers should consult Table 1 for more details, but in
general the path proceeds by first having readers understand
key ideas, integrating these ideas into their own mind, and
then putting them into action in the real world.
Let us start with the category of recovery manuals. The
term manual indicates a book of instructions meant as guidance for people in recovery. Some of the books are meant
to be the handbook for group meetings (Anonymous, 2019,
Recovery Dharma
General Buddhist
Ordinary Recovery: Mindfulness, Addiction, And The Path Of Lifelong Sobriety
Dead Set On Living: Making The Difficult But Beautiful Journey From Fucking
Up To Waking Up
Rebel Therapy: A Therapist Journey
Through Addiction, Trauma and Nichiren
Buddhism
Meditate And End Addiction With Hungry Ghosts United
Zen
Does it
Account of the Path/How the Book is Organized
Identify with
12 Step?
No, but
Buddha, Dharma (Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path), Sangha
has share
meetings
Yes
Adopts 12-step path, integrated with meditation and Buddhist philosophy
Spiritual
No
Not organized according to stepwise path; consists of interviews with scientists, writers, spiritual leaders
interspersed with reflections by author
Nichiren
Not organized according to stepwise path; largely stream-of-consciousness-style personal reflection
General Buddhist
No, but has
12 steps in
appendix
No
Buddhist Recovery Daily Practice
Zen, Early Buddhism
No
The Zen Of Recovery
Zen
Yes
Climbing The Mountain: The Complete
Handbook Of Buddhist Recovery
Nichiren
No
Refuge Recovery: A Buddhist Path To
Recovering From Addiction
General Buddhist
No, but
has share
meetings
Yes
12 Steps On Buddha’s Path: Bill, Buddha, “Cafeteria” Buddhist
and We
Eight Step Recovery Using The Buddha’s Triratna
Teachings To Overcome Addiction
One Breath at a Time: Buddhism and the
12 Steps
From Hungry Ghost To Being Human:
Waking Up To This Life
Not organized according to stepwise path, although it describes how the authors were in a state of despair
and addiction, then sought out help at recovery societies, saw people happy in recovery, and resolved to
follow their instructions in practicing meditation in fellowship with others in recovery. Consists of scripts
for group meditation meetings.
Thoughts, words, deeds. Begin with a meditation practice (19–21), which then emerges in speech,
including taking refuge (47–52), before it can finally emerge in deeds such as generosity (64–67) and
ethical conduct (67–79)
Finger (understand background of Buddhism and 12 step), Pointing (reflections on struggling with issues
in recovery), Moon (how to put principles in action)
Physical, mental, emotional. Program of recovery grounded in cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT),
neurological science, and chanting “Nam Myoho Renge Kyo,” the mantra of the Lotus Sutra. Includes
instructions for group therapy meetings.
Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path. Also includes personal recovery stories from participants, about
half of whom say Twelve-Step did not work for them, and the other half of whom are Twelve-Step
members.
Adopts 12-step path, integrated with meditation and Buddhist philosophy
Theravada/Vipassana
Yes
Blend of Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, and steps from 12 step: Accept suffering (1st Noble Truth);
see how we create extra suffering (2nd Noble Truth); embrace impermanence to see how suffering can
end (3rd Noble Truth); be willing to step on path of recovery (4th Noble Truth and 3rd step in 12 step);
transform speech, actions, livelihood (steps 3–5 on Eightfold Path); place positive values at center of life
(no clear analogue); make effort to stay on path (step 6 of Eightfold Path); help others by sharing benefits
(step 12 of 12 step).
Adopts 12-step path, integrated with meditation and Buddhist philosophy
Thai Theravada
No, but
has share
meetings
Vow-based path. Vow (sajja), generosity (dāna), harmlessness (sīla, alternately rendered as ethical
conduct), friendliness (metta), forgiveness (khama), meditation and mindfulness (bhavana and sati), and
fellowship (kalyāṇa-mittatā)
No
Mindfulness
Table 1 The paths of buddhist recovery manuals
Title
Buddhist Tradition
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Table 1 (continued)
Title
Buddhist Tradition
Enough!: A Buddhist Approach To Finding Release From Addictive Patterns
General Buddhist /
Tibetan
The 12 Step Buddhist
Mindful Recovery: The Spiritual Path To
Healing From Addiction
Zen, Tibetan
Spiritual
9 Essays: Buddhism and the 12 Step
Model of Recovery
Basic Sobriety: Shambala Buddhism and
the Twelve Steps
The Twelve Steps as a Path to Enlightenment: How the Buddha Works the Steps
Mindfulness and the 12 Steps: Living
Recovery in the Present Moment
The Zen Way of Recovery: An Illuminated Path Out of the Darkness of
Addiction
Zen
Does it
Account of the Path/How the Book is Organized
Identify with
12 Step?
No
Not organized around stepwise path. Chapters organized by: understanding addiction, using meditation to
change habits, using breathing exercises to stop craving, developing awareness and equanimity, identifying triggers, discerning when one’s mind is exaggerating pain, leaning to manage pain, forgiveness, tools
for living the good life, and looking ahead to wisdom and happiness. Each step combines psychological
perspectives on what is happening in the mind, as well as meditation exercises appropriate to each step
Yes
Adopts 12-step path, integrated with meditation and Buddhist philosophy
No
Not organized around stepwise path. Chapters organized by: seeing the magic in the ordinary, telling life
stories, journaling, meditating, recreating in nature, loving, dreaming, working, transforming negative
emotions, and living moment-by-moment. Each step is additionally paired with mindfulness prompts.
Yes
Adopts 12-step path, integrated with meditation and Buddhist philosophy
Tibetan (Shambala)
Yes
Adopts 12-step path, integrated with meditation and Buddhist philosophy. Meditation is Step Zero (3).
Tibetan
Yes
General Buddhist
Yes
Zen
No
Adopts 12-step path, integrated with meditation and Buddhist philosophy. Rewrites steps to eliminate
references to Higher Power (ix).
Adopts 12-step path, integrated with meditation and Buddhist philosophy. Also engages Christian
mysticism.
Not organized around stepwise path. Consists of reflections of the author on her own recovery, and
makes connections to Zen practices and ideas.
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2022; Webb, 2020; Levine, 2014; Cullen, 2022; MasonJohn & Groves, 2018; Rainbeau, 2016), and contain discussions of meeting formats and topics. Others are reflections
on the author’s experience of recovery and the lessons they
learned, so that their experiences will help potential readers (Alexander, 2010; Grosso & Peck, 2018; Tomat, 2018;
Clark, 2022; Ash, 1993; Laura, 2006; Griffin, 2018; Rode,
2014; Anonymous, 2006; Jacobs-Stewart, 2010; Littlejohn,
2019; Burges, 2023). Still others are written by people who
are not themselves in recovery, but provide advice to readers
(Taylor, 2010; Bien & Bien, 2002). To be included, books
had to offer direct instruction to readers who want to overcome substance use disorder. As such, Buddhist recovery
memoirs (e.g. Garrigan, 2010; Catton, 2010; Lemig, 2013;
Levine, 2004) which focus on the author’s experience
rather than serving as practical manuals for recovery are not
included.
Insofar as these books are Buddhist recovery manuals,
that these books offer guidance to individuals with substance use disorder or other addictive behaviors by incorporating Buddhist ideas and practices. This article deliberately
adopts a broad definition of ‘Buddhist’ to reflect the fuzzy
boundaries around the term’s use in English. People understand and use the term ‘Buddhist’ in many different ways,
reflecting the diverse ways Buddhism has been adopted and
translated into American contexts (McMahan, 2008, pp.
6–9; Kabat-Zinn, 2011), and so adopting a narrow definition might inadvertently exclude works that are part of the
broad category of Buddhist recovery. To be included, books
needed to have sustained, primary engagement with Buddhism as such, particular Buddhist sects (e.g. Zen), or practices historically grounded in Buddhist traditions, such as
meditation or mindfulness. Recovery manuals that engaged
with “spirituality” in a general sense but did not make meditation, mindfulness, Buddhism, or particular Buddhist sects
the focus of the book (e.g. Rohr, 2011; Ewing, 2021) are
also excluded. Finally, when an author had written multiple recovery workbooks and memoirs based on one central
recovery manual (Griffin, 2010, 2014, 2015, 2018, 2020)
only the central manual is considered (Griffin, 2018).
Of the 21 books selected, 13 explicitly mention Buddhism in the title, three use terms like Zen or dharma that
indicate Buddhist affiliation, four use generalized terms like
meditation or mindfulness, and two use enlightenment or
“waking up.” Most of the authors also insist that readers do
not have to be Buddhist in order to benefit from the recovery
teachings in the book. All, however, demonstrate significant
engagement with ideas and practices historically derived
from Buddhist traditions. This includes, most prominently,
meditation and mindfulness.
As part of their identification with Buddhism, almost
all the books advocate for practices of meditation and
mindfulness as the central practice undergirding recovery.
This engagement with historically Buddhist ideas and practices under neutral labels like mindfulness reflects what
scholars have called the “unbundling” of Buddhism (Gleig,
2019, pp. 176–208). In this unbundling, ostensibly Buddhist
practices circulate outside the label of Buddhism. There are
many different ways to define meditation and mindfulness
(Gethin, 2011; McMahan, 2023), and to understand the
relationship between the two in specific Buddhist traditions
(Gethin, 1998, pp. 174–201), this article uses these key
terms in a broad sense to account for their diverse usage
in Buddhist recovery manuals. Meditation, in this context,
refers to any practice of cultivating specific states of mind,
such as calmness, insight, or focus. Mindfulness, a related
and sometimes synonymous term, refers to practices of
training the mind to pay attention to certain objects (e.g.
feelings of pleasure or pain) or to the quality of mind that
results from these practices.
These books were identified by searches on websites
such as Google and Amazon, where these books can easily
be found on “Addiction and Recovery” lists. Websites such
as the Buddhist Recovery Network (Buddhist Recovery
Network, 2023), which aggregate resources for those interested in Buddhist recovery pathways, were also consulted.
This body of literature is relatively new, with all books but
one being published since 2002, and a new book and new
edition of a book being published after this article was originally submitted for publication. It is likely that more books
will continue to be published, and that this analysis will
have to be updated to reflect this growing community.
At present, very little research addresses the topic of
Buddhist addiction recovery. While there is increasing
research into mindfulness interventions for substance use
disorder treatment (for systematic reviews in just the last
six years, see Garland et al. 2018; Kadri et al., 2020; Kirlic
et al., 2021; Korecki et al., 2020; McClintock et al. 2021;
Rosenthal et al., 2021; Schwebel et al., 2020), and even
Buddhist mindfulness’s convergence with Twelve-Step
(Dermatis & Egelko, 2014), there is much less scholarship
on Buddhist addiction recovery pathways. Wendy Dossett
pioneered academic research on the subject with her article
based on interviews with the leaders of Buddhist recovery
communities or authors of prominent Buddhist recovery
books, including One Breath at a Time, Recovery Dharma,
the Fifth Precept Sangha (described in From Hungry Ghost
to Being Human), Eight Step Recovery, as well as Buddhists
leading Buddhism and recovery retreats at various dharma
centers (Dossett, 2020). There have been some scattered
studies of individual Buddhist recovery groups (LaBelle,
2022, on Recovery Dharma), brief references to Buddhist
recovery communities (Wang & Stone, 2022), and general
applications of Buddhist philosophy to addiction recovery
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(Groves, 2014; Marlatt, 2002; Marlatt et al., 2011), but to
my knowledge, no investigation has been conducted on the
Buddhist recovery manuals examined in this article.
The Framework of Path in Classical Buddhist Texts
Buddhist traditions vary greatly, reflecting over 2500 years
of development across diverse geographic regions and
social contexts. This article will not attempt to treat the
entire expanse of Buddhism. Instead, it will focus on classical Buddhism, which includes much of the shared tradition of Buddhism, and influential Buddhist scriptures and
treatises. This category includes the roughly thousand-year
period in South Asia after the systematization of the Pāli
Canon in written form in the first century BCE (Gethin,
1998, p. 42) to the end of the first millennium. It thus avoids
questions about what the historical Buddha himself taught,
or what the earliest Buddhist communities thought, which
some scholars have argued is quite different from later systematizations (Shulman, 2014). And it avoids some of the
developments that happen after the introduction of esoteric
forms of Buddhism, or developments in Buddhism that happen in China, Japan, or Tibet.
In classical Buddhism, one nearly universal feature is
the organizing framework of a path (Pāli: magga, Sanskrit:
mārga) from suffering to freedom (Pāli: nibbāna, Sanskrit:
nirvāṇa). “Freedom” is used in a deliberately loose sense
here. Nibbāna/nirvāṇa literally translates to “blowing out,”
and classically refers to extinguishing the fires of hatred,
greed, and delusion (Gethin, 1998, p. 75), although different Buddhist traditions have understood these ideas differently at different times. The path for moving from suffering
to freedom is outlined in the Four Noble Truths. The Four
Noble Truths consist of the Buddha’s recognition of the
problem of suffering, diagnosis that this problem is caused
by craving (and, more fundamentally, ignorance), assertion
that the problem of suffering can be eliminated, and prescription for a course of treatment to eliminate suffering.
This treatment, known as the Eightfold Path, consists of
right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right meditation (Gethin, 1998, p. 81). Following this path, the Buddha
claims, leads from suffering to freedom.
Path is also a central organizing framework for other
texts across the Buddhist tradition (Buswell & Gimello,
1990; Eltshinger and Pecchia, 2020). Strikingly, while the
notion of path is ubiquitous in Buddhist traditions, there are
many different accounts of the path and the steps along it, as
well as differing ideas of how people move along the path
(Gethin, 2020). As P.J. Harter puts it, in Buddhist path literature, “uniformity is not the norm” (2017, p. 4). What is
constant, then, is not the particular steps on the path, but the
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very notion of Buddhist practice as constituting a path of
“gradual, rigorous, and sustained transformation developed
at the levels of both action and psychology” (Heim, 2020, p.
11). In each of these different accounts of the path, the text
lays out a particular set of steps to be followed from some
starting point to some goal point. At each stage, the person
on the path performs a particular set of practices appropriate to that stage of the path. These practices work on the
person, and on the set of desires and abilities they have at
that stage, in order to move them to the next stage of the
path, and eventually, to freedom. We should note as well
that classical Buddhism generally maintains that this path
necessarily involves multiple lifetimes (Gethin, 1998, p.
18), at least some of which are spent as a celibate monastic
(Gethin, 1998, p. 85).
While there are many Buddhist accounts of the path,
for our purposes it will be useful to outline some of the
key steps as a baseline for our comparison with Buddhist
recovery manuals. This will be based on key steps identified in classical Indian Buddhist texts and frameworks.
These frameworks include the Path of Purification (Pāli:
visuddhimagga), a 5th century Theravada treatise (Buddhaghosa, 1991), How to Lead an Awakened Life (Sanskrit:
bodhicaryāvatāra), a 8th Mahayana treatise (Santideva,
2008), popular narratives such as the Divine Stories (Sanskrit: divyāvadāna), the genre of “step-by-step talks” (Pāli:
anupubbikathā), which outlines how Buddhist teachers
should give talks to laypeople (Hallisey, 1995; Gethin,
1998, p. 83), and the framework of the “three bases of making merit” (Pāli: puññakiriyāvatthu). It is not necessary for
those unfamiliar with Buddhist literature to understand the
precise frameworks described here—instead it will suffice
to say that each of these is highly important in classical
Indian Buddhism.
Each of these accounts of the path differs from others,
but there are patterns and general themes. Five steps in particular occur multiple times across accounts: faith/devotion,
giving, ethical discipline, meditation, and wisdom. These
will then form the baseline for comparison with Buddhist
recovery manuals.
Faith/Devotion (Sanskrit: śraddhā, Pāli saddhā,
prasāda). This term can be translated as faith, but also can be
translated as devotion or esteem, and is held to be a crucial
precondition to successfully advancing on the path. It can
be understood in many ways (Rotman, 2009, pp. 29–30),
but generally refers to a mental state that can encompass
awe at the Buddha’s achievement, conviction that the Buddha did traverse the path, and a longing to follow in the
steps of the Buddha (Patrul Rinpoche, 1998, pp. 171–176).
Faith plays an important role in Buddhist traditions—for
example, the stories in the Divine Stories frequently begin
with people seeing the Buddha, a sight which generates
Mindfulness
faith and motivates action (Rotman, 2009, p. 3), and the
Bodhicaryāvatāra begins with sevenfold praise and worship
(Crosby & Skilton, 2008, pp. 9–10). Faith—or a positive
mental outlook generally—is seen as necessary for people
undertaking the long and difficult pathway to awakening
(Gethin, 1998, pp. 165–169). While the use of the word
faith to translate śraddhā has been debated in Buddhist studies scholarship (Gómez, 2004, pp. 277-279), scholars agree
about the importance of śraddhā in understanding Buddhist
accounts of transformation (Rotman, 2009; Gethin, 1998,
pp. 165–169).
Giving (Sanskrit: dāna). Giving or generosity refers to
practices of offering food or money to Buddhist monks,
practices which form the basis of most laypeople’s engagement with Buddhism. Giving is said to benefit givers by generating merit and good karma, which leads to good rebirths,
and also serves the Buddhist community by supporting
monastics who are further along the path (Gethin, 1998, pp.
101–103). More subtly, giving is practice in giving up, and
so breaks down attachment to material goods and prepares
people for the ethical discipline and mental control necessary later on the path. Giving to monks and nuns also paves
the way for generosity in the broader sense of “all acts performed with a generous and giving spirit” (Gethin, 1998, p.
102). Initially, these actions may be performed for relatively
selfish reasons, such as the desire to make merit for the sake
of future rebirths, but it is hope that over time, one perfects
the mental attitude of generosity to go along with the physical action. As such, while giving may seem to be a simple
act, scholars have pointed out the ways it is foundational to
the rest of the path (Buswell, 1992; Heim, 2004).
Ethical Discipline (Sanskrit. śīla, Pāli sīla). Ethical discipline, which might also be translated as right conduct,
morality, or virtue, can take multiple forms. Lay practitioners might take the five lay precepts, which involve
injunctions against lying or killing, or the more demanding monastic vows, which involve hundreds of regulations
governing food, clothing, and interactions with the opposite
sex. Notably, as traditionally understood, the precepts and
vows indicated by sīla are expressed in negative form–one
vows to refrain from actions, rather than as calls to undertake particular positive actions (Garfield, 2021, p. 188). On
a broader understanding of the term ethics, we can see that
Buddhism praises positive virtues such as care and lovingkindness, but ethical discipline in the sense of sīla is about
refraining from undertaking harmful actions. This kind of
ethical discipline is considered an important stage of the
path because it allows practitioners to gain control over
their ordinary bodily desires and reactions, and to avoid the
anguish that comes from doing something you regret. Ethical conduct thus settles both body and mind enough that,
in future stages, practitioners can enter meditation practice
(Gethin, 1998, pp. 169–174).
Meditation. This includes Sanskrit terms dhyāna,
bhāvanā, samādhi, and smṛti, all of which refer to practices
of cultivating certain wholesome states of mind. There are
many different kinds of meditation, but to give a general
overview, meditators typically focus on a particular object,
which might be a physical process like the breath, a shape
or color, qualities of mind like equanimity, or philosophical ideas like impermanence (Gethin, 1998, pp. 177–179).
Meditation practices occur relatively late in the path in the
accounts above. It comes only after the practitioner has progressed through earlier steps and developed the bodily and
mental qualities necessary for the difficult task of meditation. Without these qualities—as well as a qualified teacher
supervising the practitioner—meditation would be pointless, or even dangerous. Buddhist texts warn that unprepared meditators can misidentify meditative states or even
have terrifying psychotic breaks (Salguero, 2023). Most
Buddhists throughout history would have seen it as strange
and presumptuous for an untrained person to attempt meditation. In fact, as a great deal of scholarship by historians of
Buddhism have shown, most Buddhists in history did not
meditate (McMahan, 2008, pp. 183–188; McMahan and
Braun, 2017, pp. 1–4; McMahan, 2023, pp. 5–6; Wilson,
2014, pp. 2–3), even in ostensibly meditation-focused traditions such as Zen (Williams, 2005, p. 3). It is only fairly
recently that widespread lay meditation has been encouraged in Buddhist Asia (Braun, 2013), even as meditation is
heavily emphasized in contemporary anglophone Buddhism
(McMahan, 2008, pp. 183–214; Wilson, 2014).
Wisdom. Wisdom is one of the final steps of the Buddhist
path, described as prajñā in Sanskrit or pañña in Pāli. The
former (prajñā) is the subject of the ninth chapter of the
Bodhicaryāvatāra, and the latter (pañña) is the last section
of the Visuddhimagga. This wisdom is not merely discursive
knowledge about Buddhist ideas, but direct and experiential
insight into the nature of reality. To reach this stage of wisdom, the practitioner must not only have engaged in textual
and philosophical study of the Buddhist ideas described in
these texts, but also to have trained in meditation in order
to have contemplated those ideas and made them real in the
practitioner’s own experience. And in order to have developed the type of mind able to undertake such investigations,
they must have cultivated generosity, ethical discipline, and
the other steps along the path. Then, based on this direct and
experiential wisdom, the practitioner can approach awakening, and attain freedom from suffering (Gethin, 1998, pp.
174–175).
Philosophical inquiry, which supports the development
of wisdom, also occurs late in the path. For instance, in
step-by-step talks, an important early genre outlining how
13
Mindfulness
monks should give talks to laypeople (Gethin, 1998, p. 83
and 164–165; Hallisey, 1995), the early steps of generosity
and ethical discipline are presented in terms of their impact
on karma, merit, and benefits to the practitioner, rather than
on ideas about impermanence or non-self. This is because
the audience, who may not have the time or interest for
philosophical inquiry, can more easily understand the benefits of these steps in terms of what they know and value.
Only later in the path—in the final step described by the
step-by-step talks—are the Four Noble Truths and associated philosophical ideas introduced. This differs from most
anglophone presentations of Buddhism, which tend to start
with the Four Noble Truths, which are remembered as the
Buddha’s first teaching after attaining awakening. Classical
Buddhist texts certainly agree that the Four Noble Truths
occur in the Buddha’s first teaching, but do not think that
the Four Noble Truths are the first thing laypeople should
learn about Buddhism. For classical Buddhism, knowledge
of philosophical concepts such as the Four Noble Truths is
not a precondition or motivation to start the path, but rather
knowledge that is developed well into the practitioner’s
journey along it, when the mind has stabilized enough to be
able to truly understand them (Gethin, 1998, p. 83).
This introduction to five key steps along the classical
Buddhist path (faith, giving, ethical discipline, meditation,
and wisdom) will serve as a basis for analysis in the rest of
this paper. All of the Buddhist recovery manuals examined
for this article draw on texts and ideas drawn from the Buddhist tradition outlined here, often through explicit quotes of
the above texts. As such, these five key steps along the path
will serve as a basis for comparing the new accounts of the
path being developed in Buddhist recovery manuals.
Path in Twelve-Step Mutual Aid Societies
Just as path is a central organizing notion in classical Buddhism, path is also a useful concept for thinking about
Twelve-Step recovery programs, which are the other major
influence on Buddhist recovery manuals. Twelve-Step programs are mutual aid societies that aim to support people
struggling with maladaptive compulsion in the form of substance or behavioral addictions. They are based on a set of
principles and practices developed in 1935 by Bill Wilson
and Dr. Bob Smith to help alcoholics become free of these
addictive behaviors with the support of others struggling
with addiction. While these principles were first associated
with Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), they have since been
adapted for use by various other groups, such as Narcotics Anonymous, Gamblers Anonymous, Overeaters Anonymous, and other related organizations.
These 12 steps constitute a path from addiction to recovery—albeit recovery understood as an ongoing process
13
rather than a simple endpoint—that we can see as roughly
analogous to classical Buddhist paths. Indeed, compatibility
between Buddhism and Twelve-Step was noted as early as
the 1940s, and is referenced explicitly in the 1940s pamphlet
“Spiritual Milestones in Alcoholics Anonymous,” which
states, “The Buddhist philosophy, as exemplified by these
eight points [the Eightfold Path], could be literally adopted
by AA as a substitute for or addition to the Twelve Steps.
Generosity, universal love and welfare of others rather than
considerations of self are basic to Buddhism” (Alcoholics Anonymous, 1940, p. 9). This compatibility resulted
in increased interest in Buddhism and Twelve-Step around
the 1960s, a phenomenon that is briefly mentioned in Ernst
Kurtz’s study of the history of AA (Kurtz, 1979, p. 185 and
227). While Twelve-Step does not thematize the concept of
path in the way that Buddhism does, the language of steps
from one state to another suggests a path to be walked.
Moreover, the term “path” does occur multiple times in the
so-called “Big Book” (Alcoholics Anonymous, 1986), in
ways that suggest that analyzing Twelve-Step as a path is
compatible with Twelve-Step’s understanding of itself.
Twelve-Step has become one of the dominant forms of
addiction recovery in anglophone contexts, with estimates
of over 2,000,000 members across 120,000 fellowship
groups (Alcoholics Anonymous, 2021), although the anonymity of the program makes it difficult to track membership precisely. Membership is free, and members promise to
maintain the anonymity of other members.
The name Twelve-Step refers to a progressive system
of 12 steps that members work through in order to address
their addictions. They are:
1. We admitted we were powerless over alcohol–that our
lives had become unmanageable.
2. We came to believe that a power greater than ourselves
could restore us to sanity.
3. We made a decision to turn our will and our lives over
to the care of God as we understood Him.
4. We made a searching and fearless moral inventory of
ourselves.
5. We admitted to God, to ourselves, and to another human
being the exact nature of our wrongs.
6. We were entirely ready to have God remove all these
defects of character.
7. We humbly asked Him to remove our shortcomings.
8. We made a list of all persons we had harmed, and
became willing to make amends to them all.
9. We made direct amends to such people wherever possible, except when to do so would injure them or others.
10. We continued to take personal inventory and when we
were wrong promptly admitted it.
Mindfulness
11. We sought through prayer and meditation to improve
our conscious contact with God as we understood Him,
praying only for knowledge of His will for us and the
power to carry that out.
12. Having had a spiritual awakening as the result of these
steps, we tried to carry this message to alcoholics and
to practice these principles in all our affairs. (Alcoholics
Anonymous, 1986, pp. 59–60).
These 12 steps outline a gradual path of transformation.
Members begin by acknowledging their addiction has
become unmanageable. They then turn to a Higher Power
for healing and strength, take a moral inventory, make
amends, and build a new life free from addiction. The program involves regular meetings where members share their
experiences and work through the steps together. They may
also meet one-on-one with a more-experienced sponsor who
helps them work the steps. The goal is to have a “spiritual
awakening” by completing the steps, and to maintain sobriety through ongoing spiritual and service work. The program is based on the principle that “only an addict can help
another addict” and is free, anonymous, and open to anyone
seeking to overcome their addiction (Alcoholics Anonymous, 2002, pp. 9–13).
Twelve-Step uses the language of “God” as a reference to
a Higher Power, but Alcoholics Anonymous emphasizes that
this can be interpreted in many ways (Kurtz, 1979). “God”
can refer to a lofty ideal like compassion, or as an acronym
to signify the “group of drunks” that makes up the recovery community. The program welcomes people of any or no
religious belief, and separates the spiritual program offered
through Twelve-Step from religious approaches. Still, some
critics argue that the program has religious or Christian
overtones because of the God language. Several of the Buddhist recovery authors describe resistance to Christianity,
God, or an external Higher Power as an obstacle in their
own recovery (Rode, 2014; Webb, 2020; Burges, 2023, p.
22) or as a potential obstacle for others in recovery (MasonJohn & Groves, 2018; Griffin, 2018; Rainbeau, 2016; Littlejohn, 2019; Levine, 2014). Several authors also describe
their initial struggle to understand how Buddhism could be
compatible with the idea of a Higher Power and how they
ultimately resolved the tension (Griffin, 2018; Laura, 2006,
p. 16; Alexander, 2010; Ash, 1993; Burges, 2023, p. 134).
Twelve-Step is the most widely used program of addiction recovery in English-speaking countries, and has been
positively evaluated in systematic reviews (Kelly et al.,
2020), but it has also faced various criticisms. These include
the previously-mentioned religious overtones, perceived
dominance of a white, male, and middle-class outlook that
marginalizes people not belonging to those groups, stigmatizing language, treating a medical disorder as a moral
issue, insistence on abstinence, and resistance to medicallyassisted treatment to opioid use disorder (see Greene, 2021
or Glaser, 2015 for brief overviews). As result, alternative
recovery frameworks have emerged including Twelve-Step
fellowships tailored to specific groups and completely different frameworks like the secular SMART recovery and the
Christian-based S2L.
The Buddhist recovery manuals discussed in this article
all exist in a recovery landscape shaped by Twelve-Step,
and as such they all show marks of its influence, whether
they ultimately identify with or do not identify with TwelveStep. Nine of the Buddhist recovery manuals identify with
Twelve-Step (Alexander, 2010; Ash, 1993; Laura, 2006;
Griffin, 2018; Littlejohn, 2019; Buddhism and the Twelve
Step Method, Rainbeau, 2016; Rode, 2014; Jacobs-Stewart,
2010). These books often argue for the fundamental compatibility of Twelve-Step with Buddhism. For instance, Basic
Sobriety says that Buddhism and Twelve-Step go together
like a “zipper” (Rainbeau, 2016, p. 12), and multiple books
identify Bill W., the founder of Twelve-Step, as a Buddha or
bodhisattva (Ash, 1993; Rode, 2014).
For many of these authors, Buddhism complements and
adds to recovery sought through Twelve-Step, but does not
replace traditional Twelve-Step. For example, 12 Steps on
Buddha’s Path states that, “It became clear to me that for my
personal spiritual journey, I need both AA and the Dharma.
AA alone does not fulfill all my spiritual needs, and Buddhism alone will not keep me sober” (Laura, 2006, p. 101).
Likewise, The Zen of Recovery states that “Zen practice is
not the place to air issues better dealt with in meetings, with
sponsors, in stepwork or in therapy” (Ash, 1993, pp. 5–6).
For both authors, Buddhism and Twelve-Step “intersect”
(Ash, 1993, p. 6) in important ways, but each serves a function that the other does not.
However, most authors are not dogmatic about TwelveStep being the only correct way to do recovery. For instance,
some authors acknowledge that Twelve-Step will not work
for everyone (Littlejohn, 2019, pp. 89–92), and another
explicitly rewrites steps they do not like to eliminate language about a Higher Power or faith (Rode, 2014, p. 15).
At times, authors dwell on aspects of Twelve-Step that they
initially struggled with, such as faith in a Higher Power, and
then provide Buddhist ways to make sense of these concepts
by reframing higher power as Buddha nature, compassion,
or the Buddhist community (Rainbeau, 2016; Laura, 2006,
p. 16; Alexander, 2010; Ash, 1993).
Twelve of the books do not identify with Twelve-Step.
Some of these explicitly distance themselves from TwelveStep (Anonymous, 2019, 2022; Webb, 2020). They describe
Twelve-Step’s perceived insistence on faith in an external
Higher Power as a reason they wanted to start a separate
recovery community (Webb, 2020, p. 1; Anonymous, 2022,
13
Mindfulness
p. 92). Recovery Dharma separates itself from Twelve-Step
by claiming that it works “Not step-by-step, but in a holistic way…” (Anonymous, 2019, p. xii). Other books that do
not explicitly identify with Twelve-Step are neutral in their
orientation in they say that the book may be useful to people
either in Twelve-Step programs or outside of Twelve-Step
programs (Taylor, 2010; Mason-John & Groves, 2018;
Grosso & Peck, 2018; Levine, 2014; Bien & Bien, 2002).
Still others do not mention Twelve-Step at all (Tomat, 2018;
Clark, 2022; Cullen, 2022; Burges, 2023), although in at
least some of these, there is mention of unspecified “recovery communities” (Burges, 2023, p. 3; Anonymous, 2022,
p. 4).
Possibly because of the pervasive influence of TwelveStep on the recovery landscape, even the books that do not
identify with Twelve-Step still reproduce certain features
associated with Twelve-Step programs. For example, From
Hungry Ghost to Being Human describes “sit and share”
“peer led” meetings (Cullen, 2022, p. 41) that seem analogous to peer-led Twelve-Step meetings, where members of
the community discuss readings and share their stories (Hoffmann, 2006, pp. 674–677). Other Buddhist recovery manuals describe meetings that seem modeled on Twelve-Step
meetings, and even offer scripts for running such meetings
(Anonymous, 2019, 2022; Mason-John & Groves, 2018).
Some of these books also describe “mentors” (Anonymous,
2022, p. 89; Anonymous, 2019, p. 14) that seem modeled
on the Twelve-Step concept of sponsors. These sponsors are
people who have progressed further in their recovery, and
who help those who are newer in their recovery work the
steps (Kurtz, 1979, p. 89). Recovery Dharma describes mentors thus: “After we have completed significant work on our
Inquiries, established a meditation practice, and achieved
renunciation from our addictive behaviors, we can then
become mentors to help others on their path to liberation
from addiction” (Anonymous, 2019, p. 14). It would require
ethnographic work to assess how similar this is to the idea of
Twelve-Step sponsors in practice, but there is at least a surface resemblance. Neither peer-led meetings nor mentorship
has direct analogues in classical Buddhist communities, so
this appears to be a case where even non-Twelve-Step affiliated Buddhist recovery communities draw on recognizable
features of Twelve-Step.
Tracing the Paths of Buddhist Recovery Manuals
Now that we have introduced the genre of Buddhist recovery manuals as well as its two major bodies of influence,
we can proceed to document how these books plot the path
from addiction to recovery. These accounts are based on
full readings of each book, as well as close attention to the
order of chapters and to how authors describe the book’s
13
organization in the introduction. Space limitations prevent
lengthy analysis of each of the twenty-one books, so for
reader convenience, some of the most important aspects of
these books are summarized in Table 1.
From this table, we can see that the various books identify
with different Buddhist traditions. Some work with a specific tradition or teacher, while others identify themselves
with a generalized spirituality that draws on Buddhism, but
also includes other contemplative or religious traditions.
This eclecticism reflects the trend in American Buddhism
away from traditional boundaries and more towards a “mix
and match” approach (McMahan, 2008, p. 44). For example, Laura S., author of 12 Steps on Buddha’s Path describes
her approach as a “cafeteria” Buddhist thus: “a little Zen as
an appetizer, a little Tibetan as an entrée, some Vipassana
for dessert” (Laura, 2006, p. 47). Other books are similar
in drawing on disparate Buddhist and even non-Buddhist
sources.
The fourth group—which consists of a single book,
From Hungry Ghost to Being Human—is vow-based (Cullen, 2022). It is used by the Fifth-Precept Sangha, so named
because it emphasizes the fifth lay precept against taking
intoxicants. This group takes its cues from the Thai monastery Wat Thamkrabok, which has become known for its
herbal treatments of addiction and emphasis on the transformative power of the vow.
Finally, some of the Buddhist recovery manuals show
little to no “path” orientation (Grosso & Peck, 2018; Tomat,
2018; Anonymous, 2022; Bien & Bien, 2002; Taylor, 2010;
Burges, 2023) in how the manual is organized. This does not
mean that these manuals do not discuss the notion of path,
but rather that they are organized differently. For example,
Dead Set on Living consists of interviews with individual
scientists, writers, and spiritual leaders mixed with personal reflection by the author (Grosso & Peck, 2018), and
Meditate and End Addiction consists mostly of scripts for
particular meditation exercises to be used by groups (Anonymous, 2022). In either case, one could read the book out of
order without misunderstanding the overall aim. Within this
category are also manuals that have a weak “path” orientation. For example, In The Zen Way of Recovery, the author
reflects on her experience of recovery, and draws connections between her experience and Buddhist ideas she thinks
may be helpful to others (Burges, 2023). These books do
have an overall arc, with chapters that build on one another
as the person moves from addiction to recovery, but the
logic of steps along a path is not emphasized in the book.
This categorization and overview of the use of path in
this literature demonstrates the variety of approaches these
authors have taken in using ideas from Buddhism and
Twelve-Step to address the issue of addiction. Reading this
literature, it becomes clear that there is no one way to apply
Mindfulness
Buddhist resources to addiction recovery. Instead, these
authors creatively find ways to select elements from Buddhist traditions and apply them to new contexts and to new
ends.
Much more could be said about how these books conceptualize the path, and relate both to Buddhism and TwelveStep. For instance, how these books conceptualize the
Buddha, how they conceptualize addiction, how they relate
to the harm-reduction movement, their position on psychedelics, the amount and source of scriptural quotations, and
the specific Buddhist ideas used. However, for the purposes
of this article, we will move on to the central comparison of
Buddhist recovery paths with classical Buddhist paths.
Comparing the Steps of Buddhist Recovery Manuals
to Classical Buddhist Models
Now that we have described the paths of classical Buddhism, Twelve-Step, and Buddhist recovery manuals, we
can proceed to comparison and analysis of particular steps
along the path. We will use the five steps identified as key
points in classical Buddhist models of the path as a basis,
and analyze how the paths of Buddhist recovery manuals
uphold or depart from these models. Where appropriate,
comparisons with Twelve-Step will also be made.
Faith and devotion. While faith is important both to classical Buddhist and Twelve-Step paths, Buddhist recovery
manuals often express a complicated relationship with the
idea of faith or of a higher power outside of oneself. Multiple books—both those that identify with Twelve-Step and
those that do not—suggest that the reason the author turned
to Buddhism is because they struggled with the notion of
faith in a Higher Power, and found Buddhism to offer satisfying account of reality that did not involve a Higher Power.
For the books that identify with Twelve-Step, the authors
devote time to re-framing what they mean by faith and to
integrating Higher Power with Buddhist ideas such as Buddha-nature or compassion (Rainbeau, 2016; Laura, 2006;
Alexander, 2010; Ash, 1993). Alternatively, some authors
choose to disregard parts of Twelve-Step they find unhelpful. For instance, the author of The Twelve Steps as a Path to
Enlightenment chose to “rewrite steps to remove references
to God or Higher Power” (Rode, 2014, p. ix). For the books
that do not identify with Twelve-Step, they frequently say
that it was their discomfort with the idea of higher power
that led them to seek out a Buddhist pathway of recovery
that is separate from Twelve-Step (Webb, 2020, p. 1).
Buddhist recovery manuals’ general ambivalence
towards faith also affects their conception of the Buddha.
For the most part, the books surveyed tend to emphasize that
the Buddha is a human being and not a god. For example,
Refuge Recovery calls “Sid” a “radical psychologist” rather
than a transcendent being (Levine, 2014, p. ix), and Enough
states that “Buddha was a top psychologist” (Taylor, 2010,
p. 15) rather than a religious leader. This reflects a broader
trend in contemporary Buddhism to make Buddhism compatible with modern psychology and science (assumed to be
the dominant paradigm for knowing reality), which does not
require faith (McMahan, 2008, p. 52–57).
To give an example of the line these books try to walk,
Meditate and End Addiction states that “there is no need to
believe anything on faith” (Anonymous, 2022, p. 92). But
it also describes how the authorial “we” came to meditation
practice as follows: “With nowhere else to go, and a tentative belief in the happiness we saw in our sponsors, and
mentors, we resolved to try something new” (p. 4). In other
words, the authors saw that people had found happiness in
recovery, and seeing this happiness gave them some sense—
whether we call that belief, faith, trust, or confidence—that
this was a path worth following. The description of this
belief as “tentative” seems deliberately chosen to mark
this not as a blind faith, but as grounded in skepticism and
empiricism. Likewise, 12 Steps on Buddha’s Path emphasizes that she was never “asked to believe anything about
Alcoholics Anonymous on blind faith,” and that instead, as
one practices, “the hope turns to confidence. We begin to
develop faith—in ourselves, in others, in the workings of
our Higher Power” (Laura, 2006, p. 38). The author wants
to assure the reader that she was not asked–and they will not
be asked–to believe things merely on blind faith.
Giving. The role of giving in Buddhist recovery manuals necessarily shifts from classical Buddhist models of the
path, where giving (dāna) to the monastic community is a
foundational stage on the path. Whereas classical Buddhism
assumes a large population of monastics to be supported by
lay donations, contemporary anglophone Buddhists mostly
live in social contexts without large monastic communities,
and tend to de-emphasize monasticism generally (McMahan, 2008, pp. 6–9). As such, discourses around giving to
monks and nuns must be reframed in order to speak to their
intended readers.
Giving is rarely framed as a discrete step in Buddhist
recovery manuals. The sole exception is From Hungry
Ghost to Being Human, which frames generosity as a necessary precursor to later steps. It claims, “Generosity gives
rise to ethical living, to kindness, to the ability to forgive
and to fellowship; and it supports our meditation practice”
(Cullen, 2022, p. 33), suggesting that without a foundation
of generosity, meditation practice will not be possible. From
Hungry Ghost to Being Human expands generosity from
its classical grounding in donations to monks, and instead
embraces the larger sense of generosity, writing that “generosity of heart and mind expressed in our thoughts, our words
and our actions” (33). In this way, From Hungry Ghost to
13
Mindfulness
Being Human retains the classical Buddhist notion of generosity as an early, foundational step in the path even as it
broadens the definition of giving for those living in a social
context without a large community of monks.
While most of the Buddhist recovery manuals do not
identify giving as a discrete step on the path, almost all of
them emphasize the importance of generosity to the path
of recovery. Different books connect the idea of generosity with a variety of Buddhist ideas. Often, it is framed as
the antidote to egotistical behavior or self-centered fear that
can perpetuate addictive patterns (Burges, 2023, p. 108).
For example, Recovery Dharma states, “Selfishness, or
self-centeredness, is one of the ways we justify and cling to
our addictive behaviors. Generosity comes from the awareness that we’re holding on too tightly to our selfishness in
a given moment” (Anonymous, 2023, p. 20). Other books
discuss generosity within the context of the six perfections
to be mastered on the bodhisattva path (Anonymous, 2006,
p. 42; Littlejohn, 2019, p. 79), and still others discuss it in
the context of the five precepts lay Buddhists are expected
to follow. For example, Eight Step Recovery writes “Abstain
from taking the non-given; practice generosity” and elaborates that “We can act generously through giving gifts, time,
attention, or encouragement – opening our hands and offering kindness and generosity” (Mason-John & Groves, 2018,
pp. 127–128). Traditionally, the second precept is framed
in negative terms–vowing to refrain from taking that which
is not given (“The Five Precepts,” 2013), but Eight Step
Recovery expands on that classical Buddhist understanding
and adds a positive account of the virtue to be cultivated in
the second precept: generosity.
Recovery manuals, particularly those that identify with
Twelve-Step, also connect the idea of generosity with the
notion of service as described in Twelve-Step literature.
Service, along with recovery and unity, is one of the “three
legacies” of Twelve-Step (Kurtz, 1979, p. 134), and is particularly associated with the twelfth step, where members
promise to carry the message of Twelve-Step, both through
living in accordance with the steps and through direct aid
to others still struggling with addiction (Alcoholics Anonymous, 1986, p. 60). Multiple books connect generosity with
service, and read service to the recovery community as a
form of service (Anonymous, 2006, 2019; Levine, 2014;
Laura, 2006; Cullen, 2022; Burges, 2023; Taylor, 2010). For
example, Refuge Recovery states that “As we set aside some
of our time and energy to show others the path of recovery, we too benefit from that act of generosity” (Levine,
2014, p. 65). To be in service to others is thus the epitome
of generosity.
The relative placement of generosity and service marks
a point of slight difference between classical Buddhist
accounts of the path and the Twelve Steps. While classical
13
Buddhist accounts of path place generosity as an important early step, one that generates capacity for later steps,
in Twelve-Step, service emerges at the end of the path. For
Twelve-Step, service to others can only emerge at the end of
the path, because at the outset, the person is living a life that
is unmanageable. Only once the person regains sanity—as it
is described in Twelve-Step—through working the steps can
they be of real use to others. For classical Buddhism, generosity is a practice for making someone attuned to others,
while for Twelve-Step, service is a practice emerges when
one can be attuned to others. However, we should not overstate this difference, as Twelve-Step emphasizes being of
service to others at all points in the path, and classical Buddhism also emphasizes generosity at all points in the path.
Moreover, both see performing generosity and performing
service as part of a positive feedback loop whereby one gets
better at generosity/service by practicing it.
A few Buddhist recovery pathways, such as From Hungry Ghost to Being Human, adopt the general framework of
generosity being an early and foundational step on the path,
while the majority think of generosity and service as something that emerges at the end of the path (Cullen, 2022). For
example, in 9 Essays, it states, “In Steps One through Five
we address our own most urgent, life-threatening situation.
If our lives are not ransomed from our addictions, anything
else is meaningless. And yet, if we go no further than this
in our recovery, we are living only half a life. It is in Steps
Six through Twelve that we are reintegrated into the human
community and are prepared to be of service” (Anonymous,
2006, p. 41). At the outset of the path, the person struggling
with addiction is so wrapped up in their addiction that they
cannot even help themselves, much less others. Only after
the hard work of recovery can they be of service to others.
Elsewhere, 12 Steps on Buddha’s Path states, “When we’ve
made the decision to try to have humility, in the sense of
accurate self-perception, it is inevitable that we turn away
from our own navel and work the twelfth step, doing service to help other alcoholics” (Laura, 2006, p. 37). Note
the causal order here–once the person has transformed how
they see themselves (through the work of the steps), then
they can turn away from selfish navel-gazing and towards
service. Likewise, The 12-Step Buddhist states that “after
we are well established in our program, we resolutely turn
to helping others” (Littlejohn, 2019, p. 115). Once again,
the emphasis is on establishing a program, so that one can
later help others effectively. In this way, we can see Buddhist recovery manuals drawing both on classical Buddhist
accounts of the path and on traditional Twelve-step recovery
pathways.
Ethical Discipline. Buddhist recovery manuals are
deeply concerned about ethical or moral behavior in the
sense of not harming others (I use “ethical” and “moral”
Mindfulness
interchangeably). Authors often describe a moment of clarity when they saw the harms they did to others while in
active addiction as the central motivating factor for pursuing
recovery (Griffin, 2018; Rainbeau, 2016). In recovery, these
authors seek the freedom to act in ways that align with their
moral values, rather than being trapped in negative behaviors. As such, most authors of Buddhist recovery manuals
describe the path of recovery as necessarily involving ethical training. For example, in 9 Essays, the author writes that,
“In Buddhism, morality (or ethics, as it is usually translated)
is one of the three foundations of practice, the other two
being meditation and wisdom. It is impossible to practice
the other two successfully when an ethical basis to one’s
life has not been established” (Anonymous, 2006, p. 17).
Echoing this same sentiment, Refuge Recovery argues that
“without ethical conduct,” trying to develop true understanding and intention “is like trying to row a boat across a
river without untying it from the dock” (Levine, 2014, pp.
47–48). Developing ethical behavior, then, is crucial for the
path to recovery.
However, for most of the Buddhist recovery manuals,
ethical behavior is woven throughout the path, rather than
being identified as a discrete step. One notable exception
here is Vince Cullen’s From Hungry Ghost to Being Human,
which sees vow as the first step on the path to recovery.
In particular, it emphasizes the fifth lay precept (the group
calls itself “Fifth Precept Sangha”, which involves a vow to
abstain from intoxicants. For From Hungry Ghost to Being
Human, vow, or “sajja” (the Thai form of Pāli sacca, often
translated as truth) is “the core element of the treatment of
addictions” (Cullen, 2022, p. 6) and “the starting point for
recovery” (p. 14). This emphasis on vow–and on taking one
ethical vow in particular–is unique among the Buddhist
recovery manuals considered here, even as they all emphasize ethical behavior.
Twelve-Step also deeply cares about morality and ethics. In the steps, we find references to “moral inventory,”
“wrongs,” “defects of character,” “shortcomings,” “persons
we had harmed,” and “amends” in steps four through ten
(Alcoholics Anonymous, 1986, pp. 59–60). Indeed, one
of the aspects of Twelve-Step that sets it apart from other
forms of addiction treatment is the notion that addiction is in
some way a moral problem or spiritual malady that requires
moral and spiritual healing (Parsons, 2022). Those struggling with addiction cannot simply will away their addictions; they must do a deeper inventory of their moral and
spiritual lives. In this way, ethical living is at the core of
Twelve-Step.
However, Twelve-Step’s conception of ethics differs from
that of classical Buddhist paths in that it is not grounded in
specific vows, and is indeed skeptical that vow-taking or
rule-following is at all useful in ethical development. The
Big Book expresses doubt that a mere “code of morals”
is sufficient to address issues of addiction, writing that “if
a mere code of morals or a better philosophy of life were
sufficient to overcome alcoholism, many of us would have
recovered long ago…We could wish to be moral,… but the
needed power wasn’t there. Our human resources, as marshalled by the will, were not sufficient; they failed utterly”
(Alcoholics Anonymous, 1986, pp. 44–45). In other words,
people suffering from addiction simply cannot uphold a
moral code—much though they desire to—until they learn
to trust and rely on a higher power. As such, instead of
requiring members to take specific vows to participate in
Twelve-Step, all that is required is a sincere desire to stop
drinking (or engaging in whatever addictive pattern). Ethical behavior is then held to emerge from deepening understanding and spirituality, rather than to be a precondition
for continuing along the path as it is in classical Buddhist
models.
By contrast, many Buddhist recovery manuals draw on
classical Buddhist concepts of vows and precepts as useful guides for developing ethical behavior. For instance,
Recovery Dharma states, “We commit to the Five Precepts
as our basic ethical system” and goes on to describe the
“intentions” those desiring recovery “should continually
reflect on” (Anonymous, 2023, p. 29). Discussions of the
five precepts–vows against killing, taking what is not given,
sexual misconduct, lying, and taking intoxicants–occur in
multiple books (Mason-John & Groves, 2018; Alexander,
2010; Griffin, 2018; Cullen, 2022; Rainbeau, 2016). Other
books focus on the Eightfold path of right view, right intention, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right
effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration (translated
variously) as a guide to ethical behavior (Taylor, 2010; Bien
& Bien, 2002; Alexander, 2010; Anonymous, 2006, 2022;
Rode, 2014; Jacobs-Stewart, 2010; Laura, 2006; Clark,
2022; Griffin, 2018; Cullen, 2022). Often, books frame their
discussion of ethics around these different areas of concern,
and reflect on how they are connected to recovery. However,
one element from classical Buddhist paths that is often left
out are discussions of the hundreds of other rules for Buddhist monks and nuns (vinaya). Instead, Buddhist recovery
books address recovery within the context of lay life.
Some books make connections between these Buddhist
ideas about ethics and Twelve-Step ideas. For example, one
section in Mindfulness and the 12 Steps is entitled “The
Eightfold Path as a Moral Inventory” (Jacobs-Stewart,
2010, p. 53), and The 12-Step Buddhist points out that the
vows coincide nicely with the steps in that they give us a
code of ethics that helps us conduct our lives with integrity”
(Littlejohn, 2019, p. 231). In this way, Buddhist recovery
manuals can sometimes push back against Twelve-Step
ambivalence to moral codes, and can see such codes are
13
Mindfulness
useful for developing habits of positive ethical action as one
engages in recovery practice.
However, even the Buddhist recovery manuals that adopt
the five precepts or eightfold paths as guides to ethical
behavior show some ambivalence about fixed sets of rules.
They often deliberately distinguish concepts like the five
precepts or eightfold path from the 10 Commandments of
Judaism and Christianity. For example, Mindfulness and
the 12 Steps introduces the Eightfold path as “not, in the
traditional Judeo-Christian sense, a set of commandments
instructing us in right or wrong” (Jacobs-Stewart, 2010, p.
53). One Breath at a Time likewise draws a contrast with
Christianity by saying that the precepts “are taught as ‘trainings,’ not Commandments” (Griffin, 2018, p. 109), 9 Essays
calls the precepts “a far cry from a commandment-based
moral teaching” (Anonymous, 2006, p. 18), and Mindful
Recovery claims that “It would be a mistake to understand
[“Right” actions in the Eightfold Path] primarily as right
in the moral sense, as Westerners raised on the Ten Commandments are liable to do” (Bien & Bien, 2002, pp. 7–8).
Commandments, these books seem to imply, are draconian
or otherwise undesirable, but that the precepts/Eightfold
path are a call to “pay careful attention to our actions to see
how closely they adhere to our professed intention” (Ibid,
18). They are an opportunity for self-reflection and growing
self-awareness, rather than something handed down from on
high.
In addition, Buddhist recovery manuals often frame ethics not only as a matter of not doing harmful actions (as we
had seen in the classical Buddhist account of sīla), but of
adopting positive virtues. For example, as we have already
seen in the case of generosity, Eight Step Recovery explains
the five precepts in both “a negative and a positive form –
what to avoid doing and what to put into practice” (MasonJohn & Groves, 2018, pp. 126–127). Thus the first precept,
to refrain from taking life, which had traditionally been
expressed in solely negative terms (“The Five Precepts,”
2013) is given a positive form: “With deeds of loving-kindness, I purify my body” (Mason-John & Groves, 2018, p.
127). Ordinary Recovery likewise includes the cultivation
of the positive virtue of compassion in his account of the
first precept (Alexander, 2010, p. 66).
Other Buddhist recovery manuals are skeptical about
any sort of moralizing or judgmental approaches, and try
to avoid black-and-white thinking. For instance, The Zen of
Recovery outlines an idea of ethics not as following a set
of precepts or guidelines. Instead it argues that, “Our newfound sense of internal morality must become automatic and
intuitive, guiding all our thoughts and actions. Personally, I
regard anything that causes me to become unmindful and
presents the possibility of a return to my active disease as
immoral. Likewise, I regard anything that anchors me in the
13
present moment and presents the opportunity to help others
as moral” (Ash, 1993, p. 73). Ethics here is guided by internal intuition grounded in present moment awareness, rather
than a set of external rules. The author contrasts this vision
of ethics with “the morality we’ve been burdened with all
these years” (73), which he thinks has been unhelpful and
judgmental. Echoing this sentiment is Ordinary Recovery,
which although it affiliates with Twelve-Step, criticizes the
“wrong/right, sick/well, bad/good” framework of TwelveStep as “injurious” and “judgmental” (Alexander, 2010, p.
43), something he attributes to the fact that the Big Book
and the Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions “were written several decades ago and reflect the trends and tempers
and prejudices of their milieu” (p. 43). For both authors,
Buddhism represents a way out of the rigid or judgmental
mindsets that they feel have hindered their recovery. What
is more, Buddhism represents a way to critique Twelve-Step
approaches they feel are unhelpful, even as both authors
identify as part of it.
Similarly, some books actively seek to avoid distinctions
between good and bad, and appeal to the classical Buddhist
notion of actions as being either skillful or unskillful (Gethin,
1998, p. 101) as a way of escaping what they perceive as the
crushing judgement experienced by those struggling with
addiction. For instance, Dead Set on Living argues that “the
moral grid is not good and bad or right and wrong–it’s what’s
skillful or unskillful” (Grosso & Peck, 2018, p. 136). In the
same vein, 12 Steps on Buddha’s Path claims that “All the
world’s religions have codes of behavior and judge actions
as being “right” or “wrong,” “good” or “bad,” or “moral” or
“immoral.” These terms are extremely judgmental and don’t
acknowledge the effects of karma. In contrast, Buddhism
describes actions that cause dukkha as unskillful and those
that promote happiness as skillful” (Laura, 2006, p. 73). For
these authors, what makes Buddhism uniquely well-suited
to recovery contexts is that they sidestep inflexible moral
judgements. This discomfort with rules and commandments
aligns a feature of contemporary anglophone Buddhism that
scholar David McMahan has called the “Romantic Themes
in Buddhist Modernism.” These include a rejection of “the
voice of society with its conventions and rules” as well as
“external authority” (McMahan, 2008, pp. 81–85). Romantic strains within contemporary Buddhism privilege individual autonomy over rigid social expectations, and reject
black-and-white moralizing about right and wrong.
Discussions of ethics in Buddhist recovery manuals
thus draw on a number of different ideas. Many draw on
classical Buddhism’s vow or precept-based conceptions of
ethical discipline, others draw on contemporary anglophone
Buddhism’s romantic skepticism of fixed rules, and others
criticize Twelve-Step as being judgmental. Still others exist
somewhere on a spectrum between these positions. We can
Mindfulness
see, then, some of the diversity of ways Buddhist recovery
manuals have understood ethics in the context of recovery.
Meditation. In the Buddhist addiction recovery manuals,
one of the overall themes is the emphasis on meditation,
early and often. This emphasis can be seen in titles such as
Meditate and End Addiction, Mindfulness and the 12 Steps;
Mindful Recovery, Ordinary Recovery: Mindfulness, Addiction, and the Path of Lifelong Sobriety, or One Breath at a
Time, each of which refer to meditation, qualities of mindfulness believed to result from meditation, or the common
technique of counting breaths in meditation. Several books
mention that the first thing you do should be to start meditating. For example, Basic Sobriety has a chapter called “Step
Zero” that instructs readers to take up a meditation practice
“as quickly as you can” (Rainbeau, 2016, p. 3). The book,
which is structured according to the 12 steps, acknowledges
that the Big Book mentions meditation at step eleven, but
tells readers not to wait. Refuge Recovery likewise tells
readers, “We encourage you to begin with the practice of
meditation right away. Meditation is going to be the most
important tool in supporting our renunciation” (Levine,
2014, p. xiii). Both of these examples—and many more
that could have been cited—demonstrate that, for Buddhist
recovery manuals, meditation is the central practice that is
thought to sustain and develop recovery.
The eleventh step in traditional Twelve-Step programs
describes meditation as an important practice for those in
recovery to deepen their spiritual practice and gain wisdom.
The step reads “Sought through prayer and meditation to
improve our conscious contact with God, as we understood
Him” (Alcoholics Anonymous, 1986, p. 59). The Big Book
does not explicitly define what it means by meditation, but
the way the term is used suggests a period of reflection
on one’s actions or on higher power that might be bookended by prayer. This can take place at the end of the day
(p. 87), or in the morning (p. 87, 134, 164), and is meant to
strengthen recovery by grounding it in deeply felt spirituality. It is notable that this meditation is described towards
the end of the steps, at step eleven. The early steps have
more to do with admitting powerlessness and handing over
one’s will to higher power, which involves some degree
of faith, but this type of faith is characterized as child-like
rather than mature. It is enough to get one on the path, but
by the time one has worked the steps through step eleven,
that faith must be deepened and matured through meditation
and reflection (pp. 85–88).
In this respect, Buddhist recovery pathways diverge from
both classical Buddhist accounts of the path and from classical Twelve-Step formulations that place meditation as a
relatively late step in the path, while aligning with contemporary anglophone Buddhism’s emphasis on meditation
early in the path. While classical Buddhist accounts of the
path emphasize the importance of meditation in attaining
enlightenment, it is reserved for the very few who have spent
sufficient time training in generosity and ethical discipline,
believed to be necessary precursors to serious meditation
practice (Gethin, 1998, pp. 82–83). By contrast, anglophone
Buddhism tends to center meditation as a foundational practice that can and should be practiced by all people (McMahan, 2008, pp. 183–188; McMahan and Braun, 2017, pp.
1–4; McMahan, 2023, pp. 5–6; Wilson, 2014, pp. 2–3). This
transformation from meditation for the elite few to meditation for the masses is a complex story (Braun, 2013), but an
important factor is figures like Jon Kabat-Zinn, the founder
of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction, who aimed to
translate meditation to Western contexts and make it accessible to more people (Kabat-Zinn, 1990, 1994, 2011; Braun,
2017, pp. 173–197).
It is worth noting that some have raised meditation as a
possible source of danger for those who attempt it without
proper training and supervision. Some have reported severe
adverse reactions to meditation on the part of practitioners (see Baer, 2019; Baer, 2021; Britton, 2021; Compson,
2018; Treleaven, 2018; and Sharma et al., 2022; as well as
Anālayo, 2021 for a response). Those struggling with addiction—and the mental health comorbidities that often accompany it—might likewise experience adverse effects. A few
of the Buddhist recovery manuals discuss trauma and how
it can affect meditation (Anonymous, 2023, p. 10–13), and
give guidance on how people experiencing difficulties during meditation can “tap the breaks” (p. 150), but these references to potential adverse events are fairly rare in the rest of
the books examined for this article.
Wisdom. The goal of developing wisdom suffuses Buddhist recovery manuals, and most of them draw on classical Buddhist definitions of wisdom (Pāli paññā, Sanskrit
prajñā) to indicate deep insight into reality grounded in
right view and meditative experience (Gethin, 1998, p.
84; Garfield, 2021, p. 128–130). Eight Step Recovery, for
instance, claims that the development of wisdom (along
with compassion) is the main characteristic of Awakening.
It continues, “Wisdom is seeing the nature of reality. It is
understanding on a deep level that everything changes and
is interconnected. The natural emotional counterpart of this
is compassion” (Mason-John & Groves, 2018, p. 187). Wisdom, then, is closely tied with recovery, for to truly recover,
people need to be able to see reality as it is. The inability to
do so is, many of these books claim, what causes and perpetuates negative patterns of addictive behavior. For example, 9
Essays writes about the “hole” inside all of us, and explains
that “It’s ultimate cause is ignorance of the nature of reality;
and ultimately it is wisdom that can end it. This is wisdom in
the sense of a knowing that is deeper than mere knowledge.
It is direct experience that has been thoroughly digested
13
Mindfulness
until it has become an automatic response of the mind”
(Anonymous, 2006, p. 6). Both of these books emphasize
the depth of wisdom in order to separate the wisdom they
seek from mere conceptual or surface-level knowledge.
This wisdom is said to arise from meditation practice,
which as we have already discussed, takes a central place
in Buddhist recovery pathways. Refuge Recovery states that
“We develop wisdom through practicing formal mindfulness meditation. This leads to seeing clearly” (Levine, 2014,
p. 77). Here again, we see the wisdom associated with seeing reality as it really is. Similarly, Recovery Dharma writes
that “The Buddha taught that by living ethically, practicing
meditation, and developing wisdom and compassion, we
can end the suffering we create by resisting, running from,
and misunderstanding reality” (Anonymous, 2023, p. 16).
Meditation is not the only factor leading to wisdom–ethical
behavior is also required–but it is a major catalyst for the
cultivation of wisdom.
But how does meditation lead to wisdom? For many Buddhist recovery manuals, meditation is a way of getting back
in contact with one’s innate wisdom, believed to be already
present, but obscured by negative habits of mind. We find
multiple references to “prajna/wisdom/our original mind”
(Burges, 2023, p. 134), “inner wisdom” (Grosso & Peck,
2018, p. 99), “reaching the wisdom within” (Bien & Bien,
2002, p. 67), or intuitive wisdom (Ash, 1993, p. 40). Wisdom is thus not to be found in external sources, but rather
already present within oneself. Reading about philosophical explanations or other people’s experiences can help to
point to this inner wisdom, but multiple books suggest that
they are like a “finger pointing at the moon” (Ash, 1993,
pp. 1–2) in that they can point people in the right direction,
but they should take care not to confuse verbal or external
representations of wisdom for actual wisdom. In developing
this innatist model of wisdom–the notion that it is already
present within you–Buddhist recovery manuals draw on
Chan/Zen notions of Buddha nature (Gethin, 1998, p. 252),
but also align with what scholars have termed the Romantic
sensibilities of contemporary anglophone Buddhism, which
tends to emphasize feeling, intuition, and the individual over
external sources of authority (McMahan, 2008, pp. 81–86).
Even as Buddhist recovery manuals caution against
overreliance on philosophical ideas and concepts, they are
generally eager to dive into them. Almost all the Buddhist
recovery manuals studied contain detailed discussions of
Buddhist concepts, including discussions of non-self, emptiness, the two truths, three marks, four immeasurables,
five aggregates, six realms of rebirth, seven virtues, the
twelve-fold chain of dependent origination, and more. Several books even contain additional appendices with further
explanation of these concepts (Rode, 2014), glossaries of
key concepts (Littlejohn, 2019; Clark, 2022; Laura, 2006),
13
or recommendations of resources where people can read
more (Alexander, 2010). By outlining the Buddha’s teachings in these ways, these books hope to provide “practical
dharma teachings” that “help…to navigate everyday life
without the use of drugs or alcohol or other self-destructive
behaviors” (Burges, 2023, p. 5). These concepts can help
break people out of their fixed way of seeing the world, and
introduce newer, healthier ways of seeing. This robust interest in philosophical concepts reflects a broad trend within
contemporary anglophone Buddhism of emphasizing the
rational and philosophical qualities of Buddhism (McMahan, 2008, p. 5).
Often, these philosophical concepts are supported with
ideas drawn from the field of psychology, which authors
assert as fundamentally compatible with Buddhist ideas.
Multiple books contain descriptions of neurons and the brain
(Webb, 2020), psychological research (Littlejohn, 2019), or
cognitive behavioral therapy (Taylor, 2010; Webb, 2020).
Multiple books either contain interviews with or quotations
from psychologists (Grosso & Peck, 2018; Burges, 2023),
tout themselves as having been written by people trained in
psychology (Littlejohn, 2019; Taylor, 2010; Bien & Bien,
2002; Mason-John & Groves, 2018; Jacobs-Stewart, 2010),
or even call the Buddha a psychologist (Levine, 2014;
Taylor, 2010). As noted by scholars of modern Buddhism,
claims that Buddhist ideas are supported by psychological
science are a hallmark of much contemporary anglophone
Buddhism, and reflects the authority and prestige associated
with empirical science in the modern world (McMahan,
2008, pp. 52–57).
In this emphasis on philosophical concepts and wisdom, Buddhist recovery manuals differ from Twelve-Step.
Twelve-Step literature does not thematize wisdom, but
although wisdom is mentioned in the famous “serenity
prayer,” (“God, grant me the serenity to accept the things I
cannot change, the courage to change the things I can, and
the wisdom to know the difference,” Pittman, 1999, p. 3
and 254). Here, wisdom evokes prudence and good judgement with regard to worldly matters rather than penetrating
insight into the nature of reality. If anything, the Big Book
expresses repeated skepticism towards knowledge (“surely
this was the answer—self-knowledge. But it was not,” Alcoholics Anonymous, 1986, p. 7) and philosophy (“such codes
and philosophies did not save us,” p. 45), as useless selfdeception. This extends to Twelve-Step practice as well—in
meetings, the slogan “keep it simple, stupid” is used frequently enough to have a well-known acronym (Pittman,
1999, p. 221). This phrase cautions members against overcomplicating recovery or attempting to over-intellectualize.
Instead of engaging in conceptual analysis, Twelve-Step
spends much more time on personal stories. Twelve-Step
meetings often consist of members sharing their stories.
Mindfulness
Twelve-Step claims that by resisting philosophical speculation and instead sharing these personal stories, the program
maintains a pragmatic focus. (This, we might note, recalls
the Buddha’s alleged refusal to answer certain of his followers’ questions on the grounds that they were pointless
speculation, Gethin, 1998, pp. 66–68). It is certainly implied
and understood that working the steps will help people to be
wise, but the cultivation of wisdom as such is not a central
focus.
In this emphasis on philosophical analysis, too, the Buddhist recovery books differ from classical Buddhist accounts
of the path. Classical Buddhist pathways place the cultivation of wisdom (and the philosophical inquiry that supports
it) for the late stages of the path, after the practitioner has
cultivated the necessary prerequisites of generosity and
ethical discipline (Gethin, 1998, pp. 82–83). This is why,
for instance, step-by-step talks place their discussion of the
Four Noble Truths at the end of the talk (Gethin, 1998, p.
83 and 164–165; Hallisey, 1995), and why historically most
Buddhist laypeople have focused on ritual and merit-making, and not engaged with advanced philosophical concepts
(McMahan, 2008, p. 37).
By contrast, Buddhist recovery books see engagement
with Buddhist concepts such as non-self or emptiness as
useful for people in recovery at all stages of the path. Indeed,
it can sometimes feel as though this analysis is intended to
persuade and motivate people to enter the path, on the promise that Buddhism has the conceptual tools to help people
understand themselves and effect lasting change. Buddhist
recovery manuals often recognize that this initial exposure to Buddhist philosophical concepts will deepen as one
spends time practicing and gains experience in recovery. As
12 Steps on Buddha’s Path puts it, “When I began to investigate Buddhism, I thought I could thoroughly study the Four
Noble Truths and master the teachings of the Buddha. I was
wrong in both cases. For me, the process has been something
like nurturing an orchid seedpod, which takes seven years to
bloom” (Laura, 2006, p. xvi). In statements like these, we
can see that Buddhist recovery manuals often agree with the
classical tradition that the Buddha’s teachings require a long
time and much preparatory work to fully understand, but
they also think it is worthwhile to introduce these teachings
even to relative novices in recovery.
Conclusions
There is much more work that ought to be done to analyze
the emerging genre of Buddhist recovery manuals, to do justice to the individual books within it, and to understand how
these systems function in the lives of real people. Nevertheless, it is possible to draw some preliminary conclusions
related to the three goals outlined at the beginning of the
article.
First, this article has introduced the genre of Buddhist
recovery manuals, and documented some common themes,
as well as explored some of the internal diversity of this
category. It compared the recovery pathways outlined in
those books to classical Buddhist accounts of the path, as
well as to Twelve-Step. At many points, Buddhist recovery
pathways align with classical Buddhist pathways, including on the importance of generosity, ethical discipline, and
the goal of cultivating wisdom. However, Buddhist recovery pathways differ from classical Buddhist accounts of the
path in that they sometimes have an ambivalent relationship
to faith, that monasticism is not part of the assumed social
context, and that they emphasize meditation at the outset of
the path rather than towards the end of the path. Similarly,
Buddhist recovery pathways align with key ideas important in Twelve Step, including on structures associated with
Twelve-step like meetings and peer-support community,
on viewing addiction as a spiritual malady requiring deep
reevaluation of how one sees the world, and on being of
service. However, they–or at least some Buddhist recovery
manuals–also diverge from some aspects of Twelve-Step,
including on issues of faith in a Higher Power, interest in
philosophical concepts, and interest in precept-based models of ethics. These are broad statements about trends in
Buddhist recovery manuals, and within the group of twentyone books, there are certainly exceptions to these claims.
But all of the books are creatively drawing from multiple
sources of influence in order to find conceptual and communal resources for addressing the serious question of how
to escape addiction.
Future research would build on this textual examination
to study the practice landscapes of Buddhist recovery programs, including qualitative research grounded in the voices
of people who have participated in Buddhist recovery. Why
did meditation and mindfulness become emphasized in
certain parts of the addiction recovery community? What
are the reasons people are drawn to these approaches, and
how to they experience them? Further research would also
help to expand our understanding of how Buddhist recovery
communities exist within the landscape of anglophone Buddhism generally. At present, Buddhist-influenced recovery
programs are scarcely mentioned in the scholarly literature
on American Buddhism. However, many of the books this
article explores are best-sellers, and Buddhist recovery programs have attracted thousands of participants. It is possible
that the norms of anonymity in Twelve-Step, in addition to
the social stigma associated with addiction, have allowed
these programs to escape notice.
Second, in introducing this Buddhist recovery manuals, this article aimed to expand our understanding of
13
Mindfulness
contemporary Anglophone Buddhism, and of the ongoing translation of Buddhism to new times and places. My
analysis of this literature underscores trends identified by
David McMahan, and other scholars of modern American
Buddhism. Buddhist recovery manuals demonstrate features already noted by these authors, including an emphasis
on meditation, a desire to psychologize and demythologize
Buddhism, eclectic mixing and matching of different Buddhist traditions, dominance of white authors, and overlooking of Asian American Buddhists.
However, the Buddhist recovery books studied here also
complicate certain traits identified with Buddhist modernism. For example, one common characterization of Buddhist modernism is that it is “individualistic” in the sense of
focusing on the individual person as meditator, and downplaying emphasis on sangha, or the community of Buddhist
practitioners (Brown, 2021). Most of the Buddhist recovery
manuals, by contrast, emphasize the necessity of practicing and meditating with others—often in a way that replicates the centrality of meetings in Twelve-Step programs.
Individuals are encouraged to cultivate relationships with
others in recovery, whether in the Twelve-Step language of
sponsor, or under the Buddhist language of kalyāṇa-mitta
or “wise friend” (Anonymous, 2023, p. 54). This emphasis on community practice and support resonates with some
of the trends Ann Gleig (2019) has identified in “postmodern” Buddhism, but deserves further attention. These books
also challenge the notion of American convert Buddhism as
being a phenomenon of the educated, comfortable classes.
These books are often written from, and aim to speak to,
people who have experienced extreme hardship as result
of their addictions and aim to carry that message to those
underserved people. However, on the whole these books
do not discuss the broad social or structural dynamics that
lead to addiction, or make recovery difficult, particularly
for people from marginalized backgrounds. As such, many
of these books talk about generosity or service, but rarely
in the form of advocacy for broader social change. Addicts
help other addicts, but rarely address the social factors
that make addiction so prevalent, dangerous, and stigmatized in society. The goal is to get the individual to fit into
society, rather than to change society at a structural level.
These books thus both undermine the image of comfortable
armchair Buddhists, but also raises questions about potentially re-inscribing class differences or ignoring the societal
causes of addiction.
A notable and recent exception here the second edition of
Recovery Dharma, published summer 2023. The second edition adds discussions of “race-based trauma” (Anonymous,
2023, p. 11) and a dedication honoring “the communities of
Black, Indigenous, and people of color, recognizing systematic oppression and marginalization that these communities
13
may have experienced in the world and in recovery spaces”
(i) that were not present in the first edition from 2019. The
second edition was published after this article was originally
submitted for peer review. Its publication demonstrates that
the landscape of Buddhist recovery manuals is very much
still developing, and that some of the conclusions of articles
like this may have to be revised as these changes continue.
Third, in light of the theme of this special journal issue, it
is useful to highlight the relationship between mindfulness
and ethics in Buddhist recovery literature. These claims are
based on trends noticed within the 21 books studied for this
article, and so do not hold true for each manual. Overall,
Buddhist recovery manuals tend to de-emphasize faith and
emphasize meditation and philosophical understanding for
people at all stages of the path. In so doing, Buddhist recovery manuals shift classical Buddhist understandings of the
path, in which faith is necessary for entering the path, and
there is a long period of training in generosity and ethical
discipline before the practitioner is ready for meditation.
Rather than seeing ethical discipline–in the sense of following a set of precepts restricting behavior–as a necessary
precursor to meditation and philosophical understanding,
Buddhist recovery books often see meditation and philosophical understanding itself as ethically transformative.
People in recovery are urged to meditate, and to observe the
workings of their own mind, a process that allows them to
see reality as it truly is. The understanding said to emerge
from meditation is believed to be ethically transformative—for once one understands how reality truly is, one
will naturally treat others better—rather than needing ethical discipline in order to gain wisdom and understanding.
Likewise, people are encouraged to understand the cause of
their addiction—ignorance as to the nature of reality—so
that they can remove the cause of the addiction and ultimately be of service to others. Participants aim to change
their ideas and mental states, which then allows for a change
in external behaviors.
Finally, by analyzing these books in terms of the concept of path, this article has attempted to place the practices of meditation and mindfulness in Buddhist recovery
literature in a broader context, both in terms of the history of Buddhism and in terms of the books’ own understandings of the path. There is currently growing interest
on the impact of meditation and mindfulness on substance
use disorder treatment. However, as the scientific study of
meditation advances, we should take care not to identify
a particular practice (e.g. setting and counting the breath)
and study it in isolation. Meditation is always practiced in a
social context–for certain reasons, with certain background
understandings, and with certain expectations of results.
The “same” action of sitting and focusing on the breath
takes on different meanings, and has different effects, when
Mindfulness
practiced in different contexts. To understand meditation,
as well as its potential role in recovery, we must take the
context in which meditation is practiced seriously. As such,
to quote David McMahan, “To understand contemplative
practices in a comprehensive way, therefore, scientific study
of meditation must work hand in hand with philosophers,
anthropologists, sociologists, and scholars of religion who
can help articulate these contexts” (McMahan, 2017, pp.
43–44). While historically-focused articles such as this one
might seem uninteresting to those focused on the scientific
study of meditation, understanding meditation in historical
context helps us escape contemporary assumptions about
how meditation works, and to recognize that meditation is
always understood in relation to a particular social and intellectual context.
Acknowledgements and Funding Information Thanks to the Wyoming Institute of Humanities Research.
Author Contributions Only one author, so all work done by Catherine
Hartmann.
Data Availability N/A.
Declarations
Ethics Statement No IRB approval required because no live subjects
tested or interviews conducted.
Informed Consent None required because there were no human subjects.
Conflict of Interest The author has no conflicts of interest.
Use of Artificial Intelligence Statement AI was not used.
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