Sikh Formations Religion, Culture, Theory ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rsfo20 Geographies of rage: India-Pakistan rivalry and Guru Nanak Tawseef Ahmad Mir & Anayat Ullah Mugloo To cite this article: Tawseef Ahmad Mir & Anayat Ullah Mugloo (2023): Geographies of rage: India-Pakistan rivalry and Guru Nanak, Sikh Formations, DOI: 10.1080/17448727.2023.2175524 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17448727.2023.2175524 Published online: 21 Apr 2023. Submit your article to this journal View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rsfo20 SIKH FORMATIONS https://doi.org/10.1080/17448727.2023.2175524 Geographies of rage: India-Pakistan rivalry and Guru Nanak Tawseef Ahmad Mir a and Anayat Ullah Mugloo b a Centre of Central Asian Studies, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India; bDepartment of Political Science, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India ABSTRACT KEYWORDS This paper examines how the shared cultural and spiritual heritage of Guru Nanak is intertwined with the political tensions and violence that have defined the complex relationship between India and Pakistan. We argue that that Nanak is the only thinker/ spiritual leader who is equally respected both in India and Pakistan. This strong and rare commonality between India and Pakistan could be the agreed basis, despite all other differences, for conversation and dialogue between the two countries. We suggest that such dialogue can remove mistrust and foster peaceful and mutually beneficial relations. India; Pakistan; South Asia; Peace; Conflict Introduction India and Pakistan have a long and tumultuous history, marked by violence and conflict, particularly since the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947. However, this paper argues that Guru Nanak offers a counterpoint to the divisive rhetoric and nationalistic narratives that have contributed in creating what we call ‘geographies of rage.’ These narratives have been the root cause of conflict and violence. The contestation over Kashmir and other issues like Khalistan movement in Punjab has further intensified the tension between India and Pakistan. However, Nanak offers a contrasting perspective to these divisive narratives. Scholars have highlighted the role of religion and spirituality in promoting peace and conflict resolution. According to Haynes (2019), religion can be a source of conflict or a resource for peace, depending on how it is interpreted and utilized. The religious identity of Sikhs, particularly in Indian Punjab, has been instrumentalized for political purposes, leading to the creation of a separatist movement and a sense of ‘otherness’ in relation to the Indian state. However, Nanak, with his emphasis on inclusivity and compassion, offers a different perspective. He offers a potential path toward peace by focusing on the commonalities between different religious groups and promoting interfaith dialogue. Drawing upon the scholarly work in peace studies, religion, and international relations, this paper further contends that Nanak can be a powerful tool in building peace and promoting social cohesion. This paper also asserts that building social capital and enduring relationships based on shared values and overlapping consensus is crucial for sustaining peacebuilding efforts in India-Pakistan. By examining the role of religion in promoting peace and conflict resolution, this paper contributes to the CONTACT Tawseef Ahmad tawseef5394@gmail.com © 2023 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group 2 T. AHMAD AND A. ULLAH ongoing debates on the importance of interfaith dialogue and cooperation in fostering a more peaceful future for India and Pakistan. Recent research on the role of religion in promoting peacebuilding has demonstrated the potential of interfaith dialogue in promoting social cohesion and conflict resolution (Wilson 2021). In addition, this paper draws upon insights from political geography and peace studies to argue that building social capital and enduring relationships based on shared values and overlapping consensus is crucial for sustaining peacebuilding efforts. Having said this, Guru Nanak is a uniquely fitting figure for promoting peace and reconciliation between India and Pakistan. Unlike religious figures from Hinduism or Islam, he emphasized the importance of transcending religious differences and promoting social harmony through shared values and principles. Nanak also stressed the unity of all humanity and rejected divisive social structures such as the caste system. Besides, he had personal experiences that allowed him to bridge cultural and religious divides. Extensive travels throughout the region, and engagement with people from different backgrounds and religions, made him advocate for accepting and understanding other cultures (Khalid 2022). His message of compassion and equality resonates with people of different faiths and backgrounds, making him a unifying figure in a region marked by conflict and tension. Moreover, Nanak represents a unique synthesis of Hindu and Islamic traditions, and his followers have historically demonstrated a commitment to social justice and human rights. His emphasis on selfless service, equality, and compassion makes him a natural partner for promoting peace and reconciliation between India and Pakistan. This makes Nanak a uniquely positioned figure capable of transcending religious and cultural divides and fostering greater regional understanding and cooperation (Shukla 2019). Therefore, it is important to recognize the universality of Guru Nanak and apply him to the current context. He rejected religious hierarchy and caste-based discrimination and instead emphasized the equal worth and dignity of all individuals (Nesbitt and Kaur 1998). He can, thus, serve as a powerful antidote to the politics of exclusion and hatred that have caused so much harm in South Asia. By embracing Nanak, it is possible to transcend the religious and political fault lines that divide communities in the region. Rather than focusing on differences, it is important to recognize the common humanity and shared values that bind us together. This can be achieved through dialogue, education, and community outreach initiatives that promote interfaith understanding and respect (Hasan and Khalid 2021). One example of how Guru Nanak’s message has been used to promote peace is the Kartarpur Corridor, a visa-free border between India and Pakistan opened in 2019. The corridor connects the Sikh holy shrine of Gurudwara Darbar Sahib in Kartarpur, Pakistan, with the Dera Baba Nanak shrine in India. This initiative was launched due to a long-standing demand by the Sikh community in India for easy access to the Kartarpur Sahib Gurdwara, where Guru Nanak spent the last 18 years of his life. The Corridor is seen as a significant confidence-building measure between India and Pakistan (Mazhar and Goraya 2020), and it has the potential to promote religious tourism and people-to-people contact between the two countries (Hasan and Khalid 2021). This initiative was inspired by Guru Nanak’s vision of a world without borders (Khalid 2022), where all people can freely worship and connect with one another. Another example is the work of the Partition Museum in Amritsar, India, which aims to promote dialogue and reconciliation between India and Pakistan by documenting the SIKH FORMATIONS 3 stories of the people affected by the partition (Kaur 2016). The museum features personal testimonies, photographs, and artifacts that glimpse the trauma and violence accompanying the partition. The museum also hosts events and discussions to foster dialogue and understanding between people of different religions and nationalities. These efforts, inspired by Guru Nanak’s vision of a world without barriers, serve as a reminder of the potential for unity and cooperation in South Asia. Guru Nanak remains relevant in modern-day India and Pakistan, where tensions and hostilities between the two countries continue to exist (Singh 2019a). His teachings underscore the unity of all people and the rejection of divisive labels such as religion, caste, and gender. This philosophy is particularly important in a region where communal identities have often been used to justify violence and discrimination. Nanak has particular relevance to the subcontinent, given the region’s history of deep-rooted prejudice, hatred and violence, often justified and perpetuated in the name of religion or caste (Singh 2019b). The examples of the Kartarpur Corridor and the Partition Museum demonstrate how he can bridge the divide between the two countries and promote greater understanding and cooperation. Theoretical framework and literature review Religion has the potential to either exacerbate or alleviate societal tensions and conflicts in South Asia (Smith 2015). While religion has been used to promote exclusion and hatred, it can also serve as a source of mutual toleration, equality, and peaceful coexistence. John Rawls’ concept of ‘overlapping consensus’ and Gabriella Blum’s notion of ‘islands of agreement’ provide a theoretical framework for understanding how religious principles can promote peaceful transactions and defuse conflicts in South Asia. John Rawls’ ‘overlapping consensus’ refers to a hypothetical agreement among citizens from diverse religious, cultural, and moral backgrounds to the basic principles of justice that should govern their society (Rawls 1987). Rawls argues that while people may have different beliefs and values, a shared set of political values forms the basis of a stable and just society. This shared agreement is called the overlapping consensus. He further elaborates that overlapping consensus is a ‘modus vivendi’ that enables citizens to live together peacefully and cooperate despite their differences. It is a moral basis for political compromise, allowing citizens to accept political decisions even if they do not fully agree. Rawls believes that overlapping consensus is necessary for a stable democratic society because it allows citizens with diverse backgrounds to share a common understanding of justice and its principles. The Rawlsian idea has influenced discussions of multiculturalism, pluralism, and social justice. It has been used to argue for the importance of recognizing and respecting diversity while seeking common ground on basic values and principles. Similarly, Gabriella Blum’s concept of ‘islands of agreement’ refers to areas where conflicting parties can find common ground, despite their differences (Blum 2007). Blum argues that even in protracted and seemingly intractable conflicts, areas of shared interest and mutual benefit can often be the basis for agreement and cooperation. She also suggests that to identify these islands of agreement, it is necessary to engage in a dialogue and negotiation process that focuses on each party’s underlying interests rather than their fixed positions. By focusing on shared interests, it may be possible to find areas 4 T. AHMAD AND A. ULLAH of common ground that can form the basis for cooperation and peaceful resolution of conflict. Her idea is particularly relevant when analysing the India-Pakistan relations. By identifying areas of mutual interest and benefit, such as trade and economic cooperation, cultural exchange, and people-to-people contacts, it may be possible to build trust and confidence between the two countries and create a more conducive environment for resolving the more intractable issues that divide them. Thus, Rawls’s overlapping consensus and Blum’s islands of agreement both call attention to the need for common ground in conflict resolution. Rawls argues that peaceful transactions require individuals to embrace a set of standards that form a common core for peaceful transactions. At the same time, Blum suggests that the identification and creation of islands of agreement-areas of commonality and shared interests-can foster cooperation and peace in even the most intractable conflicts. Individuals and groups can build trust and reduce tensions by finding areas of agreement and commonality. In India-Pakistan relations, identifying and building on areas of agreement, such as economic cooperation or shared cultural heritage, could be useful for defusing tensions and promoting peaceful coexistence. Further, there is no denying that the India-Pakistan rivalry is an enduring1 one (Paul 2005). While Paul’s idea of enduring rivalry may seem to contradict Rawls and Blum, it is essential to note that these are not mutually exclusive. Enduring rivalries are deeply ingrained in South Asia’s historical, cultural, and political narratives, and they cannot be resolved through simple solutions or immediate agreements. However, Rawls and Blum’s concepts offer a path forward for creating conditions that may gradually ease tensions and build trust between rival communities. By promoting an overlapping consensus of core values and principles, as well as identifying islands of agreement, it is possible to foster constructive dialogue and cooperation between communities that may have long-standing disputes. Such efforts can help to build the social and political capital necessary for resolving conflicts, overcoming enduring rivalries, and promoting peace and stability in South Asia. Furthermore, recognizing the diverse and complex nature of the region’s religious, cultural, and political traditions makes it possible to move beyond simple dichotomies and embrace a more nuanced approach to conflict resolution. In this way, Rawls and Blum’s ideas can complement Paul’s concept of enduring rivalry by offering a framework for constructive engagement, promoting trust-building measures, and encouraging long-term solutions to deep-seated conflicts. Ultimately, this can contribute to the development of a more peaceful and prosperous South Asia, where the diverse communities of the region can coexist in harmony and mutual respect. Further, Putnam (2000) argues that social capital is built through social networks and shared norms of reciprocity and trust, which in turn can lead to a more cohesive and cooperative society. This aligns with Rawls’s idea of an overlapping consensus and Blum’s concept of islands of agreement, accentuating the importance of shared values and norms in promoting peaceful coexistence. Putnam’s concept of social capital suggests that social networks and shared norms can help bridge differences and promote cooperation even in the face of long-standing rivalries. Besides, Putnam’s concept of social capital can also be used to explore the role of civil society in building social capital by fostering social networks and promoting shared norms of reciprocity and trust. Examples such as the opening of the Kartarpur Corridor and partition museum highlight the potential of civil society organizations in building social capital SIKH FORMATIONS 5 and promoting peace in the region. When juxtaposed, Putnam’s concept of social capital complements Rawls, Blum, and Paul’s ideas. By exploring the role of social networks and shared norms in promoting peaceful coexistence and critiquing the notion of enduring rivalry, social capital can be a useful framework for understanding the potential for peacebuilding in South Asia. Religion has been recognized as a significant factor in promoting peace and resolving conflicts. The vast literature on this topic has highlighted the potential for religious beliefs and practices to reduce intergroup tensions, promote social cohesion, and build peace. Many scholars argue that religious teachings when applied correctly, can lead to greater tolerance, empathy, and respect for other faiths and promote the values of peace and justice (Juergensmeyer 2004; Appleby et al. 2015). Several examples show how religious leaders or movements have played an essential role in promoting peace and resolving conflicts. For instance, in South Africa, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission established by Archbishop Desmond Tutu helped to promote healing and reconciliation following the end of apartheid (Allan and Allan 2000). Similarly, the Catholic Church in Northern Ireland played a critical role in facilitating the peace process through its involvement in negotiations and its provision of practical support for victims of violence (Haynes, 2009). In India, Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violent resistance movement played a significant role in India’s independence and inspired similar movements worldwide. However, religion can also be a source of conflict and violence, as seen in conflicts between religious groups in many parts of the world. Scholars like Haynes (2009) and Juergensmeyer (2004) have discussed this paradoxical role of religion, and some argue that the context in which religion operates determines whether it is a force for peace or a source of conflict. The literature reviewed below suggests that religion can significantly promote peace and resolve conflicts when used in the proper context and when the core principles of each faith are applied correctly. In recent years, there has been growing interest in exploring the potential of faithbased diplomacy in promoting peace and resolving conflicts between India and Pakistan. Several scholars have called attention to the importance of involving religious leaders and institutions in the peace process and using religion to build bridges between the two nations. For example, Johnston and Sampson (1995) argue that engaging religious leaders and institutions can effectively resolve conflicts and promote peace. They highlight the role of faith-based organizations in mediating conflicts in various parts of the world, including South Asia. They also explore the potential of faith-based approaches to conflict resolution and diplomacy. The authors argue that religion and faith can positively resolve conflicts and promote peace, particularly in situations where traditional diplomatic approaches have failed. They have also documented the case studies of successful faith-based diplomacy initiatives, including the work of the Community of Sant’ Egidio in Mozambique, the Good Friday Agreement in Northern Ireland, and the role of religious leaders in ending apartheid in South Africa. These examples demonstrate how religious leaders and organizations can help bring peace and reconciliation, even in situations where the conflict has deep roots in history and identity, such as in South Asia. They also investigate the challenges and limitations of faith-based diplomacy, including the potential for religious differences to exacerbate tensions and the risk of manipulation by political actors. They argue that faith-based diplomacy should not 6 T. AHMAD AND A. ULLAH replace traditional diplomatic efforts but rather complement them and provide additional tools for resolving conflicts. While the book focuses primarily on the role of Christianity in conflict resolution, its insights and recommendations also apply to other religions and faiths. Bochkovskaya (2020) stressed the need for engaging religious leaders and institutions in the peace process between India and Pakistan. He argues that religious actors can be crucial in building trust and promoting understanding between the two nations. Irfan and Ali (2020) explores the role of the Kartarpur Corridor in promoting peace and reconciliation between India and Pakistan. He argues that India and Pakistan must look beyond identity politics to peace projects such as Kartarpur Corridor. Likewise, Roy (2021) examines the potential of religious diplomacy in promoting peace and resolving conflicts between India and its neighbours, including Pakistan. Roy argues that religious diplomacy is a crucial factor in resolving conflicts and promoting normalization in international politics. The construction of the Kartarpur Corridor complex in 2018-19 is a significant example of religious diplomacy. The literature, as reviewed above, suggests that faith-based diplomacy and the engagement of religious leaders and institutions can play a vital role in promoting peace and resolving conflicts between India and Pakistan. While much more research is needed in this area, the growing interest and attention given to this approach provide hope for a peaceful future in the region. Despite the increasing recognition of the potential role of religion in promoting peace and resolving conflicts, there remains a significant gap in the literature on the specific mechanisms by which faith-based diplomacy can be utilized in the context of the India-Pakistan conflict. While there have been some studies on the role of religious leaders and movements in promoting peace in the region, there is still a lack of in-depth analysis of the potential of faith-based diplomacy as a tool for conflict resolution. In addition, little attention has been paid to how Nanak could promote peace and understanding between India and Pakistan. This paper seeks to address this gap by examining the potential for faith-based diplomacy, while focusing on Nanak. Religion, religious diplomacy, and peace between India and Pakistan Religion has played a significant role in South Asia’s political history, and the enmity between religious groups has often led to bloodshed and conflict that spills over into other religions and cultures (Brass 2010). While religious fanaticism poses a severe threat in the region, it is plausible to claim that religion can considerably impact social cohesiveness more than any other form of pecuniary reward. Mahatma Gandhi employed non-violent methods of protest derived from his religious convictions to confront the British, demonstrating that religion can be an effective tool for regulating social behaviour (Jahanbegloo 2020). Furthermore, while it cannot be denied that religion is a major component in many violent conflicts throughout the world (Luckmann 2022), it is also true that religious leaders and religious organizations can promote peace (Ter Haar 2005). However, this is often disregarded in traditional diplomacy. One way to advocate for peace with religion is by promoting the universal ideals found in all major religions. Faiths like Sikhism and Islam share similar scriptural and spiritual beliefs2 and could play a valuable role in bringing warring nations together (Sikand 2004). For instance, Sikhism SIKH FORMATIONS 7 emphasizes the importance of earning a livelihood honestly and sharing it with others, while Islam underlines monotheism, intercessory prayer, and assisting those in need. Both religions view humanity as a goal rather than a means to an end, as exemplified by Sikhism’s Khalsa Aid and Islam’s baitul maal3, which help people in need regardless of their religion. Therefore, it is essential to recognize the potential of religion to promote peace and social cohesion while also acknowledging the challenges posed by religious fanaticism and conflicts. By focusing on the overlapping consensus of shared values and promoting social capital, it is possible to build enduring relationships that transcend religious differences and promote cooperation and understanding. This approach could help address enduring rivalries and conflicts in South Asia and beyond. Religion has thus been a defining factor in the politics of South Asia and has played a crucial role in shaping the region’s history (Riaz 2020). Despite its negative connotations as the ‘opium of the masses,’ religion remains a crucial aspect of people’s lives in the region (McKinnon 2006). In fact, religious affiliations are becoming increasingly important to people in South Asia as they seek to define their sense of self (Nadeem 2022). The concept of religious diplomacy, which involves religious actors and institutions in diplomatic efforts (Raja Mohan 2018), has gained increased attention in recent years as a potential tool for promoting peace and reconciliation. This is particularly relevant in South Asia, where three major religions-Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam-are practised and significantly influence the region’s politics and culture. Therefore, one key benefit of religious diplomacy in South Asia is the potential to leverage shared religious values and beliefs to foster positive relations between countries and their people. Further, numerous ‘creative4’ religious sites across the borders, such as the Gurudwara Panja Sahib in Pakistan and the Gurudwara Darbar Sahib in India, provide opportunities for people of different faiths to interact and build bridges across national boundaries. The unique and artistic elements of these religious sites can potentially facilitate interfaith dialogue and understanding. These creative elements include architectural design, cultural artifacts, and spiritual practices specific to the site and its religious tradition. By recognizing the creative aspects of these sites, policymakers and religious leaders can develop innovative approaches to diplomacy that go beyond traditional political and economic means. Instead, they can leverage the artistic and spiritual dimensions of these sites to foster positive relations between countries and promote a shared sense of cultural heritage. By engaging religious leaders and institutions in diplomatic efforts, policymakers can tap into the cultural and spiritual aspects of people’s lives and help build trust and understanding between nations. However, there are also potential challenges associated with the use of religious diplomacy in South Asia. One concern is the potential for religious differences to exacerbate existing tensions and conflicts. While religious institutions can positively promote peace, they can also be a source of division and conflict, particularly in regions where religious identities are closely intertwined with ethnic and national identities (Rosen 2009). Moreover, the involvement of religious leaders in diplomacy can be controversial, particularly when they are seen as aligned with a particular political faction or ideology (Haynes 2009). The analysis of religious diplomacy presented above is crucial to understanding the broader thesis of this paper, which explores the role of Nanak in promoting peace and social cohesion in conflict-ridden South Asia. Despite the potential of religion to bring people together and promote cooperation, it is often viewed through the lens of 8 T. AHMAD AND A. ULLAH conflict and violence. This narrow perspective overlooks the many instances in which religious leaders and organizations have played a critical role in promoting peace, reconciliation, and social justice. Guru Nanak, peace process, and India-Pakistan rivalry The legacy of Guru Nanak, one of the most revered figures in the world, extends far beyond his followers and birthplace. As a significant spiritual leader and reformer in Indian history, Nanak’s teachings on peace, social justice, and equality have resonated with people across different religions and cultures. Born in 1469, Nanak travelled and spread his message of compassion, humility, and service to others. While other spiritual and religious leaders have undoubtedly emphasized peace and social justice, he stands out as a particularly compelling figure for peacebuilding efforts in South Asia. Firstly, his message of oneness and unity emphasizes the essential equality of all human beings, regardless of their background or religion. This message offers a counterpoint to the nationalist and divisive rhetoric that has contributed to conflict and violence in the region. Secondly, his thrust on social justice and equality resonates with marginalized communities and provides a blueprint for addressing the root causes of conflict, such as poverty and discrimination. He advocated for the upliftment of all individuals and encouraged people to work toward the betterment of society. This focus on social justice can help to mitigate the tensions and grievances that contribute to conflict. Finally, his legacy as a spiritual leader and reformer who challenged established hierarchies and advocated for a more egalitarian society inspires people to strive towards a more just and peaceful world. While other religious figures can also play a role in peacebuilding efforts, he offers a unique and relevant perspective in the context of the IndiaPakistan rivalry and the cultural and religious dynamics of the Punjab region. Guru Nanak is the only thinker/spiritual leader equally respected in India and Pakistan. Despite all other differences, this strong and rare commonality between India and Pakistan could be the agreed basis for conversation and dialogue between the two countries. Such a conversation and dialogue can, hopefully, remove many doubts and suspicions and eventually result in peaceful and mutually beneficial relations. Scholars have also noted that he can serve as a basis for promoting peace and conflict resolution in the region. As noted by Pritam Singh, an academician based in the United Kingdom, in an online interaction on LinkedIn with the authors: The commonality of respect for Guru Nanak between India and Pakistan could be a starting point for dialogue and conversation between the two countries. Through a shared understanding of his message, there is the potential to foster greater understanding and reduce tensions between the two nations. (Personal Communication 2023) One of Nanak’s key teachings was the concept of ‘ik onkar,’ which means One God (Singh 2003). This idea emphasized the unity of all religions and rejected the idea of religious exclusivity. He believed that all religions had the same divine source and that people should focus on the shared values of love, compassion, and service to others. The concept of ‘Oneness of God’ is central to both Sikhism and Islam and can be used as a common ground for promoting understanding and cooperation between the two nations (Kitagawa 2013). Another important teaching is the ‘sarbat da bhala,’ which SIKH FORMATIONS 9 means ‘the welfare of all (Kaur 2005). This principle stresses the importance of working toward the common good of society and promoting social justice and equality. He believed that individuals had a responsibility to help others and to work towards creating a more just and equitable world. His teachings on peace, social cohesion, and equality have had a profound impact on the Sikh community and continue to inspire people around the world (Khalid 2022). His message of unity, compassion, and service to others has the potential to bridge divides and promote harmony in the face of conflict and division (Singh 2019). Similarly, other teachings include ‘vand chhako’ (share with others) and ‘kirat karo’ (earn a living honestly) (Singh 1978). The former stresses equality and rejects discrimination based on caste, creed, gender, or any other social status. This teaching implies that he advocated for a society free from discrimination and promoted social harmony. When applied to the tensions between India and Pakistan, this principle suggests that both countries should work toward a society where people of all faiths and backgrounds are treated with respect and dignity. The latter underscores the importance of honest living and sharing one’s earnings with others. This teaching symbolises that economic justice and equality are essential for social harmony. This idea, when applied to the context of ties between India and Pakistan, argues that both countries should strive toward economic cooperation and mutual gain to foster social cohesiveness. Such teachings further lay emphasis on the importance of social harmony, equality, and economic justice, essential for promoting peace and social cohesion. It is difficult to predict how these principles will directly impact India-Pakistan relations, as there are complex political, economic, and social factors at play in the relationship between the two countries. However, we argue that these principles can serve as a foundation for promoting peace and reconciliation between the two nations. The concept of ‘ik onkar’ points out the oneness of humanity and can be a unifying force, promoting a sense of shared identity and values among people of different faiths across borders. Similarly, the principles of ‘sarbat da bhala’ and ‘vand chako’ highlight the importance of community and mutual support, which can foster cooperation and trust between nations. What is more, the principle of ‘kirat karo’ emphasizes the importance of honest and diligent work, which can contribute to economic development and prosperity in the region. By promoting economic cooperation and development, India and Pakistan can create mutually beneficial relationships and reduce tensions. While these principles may not directly resolve the complex political issues between India and Pakistan, they can serve as a foundation for promoting peace and cooperation between the two nations. Nevertheless, Nanak underlined the importance of rejecting narrow-mindedness and embracing the unity of all humanity. The idea of rejecting the binary of ‘us’ versus ‘them’ and instead recognizing the oneness of humanity has significant implications for promoting peace and social cohesion. Recognizing that we are all interconnected, regardless of our religion, race, or nationality, makes it easier to empathize with others and work towards common goals. This is particularly relevant in the context of the India-Pakistan rivalry, which is characterized by deep-rooted animosity and suspicion. Nanak’s message of unity and brotherhood transcends religious and cultural boundaries. His impetus on the oneness of God and the unity of humanity could bridge the divide between the two nations. As noted by Devinder Paul Sing, an academician 10 T. AHMAD AND A. ULLAH based in Canada, ‘The message of Guru Nanak is not limited to the Sikh community, it is universal and appeals to everyone.’ (Personal communication 2023). His teachings have influenced the Sikh community’s approach to conflict resolution. The Sikh community has a long history of promoting peace and reconciliation, as evidenced by their practice of langar (communal kitchen) and seva (selfless service) (Murphy 2004). Concepts of seva, and langer, have been a cornerstone of the religion since its inception. The idea of serving others without any expectation of reward can help promote a culture of cooperation and understanding between India and Pakistan. To paraphrase Gurmeet Sing Virdee5, ‘The Sikh principle of seva is not just a religious practice but a way of life. It can promote social harmony and cross-border cooperation between India and Pakistan’ (Virdee 2005). There is no denying that the practices of communal kitchens and selfless service are immensely important in their own right. However, it is important to note that there have been instances of separatist movements in Punjab, particularly in the 1980s and early 1990s, that were associated with violence and terrorism. While such movements do not represent the entire Sikh community, it is necessary to acknowledge the complexities and nuances in the history of the region and its various communities. Moreover, it is important to recognize that while the principles of langar and seva promote peace and social cohesion within the community, they may not necessarily address the root causes of conflicts between different communities or nations. Thus, it is essential to approach the topic of conflict resolution in Punjab and other regions with a nuanced understanding of historical and contemporary issues. Therefore, while it is important to acknowledge the limitations of Nanak as a prophet of peace in the context of political conflict, we argue that these principles can still serve as a powerful force for promoting peace and reconciliation, not just within the Sikh community but also across borders. Langar and seva are unique Sikh practices that promote community service and solidarity, and they can be viewed as ‘Sikh soft power’ tools for India in its foreign policy projections. The practice of langar, which involves the free distribution of food to anyone regardless of their background, can showcase India’s rich cultural and religious diversity and promote the message of equality and inclusivity. Similarly, the practice of seva, which involves selfless service, can help project India as a country that values community service and social responsibility. Further, Khalsa Aid, a Sikh humanitarian organization, can also be viewed as a soft power tool for India. The organization has been involved in providing humanitarian aid and disaster relief across the world, including in countries such as Iraq, Syria, and Yemen. The organization’s work can help project a positive image of India as a country that values humanitarianism and social responsibility. By utilizing these soft power tools, India could potentially promote peaceful relations with its neighbours, including Pakistan, and further build its positive image in the international community, considering its global power aspirations. Guru Nanak offers valuable insights into how religious diplomacy efforts can promote peace and social cohesion in the context of the India-Pakistan rivalry. By emphasizing social justice, introspection, and spiritual unity, he sets the stage for building enduring relationships that transcend religious differences and promote cooperation and understanding. By recognizing the commonalities between the two religions and focusing on shared values, religious diplomacy efforts can help build bridges between communities and promote lasting peace in the region. SIKH FORMATIONS 11 Conclusion The paper has explored the role of Guru Nanak in promoting peace and reconciliation between India and Pakistan. The analysis suggests that Guru Nanak’s teachings, such as the principle of oneness and equality, can bridge the two countries with a long history of acrimony and conflict. The paper has discussed the limitations and challenges of peacebuilding efforts that rely solely on religion, such as the potential for religious fanaticism and the need for a comprehensive approach that addresses the underlying political and economic factors that contribute to conflict. This paper also highlighted the potential of religion to generate social capital and promote peaceful relations between different communities, thereby playing a crucial role in bridging the divide between nations. Despite the association of Sikhism with violence due to the Khalistan movement, this paper demonstrates that Guru Nanak can bring together diverse religious communities positively (Singh and Fenech 2014). Examples presented in this paper show that he can inspire people of different faiths to work towards the betterment of their region and foster cordial and peaceful relations between nations like India and Pakistan. He offers hope for a more harmonious future and emphasizes the importance of unity and cooperation among diverse religious communities. Besides, it is crucial to consider the broader theoretical implications of peacebuilding efforts in India-Pakistan. The ideas of Rawls, Blum, Paul, and Putnam offer valuable insights for understanding the challenges and possibilities of such efforts. Rawls’ overlapping consensus emphasizes the need to find common ground among diverse groups. In the context of India-Pakistan relations, this would involve addressing long-standing grievances and power imbalances that have contributed to ongoing tensions and conflict. This perspective is particularly relevant in a context where religion and identity are often mobilized to justify violence and discrimination. Recognizing the moral standing of all individuals and groups can help promote empathy and understanding and contribute to more constructive and cooperative relations. Blum’s concept of islands of agreement suggests that it is possible to identify specific areas of common interest where cooperation can occur, even amid enduring rivalries. Paul’s enduring rivalry draws attention to the importance of addressing underlying sources of conflict to achieve sustainable peace. Finally, Putnam’s concept of social capital highlights the importance of social networks and trust in facilitating collective action and promoting social cohesion. Efforts to promote interfaith dialogue and cooperation, as well as cross-border initiatives that involve civil society organizations and local communities, can help build social capital and create opportunities for collaborative peacebuilding. The insights provided by these thinkers suggest that a comprehensive and multidimensional approach is needed to achieve lasting peace and reconciliation in India-Pakistan relations. By addressing underlying structural inequalities, recognizing the moral standing of all parties, engaging in open and respectful dialogue, and building social capital, it may be possible to overcome the legacy of conflict and forge a more peaceful and cooperative future. By focusing on areas of common interest, such as trade and cultural exchange, it is possible to create islands of agreement that can serve as a foundation for more extensive cooperation. Addressing the underlying sources of many irritants bedevilling their relations is essential to achieving sustainable peace. Furthermore, building social capital through 12 T. AHMAD AND A. ULLAH initiatives such as people-to-people exchanges can help foster understanding and trust between different groups. Notes 1. Enduring rivalries are distinct from other types of conflicts, such as interstate wars or low-level disputes, because they are deeply ingrain ed in the political, social, and cultural fabric of the rival states (Paul 2005). They often involve multiple layers of grievances and issues that make them resistant to easy solutions, and they can persist for decades or even centuries. 2. The statement is suggesting that there are shared beliefs between Sikhism and Islam that could be useful in promoting peace and resolving conflicts between warring nations. One example of a shared spiritual belief is the belief in monotheism. Both Sikhism and Islam are monotheistic religions, which means that they believe in the existence of only one God. Another example of a shared spiritual belief is the importance of prayer and meditation. Both religions place a strong emphasis on prayer and meditation to connect with the divine and seek guidance in life. Additionally, both religions also emphasize the importance of helping others and being charitable. In Sikhism, the concept of seva, or selfless service, is central to the religion, and Sikhs are encouraged to help those in need. Similarly, in Islam, the concept of zakat, or giving to the poor and needy, is one of the five pillars of Islam and a fundamental part of the religion. In terms of shared scriptural beliefs, both religions place a strong emphasis on the importance of living a righteous and ethical life. The Sikh holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib, contains teachings on morality, ethics, and social justice, while the Islamic holy book, the Quran, contains similar teachings on the importance of living a just and ethical life. Overall, these shared scriptural and spiritual beliefs between Sikhism and Islam could serve as a basis for promoting peace and resolving conflicts. 3. Currently, it is considered as a charitable institution and everywhere its role is restricted to providing assistance and charitable contributions to the public. 4. The word ‘creative’ is used to describe these religious sites as having unique characteristics and offer a distinctive experience to visitors. These sites are not only places of worship but also serve as cultural and social hubs for the community. As such, they offer a platform for people of different faiths to engage in creative and constructive dialogue. These sites are not only physical spaces but also serve as symbols of religious and cultural heritage. Hence, they can foster a sense of shared identity and promote cross-cultural understanding, thus providing opportunities for building bridges across national boundaries. It also highlights the potential of religious diplomacy to tap into the rich cultural and artistic traditions of South Asia, and to use these resources to build bridges and foster understanding between people of different faiths and nationalities. 5. Bhai Gurmit Singh Virdee (1937–2005) was a sevadar of the Guru Nanak Nishkam Sevak Jatha. From the 1950s up to his retirement in 2002, Gurmit Singh played, promoted, and taught tabla. Respected throughout the Indian classical music circles, he performed with world-renowned artistes and taught hundreds of students. Acknowledgment We would like to express our gratitude to Devinder Pal Singh, a scholar of Sikhism based in Canada, for taking the time to participate in an interview for this paper, providing valuable insights and perspectives. We also extend our sincere appreciation to Pritam Singh, professor at Oxford University, for reading the initial draft of this paper and offering critical comments and observations that greatly improved the quality of the paper. We would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their careful review and constructive feedback, which helped to further strengthen the paper. SIKH FORMATIONS 13 Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s). ORCID Tawseef Ahmad Mir http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4817-3560 Anayat Ullah Mugloo http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3587-3835 References Allan, Alfred, and Marietjie M. 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