SA Journal of Industrial Psychology
ISSN: (Online) 2071-0763, (Print) 0258-5200
Page 1 of 10
Original Research
The development and validation of a spiritual leadership
scale within the South African context
Authors:
Anton Grobler1
Khumbulani Sibanda1
Affiliations:
1
Graduate School of Business
Leadership, Faculty of
Leadership, University of
South Africa, Midrand,
South Africa
Research Project Registration:
Project Number: 90166124
Corresponding author:
Anton Grobler,
grobla@unisa.ac.za
Dates:
Received: 29 Mar. 2023
Accepted: 15 Sept. 2023
Published: 05 Apr. 2024
How to cite this article:
Grobler, A. & Sibanda, K.
(2024). The development
and validation of a spiritual
leadership scale within the
South African context.
SA Journal of Industrial
Psychology/SA Tydskrif vir
Bedryfsielkunde, 50(0),
a2098. https://doi.
org/10.4102/sajip.v50i0.2098
Copyright:
© 2024. The Authors.
Licensee: AOSIS. This work
is licensed under the
Creative Commons
Attribution License.
Orientation: Globalisation and the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic resulted
in a change in leadership in the work environment – this necessitated a relook into classical
leadership constructs, but importantly, with the consideration of contextual influences.
Spiritual leadership (SpL), which is the focus of this article, has however been predominantly
viewed from a Eurocentric perspective.
Research purpose: To develop and validate an instrument to measure SpL within the
South African context.
Motivation for the study: It is argued that SpL is important for organisational performance,
employee contentment and wellness. Albeit the theory of SpL carries academic rigour and
potency, it has not yet converted into an empirically developed and tested instrument within
the South African organisational context.
Research approach/design and method: This empirical study was conducted from a
quantitative positivist paradigm, utilising a cross-sectional design. A total of 5308 participants
completed the self-administered survey from organisations in both the public and private
sectors. The analysis includes item screening, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA), test for common method bias (CMB), determination of convergent
validity and invariance analysis (configural, metric and scalar).
Main findings: The results yielded reliable and valid SpL instrument, which is invariant with
regards to the private and public sectors used in this study. The results of the study were also
not influenced by CMB.
Practical/managerial implications: This study provides a validated contextualised scale that
can be used to measure leadership efficiency and efficacy.
Contribution/value-add: The practical and academic value is the newly developed SpL
instrument for the context of South African organisations. It can thus be used with confidence
by organisational researchers and academics.
Keywords: leadership; spiritual leadership; validation; African Management Philosophies;
scale; organisational; African.
Introduction
Background of and rationale for the study
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Leadership in this volatile time is of the utmost importance, specifically in the post coronavirus
disease 2019 (COVID-19) phase, as there is no doubt that the workplace will never be the same
again. Batistic et al. (2017) (even before the pandemic) were of the view that leadership should be
viewed and analysed from a multilevel perspective and from varying angles, which often relate to
the context in which leadership takes place. The context in which leadership is performed is even
more complicated by globalisation, which often leads to the intermingling of contextual realities.
However, regardless of the context, it is argued that humble and relational focused leadership is
essential in times of crisis, as it cultivates resilience, perseverance and ultimately individual wellness
(Giurge et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2019). They are of the view that the pandemic has exposed the power
that leaders have on their followers. This can be seen in a negative light, but it can also have a
positive outcome, specifically when leaders adopt a more subtle and humane attitude towards
followers, which is important for recovery from the effects of the pandemic on the workplace.
It is against this backdrop that spiritual leadership (SpL) is proposed as an alternative
leadership construct. Spiritual leadership is regarded as important under normal circumstances
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(Van Der Walt & De Klerk, 2014) and even more so during
a crisis (and the recovery, post the crisis). Spiritual
leadership will enhance the followers’ wellness because it
embraces ethics and honesty and empowers followers in
succeeding to achieve fulfilment, higher purpose and
ultimately self-actualisation (Ferguson & Milliman, 2008).
However, according to Blasco et al. (2012), there is a grave
need to develop the SpL construct that will withstand both
academic and empirical scrutiny. Locally (within the South
African context), the theory of SpL, which was developed by
Fry (2003), has not gained a foothold in empirical research.
Work has been done in Europe and America with regards to
SpL, but unfortunately, the results from this research have
been used to generalise its applicability in other contexts
largely disregarding local realities (Jepson, 2009). The
challenge with this approach is that it has not been
corroborated for the African context. According to Bush
(2018), contexts shape the behaviours, attitudes and values of
leaders. Homogenising the applicability of SpL is a concern
that is addressed by this study, specifically for the South
African context.
The tendency to homogenise various contexts is common
under leadership scholars, typically using instruments from
Western origin, which might be problematic when used in
the South African (and broader African) context (Grobler &
Singh, 2018). According to Nel et al. (2012), this approach
implies the exploration of the applicability of a predominantly
Western construct and instrument to a culturally diverse
South African context. To bridge this gap, and to silence
their conscience, an approach to adapt the existing
instrument to the population (also called the etic approach)
is adopted, also called instrument transportality (Grobler,
2017). The problem with that is that subtle nuances and
more evident realities of the construct, determined and as a
result of the context, might be overlooked. These realities
are unique and should be recognised and respected, because
according to Slabbert and Finlayson (2008, p. 13), ‘[South
Africa is] a unique playground where the complexities of
globalisation, colonialism and racism continue to be played
out in the rich diversity of languages and cultures’. Du Preez
and Van Zyl (2015) are of the opinion that considerable
research needs to be conducted correctly, not only to identify
emic organisational leadership behaviours but also on how
to measure it, taking into consideration the South African
context, thus adopting an emic conceptualisation and
instrument development strategy or approach. The emic
conceptualisation looks at the internal elements of SpL as
opposed to the external scheme of SpL, for instance, what
contextual elements will motivate a leader to be kind and
passionate as opposed to looking at kindness as an outcome
itself.
With regards to leadership studies in South Africa, Nkomo
(2011) and Kasu (2017) are of the opinion that there is a
demand for academic potency and merit to contextualise
Westernised classical leadership theories and a need for
http://www.sajip.co.za
Original Research
the development of African leadership theories (Fourie
et al., 2017).
Research purpose
The main objective of the research is to develop and validate
an SpL instrument, based on the work of Sibanda and Grobler
(2023). The scale was developed using the information
obtained through an interactive qualitative analysis (IQA)
process, as developed by Northcutt and McCoy (2004).
Potential value added by the study
The unique contribution of this study is the development
and validation of an SpL instrument in the South African
organisational context, through an emic approach.
Literature review
Conceptualisation of spiritual leadership
In a structured literature review by the authors, it was
found that the definition of Fry (2003), who is commonly
seen as the seminal author in this field, is used by most
scholars (55%) studying SpL. This definition can be
summarised as a person’s sense of spiritual survival (by
means of calling and membership) and being intrinsically
motivated as a result of their values, attitudes and
behaviours. According to Fry (2003), the concept of SpL
typically consists of six distinct parts:
• It is a causal theory. The causality is dyadic and looks at the
leader values, attitudes and behaviours (hope/faith,
vision and altruistic love) which influence follower’s
needs for spiritual survival (through calling and
membership), which result in organisational commitment
and productivity.
• It is developed within an intrinsic motivation theory. Intrinsic
motivation is basically defined as follows:
[I]nterest and enjoyment of an activity for its own sake and is
associated with active engagement in tasks that people find
interesting and fun and that, in turn, promote growth and
satisfy higher order needs. (Fry, 2003, p. 699)
• It incorporates three elements: vision, hope/faith and altruistic
love. These elements are leader-focused where vision
refers to the destination or journey, hope/faith to
endurance and perseverance and lastly altruistic love
relates to virtues such as forgiveness, kindness, integrity,
honesty and empathy.
• It incorporates workplace spirituality. This is manifest in an
organisation that recognises the employees’ ‘inner life that
nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes
place in the context of community’ (Ashmos et al., 2000,
p. 135). This definition captures three important spiritual
needs of employees (inner life, meaningful work and
community) and therefore subsumes a ‘whole person’
approach as postulated by Mitroff and Denton (1999).
• It incorporates spiritual survival through calling and
membership. These are follower-focused. Calling (experience
of transcendence or being called) and membership (social
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connection) are two aspects of workplace spirituality
(Fleischman, 1994; Maddock & Fulton, 1998) that are
interlocked and essential dimensions of spiritual survival
(Fry, 2003).
• It is inclusive of the religious-and-ethics and values-based
leadership approaches. The inclusivity has been largely
from Western religious theologians as posited by Fry
(2003).
In the process to conceptualise SpL within the South African
context, Sibanda and Grobler (2023) incorporated the concept
of African Management Philosophies (AMP) into their IQA
process. The IQA process generated 36 SpL affinities which
were further grouped into 15 affinities through an axial
coding process that used AMP thematic groups. African
Management Philosophies present a diverse collection of
concepts, which are not easily comparable. To simplify it,
Marnewick et al. (2018) identified seven distinct behavioural
elements associated with AMP, namely, solidarity, compassion,
respect, dignity, humanness, caring and sharing. All these
are elements of SpL. On a more societal level, Nkomo (2006)
listed five distinct parts of AMP, namely traditionalism,
communalism, co-operative teamwork, mythology and national
culture. Traditionalism relates to adherence to accepted
customs, beliefs and practices that shape accepted behaviour,
morality and individual characteristics in African societies.
The IQA process conducted by Sibanda and Grobler (2023)
identified traditionalism as associated with SpL affinity
elements such as ethics, responsibility, credibility and
accountability. Communalism relates to the African belief
that individuals are not alone but belong to communities.
The IQA process conducted by Sibanda and Grobler (2023)
identified SpL affinities such as transparency, responsibility
and corrective behaviour as associated with communalism.
Co-operative teamwork relates to a spirit of oneness in the
African context and Sibanda and Grobler’s (2023) IQA
process identified that this element is linked to SpL affinities
such as efficiency, communication, recognition, reward,
participation and teamwork. Mythology relates to a collection
of African myths, legends, folklore, folktales, folk stories and
traditional stories. The IQA process conducted by Sibanda
and Grobler (2023) identified creativity as an SpL affinity
that is associated with this AMP element. National culture is
defined by Nkomo (2011) as an AMP element that refers to a
set of behaviours, norms, customs and beliefs in a sovereign
nation’s population. The focus group that participated in the
IQA process identified that South Africa as a ‘rainbow
nation’ embraces different cultures and beliefs, but central to
national values are principles of diligence, self-awareness,
self-drive and vision.
Mutabazi (2002) is of the view that AMP consists of typically
two common social principles, namely concept of life as a
universal current and human connection to nature. Life as a
universal current relates to the idea of universal fellowship.
Leaders therefore identify themselves and their followers in
the never-ending cycle of life. They are thus not only worried
about tasks but also acutely aware of the human element
http://www.sajip.co.za
Original Research
that goes with the completion of those tasks. The SpL
affinities that were identified by the IQA process relating to
this AMP element were compassion, empathy and trust.
Connection to nature relates to the African belief that
humans have a cosmic connection to nature. The SpL
affinities that were identified through the IQA process
conducted by Sibanda and Grobler (2023) identified
nurturing and authenticity as SpL affinities related to this
AMP element. An important element of AMP, linked to
many of the aspects listed earlier, is the concept of Ubuntu,
cited by many a scholar (Mangaliso, 2001; Masango, 2003;
Mbigi, 1996; Newman, 2017; Grobler & Singh, 2018). This is
defined by Mangaliso (2001) as follows:
[H]umaneness-a pervasive spirit of caring and community,
harmony and hospitality, respect and responsiveness-that
individuals and groups display for one another. Ubuntu is the
foundation for the basic values that manifest themselves in the
ways African people think and behave towards each other and
everyone else they encounter. (p. 24)
Moreover, Nkomo (2006, p. 13) states that ‘Ubuntu is seen as
an important value of African culture that can form the basis
of a management truly congruent with the peoples of Africa’.
Development of the spiritual leadership
instrument
Based on the work of Sibanda and Grobler (2023), an 18-item
SpL instrument was developed. It is included in Table 1, with
the identified SpL IQA affinities and AMP themes. This was
largely through a focus group that linked through an axial
coding process the various AMP elements with the SpL
affinities.
Based on the results of their study (as summarised under SpL
IQA affinities, and AMP themes in Table 1), Sibanda and
Grobler (2023) proposed a summative definition for SpL
within the South African organisational context. They define
it as the values, attitudes and behaviours of leaders that
capture the collective conscience of others by recognising
the whole being at work through nurturing, compassion,
empathy and trust. It is a causal theory that starts with
connection to nature which influences life as a universal
current, which influences the spirit of Ubuntu, which is also
influenced by both national culture and indigenous
knowledge systems. The spirit of Ubuntu influences intrinsic
motivation which is influenced by traditionalism and
communalism. Intrinsic motivation influences co-operative
teamwork which is influenced by engagement, performance,
productivity and mythology. Co-operative teamwork
influences employee turnover, which finally influences
employee welfare.
Research design
Research approach
A positivistic paradigm was adopted for the purposes of this
study, using a cross-sectional design, in which the data were
collected through the use of a survey technique, at a single
point in time, and a quantitative analysis.
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TABLE 1: Eighteen-item spiritual leadership instrument, based on the spiritual
leadership affinities and African Management Philosophies themes.
SpL IQA affinities
AMP theme
No.
Scale items
Kindness
Humility
Courtesy
Respect
Altruistic love
Integrity
Ubuntu
SPL1
My leader cares about people
in the true sense of Ubuntu.
SPL2
My leader includes everyone
when communicating.
Self-awareness
Diligent
Passionate
Vision
Self-driven
National culture
Backbone
Decisiveness
SPL3
My leader’s passion for
people makes him or her
kind.
SPL4
My leader has a clear vision.
SPL5
My leader takes full
responsibility for his or her
actions.
Indigenous
knowledge
systems (IKS)
SPL6
My leader’s decisiveness
leads to respect.
SPL7
My leader is able to take
corrective action swiftly if
something goes wrong.
Compassion
Empathy
Trust
Life as a
universal current
SPL8
My leader is self-driven.
SPL9
My leader is trustworthy.
SPL10
My leader makes decisions
without being unduly
influenced.
Nurturing
Authentic
Connection to
nature
SPL11
My leader shows compassion
through nurturing.
Ethics
Responsibility
Credibility
Accountability
Traditionalism
SPL12
My leader is responsible.
SPL13
My leader encourages a team
spirit.
Transparent
Honest
Corrective
Communalism
SPL14
My leader’s ability to be
transparent encourages
honesty.
Efficiency
Communication
Recognition/reward
Participation
Teamwork
Co-operative
teamwork
SPL15
My leader inspires others by
being a co-operative team
player.
SPL16
My leader’s behaviour
reduces people’s intent to
leave the organisation.
SPL17
My leader’s engagement
improves performance.
SPL18
My leader’s creativity helps
improve productivity.
Source: Adapted from Sibanda K., & Grobler, A. (2023). Spiritual leadership within the ambit
of African Management philosophies using interactive qualitative analysis. Acta Commercii,
23(1), 1–11. a1069. https://doi.org/10.4102/ac.v23i1.1069
SpL, spiritual leadership; IQA, interactive qualitative analysis; AMP, African Management
Philosophies.
Research participants
The population of the study is the South African workforce
employed in organisations with 60 or more employees,
across the country, without any focus on a specific province
or industry. The respondents of this study were conveniently
selected, in terms of access to 90 organisations, 48 from the
private and 42 from the public sector, respectively, with a
total of 5344 respondents. Only valid responses (without any
missing values) are reported, which resulted in a final dataset
of n = 5308.
The study was thus multisectorial, with respondents from
the private sector forming 54% of the overall sample and
with 46% from the public sector. The representation of the
gender groups was higher for females at 53% compared to
47% for males. The mean age of the respondents was 38.50
years (standard deviation [SD] = 8.66), and the mean tenure in
the specific organisation was 9.25 years (SD = 7.44).
The distribution in terms of race represents the characteristics
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Original Research
of the South African workforce in general, with the
respondents from the African race group being the highest
represented with 66%, followed by the white, mixed race and
Indian race groups with 16%, 12% and 6%, respectively.
Forty percent of the respondents indicated that their highest
qualification is that of a first degree or diploma followed by a
higher degree (35%) and matric (21%). In order to provide
relatively accurate opinions about their perceptions of
leadership in their organisations, the sample should reflect
an average age, tenure and educational level according to
Grobler and Singh (2018). The sample descriptives as
mentioned earlier show that the respondents, in general, are
mature, experienced and educated.
Research procedure
Data were collected by means of a newly developed SpL
instrument, consisting of 18 items (see items in Table 1),
based on the results of the IQA process by Sibanda and
Grobler (2023). Typical items read ‘My leader cares about
people in the true sense of Ubuntu’, ‘My leader shows
compassion through nurturing’. A five-point Likert scale was
chosen to measure the responses to each item. In line with
common practice and to avoid the challenges of a neutral or
undecided option, the responses to the statements formed
a five-point continuum from ‘strongly agree’, ‘agree’,
‘uncertain or not applicable’, ‘disagree’ and ‘strongly
disagree’. The self-reporting instrument was completed by
means of paper and pencil and was administered by 90 welltrained fieldworkers at the respective organisations. The
fieldworkers were responsible for the capturing of the
responses in a predeveloped, protected spreadsheet. The
overall dataset was compiled through the consolidation of all
the fieldworkers’ input.
Statistical analysis
The statistical analysis was performed by using the Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 25), supported by SPSS
Amos (Analysis of Moment Structures, version 25)
(IBM, 2017).
Data screening
Item and variable screening were done to ensure that there
were no missing values in the dataset. Unengaged
responses were also identified and eliminated by the
inspection of the standard deviation of cases (SD < 0.50).
From the data cleaning process, it was deducted that the
missing values were very sparse (less than 7% of the cases
were deleted) and they were therefore not considered a
main contributor to any bias. Kurtosis and the central limit
theorem were further used to screen the data and to
determine the distribution of the data.
Exploratory factor analysis
The first step to evaluate the appropriateness to do
an EFA was to determine the item-to-respondent ratio.
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Meyers et al. (2013) consider an item to respondent
ratio of ±1:20 as acceptable. Bartlett’s test of sphericity
(Hair et al., 2019) was used to inspect the intercorrelations
between items. The value for the Bartlett’s test of sphericity
should be significant (p < 0.05) for an EFA to be considered an
appropriate technique (Hair et al., 2019). A further test was
applied to determine whether an EFA could be performed,
namely the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO). The rationale for
this test is to determine whether the items correlated
sufficiently; a minimum level of 0.60 is set for this statistic by
Tabachnick and Fidell (2013).
Principal axis factoring with Oblimin rotation was used to
aid in the interpretation of the initial results. The GuttmanKaiser eigenvalue greater-than-one rule (K1 rule), together
with the scree plot (with specific reference to the shape of
the curve), as well as the Monte Carlo PCA for parallel
analysis were conducted to decide on the number of
variables (factors) to be retained. Meyers et al. (2013)
indicate that a guide for variance accounted for by the
factors needs to meet the lower limit of 50%. The Cronbach
alpha coefficient was determined, taking into consideration
that the general rule according to Nunnally and Bernstein
(1994) is α > 0.70.
Confirmatory factor analysis
A CFA was conducted to operationalise the SpL construct.
Various fit indexes, including the comparative fit index
(CFI), the root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA), Chi-square (χ2) and the ratio of the differences in
Chi-square to the differences in degrees of freedom (χ2/df)
are used to assess the model fit. Given that there is no one
acceptable cutoff value for what constitutes adequate fit, it
was elected to evaluate the model and to recommend the
model. The CFA index values, recommended by Byrne
(2016) are 0.90 for CFI value, an RMSEA value of 0.05 and in
terms of the χ2/df, a ratio of less than 5.00. The option to use
only these indexes is supported by Cheung and Rensvold
(2002) who regard it as a suitable indication of good fit.
Validity assessment
Convergent validity of the items was assessed by the
composite reliability (CR) and the average variance extracted
(AVE), with critical values of > 0.70 and < 0.50, respectively.
An inspection into the difference between AVE and the
maximum shared variance (MSV) was conducted to assess
the discriminant validity. Proof of discriminant validly would
be apparent when MSV < AVE and where the average shared
variance (ASV) is less than the AVE (Hair et al., 2019).
Invariance assessment
Measurement invariance implies that using the same
questionnaire in different groups does measure the same
construct in the same way (Davidov et al., 2014). Invariance
measurement at a sector level was looked at from a
configural, metric and scalar perspective.
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Original Research
At the configural level, we tested whether the same items
measure the construct across sectors. The result of this
assessment was that configural invariance was supported, as
evidenced by acceptable model statistics when groups
are estimated freely, that is, without constraints. Metric
invariance builds upon configural invariance by requiring
that in addition to the contructs being measured by the same
items, the factor loadings of those items must be equivalent
across administrations, often reffered to as weak invariance.
The approach used to test for metric invariance as noted by
Putnick and Bornstein (2016) is the alternative fit (change in
fit indices). For purposes of this research, the change in deltas
or alternative fit test was used to test for invariance. Scalar
invariance builds upon metric invariance by requiring that
the item intercepts be equal across administrations and/or
sectors. Scalar invariance implies that the meaning of the
construct (the factor loadings) and the levels of the underlying
items (intercepts) are equal in groups. Consequently, groups
can be compared on their scores on the latent variable.
The approach that was adopted to assess whether the data
have any scalar invariance was the alternative fit (change in
fit indices) approach.
Convergent validity of construct
Convergent validity of the SpL construct, as measured by the
newly developed 18-item instrument, was determined by
assessing the correlation between SpL and several other
cognate leadership constructs that were measured in a similar
manner. It was hypothesised, supported by previous studies
and literature, that SpL is related to other leadership styles
that are also based on the softer humane aspects of leadership,
such as Ubuntu leadership (Grobler & Singh, 2018; Powell &
Grobler, 2021), servant leadership (Grobler & Flotman, 2021;
Liden et al., 2015), authentic leadership (Walumbwa et al.,
2008), transformational leadership (Podsakoff et al., 1990),
ethical leadership (Yukl et al., 2013), and a negative
relationship with transactional leadership (Avolio et al.,
1999). A correlation of 0.40 is regarded to be an indication of
convergence, with 0.50 and higher a clear sign of convergence
(Cohen et al., 2013).
Ethical considerations
An application for ethical approval was made to UNISA
School of Business Leadership Research Ethics Review
Committee and ethics consent was received on 23 June 2022.
The ethics approval number is (GSBL CRERC) – 2022_SBL_
DBL_015_SD. Permission from each of the organisations and
consent by all the participants were obtained. This research
did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in
the public, commercial or non-profit sectors.
Results
The results of the statistical procedures discussed in the
previous section are now discussed. The following steps were
followed in the development of the SpL instrument: item
screening, followed by exploratory factor analysis (EFA),
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CFA for single-factor measurement model, the assessment of
common method bias (CMB), invariance (configural, metric
and scalar) and convergent validity, respectively.
The item screening was done with an assessment of
the variation per item (mean, SD, skewness, kurtosis). As
shown in Table 2 below the mean for the data ranged
between 3.67 (items 3 and 18) and 3.93 (item 8).
Standard deviation ranged between 0.99 (item 8) and 1.13
(item 2) – this is deemed acceptable as it shows that the data
are not dispersed from the mean, as the acceptable statistical
range of standard deviation is (2 ≥ or equal to SD < 2). The
skewness and kurtosis values for all factors do not exceed
the critical values of 2.00 and 7.00, respectively, which is
also an indication that the data are normally distributed.
The kurtosis values ranged from −0.80 and 0.70 (items 16
and 8, respectively) meeting the value of 2.2 or less which is
regarded to be acceptable (West et al., 1995).
According to Meyers et al. (2013), the variable-to-respondent
ratio of 295:1, due to the relatively large sample size, is
acceptable. The strategy to conduct an EFA is supported by
the results of the KMO measure of sampling adequacy and
Bartlett’s test of sphericity. The value of the KMO was 0.98,
above the recommended value of 0.60, and Bartlett’s test was
significant (χ2 [153] = 85 136, p < 0.001).
The Guttman-Kaiser K1 rule was used in conjunction with
the scree plot to determine the number of factors. The results
of the Kaiser’s criterion, as determined by the principal
component analysis (PCA), yielded a one-factor model, with
only one factor meeting the Guttman-Kaiser K1 criteria of an
eigenvalue 1. The one factor accounts for 66% of the variance
in SpL, which is regarded to be acceptable, as it is above the
50% criteria set by Rietveld and Van Hout (1993). The Cattell’s
scree test, which is aimed at retaining the components
(factors) before the break (elbow rule), also supported
retaining of one factor.
Original Research
The next step is to investigate the estimate communalities of
the items. The communalities of all 18 items are above 0.50
(ranging from 0.75 [item 8] and 0.85 [item 15]) (Rietveld &
Van Hout, 1993). This is an indication that the variables
(items) are well reflected via the extracted factor and thus
indicating that factor analysis is reliable.
A CFA was carried out to confirm or validate the internal
structure of the instrument that was produced from the
reliability and EFA. The single-factor model produced by the
EFA served as a theoretical or conceptual base upon which
CFA was either confirmed or rejected.
The indices that were used to assess model fit using SEM
(structural equation modelling) are assessed in combination
and not as one index (Marsh et al., 1996). The analysis of
model fit was based on the indices included in Table 3. Albeit
not exhaustive, it was deemed sufficient for the purpose of
this study.
The unidimensional or one-factor model (all 18 items),
as determined by the EFA, reported acceptable fit with
(χ2/df [135] = 4513, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.078). Most of the
other indexes (NFI, TLI and SRMR) met the required criteria.
The CMIN/df value as well as the significance values did not
meet the critical index values, due to the relatively large
sample size (n > 500). The reported AVE value is 0.64, which is
a clear indication that the SpL instrument has an acceptable
level of convergent validity. The SpL instrument further shows
internal consistency in terms of the items, as both the Cronbach
alpha and the CR values exceed the critical value of 0.70.
Variance might, however, be the result of the method of
measurement, namely self-reporting. This threatens the
validity of conclusions about the association among variables
(items) as a result of systematic bias by way of deflating or
inflating the correlations. The data show that all correlations
TABLE 2: Item descriptive statistics.
Item
Mean
SD
Skewness
Kurtosis
Statistic
SE
Statistic
Statistic
SE
Statistic
SE
SpL1
3.74
0.02
1.09
-0.75
0.03
-0.03
0.07
SpL2
3.70
0.02
1.13
-0.73
0.03
-0.27
0.07
SpL3
3.67
0.02
1.07
-0.66
0.03
-0.11
0.07
SpL4
3.79
0.02
1.05
-0.81
0.03
0.24
0.07
SpL5
3.73
0.02
1.09
-0.73
0.03
-0.80
0.07
SpL6
3.73
0.02
1.05
-0.76
0.03
0.09
0.07
SpL7
3.81
0.02
1.03
-0.86
0.03
0.35
0.07
SpL8
3.93
0.02
0.99
-0.96
0.03
0.70
0.07
SpL9
3.80
0.02
1.08
-0.82
0.03
0.16
0.07
SpL10
3.60
0.02
1.08
-0.54
0.03
-0.27
0.07
SpL11
3.64
0.02
1.09
-0.64
0.03
-0.21
0.07
SpL12
3.95
0.02
0.99
-1.01
0.03
0.87
0.07
SpL13
3.88
0.02
1.06
-0.93
0.03
0.36
0.07
SpL14
3.76
0.02
1.06
-0.79
0.03
0.12
0.07
SpL15
3.77
0.02
1.07
-0.83
0.03
0.15
0.07
SpL16
3.48
0.02
1.17
-0.53
0.03
-0.49
0.07
SpL17
3.74
0.02
1.07
-0.80
0.03
0.10
0.07
SpL18
3.67
0.02
1.10
-0.72
0.03
-0.12
0.07
SpL, spiritual leadership; SD, standard deviation; SE, standard error.
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Page 7 of 10
between items, ranging from 0.50 (items 2 and 8) and 0.73
(items 5 and 6), are significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).
It is for this reason that the presence of CMB was tested using
the common latent factor (CLF) and marker variable (social
desirability) CFA techniques, as recommended by Eichhorn
(2014). It is important to mention that the correlation between
SpL and the marker variable is relatively small (r = −0.23)
(Cohen, 1988). A new latent factor, called the common latent
factor, was introduced. The paths related to this factor were
constrained to be equal, and the variance of the common
factor is constrained to be 1. The threshold of this method is
< 0.50. The results of this analysis indicated an estimate
between the common latent factor and all the variables
TABLE 3: Confirmatory factor analysis on the unidimensional construct –
spiritual leadership (all 18 original items).
Description
Critical value Index value
(items) of 0.30 (t-value statistically significant). The square of
0.30 represents the common method variance. The result of
this analysis suggests no significant common method bias in
these data, as the calculated variance associated with the
marker variable is 9.1% (below 50%, Eichhorn, 2014).
The next step in the scale development was to look at
measurement invariance. Measurement invariance implies
that using the same instrument in different groups does
measure the same construct in the same way (Davidov et al.,
2014). It was decided to use the two sectors, namely the
private and public sectors to test for invariance, as the
instrument is developed to be used within an organisational
context, regardless of the sector. A random sample of n = 500
for each group (private and public sector) was used in
analysing invariance.
Comment
Chi-square value (CMIN)
-
4513
-
Degree of freedom (df)
-
135
-
Significance (p)
> 0.05
p ≤ 0.001
The required level
not achieved due to
large sample size
Discrepancy divided by degree
of freedom (CMIN/df)
< 3.0
33.44
The required level
not achieved due to
large sample size
Normed fit index (NFI)
> 0.90
0.95
The required level is
achieved
Tucker-Lewis index (TLI)
> 0.90
0.94
The required level is
achieved
Comparative fit index (CFI)
> 0.90
0.95
The required level is
achieved – good fit
Root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA)
< 0.08
0.078
The required level is
achieved
Standardised root mean
residual (SRMR)
> 0.05
0.027
The required level is
achieved
Average variance extracted (AVE)
> 0.50
0.64
The required level is
achieved
Composite reliability (CR)
> 0.70
0.97
The required level is
achieved
0.70 > α
< 0.95
0.82
The required level is
achieved
Cronbach alpha coefficient (α)
Original Research
Invariance measurement was looked at from a configural,
metric and scalar perspective, and the results are reported
in Table 4 (metric) and Table 5 (scalar).
The first assessment of invariance was conducted at
configural level. The result of this assessment was that
configural invariance was supported, with acceptable model
statistics when groups are estimated freely, that is, without
constraints. The same items thus measure the construct
across sectors.
The results reported in Table 4 indicate that metric invariance
is supported, as the delta values of the fit indices between
unconstrained and fully constrained models for CFI,
RMSEA and SRMR are meeting the recommended values.
The results of the analysis (as reported in Table 5) support
the notion of scalar invariance, as the delta values of the fit
TABLE 4: Sector test change in fit indices for metric invariance purposes.
Index
Constrained
Unconstrained
Critical value
Delta
Chi-square value (CMIN)
970.86
949.25
-
-
-
Degree of freedom (df)
288
270
-
-
-
Significance (p)
Comment
p ≤ 0.001
p ≤ 0.001
-
-
-
Discrepancy divided by degree of freedom (CMIN/df)
3.37
3.52
-
-
-
Normed fit index (NFI)
0.88
0.89
-
-
-
Tucker-Lewis index (TLI)
0.91
0.90
-
-
-
Comparative fit index (CFI)
0.92
0.92
< 0.01
0.001
Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA)
0.069
0.071
< 0.015
0.002
Supported
Standardised root mean residual (SRMR)
0.052
0.040
> 0.03
0.012
Supported
Comment
Supported
TABLE 5: Sector test change in fit indices for scalar invariance purposes.
Index
Constrained
Unconstrained
Critical value
Delta
Chi-square value (CMIN)
1009.65
949.25
-
-
-
Degree of freedom (df)
306
270
-
-
-
p ≤ 0.001
p ≤ 0.001
-
-
-
Discrepancy divided by degree of freedom (CMIN/df)
Significance (p)
3.30
3.52
-
-
-
Normed fit index (NFI)
0.88
0.89
-
-
-
Tucker-Lewis index (TLI)
0.91
0.90
-
-
-
Comparative fit index (CFI)
0.91
0.91
< 0.01
0.001
Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA)
0.068
0.071
< 0.015
0.003
Supported
Standardised root mean residual (SRMR)
0.057
0.040
> 0.015
0.017
Marginally not
supported
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Supported
Page 8 of 10
TABLE 6: Pearson correlation coefficients between spiritual leadership 18 and
other cognate leadership constructs.
r
n
Sig.
Lower CI
Upper CI
Organisational Ubuntu
leadership
Leadership
0.81
2553
< 0.001
0.80
0.82
Servant leadership
0.72
2553
< 0.001
0.70
0.74
Authentic leadership
0.79
2553
< 0.001
0.78
0.80
Transformational
leadership
0.78
2553
< 0.001
0.76
0.79
Ethical leadership
0.71
2465
< 0.001
9
0.73
Transactional leadership
-0.11
2753
< 0.001
-0.15
-0.07
Original Research
considering the contextual realities, and specifically AMP. The
AMP themes used in the conceptualisation include Ubuntu, the
South African culture, indigenous knowledge systems (IKS), life
as a universal current, connection to nature, traditionalism,
communalism, and co-operative teamwork. The SpL affinities
identified through the IQA process include kindness, courtesy,
respect, integrity, self-awareness, passion, decisiveness,
compassion, empathy, trust, nurturing, authentic, transparent,
honesty, participation and teamwork, to mention a few.
Sig., significance; CI, confidence interval.
indices between unconstrained and fully constrained models
for CFI and RMSEA are meeting recommended values.
Differences of 0.017 recorded for SRMR are marginally
higher than the recommended norm difference of 0.015. It is
argued that the results of the SRMR are marginally higher
than recommended and would therefore not be the cause
to claim that there is non-invariance. This approach of
change in fit indices shows that there is scalar invariance
in the model.
Lastly, the convergent validity of the SpL construct, as
measured by the 18-item SpL instrument, was assessed. A
basic correlation analysis was performed between SpL and
other cognate leadership constructs, including organisational
Ubuntu leadership (OUL), servant leadership, authentic
leadership, transformational leadership, ethical leadership
and transactional leadership. It was decided to compare the
newly developed SpL with these leadership constructs as it is
hypothesised that there will be a positive relationship between
them because it is all leadership constructs that are, just like
SpL, focusing on relationships. It is further hypothesised that
SpL will have a negative relationship with transactional
leadership which is focused on results or processes and less on
relationships. The results are reported in Table 6.
The highest correlation in Table 6 is between SpL and
organisational Ubuntu leadership (r = 0.81), which was
expected as it was also mentioned and discussed in the
literature section of this article. The only negative (and small)
correlation was reported between SpL and transactional
leadership, as expected. If Cohen’s (1988) guidelines to
interpret the magnitude of the correlations are applied,
that is, r = 0.10–0.29 (small), r = 0.30–0.49 (medium) and
r = 0.50–1.0 (large), then it is clear that all the positive
correlations are with a large practical significance, which is
an indication of convergent validity.
Discussion and conclusion
Leadership, and specifically SpL leadership, is extremely
important, especially in times of recovery from adverse
conditions, such as COVID-19. Because leadership is performed
within a specific context, it is important to study it within that
specific context. This is also the case with SpL, which was
initially introduced by Fry (2003). Studies focusing on SpL were
mainly done in Western contexts, with the assumption that
findings can be generalised. Sibanda and Grobler (2023)
conceptualised SpL within the South African context, also
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The results of the study by Sibanda and Grobler (2023) as
summarised earlier were used to develop an 18-item
instrument, thus from an emic perspective. The purpose of
this study was to develop and validate a SpL instrument for
the South African context. This is important, not only because
of the value of SpL in the workplace but also because of the
tendency of scholars to use instruments developed and
validated for use in the United States or Europe.
The EFA yielded a one-factor solution, suggesting that SpL,
as measured by the newly developed instrument, is a
unidimensional construct. The one-factor solution accounts
for 66% of the variance in SpL, and the items reported high
communalities. This single-factor model, as a result of the
EFA, was used as a theoretical or conceptual base upon
which CFA was performed. The CFA yielded highly
acceptable results if the fit indexes are inspected and
interpreted. The instrument further reported an acceptable
level of convergent validity and internal consistency if the
AVE, Cronbach alpha coefficient and CR are considered.
The presence of CMB was also assessed using a common
latent factor and marker variable (social desirability)
CFA techniques. The result of this analysis suggested no
significant CMB in these data.
Invariance measurement was assessed from a configural,
metric and scalar perspective, and it was found that the SpL
instrument can be used for both the private and public
sectors, as it measures the same construct in the same way.
The instrument can thus be used with confidence in
organisations from both sectors.
The convergent validity of SpL, measured by the newly
developed 18-item instrument, was further assessed by
comparing it statistically to hypothesised cognate leadership
constructs. This includes other leadership styles that are also
based on a relational perspective, such as Ubuntu, authentic,
servant, transformational and ethical leadership. High
(statistically significant) correlations were reported between
SpL and the other leadership measurements, suggesting
convergent validity of the instrument.
The 18-item SpL instrument was found to be reliable and valid,
and it measures a construct that is defined by Sibanda and
Grobler (2023) as: The values, attitudes and behaviours of leaders that
capture the collective conscience of others by recognising the whole
being at work through nurturing, compassion, empathy, and trust.
Open Access
Page 9 of 10
Practical/managerial implications and the
contribution of the study
This study’s contribution to science, practice and the
community is based on the importance of the SpL construct
when leading people, especially when it is viewed from an
AMP perspective, which really defines the leadership
philosophy in the South African (and African) context. This
study further addresses the need for a reliable and valid
instrument that is developed from an emic perspective,
thus being context-specific and relevant. This study presents
an 18-item SpL instrument that meets all the psychometric
criteria and it is further suitable to be used within
organisations, regardless of the sector.
Limitations of the study and suggestions for
future research
The use of a cross-sectional design might be viewed as a
limitation, as it might result in little knowledge in terms of
how the process unfolds over time and on the direction of
causality. This limitation can, however, be addressed through
the use of different techniques and study designs, for
instance, the use of qualitative techniques, such as IQA.
It is suggested that this instrument be applied to various
organisational and industry settings within South Africa to
test the invariance reported in this study. It is further
recommended that the instrument be used with other
organisational behaviour and industrial psychology
constructs to determine possible relationships that could be
used for organisational development experts for the
development of interventions.
Original Research
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of
the authors and are the product of professional research. It
does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of
any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the
publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s
results, findings, and content.
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