MOBILITY AND TECHNOLOGY: UNDERSTANDING THE VULNERABILITY OE TWO GROUPS OE NOMADIC PASTORALISTS TO REINDEER LOSSES' Mark James Dwyer and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin 'i> - . ' • ' { Abstract Between the nineteenth and early twentieth century reindeer mortality, particularly that caused by outbreaks of Siberian anthrax (sibirka), was proportionately higher among Komi herds than amongst those of the Nenets, despite both groups pasturing animals in close proximity to one another, principally within the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra. Intriguingly, to escape infected land caused hy these outbreaks, the Komi emigrated to new regions whereas the Nenets appeared to be relatively unaffected. However, upon closer examination of historical data, it is apparent that proportionately the Nenets lost track of twice as many reindeer compared to the Komi. Previous studies, despite providing little if any concrete evidence, suggested that characteristics of the Komi reindeer herding system (technology) made their reindeer more susceptible to sickness than tho.se of the Nenets. This study, which involved anthropological field research as well as the use of historical data and literature, foeu.sed on analysing the following characteristics of reindeer herding technology between the two groups: (a) veterinary knowledge (b) frequency of herd observation, (c) frequency of movement, (d) pattern of pasturing. It was found that: veterinary knowledge between Komi and Nenets was commensurate and thus cannot be used as an explanatory factor: Komi herds were more frequently observed than those of the Nenets: Komi moved more frequently than the Nenets and spent less time at encampments: and the migration routes of Komi were longer and their pasturing corridors narrower than those of the Nenets. Differences in herd ohscrvation explained the differences in lost reindeer between the Komi and Nenets. The Komi were less able to identify and treat sick reindeer due to more frequent movements, larger herd sizes and less frequent corralling of the main productive herd compared to the Nenets. The length of migration routes and narrowness of pasturing corridors reduced the Komis' pasturing flexibility and thus their ability to avoid infected pastures compared to the Nenets. These results are relevant to both historical and contemporary herding praetices. Keywords: reindeer herding, technology, epizootie outbreaks, Siberian anthrax, Komi, Nenets, mortality Statement of the Problem There is considerable historical evidence that Komi reindeer herding has been more susceptible to disease (particularly Siberian anthrax) than other notnadic reindeer herding and that the frequency and magnitude of outbreaks of Siberian 142 NOMADIC PEOPLES doi: 10.3167/np.2006.100209 NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 ISSN 0822-7942 (Print), ISSN 1752-2366 (Online) Mark James Dwyer and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin 1 anthrax were higher in places where Komi reindeer herding was practised (with the exception of the Kola Peninsula where quarantine had been introduced). Hypotheses developed to explain this phenomenon by Islavin (1847), Kercelli (19()9a,b), Charnolussky (1930a,b) and Konakov and Kotov (1989, 1991) focused on the following four explanatory themes: 1. the Komis' reluctance to learn veterinary knowledge and skills from the Nenets; 2. the Komis' large herd size being more susceptible to epizootic outbreaks, due to faster spread of di.sease in large herds and reduced 'reaction' time to deal with an outbreak: 3. the Komi's large herd size and 'intensive' reduction in lichen abundance in pastures leading to the weakening of the animals; 4. the Komis' large herd size increasing competition for resources (i.e. more time competing and less time foraging) and thus weakening the reindeer and making them more susceptible to disea.se. Little evidence has been provided to support any of the above hypotheses. This paper focuses on investigating three questions: (I) Why were Komi herds more susceptible to epizootic outbreaks (particularly Siberian anthrax) than those of the Nenets, despite sharing the same tundra? (2) What are the main differences between the Komi and the Nenets systems of reindeer herding? (3) Are there any peculiarities of the Komi system of reindeer herding (technology) that make reindeer more susceptible to disease? Background The Komi are one of only four groups of tundra nomadic pastoralists who herd large numbers of reindeer (Rangifer taratidus) and are therefote described as being engaged in 'large-scale' reindeer herding (Krupnik 1989). The others are the Saami, the Nenets and the Chukchi (Slezkine 1994). The Komi are sometimes considered as 'newcomers', since they only began herding reindeer around three centuries ago, by adopting the Nenets system (Zhciebcov 1982; Konakov and Kotov 1991), which, interestingly, corresponds with the age of large-scale' reindeer herding per se (Krupnik 1976, 1989). Starting in the l/.hma region of the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra, situated in the modetn Komi Republic and the Nenets Autonomous Okrug area (Figure 1), the Komi increased the numbers and sizes of their herds over a short period of time, principally by hiring Nenets labour (Islavin 1847; Kercelli 1911; Babushkin 1930). expanded into Khanty-Mansi areas in the east and even emigrated to the Kola Peninsula in the west (Konakov and Kotov 1991; Took 2003). Vladimir Islavin, who visited the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra from 1844 to 1845, observed that the Komi had larger reindeer herds than those of the NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 14.1 Mobility atid Teclmology Figure I: liol'shaya Iiita study area in relation to the Kotni Repuhlic atid the Russian Federation Nenets (i.e.. the aboriginal reindeer herding population in the tundra) and economically dominated the region (Islavin 1847: 21). Islavin also reported that the rapid growth of Komi herds took place between 30 to 40 years before his visit (Islavin 1847: 76). although recent authors doubt that this information is correct (see Konakov and Kotov 1991). Nevertheless, it appears that it took no more than 100 years for the Komi to enlarge their herds before outnumbering those of the Nenets. The reindeer of the Komi herds were, however, strongly affected by epidemics, particularly Siberian anthrax (sihirka) (Berezkin 1907; Kercelli 1909a,b, 1911; Babushkin 1930; Konakov and Kotov 1991), especially during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra, the main region where Komi nomads live side by side with many Nenets, was affected by several successive waves of the disease (Babushkin 1930; Konakov and Kotov 1989). Indeed, outbreaks of anthrax in 1862-1866, 1884-1887, 1896-1899, 1902-1904 and 1906-1909 increased reindeer mortality and the population of herds declined by as much as 30-50 per cent after each outbreak (see Figure 2). According to the Komi Republican Veterinary Information Service, the last outbreak of anthrax in the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra occurred in 1930. It has no longer been a problem since then thanks to the availability of inoculations (Plan Razvitiya Olenevodstva 2003: 22). 144 NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 Mark James Dwver and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin I 100 Figure 2: Reindeer populations in the Bol'shezetnel'skaya tundra (with cortcsponding outbreaks of Siberian anthrax) Data from 1842-1915 derived from statistics held by ihe Statistical Committee of the Archangelsk Governor. Source: Babushkin (1930: 82). Major anthrax outbreaks are highlighted with vertical bais. The expansion and emigration of Komi reindeer herding, mainly during the nineteenth century, was connected to the herders' avoidance of infected pastures during periods of Siberian anthrax. According to Konakov and Kotov (1991) the Komi villages of Saranpaul' and Muzhy. for example, were founded in the nineteenth century by Komi reindeer herders from the Usa valley (Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra) who crossed the Ural mountains into western Siberia to avoid infected grounds in the 1860s. This resulted in the Komis' trans-Ural migrations. A further example, and piobably the most familiar to western scholars, is the Komis' emigration to the Kola Peninsula due to an outbreak of Siberian anthrax in the 1880s. The history of this migration is well known and has been documented in Russian by Charnolussky (1930a) and Konakov and Kotov (1989, 1991) and in English by Took (2003). It appears that Komi herds were more susceptible to disease than those of other nomadic pastoralists. There is no evidence that epizootic outbreaks were a considerable problem for other reindeer herding nomads, including tho.se living in close proximity to the Komi. The European Nenets, for exatnple, who share the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra with the Komi, did not llee infected pastures in such a spectacular way as did the Komi. Those Nenets who emigrated to the Kola Peninsula (although quite numerous) were either taken there by Komi as hired workers or belonged to the Kolva group (Konakov and Kotov 1989, 1991). The Kolva group, despite having Nenets self-idenNOMADiC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 Mobility and Teclmology tity, was almost completely acculturated by the Komi; all herders spoke the Komi language and shared the Komi culture and method of herding (Konakov and Kotov 1991). Furthermore, it appears that the spread and intensity of Siberian anthrax was associated with the movements and presence of Komi reindeer herding. Indeed, although Siberian anthrax had been present in western Siberia for a long time (Silantyev 1897), it was not until the last quarter of the nineteenth century that it seemed to cause substantial reindeer mortality (Silantyev 1897). The increase in mortality in western Siberia seems to correspond with the period when Komi reindeer herders made their appearance into the region (Konakov and Kotov 1991). The informants of Kercelli (1909a) insisted that the Malozemel'skaya tundra had been almost free of anthrax before the arrival of Komi reindeer herds, although he could not substantiate this information. The only area of the tundra that had a low number of cases of anthrax' was the Kanin Peninsula in the European northeast, which was the region least populated by Komi herders (Vasilyev 1977). The only region that was populated by Komi nomads, yet not contaminated by Siberian anthrax, was the Kola Peninsula (Russian Lapland) rellecting the fact that the Komi quarantined their animals before emigrating to this place (Konakov and Kotov 1989). The apparent susceptibility of Komi reindeer herding to disease (especially Siberian anthrax) attracted the attention of a number of scholars who concluded that certain particularities of Komi herding technology made their reindeer particularly vulnerable. One of the first hypotheses was put forward by Vladimir Islavin who visited the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra in 1845. He suggested that Komi reindeer often became ill due to the Komis' lack of herding knowledge and veterinary skills: Komi, who learned how to herd reindeer from Nenets were too lazy and greedy to complete their education and started to practise their herding without learning about the medical techniques and ways to treat diseases (Islavin 1847:47).' Though Islavin provided little evidence for his suggestion it seems to have been generally accepted during the second half of the nineteenth century (e.g., see Zhuravsky 1907, 1909). Subsequently, when evidence of the Komis' own vocabulary for infectious diseases was published (Kercelli 1911; Babushkin 1930) more sophisticated hypotheses emerged. Kercelli (1909b) believed that the susceptibility of Komi herds to di.sease was due to their large size; Komi obtained herds of huge sizes, sometimes in excess of 5,000 animals. Such a large number of animals gathered in one place are, of course, an easy target for disease. Anthrax spteads very quickly in such an enormous herd, infecting many reindeer with a single outbreak and causing the whole herd to die out within several days. At the same time, its pathogenic organism (vozhuditelya holezni) infects a huge territory ... Since Komi herds are large and pastured in close proximity to one another, the disease 146 NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 Mark James Dwyer and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin I ' I spreads rapidly from one herd to another, swiftly covering an immense territory. This is probably the main reason for the significant losses of reindeer among Komi reindeer herders. Nenets, whose herds are much smaller, do not suffer as many losses from anthrax. Even if their reindeer become infected, the disea.se spreads aeross the temtory more slowly and the herders have time to take corrective measures. Those Komi who have small herds are also less vulnerable to the disease ... rich Komi herders have already understood this and have started to divide their herds into smaller groups. (Kercelli 19()9b: 10) Kercelli, like Islavin before him, did not substantiate his suggestion with evidence. There was neither any information regarding the measures owners of small herds took when outbreaks of anthrax occurred, nor data to show that large herds were more vulnerable to antbrax, although this seems plausible. Charnolussky (1930a), who worked on the Kola Peninsula, suggested that vulnerability of Komi reindeer to disease was a result of herding practices that resulted in chronic overgrazing which weakened the animals: ] j j 1 It takes several years for lichen to grow after grazing ... Komi herders are aware of this, but systematically ignore the fact. They pasture reindeer in a solid group, permanently observing them and ensuring that all the lichen on a pastureland would he eaten or broken by reindeer trampling. As one Saami informant told me "Komi pasture a reindeer like a cow". Reindeer are not cows and lichen is not grass ... pasturing reindeer in this way hits back at them. Their reindeer do not eat properly and are weak. Naturally, they often become ill. (Charnolussky 1930a: 134;seeal.so 1930b: 38-39) Charnolussky provided little evidence to support his hypothesis. Firstly, it seems that his Saami informant was referring to the way in which Komi kept their reindeer at pasture rather than to the foraging behaviour of the anitnals themselves. The informant's comment was therefore perhaps a way of saying that the Komi pastured reindeer more intensively than the Saami. However, nomadic semi-domesticated reindeer and non-nomadic domesticated cows do not share common patterns of foraging. There are marked diffetences in the movement to foraging ratio (i.e. the proportit)n of time spent foraging) between grazers (e.g. cows) and browsers (e.g. reindeer) (Owen-Smith 2002: 47-52), which is primarily due to differences in the tetnpotal and spatial distribution and quality of forage between temperate and Arctic biomes. Reindeer have adapted to these highly seasonal environments, notably by selecting the most nutritious forage in any given season and by having an intestinal tract that can digest poor quality forage (Owen-Smith 2002; Skogland 1989, 1978, 1983; Marion et al. 2005). Secondly. Charnolussky implies that the disappearance of lichen affected the health of the Komis' animals. The notion that reindeer cannot survive in the absence of lichen is a myth. All reindeer eat a mixed diet in winter (see, e.g., Gaare and Skogland 1975; S0rmo et al. 1999; Mathiesen NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 147 Mobility and Technology et al. 2000) and many populations have successfully adapted to environments where lichens have been severely depleted by grazing and trampling, for example South Georgia (Leader-Williams 1988), Svalbard (Tyler 1987) and northern Not way (Mathiesen 1999). Thirdly. Charnolussky's suggestion that 'overgrazing' led to the ill health of Komi herds and thus to their susceptibility to disease is vague and unsatisfactorily documented. The concept of 'overgrazing' is virtually meaningless ecologically in seasonal grazing systems with highly variable and unpredictable climates (Behnke et al. 1993; Behnke 1999). It is a concept developed in the management of equilibrium systems and has only limited application in systems better described in terms of 'non-equilibrium' or 'disequilibrium' dynamics (see Illius and O'Connor 1999; Sullivan and Rohde 2002; Sullivan 1996; Behnke et al. 1993; Behnke 1999; Landres et al. 1999; GilLson et al. 2003: Briske et al. 2003). 'Overgrazing' seems nowadays to be more a political issue rather than a detined ecological concept and is therefore perhaps best avoided altogether in the present context. Finally. Konakov and Kotov (1991) appear to have developed a hybrid hypothesis ba.sed on those of Kercelli and Charnolussky. They stated that the vulnerability of Komi herds to disease was due to their size and the herders' pasturing technique: The observed pasturing eharaeteristic ... of Komi reindeer herding presupposes keeping all the reindeer in one narrow place. A herder should always ensure that all the animals remain together and prevent groups of animals from e.scaping from the herd. Maintaining herd coherence is their main activity. From a biological point of view, this should provoke resource competition among animals due to the limited territory upon which they are kept. This competition depends on the number of animals: the larger the herd, the greater is the competition. Komi herds were probably the largest in the region, therefore, logically, competition among reindeer must have been the highest. This means that Komi reindeer tnust have spent more time trying to compete to get the best resources, etc. In other words, they ran and competed more than they ate. This factor, as well as the long migrations - also a chatacteristic of Komi reindeer herding - led to the weakening of animals and their susceptibility to diseases. (Konakov and Kotov 1991: 14) It is reasonable to suggest that the level of intraspecific competition among Komi herds might have been sufficiently high to have reduced the mean physiological condition and even the health of some of the animals. However, the authors neither documented differences in the body mass or condition or even fotaging patterns between different herds to substantiate their claim (see, e.g., Skogland 1983: 369). Consequently, the authors' hypothesis is unconvincing because it provides both an overly simplistic story and a lack of empirical evidence. 148 NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 Mark Jatties Dwyer atid Kirill Viaditnitovich Istomin Approach and Methodology Our object in this paper is to: (1) Compare the frequency and magnitude of reindeer diseases between the Komi reindeer herding system and that of the Nenets. To achieve this, Komi and Nenets (living in the same geographical area) reindeer losses were analysed. The analysis was necessarily based on historical data from the First Circumpolar Census of 1925-1927^ as Siberian anthrax was no longer a problem after the 1930-1940s. (2) Document the existence of Komi 'traditional' veterinary knowledge and techniques and to compare them to those of the Nenets. Participant ob.servation of day-to-day herd management of Komi herding as well as informal interviewing was carried out to document veterinary knowledge and treattnent techniques at the present time. Patticipant observation and interviewing was tiot carried out atnong the Nenets on this subject due to lieldwotk time restrictions. Therefore, the Komi Held data was compared to contemporary published Nenets data. This contemporary study of veterinary knowledge and practices atnong Komi reindeer herders was conducted to test Islavin's historical 'bad students' hypothesis. It is assumed that if the Komi and Nenets have veterinary knowledge at the present time, it is likely that they also had similar knowledge in 1847, which is when Islavin formulated his hypothesis. Only the results pertaining to knowledge concerning viral and other infectious reindeer diseases (i.e. those related to epizootic outbreaks) are used. Selected examples of herders' knowledge of di.seases and treatment methods will be discussed. It is not the purpose of this paper to investigate the accuracy of 'traditional' diagnosis nor the efficiency of their treatment methods in relation to modern veterinary practices. (3) Investigate which aspects of the Komi reindeer herding system might be responsible for making their reindeer more susceptible to disease than those herded by the Netiets. To achieve this, a contetnporary study of Komi and Nenets reindeer herding systems (technology) was conducted, which focused primarily on basic patterns of nomadic movement and methods of herd control (management). Contemporary Komi and Nenets data was the primary source for explaining differences in reindeer herding systems that might be linked to differences in reindeer losses between the two nomadic groups. However, these data were cross-referenced with historical sources and it would appear that there is no reason to believe that substantial changes in the Komi or the Nenets systems of reindeer herding have taken place between the past (i.e. from the nineteenth to the beginning of the twentieth century) and the present. Anthropological fieldwork was carried out among reindeer herders from the Inta region of the Komi Republic. This consisted of three expeditions with brigades of the Komi Sovkhoz Bol'shaya Inta. although the territory itself is NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 149 Mobility atid Teclmology mostly in that of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. The first expedition took place in 2001 (September-November), the second in 2002 (June-December), and the third in 2003 (January-February). During these expeditions, nine months were spent with the 2nd/3rd brigade, one month with the lst/4th brigade, one month with the 5th brigade and one month among several \amhto ('free') Nenets' herders (whilst in close proximity to the Kara Sea). During various intervals - from August 2001 to February 2003 - a period of over a month was spent interviewing retired reindeer herders in small remote villages; Nenets herders in the village of Kharuta (three days); Komi herders in the villages of Adzvavom (two weeks). Kocyuvotn (one week), Petrun' (three weeks) and Rogovoy (three days). A number of days was also spent with state farm (sovkhoz) officials to ask questions regarding reindeer diseases. The research included participant observation and interviews that were conducted both in the Komi and Russian languages. The interviews were informal and no specially designed questionnaires were used. The standard techniques of cognitive anthropological research were used during the interviews (see, e.g. Michrina and Richards 1996). The interviews typically started with a question that led on to a di.scussion. This approach facilitated the identification of terminology, which was later described and explained through further discussions, practical demonstrations and participant ob.servation. Translations of Komi terms into Russian and English were carried out for the purpose of analysis, based on the descriptions and knowledge of reindeer herders. The interviewing process was repeated several times with different individuals and groups of herders in order to cross-reference data. Participant observation was used to study the technology of reindeer pasturing, which essentially involved practical work among reindeer herders. Towatds the end of the fieldwork, the authors were directly involved in pasturing operations and assumed the responsibilities for pasturing the hetd of draught animals (hyk) independently. Results and Discussion Breakdown of the Causes of Reindeer Mortality and Lost Reindeer The data from the First Circumpolar Census of 1925-1927" shows that overall reindeer losses (mortality and lost reindeer) were 35% and 30% respectively for Komi and Nenets herds (Babushkin 1930: 101). The cau.ses of these los.ses differed between the two groups (.see Table 1). As a proportion of total reindeer numbers, the Komi lost twice as many animals due to diseases and a negligible 4% more due to starvation compared to the Nenets. The Nenets lost track of twice as many reindeer and lost some 8% more animals due to predation compared to the Komi. 150 NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 Mark Jatnes Dw\er und Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin Table 1: Breakdown of reindeer mortality and lost reindeer (%) Komi Starvation Diseases Predators Lost Nenets 11 7 53 18 27 26 18 40 Source: Babushkin (1930: 102) There is really no way to assess the accuracy of these data. However, Igor Krupnik. one of the most eminent specialists in Cultural Ecology of Siberian and Northern peoples, considers the First Soviet Circumpolar Census as a reliable source of information. In his book Native Whalers and Reindeer Herders of Northern Eurasia, he names the work of Babushkin. together with other works stating the results of the Census in other regions, as 'high-quality articles and subsistence-related reports, fully reminiscent of latter-day publications from the Alaska Department of Fish and Game Subsistence Division or the Canadian Area Economic Surveys' (Krupnik 1993: 15). Furthermore. Krupnik used Babushkin's data in his previous books in the Russian language (Krupnik 1989). Veteritutrx Knowledge Komi names for reindeer infectious diseases and parasites have been previously documented by Kercelli (19()9a) and Babushkin (1930). Little attention has been paid to Komi methods for treating disease. Our data confirms the existence of a Komi vocabulary for the principal infectious diseases and parasitic problems (as perceived by the reindeer herders) that affect reindeer (see Table 2). Komi herders are currently not only able to describe the symptoms of a variety of diseases and parasitic problems (listed in Table 2) but are also aware of some of their causes. The herders are aware, for example, of the increased risk of Necrohacillosis (kopytka or foot rot), during snow-free periods, when herding animals on wet and/or dirty ground (i.e. ground with high manure content), particularly if reindeer have open wounds or abrasions. Therefore, the pen that is routinely used to round up animals on a daily basis (karzak) is regularly moved to a fresh location when the chom' remains sedentary for more than a few days. Wet pastures, such as sedge tundra bogs (.\ada) are also avoided during snow-free periods, but are used later on in the year when they become frozen. Furthermore, the herders are aware that the disease can affect the mouth and tongue particularly when animals licked badly infected lesions on their hooves and body. The herders also avoided pasturing reindeer in places where their animals were at risk of minor cuts and abrasions (e.g. in areas with dense stands of NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 151 Mobility ami Technology \ . ' • • ; • • Table 2: Summary of main reindeer infectious diseases from both historical sources an recent participant observation and interviews Diseases (English/ Latin)' 1. Siberian Anthrax 2. Necrobacillosis (foot rot) 3. Foot-and-mouth 4. Infestation of maggots 5. Pasteurellosis 6. Warble t\y/ Nasal bot flies 7. Rabies Diseases (Russian)' Diseases in Komi (Kercelli)'" Diseases in Komi (Babushkin)" Diseases in Komi (Dwyer/Istomin Sibirka Gord Kulom (lit. "red death') Kok visem (lit. "leg illnes') Not mentioned Yur visem (lit. head illness) Sibirka Sibirka Kopytka Gyzh potom (lit. Kok visem 'hoof explosion) Upri Yachur Yur visem Yur visem Yachur Zarazheniye Hchinkami podkozhnogo ovoda Pasterulyoz Ovoda Lob visem Ugra Lob visem Ugra Lob visem Ugra Beshenstvo Not mentioned Not mentioned Dikyalom Key to diseases: According to our interviews witb both herders and state farm (.mvt/ioj) officials, the translations of anthr.ix (sibirlici), Necrobacittosis (t<ok visem). foot and mouth (vactiur). warble fly (ui^ra) and rabies (dikjalnm) are consistent with those of previous authors (Kercelli and Babushkin) and are well known to the authorities. According to the state farm, reindeer are protected against rabies and anthrax by regular vaccination. The direct translation of yur \isem is 'head-disease'. It is difficult to establish precisely what this meant as it was not possible to take samples for chemical analysis. It would appear that flies' eggs that later turn into maggots - are a likely cause. Maggots are a particular problem when reindeer are growing their antlers and are more abundant during warm weather (see Aldrich 2002). Maggots in antlers of reindeer are not a problem in reindeer husbandry in Fennoscandia. but there are some reports. Nilssen et al. (1996) state that in calUphorids like Lucilia spp., activation, upwind orientation and landing appear to ixxur in response to putrefactive sulphur-rich volatiles, originating from bacterial decomposition products (Ashworth and Wall 1994). One of the most abundant species caught in their study. Protophormia terraenovac (see Table 2) causes wound myiasis and can be a serious parasite of cattle, sheep and reindeer (Hall and Smith 1993). Hadwen and Palmer (t922) reported that wounds of Alaskan reindeer were often infected w ith P. lernienovae larvae. Interesting, the e.\it openings from H. tarandi (on the backs of the reindeer) attracted blowflies {P. terracnovae). sometimes causing considerable losses. There appears to be no reports of similar problems with reindeer husbandry in Fennoscandia. even though Nilssen's study showed P. terraenovac to be abundant there. However, this does not mean that blowflies are not a problem elsewhere (e.g. in the Eurasian tundra). The maggots in question are Calliphorktai' (blowflies, or bluebottles), a large family of flies that lay their egg in meat and lish, usually of dead animals. Some species, however, may attack living animals, for example the Screw worm flies, Cochliomyia hominivorax. which may kill sheep. Consequently, the most likely flies responsible for causing Yiir visem are blowflies (Calliplwridae). The direct translation of loh visem is 'spleen-disease' and again it is difficult to establish a precise veterinary translation. Pasieuiellosis (caused by the P. miittocicla. P. haemolytka and P. scptica) could be a possibility given that the pathologies (e.g. enlarged spleen) match those described by the herders. The herders also mentioned that the disease is worse during hot weather, which also matches veterinary observations. The herders noted that there is an increased risk of loh visem should the antlers be cut or broken, which suggests that the disease or diseases are transmitted via the wound. Pasteureltosis is transmitted by aerosol, droplets and faeces and is therefore a possibility (Machintosh et al. 2002: 256). It is likely that there are many diseases that also match the herders' descriptions, such as Brucellosis (see Dieterich and Morton 1990; Machintosh et al. 2002). Ugra includes warble Hies and nasal bot Hies (see Dieterich and Morton 1990). Note: All of the above diseases and parasitie problems affect reindeer predominately during snow-free periods. 152 NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 I Mark Jatnes Dwyer ami Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin willow - roshsha), which was a greater probletn during snow-free periods when bushes were tnore exposed and proliferate. Reducing the access of infection (i.e. by minimising abrasions) and avoiding wet ground with high manure contctit. that harbour foot rot bacteria (mainly Fusobacteriutn necropltorum). are well docutnented tiieasures to tninitrtise the risk of infection (sec Dieterich atid Morton 1990; Dieterich 1985; Edwards et al. 2001; Wobeser et al. 1975; Barker et al. 1993: Langworth 1977). Oral lesions resulting in the destruction of tissue of the tongue, gingival and the roof of the tnouth are also well known pathologies that result from chronic cases of foot rot (Machintosh et al. 2002; Edwards et al. 2001). Our data detnonstrate that herders' have an understanding of the increased risk of lob visem when reindeer either have their velvet antlers ijmtitiy) intentionally removed or when antlers have been damaged or broken. String or rubber bands are attached to seal the wound following the rernoval of velvet antlers in spring but no anti-bacterial and/or insect repellent sprays that reduce the risk of infection are applied (Dieterich and Morton 1990; Dieterich 1985). Consequently, it is plausible that antler breakage or rernoval could increase the risk of bacteria entering the body through an antler wound thus causitig an infection. Furthertnore. open wounds attract biting insects and can increase the chance of maggot infestation (Aldrich 2002). Both scenarios would be made worse with increased air tctrtperature and would therefore vary on a year to year basis in frequency and amplitude. Among the Komi, treatment methods exist for all of the diseases and parasitic problems listed in Table 2. with the exception of Siberian anthrax, foot-and-mouth disease and rabies, which were deemed untreatable. Consistent with the previous account (Kercelli 1909b: 9), it was said that infected reindeer with these diseases could only be slaughtered so as to prevent further herd contairtination. The main method for treating all other sicktiesses in reindeer involves segregating the animal atid securing it near the chom for a period of several days, which, according to the herders, is an effective cure in itself. This is said to be especially the case for kok visem (foot rot), if caught in its early stages. However, to increase the likelihood of recovery, the surface of the infected area must be washed using boiled water and be kept clean. Reindeer were slaughtered in instances when they could not be treated. This was called "need slaughtering' (vvnuzhdentivy zabov) and state helicopters were occasionally sent to the tutidra to collect carcasses. In recent times, the herders have been using penicillin antibiotics (provided by the state), but they question their effectivetiess. It is well documented that early detection of nectobaciltosis is essential and isolation from other animals is necessary to prevent the disease spreading (Machintosh et al. 2002; Wobe,ser et al. 1975). Itijections of antibiotics and foot baths can be effective, but they need to be correctly administered (Dieterich and Morton 1990; Machintosh et al. 2002; Wobeser et al. 1975) and it is unlikely that the herders have the right training. NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 153 Mobility and Techtiology A further example of Komi treatment methods is that of loh visetn (possibly Pastetdrellosis). According to the herders, the reindeer should first be given salted blood and water to drink. If this is ineffective the swolleti loh (spleen) should be pierced with a clean knife.'- Should the animal survive, it is said that it will no longer be able to fatten in subsequent years. The pathology of Pasteurellosis includes an enlarged spleen and the septicaemic form of Pasteurellosis results in acute haemorrhagic disease (Machintosh et al. 2002: 256). which may explain why the herders give reindeer blood. No suggestion could be made for the surgery. The problem of ugra (warble fly) larvae is dealt with by lightly cutting the skin of the reindeer to retnovc the larvae that have developed. This is important as warble flies impair the health of reindeer and other than using the drug Invermectin. that kills warble flies, nasal bot flies, and other internal and external parasites (Dieterich and Morton 1990; Dieterich 1985). nothing else could be dotie. According to Khomich (1995), the Nenets were aware of these diseases and parasitic probletns and used similar treatments, but there is no published evidence suggesting they had more extensive or sophisticated knowledge than the Komi. It appears, therefore, that the veterinary knowledge of the Komi and the Nenets was sitnilar contrary to Islavin's hypothesis. Other explanatory factors are therefore needed to account for the higher level of disease atnong Komi reindeer. . ,. Herding Practices Our data indicates sharp differences in (i) frequency of herd observation: (ii) pattern of herd movement; and (iii) frequency of nomadic movement between Komi and Nenets reindeer herders. The interviews undertaken in this study show that Komi brigades have two herds that are herded separately; the main productive herd (kor) and the transport herd {byk). During the summer, both herds are under continuous observation (24hours/day) by a reindeer herder who controls them with dogs and uses a sledge pulled by reindeer as a means of transport. The herders' work pattern rotates on a shift basis with each shift lasting 24 hours. The transport herd is pastured in close proximity to the herders' tent {chom) and is controlled by either less experienced reindeer herders {yando) or veterans. As autumn approaches and daylight decreases, the shifts gradually become shorter. Thus, the Komi observe all their reindeer all of the time, the lack of daylight being the only inhibitor. The exception is the winter time, when reindeer are less active and herders regularly check the 'condition'" of the herd, but do not necessarily observe it contitiuously. There is a sharp contrast in the frequency with which the Komi and the yamb-to ('free') Nenets observe their herds. Our data shows that the Nenets do not have a .separate transport herd and. therefore, the transport and productive reindeer are pastured as a single herd that is rounded up and driven close 154 NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 Mark Jatnes Dwyer and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin i to the chom once or twice each day. This process enables the herders to select and leash tiew (fresh) transport anitnals in exchange for reindeer that are tired from their previous day's work. This process occurs early in the evening and, once completed, the herd is set free and starts slowly to disperse away frotn the chotn. After some titne. a herder leaves the chotn to check the herd and. if required, alter its direction of movemetit. A herder returns to his herd several titnes during the course of his watch; the number of times depends upon factors such as weather conditions, temperature and the presence of mosquitoes, all of which affect the behaviour of reitideer and can heavily inlluence the speed and direction of movement of herds (Skogland 1989). The style of Nenets observation is. therefore, sporadic and less frequent than that of the Komi. These observations appear to corroborate those of Kercelli (1911). who described the Nenets herds as being 'unattended' tiiost of the titne during sumtner and winter during which only periodic checks were carried out (Kercelli 1911: 111-13).''' The pattern of movement of Komi reindeer herders is linear and vertical (from south to north). The length of migration routes {vorga) in this study was up to 1.000km in total, but routes of 1.400km are known to have been used up to 25-30 years ago.'" A viirga is a track (the width of a sledge) that Komi follow when moving between pastures and is normally used by two Komi herding brigades.'" Up to 20ktn separated one vorga from another. The Kotni shared this space (i.e. corridor) for tnoving their animals between their designated summer and winter pastures, i.e. where they had exclusive pasturing agreements (see Figure 3). The long narrow pattern of votga and corridors running parallel to one another is typical of Komi reindeer herding enterprises throughout the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra.'' The basic land use principle is that two brigades that share a vorga tnust not pasture their reindeer on the same side. i.e. one should pasture their herd to the left and the other to the right. There are almost no rules for the two brigades that share the cotnnion corridor (i.e., pastures between two vorga) and pasturing is essentially organised on a first come first served basis. The herders acknowledged that it was better to be first (in snow-free periods), since the vegetation was always better and. therefore, the herd easier to control. The herd is generally behind the chotn and. as it approaches, the brigade moves cither further north or south - depending on the season - to a new cncamptnent {chotn tnesto). Despite the corridor being up to 20km in width, the pattern of herd movement is latitudinal and the route to fresh pastures cannot be achieved by moving longitudinally. Close proximity to neighbours is avoided .so as to reduce the chance of herds mixing with those of neighbouring brigades. Consequently, a brigade that moves faster usually benefits from fresh pastures and has a lower risk of its herd mixing, since it is ahead of the neighbouring herds, whilst the brigade left behind finds partially exploited pastures where its herd is tnore likely to mix with those of neighbouring herds. These NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 155 Mobility and Techtiology Exclusive sumtner pastures Two brigades share this territory Around 1,000 km 20km Exclusive winter pastures Figure 3: Komi tnigration pattern and basic arrangetnetit of pastures (based on the atithors' itifortnants atid participatory obsenrition - diagratn not to scale) factors are important in maintaining herd control, which is essential to Komi reindeer herding (see also Istomin 2000). The interviews undertaken among the Nenets show that they move in a different way to the Komi. Despite having linear and latitudinal tnigration routes, their 'sporadic' approach to observing their reindeer was sufficient to prevent neighbouring choms frotn being as close to one another as was the case for Komi reindeer herding brigades (see Figure 4). The distance between neighbouring Nenets camps was at least 30km and could be as much as 80km given that a herd could be pastured up to 30km away from where an encatnpment was located. Furthermore, instead of the herd being behind the chotn, it was in fact pastured around it. The herd would start by being pastured close to the chom and gradually moved further and further away in a 'circular spiral' pattern of movement. Once the herd became inipractically far frotn the chotti the encampment was moved to a new location; considering that the width of 156 NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 Mark James Dw\er and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomitt Corridor: minimum of 30km (up to 80km) Movement to new encampment Neighbouring clan Around 250 km The herd rotates around the encampment like a spiral (starting close to the encampment and gradually moving outwards) until it becomes too far to travel lor the herders. At this stage the herders' families move their animals to a new location. The distance between different clans is at least 30km. / Figure 4: Nenets migration pattern atid basic arratigement of pastures {based on the authors' itiforttumts and participatory observation) the 'corridor' was much wider than that of the Komi, the Nenets had greater flexibility with regard to movemetit. i.e. they could tnove longitudinally as well as latitudinally given that their territory was wider. The migration routes of Nenets on the Bol'shezemePskaya tundra were much shorter than those of the Komi. The free Nenets interviewed in this study repotted that they sjxjnt winters close to Vorkuta (see Figure 1). being about 50km north of the tree line, whereas their Komi neighbours spent their winters at least 250ktn further south. Reindeer herders from Kharuta'" said that those brigades of the Kharuta sovkhoz, which consisted mostly of Nenets, tetided to spend the winter in the tundra (i.e.. north of the tree litie). This evidence matches the dctnarcations of reindeer herding passages of the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra on official tnaps. The Nenets' herding corridors are shorter (around 250-400km) but wider (30-60km) than those of the Komi. The brigade and the herd movements of the Komi were much more frequent than those of the Nenets. The Komi tnovements were as follows. In June and NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 157 Mobility atid Techtiology July the herd was moved daily or every .second day. until reaching the summer pastures, where the reindeer herders stayed no more than two weeks (usually starting in early August). The frequency of movement on the return to the winter pastures was similar to June and July but gradually slowed when the snow appeared in late September to early October. Frotn October to December herd movements were every four to seven days, becoming even less frequent once the herders reached their winter pastures. During the winter the herders generally stayed in one location for three weeks or more and their tnovements were sporadic, variable and had no particular pattern. Towards the end of winter, the herders began to move north at a similar pace to that of October and Novetnber until the calving grounds were reached in early May. After calving, the brigade started to move every other day and so the cycle continued. This accoutit closely resembles that described by Kercelli (1911: 3-26). The Nenets moved less frequently. They typically spent one and a half months in summer pastures (see also Khomich 1995). We did not live with Nenets herders for any length of time and cannot provide a detailed account of their movements through the annual cycle. However, the Nenets herders stored their snowmobiles {burati) near the river Sayaga approximately 50km from their summer pastures. This indicates that their movements in snow-free periods must be either infrequent, short or both compared to those of the Komi herders. These results are similar to those of Khomich (1995). Conclusion < The differences in both the frequency of herd observation, the frequency of nomadic movement and the arrangement of pastures between the Kotni and the Nenets in the Bol'shezemel'skaya tutidra partially explains, both in the past and present, (i) the greater vulnerability of Komi herds to reindeer sickness (including outbreaks of Siberian anthrax) cotnpared to the Nenets, and (ii) the Nenets' greater susceptibility to losing track of reindeer as well as losing animals to predators compared to the Komi. The most basic form of veterinary procedure known to the Komi and the Nenets involves the early immobilisation of infected reindeer. This has proved to be an effective treatment to combat both foot rot and the spread of disease to the rest of a herd (Dieterich and Morton 1990; Edwards et al. 2001: Wobeser et al. 1975; Barker et al. 1993; Langworth 1977), A prerequisite for the successful immobilisation of reindeer is the ability both to identify and catch an infected animal and be able to keep it in one place for a lengthy period. This study, like that of Kercelli (1909a.b. 1911). indicates that the Komi are less able to achieve this compared to the Nenets. They generally have larger herds, which make it more difficult to identify diseased animals, and they move more frequently than the Nenets, especially in snow-free periods when diseases 158 NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) V VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 Mark James Dwyer and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin stich as foot rot are prevalent. Thus, with the exception of the two-week period that the Komi spend in their sutnmer pastures as opposed to the six weeks that the Nenets spend in theirs, it is almost impossible for the Komi to immobilise infected animals for more than a day or two. Moreover, frequent movements tiiake it difficult to catch infected animals given that the herd tnust first be rounded up. This is labour intensive and virtually impossible when a brigade is set to move to a new encampment {chotn tnesto). Since the Nenets have only one herd (which compri,scs both transport and productive reindeer), which, in any ca.se. is rounded up daily, their system of tnanagement is more conducive to catching sick animals. Consequently, the Komi are forced to slaughter potentially treatable sick animals simply because the herders have to move and cannot afford the titne to treat them. It would be potentially devastating for the herds if anitnals infected with Siberian anthrax were not isolated quickly to reduce the spread of the disease. However, before treatment with penicillin or the prevention of the disease with toxoid vaccine, the only method of control was incineration or deep burial of diseased animals (Machintosh et al. 2002: 250). This must have been difficult for reindeer herders, since there would have been little choice other than to slaughter infected animals and avoid infected land. It was previously pointed out that the Komi had less flexibility of movement (i.e. corridors being long, vertical and narrow) cotnpared to the Nenets (i.e. corridors being .several hundred kilometres shorter yet four titnes wider than those of the Kotni). This means that at least in principle, the Kotnis' system of pasturing tnade it difficult for the herders to avoid infected land. On the other hand, the Nenets, having a shorter, yet wider pasturing corridor, would have had more flexibility of movement and thus greater ability to avoid contaminated areas. Consequently, despite living in the same Bol'shezetnel'skaya tundra, the Komis' lack of flexibility of movement, and thus their restricted ability to avoid infected areas, made their herds more susceptible to sickness (including Siberian anthrax) than the herds of the Nenets. Like Khomich (1995), we found that the Nenets observed their reindeer less frequently than the Komi. This explains why, proportionately, they lost track of twice as many reindeer and may have lost a higher number of reindeer to predators than the Komi. Finally, this study shows how two seemingly similar notnadic cotnmunities are in fact vulnerable to different factors which are intrinsically linked to their respective herding systems (technologies). This implies that reindeer herding communities are vulnerable to different factors, which probably also applies to factors such as global climate change and industrial development (especially petrochemical extraction). NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 159 Mobility and Techtiology Notes 1. We wish to thank all the reindeer herders (Komi and Nenets) of the Inta region und beyond who gave us tremendous hospitality and welcomed us as extended family. We would also like to thank the many friends and officials who helped us with our work, particularly the Shurakov, Alekseevich and the Yangasov families. Credit should also be given to Professor Ame C. Nilssen for his entomological contribution and a special thanks to Dr Nicholas J.C. Tyler for his general help, patience, enthusiasm and endless support. Finally, we wish to thank our wonderful families for putting up with our long absences when carrying out fieldwork and special thanks to Mrs Eileen J. Dwyer for her interest in our work and her editing skills. 2. Minor and isolated cases of anthrax were reported, but nothing that amounted to what was described as an outbreak (Silantyev 1897). 3. All translations (Russian-English) have been carried out by the authors. 4. Reindeer herding data was previously eollceted regionally rather than aeeording to ethnicity (see Babushkin 1930). Considering that Komi and Nenets occupy the same territory within a region and that the data does not differentiate between the two groups, data analysis is generally impossible. However, the Eirst Circumpolar Census provides the only data where both groups were treated independently, which is why this information was used, 5. The 'free' Nenets - also known a,s 'private Nenets' (Nenets-chastniki, Nenets-lichniki) or yamb-to Nenets - are a small group of reindeer herders whose predeeessors managed to escape Soviet colleetivisation in the 1930-1940s by retreating to distant pails of the tundra. These Nenets do not belong to any reindeer herding enterprise (sovkhoz or kolkhoz) and many of them do not have Rus.sian citizenship, which makes it impossible to determine their exact demography. Eor further information see (Bjorklund 1996). 6. The census was carried out over a period of three years (1925-1927) by two teams of researchers travelling in eastern and western parts of the Bol'shezemel'skaya tundra. The published figures represent averaged results obtained by both teams. No single herd (brigade) was observed during the three-year study, since a number of brigades were visited throughout the period of the study. The methodology is described in the first ehapter of Babushkin's book. 7. Chom: conical tent structure, not unlike a wig-wam, which is the abode of Komi nomadic reindeer herders. 8. Russian words were translated into English using the 2001 Complete Oxford dictionary. 9. The translation of Komi terms into their most likely Russian, English and Latin equivalents was achieved through diseussions with colleagues. 10. Disease 1 (Kereelli 1909a: 14); diseases 2.4. 5 and 6 (Kercelli 1909: 31). 11. Diseases 1.2. 5 (Babushkin 1930: 168); diseases 3.4 and 6 (Babushkin 1930: 169). 12. Clean knife: one that has been heated until it turns red. 13. Condition of the herd: this means that the herd is under control. There are a number of factors that can alter the state of the herd by disturbing it and causing its dispersal, such as attacks from predators (e.g. Skogland 1989) or poor foraging conditions as a result of unfavourable snow and iee conditions (e.g. Henshaw 1968: Collins and Smith 1991). Komi reindeer herders regularly eheek the herd to ensure that such problems do not occur. 160 NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 Mark James Dwwr and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin 14. Kercelli (1011; 113) describes an incident of herd mixing during his expeditions. He reports that on one occasion during the summer, Komi herders, with whom the researcher travelled, found an unattended herd thai threatened to mix with their herd. The herders prevented the two herds mixing and later cheeked the earmarks of the 'alien" herd. They discovered that it belonged to a certain Nenets family, so they drove the herd lo their encampment. Having returned the herd to its rightful owner, they discovered that the Nenets had not even noticed that it had gone astray and had been so close to mixing with that of another herd. It transpired that the herd had been left "unattended' lor a whole day. \5. In our study area, it appears that the number of brigades decreased and herd sizes increased, as a result of Soviet collectivisation (mainly from the 1930-l960s). Migration routes also shortened from around 1,400km to around 1,000km around 25-30 years ago, as a result of collectivisation and lifestyle changes. We found no evidence of major change in herding technology and management from pre-Soviet times to the present. 16. A brigade is a community of herders who live in a single chom (tent). Historically, a ctioiii includetl two families, but it can now include up to four families. This means that it is not uncommon for up to 15 people to love in a single ctioin. 17. See the of(icial maps of land arrangements in the Nenets Autonomous Area (obtained from the Department of Economy of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug). 18. Kharuta is a Nenets village at a latitude similar to that of Vorkuta, but some 15()-2()()kin to the west References Aldrich,D. 2002. 'Deer Farmers" Digest NewaWuer' .Deer Farmers' Information Network 3(8): 13. Ashworth, J. R. and R. Wall. 1994. 'Responses of the Sheep Blowflies Lucilia Sericata and L. Cuprina to Odour and the Development of Semiochemical Bails', Medicut and Veterinary Entomology 8: 303-9. Babushkin, A. 1. 1930. 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Kak Khozaynichayut v Botstiezemetskoy Tundre Izhemcy [How Izhma People Master the Bot'shezemet'skaya Tundra], Gotos Severa. 132. — 1909.'K Sanioyedskomu Voprosu' [On the Samoyed (Nenets) Question],/cv Obstiestva Izuchetiiya Russkogo Severa 12; 10-28. 164 NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 Mark James Dwver and Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin Mark James Dwyer was previously at the Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge, where he undertook his PhD. He is now an ESRCfunded Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Geography Department, University of Cambridge, Downing Place, Cambridge CB2 3EN, UK. Email; m.j.dwyer.OO@cantab.net Kirill Vladimirovich Istomin, completed his PhD at the Itistitute of Language, Literature and Culture, Komi Scientific Centre, Komi Republic, Syktyvkar, Russia, where he subsequently worked as a researcher before taking up a Postdoctoral position at the Max Planck Itistitute for Social Anthtopology, Advokatenweg 36, 06114 Halle/Saale, Germany. Email: istomin@eth.mpg.de NOMADIC PEOPLES NS (2006) VOLUME 10 ISSUE 2 165