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Macedoniae acta archaeologica No. 25 (2022), pp. 131-149
As part of the rich repertoire of movable finds from the Eneolithic period on the territory of the Republic of North Macedonia, terracotta objects, mostly on 4 legs, with a receptacle, are observed. They are known under several names - ritual tables, sacrificial altars, cult tables, altars, lamps, altar tables. They trace their roots back to the Neolithic, and as a tradition continue in the 5th and 4th millennium BC, during the development of the Eneolithic. 51 objects of this type belonging to the Eneolithic have been published in the scientific literature. Additional 105 tables are registered in the museum records of the National Institution Archaeological Museum of the Republic of North Macedonia. Their number is significantly smaller compared to other items related to ritual activities - the figurines. The site of St.Athanasius at Spančevo is the only one that stands out. 105, out of the total number of 156 processed ritual tables were discovered there. The largest concentration of objects of this type is in the Early Eneolithic and then at the end of the Late Eneolithic.
У овом раду аутор покушава одредити допринос религије на појаву медицине и развој медицинске етике. Почетак медицине у западним и источним културама објашњава се митолошки. У Индији морал индијских љекара одређен је хиндуистичким концептом карме и осмоструким путем будизма. Морал кинеских љекара условљен је етиком конфучијанства и даоизма. Значајан је утицај аврамовских религија на праксу средњовјековне медицине. Са новим вијеком медицина се професионализује, а медицинска етика секуларизује. Уочен је антагонизам између религије и медицине, али исто тако и мјесто њиховог преплитања. Аутор установљује да је теолошки допринос појави биоетике неправедно маргинализован. Разматрање односа између религије и медицине конструктивнo је за медицинску етику у погледу стручног образовања, научног истраживања и клиничке праксе.
АНАТОЛИЙСКИЕ КЛАДЫ МЕТАЛЛИЧЕСКИХ ИЗДЕЛИЙ очерки металлопроизводства и культурного контекста
АНАТОЛИЙСКИЕ КЛАДЫ МЕТАЛЛИЧЕСКИХ ИЗДЕЛИЙ2018 •
Anatolian Metalwork Hoards (Essays on Metal Production and Cultural Contexts) L.I. Avilova Summary Importance of metal for development of cultural and social processes in ancient times is difficult to overestimate. Historical metallurgical studies provide an opportunity to raise and address issues of early metallurgy and metalworking development, spread of technological innovations and other advances, describe factors which determined readiness of society to adopt technical and cultural innovations. This book deals with a specific group of archaeological collections of materials, i.e. metalwork hoards from Anatolia (Fig. 1). A hoard is perceived as a deposit which stores information on morphological, production and social standards of a prehistoric society. Changes over time in production and use of metals in the region stretching over a long period from the Chalcolithic to the Late Bronze Age (late fifth-early fourth – second millennia BC) can be traced by analyzing the contents of the hoards. This study relies on a database which includes 31 hoards (almost 32,000 finds) and 115 spectral analyses of copper and bronze items. Chapter 1 describes contemporary trends in historical metallurgical studies. A particular emphasis is put on the phenomenon of the earliest metal objects because Anatolia forms part of the region where metal production first emerged (ninth –seventh millennia BC). In author’s view, production of the earliest metal items pursued the aim of creating symbols marking a special status of socially stratified groups or individuals rather than making utilitarian tools. Such artifacts reflect the beginning of social stratification; and only much later improved access to metal changed the social status of metal items turning them from prestige and religious cult items to utilitarian tools. The analysis is based on the historical metallurgical periodization developed by a group of researchers collaborating with the Laboratory of Science Methods of the Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences, (Chernykh, 1992; Chernykh, Avilova, Orlovskaya, 2002). This periodization is based on major production shifts and as such is less detailed compared to the regional systems of traditional relative chronology of the Mesopotamian and Anatolian Regions though it is consistent with them (Table 1). The absolute chronology is based on calibrated radiocarbon dates. Regarding the methodology (Chapter 3), the author proceeds from the need to review specific features of the Anatolian region against the background of a broad objective historical and cultural phenomenon, i.e. emergence and development of the Near-Eastern type of the earliest civilizations. Chapter 4 explores materials of the Anatolian hoards, the context of their discovery, its reliability, and the contents of the associations. Chapter 5 discusses mineral resources used by the population of ancient Anatolia and general issues of Anatolian metallurgy development. Heterogeneity of the chemical composition of metals and alloys also noted for the hoards in question is connected to characterization and localization of mineral deposits, routes of metal delivery to consumers, forms of trade or exchange, etc. A lot of attention is paid to tin sources, i.e. an issue which is still pending. Different opinions are presented. The contents of hoard associations include items used by the rulers of city-states as symbols of power, prestige objects that probably circulated in the system of gift exchange, the implication is that they were linked to noneconomic relations. In certain situations hoards could also be treated as a treasure, a stock of values. These hoards are a vivid representation of types of finds such as semi-finished goods, ingots and scrap (Peyronel, 2010) that indicate the presence of highly developed crafts and exchange. Chapter 6 analyzes ingots and blanks found in a number of hoards as well as broader issues that help single out commodity forms of metal and describe their characteristics, likely typological standards, weight characteristics which correspond or are similar to main weighing systems of the Near East and Ancient Egypt. Data are provided on the spread of the Near Eastern weighing systems outside the studied region, for example, among steppe stock-breeding mobile communities in the northern part of the Circumpontic Region (Lebedi and Malaya Ternovka kurgan cemeteries in South Russia, III mill. BC). Various types of ingots and blanks (small shapeless ones and those in the form of semi-finished good of a standard form, size and weight) were used in circulation of metals. Standardized objects of the simplest forms (rods, rings, wire sections) suited the purposes of transportation, exchange transactions based on weighing and were possibly used as early equivalents of value. Apparently, when Anatolia reached the peak in its development in the third millennium BC, an extensive network of trade routes which covered entire Anatolia and connected the central regions with the Northwest, the western coastline and Agais emerged (Şahoglu, 2005). The process of standardizing sets of item types and metals first signs of which can be traced in the hoards dating to the late third millennium BC – Tarsus room 56 and Soli – was completed. The LBA hoards mostly consist of tools and weapons; jewelry and precious metals are practically absent. Few analyses of metal composition from that period demonstrate that production was based primarily on tin bronze. The LBA hoards evidence that energy of society was rechanneled from the ideological realm towards practical application of metal as weaponry and trade objects. It is not incidental that standardized types of tools and weapon dominate in later hoards (Ordu). Discovered series of large ingots intended for sale suggest developed trade in metal. LBA materials (such as Uluburun shipwreck remains, Pulak, 2008) evidence commercial production of metal and extensive trade in metal. Heavy metal bars known as ox-hide ingots) the weight of which is multiple of the talent, the biggest weight unit of antiquity, is a characteristic trait of this stage of metal production and circulation. Development of the exchange of valuables, especially, metal, encouraged spread of Near Eastern weighing systems to far-flung regions, including the North Pontic Region. A group of archaeological finds classified functionally as balance weights is related with the system of trade and exchange relations of the Bronze Age (Авилова, Гей, 2016). Comparison of materials from the Near East and the North Pontic Region provides an opportunity to give an affirmative answer to the question concerning existence and nature of long-distance trade links between these regions and the scale of using the Near Eastern weighing systems in the third millennium BC. Studies of the role and the place of metal in ancient societies raise broad issues of cultural and social development, and reconstruct functional models of the earliest social organizations. The progress in metal production was one of the most powerful drivers of economic and social development of Near Eastern society in the Late Chalcolithic and the Bronze Age. The research of production and use of metals is closely associated with the issues related to formation of the early states and the reflection of these processes in archaeological materials. Metal items used as prestige objects that the social elite was so much interested in acquiring played an important role in the evolution of society from the egalitarian stage to the hierarchical stage. Chapter 7 talks about the Balkan type of ring-shaped pendants found in Anatolia and bronze axes of Anatolian types known from Thrace. These finds used as specific types of markers confirm existence of cultural contracts that occurred at the intersection of the Anatolian and Balkan cultures in the Chalcolithic – Bronze Age. To get a better understanding of specific traits of Anatolia social and economic development, some characteristics of the Anatolian Region can be compared with those of the Balkans. Anatolian metal production emerged locally and was linked to the model of Near Eastern society development: from rural settlements to a rank society with early urban centers and state formations. This development trajectory is typical for Southern, Eastern and Southeastern Anatolia which formed part of Syro-Mesopotamian civilization. The early urban stage and the early state stage of its development are marked by existence of the elite which organized production and exchange and consumed prestige objects (Авилова, 2009). The theme of design features of wheeled transport in the Irano-Mesopotamian Region is discussed in a separate annex. This theme is not related directly to hoards and early metallurgy; however, it is relevant to various aspects of progressive development of technological traditions, communications, trade routes, evolution of societies from the late prehistoric rank societies to the earliest urban and state hierarchic systems. This book presents the author’s understanding of some aspects of metal production and its function in ancient society, since its products became a vivid symbol of high social status, provided ideological justification of the elite power, reflected transformation of societies, emergence and development of the early civilizations.
2021 •
Bottom sediments are an element of the complex system of sub-aqual landscapes that have a subordinate position in the landscape-geochemical structure of each territory in terms of migration and concentration of chemical elements and their compounds. The objects of this study are the river bottom sediments of two of the large tributaries of the Iskar River in the Stara Planina Mountain – the Iskretska River and the Batuliyska River. The aim is to present the geochemical migration and differentiation of 8 chemical elements heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Mn, Ni, Co, Cr) in the bottom sediments, as well as to reveal the main geochemical associations of the elements in the polluted and relatively less technogenically affected sections of the river basins. Against the background of the relatively high concentration of heavy metals in the sediments of the Iskar River in its Stara Planina Gorge, the geochemical pattern in two of its largest tributaries is different. Most of the studied elements in the bottom sediments of the Iskretska River are close to the background concentrations which are typical of the country or the European geochemical background. Technogenic impact on the sub-aquatic geochemical landscapes has been found in a part of the basin, in the region of Svidnya village, where Pb contents are 5,3 times higher than the Probable Effect Concentrations (PEC, US EPA) and 6,7 times above the average sediment content in the technogenic regions of the country, while Ni concentrations are 1,09 times higher than PEC. The Zn and Cr elements at individual points have higher concentrations than the average for the technogenic regions of the country, but they do not reach the significant and likely detrimental effect of the PEC. Regional lithogeochemical influence determines the migration and concentration of zinc in river sediments. The sediments in the Batuliyska River reflect regional lithogeochemical anomalies with respect to most of the studied elements. This feature is best revealed in the content of the elements Mn and Ni, whose concentrations exceed all the average content of the indicators used for comparison. The lithogeochemical anomaly of manganese is also found in parts of the Iskar River. The content of other elements, such as Zn and Cr, is higher than the backgrounds for Bulgaria and Europe, as well as the average of the technogenic regions of the country, but they do not reach the Probable Effect Concentrations. The results of this study confirm that the assessment of river quality should include regular surveys of their sediments. They carry information both about the natural geochemical conditions in the catchment area and the peculiarities of the migration of the studied chemical elements and about the technogenic “imprint” on the river system, which can be detected for a long period after the end of its impact.
Ресурсоекономні матеріали, конструкції, будівлі та споруди
ЕСТЕТИКА РЕКОНСТРУЙОВАНИХ МОСТІВ2020 •
Розглянуті проблеми естетики мостів, в тому числі реконструйованих. Відмічена негативна роль монокультури збірних залізобетонних мостів, збудованих за типовими проектами без дотримання будь-яких естетичних вимог, які потребують реконструкції з розширенням і підсиленням прольотних будов. Залізобетонна накладна плита комплексно вирішує основні завдання реконструкції таких мостів, в тому числі задовільняючи архітектурно-естетичні вимоги.
2023 •
О кладах металлических изделий в Анатолии (энеолит – бронзовый век)
Л.И. Авилова. О КЛАДАХ МЕТАЛЛИЧЕСКИХ ИЗДЕЛИЙ В АНАТОЛИИ (ЭНЕОЛИТ -БРОНЗОВЫЙ ВЕК2018 •
L.I. Avilova. Treasure Hoards of Metal Items in Anatolia (Eneolithic – Bronze Age). In: Archaeological sites and cross-cultural phenomena of the Eneolithic and the Bronze Age. Moscow: IA RAN. 2018. Pp. 37-90. Abstract. The paper explores a specific type of archaeological assemblages in Anatolia, i.e. treasure hoards containing metal items. A treasure hoard is understood to be a data source of information on morphological, production and social standards of prehistoric society. Our corpus of hoards includes 31 treasure hoards, which means almost 32000 finds and 115 spectral analyses of copper/bronze items. The paper provides an overview of assemblages, their chronological distribution, a description of functional categories of items and metals used and archaeological contexts of the hoards. The artifacts are considered from several angles, including characteristics of how metal was introduced, produced and used throughout a long period, i.e. from the Late Eneolithic to the Late Bronze Age inclusive (the turn of V and IV till II mill. BC). The paper contains comparative analysis of the assemblages based on a number of indications such as the set of functional categories of the items, the material the items are made from (copper, arsenical and tin bronzes, noble metals), and chronologies. Based on the research of the chemical composition of Anatolian bronzes, the copper-base alloys are characterized by periods; mineral resources of early Anatolian metallurgy are discussed and the role of local mining sources and a developed network of trading links are highlighted. A special focus is given to the issue of tin sources because during transition from Troy I to Troy II arsenical bronze was gradually replaced by tin bronze. The paper provides a number of conclusions on the linkage between changes in metal working and the overall cultural and historical situation in the region, namely, emergence of urban centers as ‘hubs’ of the exchange networks of III mill. BC or areas where contacts with advanced regions took place. It was the time when states and power elites emerged and developed. In a number of cases there is a link established between the cult and public constructions emphasizing a symbolic role of such assemblages. Developed systems of exchange in which metal was used as an equivalent of value are an attribute of early civilizations of the Near Eastern type which is reflected in standardization of metal production. Late Bronze Age artifacts permit the author to conclude that this process was completed and public energy began to be refocused from ideology to practical use of metal as an item of weaponry and trade. Key words: Anatolia, Eneolithic, Bronze Age, assemblage, treasure hoard, database, morphological categories of items, metals, alloys, production, mineral resources, exchange systems, social development, civilization. Авилова Л.И. О кладах металлических изделий в Анатолии (энеолит – бронзовый век) // Археологические памятники и межкультурные феномены энеолита и бронзового века. М.: ИА РАН. 2018. С. 37-90 Резюме. Статья посвящена исследованию специфического вида археологических комплексов на территории Анатолии-кладам, содержащим металлические изделия. Клад понимается как носитель информации о морфологических, производственных, социальных стандартах древнего общества. База данных включает 31 клада, это почти 32 тысячи находок и 115 спектральных анализов медно/бронзовых изделий. Представлен обзор комплексов, их распределение во времени, состав набора функциональных категорий изделий и металлов, археологический контекст. Материал рассматривается с нескольких точек зрения. Это особенности внедрения, производства и использования металла на протяжении длительного периода - от позднего энеолита до позднего бронзового века включительно (рубеж V-IV-II тыс. до н.э.). Проводится сравнительный анализ комплексов по ряду признаков: набору функциональных классов вещей, материалу изготовления (медь, мышьяковая и оловянная бронзы, драгоценные металлы), хронологии. На основе исследования химического состава анатолийских бронз дается характеристика использовавшихся сплавов по периодам и обсуждается проблема минеральных ресурсов древней анатолийской металлургии, подчеркивается роль местных рудных источников и развитой сети торговых связей. Особое внимание уделено проблеме источников олова в связи с переходом от мышьяковой бронзы к оловянной бронзе при переходе от Трои I к Трое II. Предлагается ряд выводов о связи изменений в металлопроизводстве с общей культурно-исторической ситуацией в регионе, а имен-но с появлением городских центров, которые стали узловыми пунктами в сети обмена III тыс. до н.э., зонами взаимодействия с передовыми регионами. В это время происходит формирование государств и властных элит. В ряде случаев наблюдается связь кладов с культовыми и общественными сооружениями, что свидетельствует о символической роли этих комплексов. Развитые системы обмена с использованием металла как эквивалента ценности являются признаком ранних цивилизаций ближневосточного типа, что отражается в стандартизации металлопроизводства. Материалы позднебронзового века дают основания для вывода о завершении этого процесса. Наблюдается перераспределение общественной энергии из сферы идеологии в область практического использования металла как предмета вооружения и торговли. Ключевые слова: Анатолия, энеолит, бронзовый век, комплекс, клад, база данных, морфологические классы изделий, металлы, сплавы, производство, минеральные ресурсы, системы обмена, социальное развитие, цивилизация.
Российский химический журнал
РЫНОЧНЫЙ ПОТЕНЦИАЛ ПРОМЫШЛЕННЫХ ТЕХНОЛОГИЙ ПОЛУЧЕНИЯ СИНТЕТИЧЕСКИХ ОСНОВ МОТОРНЫХ МАСЕЛ2020 •
В обзоре проанализированы литературные данные научных, прикладных и маркетинговых исследований по созданию современных базовых синтетических основ моторных масел в качестве товарной продукции. Рассмотрены принятые в мировой практике принятые в мировой практике классификации и эксплуатационные характеристики базовых масел. Представлены основные тренды научных исследований по разработке эффективных базовых синтетических основ моторных масел и перспективы их дальнейшего развития. Дана оценка состояния мирового и российского рынков моторных масел по основным конъюнктурным показателям; представлен прогноз развития рынков на ближайшие годы.
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