Evison, M.P. (2005). Forensic anthropology. In McLaughlin, E. and Muncie, J. (Eds.), The SAGE dictionary of criminology, London: SAGE, pp. 173-175. ISBN 9781446200827 (Print), 9781446271766 (Online) Evison, M.P. (2005). Forensic anthropology. In McLaughlin, E. and Muncie, J. (Eds.), The SAGE dictionary of criminology, London: SAGE, pp. 173-175. ISBN 9781446200827 (Print), 9781446271766 (Online) This text is the Accepted Manuscript only. The final volume can be found here. Forensic Anthropology Definition A broad definition of ‘forensic anthropology’ might be the study of human variation within a legal context. Practitioners, however, understand the term to mean more specifically the forensic investigation of the skeleton and of partially skeletonised human remains. Distinctive Features Forensic anthropology grew as a discipline during the Twentieth Century, via the application of methods – often termed osteology or physical anthropology – developed for the investigation of archaeological human remains and the study of anatomy to the investigation of Crime. The discipline is most well developed in the United States where the American Board of Forensic Anthropology was founded in 1977. The ABFA was founded a) to encourage the study of, improve the practice of, establish and enhance standards for, and advance the science of forensic anthropology; (b) to encourage and promote adherence to high standards of ethics, conduct, and professional practice in forensic anthropology; (c) to grant and issue certificates, and/or other recognition, in cognisance of special qualification in forensic anthropology to voluntary applicants who conform to the standards established by the Board and who have established their fitness and competence thereof; (d) to inform the appropriate branches of federal and state governments and private agencies of the existence and nature of the ABFA and the professional quality of its Diplomates for the practice of forensic Evison, M.P. (2005). Forensic anthropology. In McLaughlin, E. and Muncie, J. (Eds.), The SAGE dictionary of criminology, London: SAGE, pp. 173-175. ISBN 9781446200827 (Print), 9781446271766 (Online) anthropology; (e) to maintain and furnish lists of individuals who have been granted certificates by the Board. In this way the ABFA aims to make available to the judicial system, and others, a practical and equitable system for readily identifying those persons professing to be specialists in forensic anthropology who possess the requisite qualifications and competence (http://www.csuchico.edu/anth/ABFA/). Forensic anthropology is well developed in Guatemala and Argentina, where the discipline developed in response to the investigation of political murders by past governments. Practise in the European countries and elsewhere is patchy. There are about twenty practising forensic anthropologists in the UK, for example, where there are about the same number of real forensic anthropology cases – as opposed to archaeological or faunal remains – per annum. This necessitates UK practitioners having to gain experience via training in anatomy or archaeology, for example, and to practise in other countries – most significantly in the investigation of human rights abuses in the Balkans and elsewhere. Forensic anthropology has played a major role in the investigation of human rights abuses in South America, Africa, Europe and Asia. In the UK, the Council for the Registration of Forensic Practitioners (CRFP) and the Forensic Science Society professional registration schemes are available for the assessment of competency of practitioners. These distinctions highlight the varying demand for forensic anthropologists according to patterns of crime, environment and climate. A city like Los Angeles, CA, for example, has a homicide rate many times that of UK cities, the proximity of a sparsely populated desert environments means that bodies are more easily concealed than in the densely populated United Kingdom, and the hot dry climate encourages rapid skeletonisation. Furthermore, in the United States, training in archaeology is regarded as a standard requirement of competency for the forensic anthropologist. Forensic anthropology cases are often partially or totally buried, whether they are encountered in routine police work or in mass graves. In the UK, competency in forensic anthropology and archaeology is accredited separately under the Evison, M.P. (2005). Forensic anthropology. In McLaughlin, E. and Muncie, J. (Eds.), The SAGE dictionary of criminology, London: SAGE, pp. 173-175. ISBN 9781446200827 (Print), 9781446271766 (Online) CRFP registration system – a situation that has arisen as the result of local influences and – arguably – not as a consequence of implementation of best practise. Forensic anthropology is distinct from ‘forensic pathology’, in which the causes of death and disease processes are investigated more substantially from the whole body (when available), again within a legal context. Many forensic pathologists consider themselves de facto forensic anthropologists and the relative importance of the two disciplines in the investigation of skeletonised or partially skeletonised human remains is still contentious. In many countries, a specialist dentist – the forensic odontologist – undertakes examination of the dentition. The extent to which a forensic anthropologist takes responsibility for the analysis of the teeth will therefore vary. The methods of skeletal analysis are standard. They permit the estimation of sex – from the skull and pelvis, of age – mainly from the dentition and pelvis, of height – from the long bones, of build – from the skeleton generally, and of ancestry – mainly from the skull. It is important to recognise that these features of identification from the skeleton are estimates, not exact determinations. Exact classification from the skeleton is impossible. There is a significant degree of variability in the development and – especially – ageing processes from individual to individual – due to genetic, cultural, behavioural and environmental factors. Similarly, estimation of time since death is also problematic as this to too can vary according to climate, weather, moisture, clothing, manner of burial and concealment, and so on. Often, the cause of death is to be found in the soft tissues. With the exception of blunt and sharp force traumas, particularly gun shot wounds, there is often no trace of the cause of death on the skeleton. Forensic anthropology in human identification is therefore often an intelligence tool, providing a broad guide to identity. A process of elimination can then be used to investigate candidate missing persons. In the event of a strong candidate emerging, identity can be confirmed from dental records or DNA. This can be straight forward, in the case of a closed major fatality incident, such as a plane crash, where there is good ante mortem data regarding the identity of the victims. Evison, M.P. (2005). Forensic anthropology. In McLaughlin, E. and Muncie, J. (Eds.), The SAGE dictionary of criminology, London: SAGE, pp. 173-175. ISBN 9781446200827 (Print), 9781446271766 (Online) The issue of investigative rather than evidential value applies especially to the allied discipline of forensic facial reconstruction. Facial reconstruction is a method for the recreation of facial appearance from the skull by reconstructing the facial soft tissues in clay or by computer, using known average tissue depths at certain landmark sites as guidelines. It is important to note that certain facial features significant in recognition – the shape of the eyes and eyelids, the tip of the nose and the lips – are not predicted at all strongly by the skull and are to an extent guesswork. Facial reconstruction can generate a true resemblance of the individual during life, but not an exact likeness. Nevertheless, the method seems to generate leads leading to a firm identification in about 50 per cent of cases where no other means of identification is available. Evaluation Forensic anthropology is an emergent discipline whose role as a distinctive specialisation is now well established – particularly in the United States. Some resistance continues from within Medicine, whose practitioners traditionally hold responsibility for the field, but the case for specialised training and accreditation in forensic anthropology is difficult to argue against. Accreditation is piecemeal outside the USA, with regard for the importance of allied skills in archaeology also varying. As a method, forensic anthropology can often be more valuable as an intelligence tool in the investigation than a method of determining identity or cause of death – this being especially so in the case of forensic facial reconstruction from the skull. Forensic anthropology has been slow to incorporate more powerful scientific developments, especially DNA profiling, as part of its repertoire. Nevertheless, it has played a key role in the investigation of major human rights abuses and genocides of the twentieth century, Martin Evison Associated Concepts: Key Readings human rights; genocide. Evison, M.P. (2005). Forensic anthropology. In McLaughlin, E. and Muncie, J. (Eds.), The SAGE dictionary of criminology, London: SAGE, pp. 173-175. ISBN 9781446200827 (Print), 9781446271766 (Online) Bass, W.M. (1995) Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual, Missouri Archaeological Society 1995. Reichs, K.J. (ed.) (1998) Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains, Springfield, IL, Charles C. Thomas. İşcan, M.Y. and Helmer, R.P. (1993) Forensic Analysis of the Skull. New York, Wiley-Liss. Krogman, W.M. and Işcan, M.Y. (1986) The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine, Springfield, IL, Charles C. Thomas. Reichs, K.J. (ed.) (1998) Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains (2nd Edition), Springfield, IL, Charles C. Thomas. White, T.D. and Folkens, P.A. (2000) Human Osteology (2nd Edition), New York, Academic Press. Word Count: 1,305