Finocchiaro, J., & Moore, K.A. (2013. Stress and coping: the role of mindfulness. In K.A. Moore,
K. Kaniasty, P. Buchwald & A sese (Eds). Stress and Anxiety: Applicatiion to Health and
Well-being, Work Stressors and Assessment (pp.41-48). Berlin: Logos.
Stress and coping: The role of mindfulness
Jessica Finocchiaro and Kathleen A. Moore
Charles Darwin University,
Darwin, Australia
Email: kate.moore@cdu.edu.au
Abstract
Stress can have negative implications not only for the individual but also the family, organisation and society as a
whole. The way in which individuals perceive their environment directly influences their coping response. The use of
mindfulness in daily life may promote more adaptive coping styles by mitigating the rumination and overlay of
habitual cognitions and behaviours. The aim of the current study is to investigate the relationship between
mindfulness and levels of perceived stress and use of coping strategies in a sample from the general population. A
total of 112 participants (41 males) were recruited via snowball sampling through the social network website
Facebook. All participants completed an online questionnaire consisting of the Mindfulness Attention Awareness
Scale (Brown & Ryan, 2003), the Perceived Stress Scale (Roth & Cohen, 1986), and the Deakin Coping Scale
(Moore, 2003). Results using Multidimensional Scaling show that mindfulness was separate from perceived stress and
use of avoidant coping strategies, while the positive coping strategies clustered between mindfulness and stress and
avoidance. Correlational techniques add support to the finding that mindfulness is related to appraisal of the
demand/situation while negatively related to avoidant coping and stress. Limitations of the current study and
directions for future research are discussed.
Life changes and demands are part of life and are often stressful but our ways of thinking
can affect our response to such changes and demands (Roth & Cohen, 1986). The idea that our
thinking or, in Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) terms appraisal, influences outcomes is not new and
can be seen in the writings of the ancient Greek stoics such as Epictetus.
In more recent times, Beck (1976) suggested that the way in which individuals learn to
think about things provides the foundation for their opinions, beliefs and consequent behavioural
responses. Thus, he argued the associations between life experiences and thought processes are
often automatic and influence how individuals perceive their environment and, by extrapolation,
how they cope with demands. Piaget (1961) too proposed that individuals have the ability to
perceive and interpret their environment through the adaptive process of assimilation (when an
individual attempts to interpret new experiences by relating to previous ones) or accommodation
(when individuals seek to modify their current thought processes to account for new experiences).
Clearly our thoughts are highly influential on further thought processes as well as behaviour and
no less so on how we perceive and then cope with demands.
In sum, people can adopt a positive approach to cope with demands, such as appraising
demands as a challenge thus approaching them in an active and dynamic way which allows for the
generation and implementation of effective coping strategies (Baker & Berehbaum, 2007). It
might be that part of this positive approach involves utilising available resources, both
instrumental and social, as well as the ongoing appraisal and re-appraisal of the situation in accord
with the dynamic nature of the situation (Lazarus, Folkman, Dunkel-Schetter, Delongis, & Gruen,
1986). While these attitudes and behaviours might in general terms be labelled approach coping
where the demand may be seen as a challenge to be overcome, the reverse is often avoidant coping
which involves directly escaping or ignoring the source of the perceived demand or stressor in
attempts to alleviate the associated discomfort (Roth & Cohen, 1986). Often labelled as emotionfocused coping, it can involve denial, wishful thinking, as well as cognitive and behavioural
disengagement (Prati, Pietrantoni, & Cicognani, 2011). It is important to note also that some social
support may not be pro-active, that is supporting a resolution, but a source of emotional comfort
such as sympathy (Carver, Scheier & Weintraub, 1989) which is sometimes more related to
avoidant coping. However, the distinction between positive and avoidant strategies is not so clear
cut, as Folkman and Lazarus (1984) found that 94% of participants in their study utilised both
problem and emotion focused coping strategies during a stressful encounter to regulate their
physiological and physical responses to stress.
Although not appraisal or challenge per se, the concept of mindfulness derived from
Buddhist meditation is said to allow individuals to focus attention on bodily sensations and inner
experiences as a way to refocus the mind (Baer, 2003; Thompson & Waltz, 2007). By being
mindful in daily life, individuals are able to increase awareness whilst taking into account the
changing sequence of immediate experiences (Austin, 1999). Bishop et al. (2004) stated that such
an increased awareness allows individuals to improve their decision making abilities as it allows
them to respond more reflectively and skillfully to situations, rather than responding reflexively to
them. It might be argued that such an approach would be adaptive in coping with life demands and
changes.
Certainly, mindfulness has been shown to have various benefits including promoting a
greater sensitivity to the present environment, openness towards new information, and an
enhanced awareness of various problem solving approaches and perspectives (Langer &
Moldoveanu, 2000). By being fully open to experience, individuals can disregard habitual
dysfunctional and judgmental cognitions and adopt a more objective perception, potentially
approaching a situation in a more positive and problem focused manner (Dekeyser, Raes, Leijssen,
Leysen, & Dewulf, 2008). According to Chiesa, Calati and Serretti (2011) individuals who are
mindful experience an increase in acceptance and a reduction of experiential avoidance.
In a one-month study of students leading up to an exam, Weinstein et al. (2009) found that
individuals high in mindfulness used more approach coping strategies and less avoidant coping
strategies than people scoring low on mindfulness. They suggested that mindfulness might
mitigate habitual negative thoughts during cognitive appraisal thus altering the stress process and
facilitating more adaptive and flexible forms of coping.
Mindfulness incorporated into cognitive behavioural therapies has received increased
attention in recent decades and has been utilised as a way to manage stress, anxiety and other
ailments (Chiesa, et al., 2011). Interventions such as Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy
(MBCT) (Segal, Williams, & Teasdale, 2002) and Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)
techniques (Kabat-Zinn, 2003) have emphasised traditional meditation practices such as yoga and
breathing exercises to refocus the mind and body (Thompson & Waltz, 2007). Meditation
techniques are taught in these therapies with the intention of using them in daily life in order to
improve overall well-being (Thompson & Waltz, 2007).
Although there is a growing body of research that suggests mindfulness based
psychological therapies can assist in alleviating psychological discomfort and increase perceptual
abilities, Thompson and Waltz found that mindfulness in daily life was not predictive of
mindfulness during formal meditation, suggesting that these might in fact be two different
constructs. In fact, they suggested that some individuals might have a more natural ability to be
mindful although acknowledging that mindfulness meditation practices might enhance this ability:
Ryan and Brown (2004) too proposed that mindfulness is not only a product of meditation practice
but an inherent ability in some individuals. The relationship between mindfulness, coping and
stress in a non-clinical sample requires investigation.
It is the aim in this study to explore the relationship between mindfulness, perceived stress
and positive and avoidant coping strategies to determine if mindfulness is indeed a separate
process from that involved in the use of approach coping involving appraisal, challenge and use of
resources in a sample from the general population.
Method
Participants
One hundred and twelve volunteers participated in this cross-sectional study (41 males) all
of whom were over 18 years of age; 63 participants indicated they work fulltime, 30 were
employed on a part-time basis, and 12 were unemployed. No participant was engaged in the
regular practice of meditation or yoga.
Procedure
Ethics approval was obtained from the University’s Human Ethics Committee. A convenience
snowball sample was recruited by invitations on the social network site ‘Facebook’ which referred
interested persons to an online questionnaire about their perceptions of stress, mindfulness and use
of coping strategies.
Materials
The Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) (Brown & Ryan, 2003) is a 15–item
questionnaire rated on a 6-point Likert scale from 1 = almost always to 6 = almost never to assess
people’s attention to the present (e.g., I am able to focus on what’s happening in the present). The
MAAS has good internal reliability α =.87.
The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) (Roth & Cohen, 1986) is a 10-item scale answered on a 5point Likert scale from 0 = never experience to 4 = very often (e.g., felt that you were not on top
of things) to assess people’s appraisal of life situations over the past month. Internal reliability is
good α = .78.
The Deakin Coping Scale (DCS) (Moore, 2003) is a 19-item questionnaire to assess how often
individuals use cognitive appraisal, challenge/commitment, avoidance coping and resources as
coping strategies (e.g., seek advice from others; hope for a solution to appear) answered on a 5point Likert scale from 1 = never to 5 = always. Reliability ranges from α .68 to .88.
Results and Discussion
The data were analysed using SPSS (Version 19). As the primary focus was on
mindfulness and gender reports on this are minimal we tested the data and confirmed there was no
difference between males and females on their scores for mindfulness (t 104 =.12, p = .90) enabling
the data to be treated as one sample. We also used a MANOVA to confirm no gender differences
across the other variables included in the study at p >.01 (Pillai’s Trace F 5,100 2.85, p = .035, Eta
Square 10%).
In order to investigate relationships among the variables two techniques were utilised:
Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) which provides a visual representation of similarities among
variables in a perceptual map (Kruskall & Wish, 1977) and Pearson’s Product Moment
Correlations.
The data were standardised to z-scores and submitted to MDS (Figure 1).
Resources
Positive Coping
Appraisal
Limitations
Challenge
Stress
Avoidance
Mindfulness
Openness
Negative Coping
Figure 1 Multidimensional scaling map indicating relationship among variables
There are several ways in which to interpret MDS maps. The neighbourhood approach
where, as seen in Figure 1, avoidant strategies and perceived stressors are located in a similar
neighbourhood, the positive coping strategies Challenge, Appraisal and Use of Resources cluster
together in a second neighbourhood while mindfulness stands alone in a different neighbourhood.
This neighbourhood approach can be interpreted to suggest that perceptions of stressful demands
and an inclination to avoid dealing with them are related; the clustering of the positive coping
strategies suggests that these might be used simultaneously while mindfulness was revealed as a
distinct construct beyond coping.
Using a horizontal linear approach from right to left it can be argued that mindfulness
might contribute to positive coping strategies, where all four of these variables are in the same
positive quadrant on the vertical plane, in response to stressors and avoidance. This interpretation
provides some support for the proposition that mindfulness, that is the ability to be present in the
moment, might influence one’s positive appraisal of the stressor so as to see it as a challenge and
hence utilise resources to deal with it rather than avoid it.
The relativity among the data points can also be viewed in terms of meaningful axes drawn
through the centroid: in this case the dark dotted line can be seen to depict opposing poles of
positive versus negative coping that is, it shows a clear polarity between positive strategies and
avoidance behaviour. While not as clear cut, it might be that a second axis could represent
different reactions or thought processes: stress as the behavioural and perceptual limitations
involved in the stress response (e.g., felt that you were not on top of things) versus mindfulness
(e.g., able to focus on what’s happening) which represents an openness to the experience of the
moment. Clearly this second axis is not as clearly defined as the coping poles and requires further
investigation.
In order to determine further the relationship among these variables, the data were
submitted to a Pearson’s Correlation (Table 1). Mindfulness was negatively related to scores on
stress and avoidance coping which is congruent with their positions on the MDS map and with the
previous work of Chiesa et al. (2011) and Weinstein et al. (2009) who found that people high on
mindfulness used less experiential avoidance. Mindfulness was positively related to appraisal and
both of these variables are indicative of thinking about the issue in the present. Interestingly, there
was no relationship between perceiving demands as a challenge (e.g., take control of the situation)
which has more behavioural components and use of resources (e.g., discuss it with my friends and
colleagues) a social method to deal with the demand: it would seem that these factors albeit
positive coping strategies are not necessarily in the same temporal space as mindfulness and
appraisal (e.g., work out why it is a problem for me) which seems to be a thought process
occurring in the present similar to what is said to occur with mindfulness.
Table 1
Relationship among Variables
Mindfulness
Stress
Appraisal
Resources
Avoidant
Challenge
Mindfulness
1.00
-.60***
.25**
.02
-.35***
.04
** p<.01; *** p<.001
Stress
1.00
-.27**
.03
.53***
-.04
Appraisal
1.00
.22*
-.20*
.47***
Resources
1.00
.09
.37***
Avoidant
1.00
.15
Challenge
1.00
Although the current findings indicate that the proactive strategies are clustered together in
the MDS and are positively correlated no elements of causality can be inferred from these data in
terms of outcomes from the stressors experienced or indeed, the causal role of mindfulness in
promoting positive coping or reducing avoidant coping. Clearly longitudinal studies are required
to test the causality among these factors and across levels of mindfulness. It would also be of
clinical interest to determine whether mindfulness can be construed as state and trait.
Conclusion
The current results provide some suggestion that mindfulness in a sample from the general
population is related negatively to levels of perceived stress and levels of avoidant coping.
Conversely, mindfulness is positively related to one’s appraisal of the situation or demands upon
one and these correlational findings are also reflected in a spatial representation using MDS.
Despite the novel nature of these findings, causality can only be inferred from a longitudinal
follow up of these participants which, if the current trends are supported, might have implications
for prevention as well as stress management programs for both clinical and non-clinical
populations.
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