Peatlands and climate change in Southeast Asia

PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Published by the ASEAN Secretariat and Global Environment Centre. First published September 2013. ASEAN was established on 8 August 1967. The members of the Association are Brunei ISBN 000 Printed in Malaysia. This publication should be cited as: Lo, J. and F. Parish 2013. Peatlands and Climate Change in Southeast Asia. ASEAN Peatland Forests Project and Sustainable Management of Peatland Forests Project. ASEAN Secretariat and Global Environment Centre. Copyright: © 2013 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and Global Environment Centre. Reproduction of material from the publication for educational and other non-commercial purposes is authorised without prior permission from ASEAN Secretariat and Global Environment Centre (GEC), provided full acknowledgement is given. All rights reserved. Publication supported by: ASEAN Peatland Forests Project (APFP) and Sustainable Management of Peatland Forests (SEApeat) Project with funding from Global Environment Facility (GEF), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the European Union (EU). For enquiries, please contact: The Environment Division The ASEAN Secretariat 70A Jalan Sisingamangaraja Jakarta 12110, Indonesia Phone: (62 21) 724 3372 / 726 2991 Fax: (62 21) 739 8234 / 724 3504 Email: riena@asean.org or Global Environment Centre 2nd Floor, Wisma Hing, No. 78 Jalan SS2/72, 47300, Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia Phone: +(603) 7957 2007 Fax: +(603) 7957 7003 Email: outreach@gec.org.my Websites: www.gec.org.my; www.aseanpeat.net Book Design by Yap Ni Yan / GEC Front cover photo © Nagarajan Rengasamy / GEC • • • • Forest and Biodiversity Programme Peatland Programme River Care Programme Outreach and Partnership Programme It has been recognised by the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity for its work on IN SOUTHEAST ASIA BY JULIA LO AND FAIZAL PARISH PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE i DISCLAIMER This publication has been produced with the assistance of Global Environment Facility (GEF), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the European Union (EU). The contents of this publication does not necessarily relect the views of the project funders or stakeholders. As every effort has been taken to ensure the accuracy of this publication, the publisher shall not be held accountable if there are errors or omissions. ii PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA CHAPTER 1: PEATLANDS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 1 1.1: Introduction 1 1.2: Location and extent of peatlands in Southeast Asia 2 1.3: Drivers of loss of peat swamp forests in Southeast Asia 3 1.3.1: Plantations: Oil palm and Acacia 3 1.3.2: Timber extraction 4 1.3.3: Agriculture 5 CHAPTER 2: PEATLANDS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND GHG EMISSIONS 6 2.1: Carbon dioxide (CO2) 6 2.1.1: Peatlands as a carbon sink 2.1.2: Peatlands as carbon sources 2.2: Methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) 6 7 9 CHAPTER 3: IMPACTS OF FUTURE CLIMATE CHANGE ON TROPICAL PEATLANDS 10 3.1: Effects in precipitation changes 10 3.2: Effects of increasing temperature 10 3.3: Sea level rise 10 3.4: Hydrological changes 11 3.5: Fires and haze 11 3.6: Future 11 CHAPTER 4: ACTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TROPICAL PEATLANDS IN RELATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE 12 4.1: Avoiding new emissions from land use change 12 4.2: Restoration of peatlands: Reducing emissions 12 4.2.1: Rewetting/ restoration of hydrology 12 4.2.2: Re-vegetation 14 4.3: Improved management practices to reduce emissions from existing production system 14 4.3.1: Water management in plantations 14 4.4: Fire prevention and control: Reducing emissions 15 4.4.1: Zero burning PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA TABLE OF CONTENTS 15 iii PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA iv CHAPTER 5: THE WAy FORWARD 16 5.1: Sustainable management of peatlands 16 5.2: Public and multi-stakeholder engagement 18 5.3: Integration of peatlands into environmental and climate change policies 18 5.4: Potential inancing opportunities for peatlandconservation 18 5.4.1: Carbon funding: REDD/VCS 18 5.4.2: Incentives for sustainable use of peatlands 19 5.5: Conclusion 20 REFERENCES 21 FIGURE 1: Breakdown of global peatlands area by surface and corresponding CO2 emissions (Anon, 2010) 1 FIGURE 2: Distribution of lowland peatlands in Southeast Asia Data modiied from Page et al., (2011) 2 FIGURE 3: Oil palm plantation on peat 4 FIGURE 4: Acacia plantation on peat 4 FIGURE 5: Logging operations on peatland 4 FIGURE 6: Abandoned, degraded area in ex-mega rice project area in Central Kalimantan 5 FIGURE 7: Diagram showing carbon stored in peatlands 6 FIGURE 8: Diagram showing carbon emission in peatlands 7 PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES v FIGURE 9: Canals in peatland for drainage and transport 7 FIGURE 10: Relation between carbon loss (CO2eq) and water table depth (m) (Hooijer et al., 2012) 7 FIGURE 11: 8 Fire on peatlands FIGURE 12: Emission from peat decomposition and peat ires in Indonesia (Anon, 2010) 8 FIGURE 13: CH4 emission in relation to water level in tropical versus temperate peatlands 9 FIGURE 14: Haze in 2004 11 TABLE 1: Area of peatlands in Southeast Asia by country 3 (Modiied from Joosten, 2009; National Environmental Agency Singapore, 2011; Page et al., 2011; Quoi, 2012) TABLE 2: Focal areas and respective operational objectives of APMS 16 CHAPTER 1: PEATLANDS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA he world is now facing the greatest challenge humanity has ever known. he climate is changing and planet earth is feeling the heat of global warming. Climate change is primarily caused by the increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions into the earth’s atmosphere which traps heat by relecting infrared energy back to the earth’s surface (the ‘greenhouse efect’). he main source of GHGs is from fossil fuel burning, however, GHGs released from degraded and drained peatlands are also a major concern. % 6 LOCATED IN SOUTHEAST ASIA (SEA) 24.8 MILLION HECTARES SOURCE: Page et al. (2011). = RBON S A C OBAL P L E G A RE RED IN O T AT PE LAND A AT APPROXIMATELY % 14 STORED IN SOUTHEAST ASIA (SEA) 68 BIL. TONNES 1 Over the last 10,000 years, since the last Ice Age, peatlands have been slowly accumulating and storing all this carbon. During this time, peatlands have played an important role in global GHG balance by sequestering an enormous amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). However, this delicate balance can be, and has been, easily upset through human intervention. Human disturbances such as deforestation, drainage and ire are now turning peatlands in Southeast Asia from carbon stores to carbon sources. Such disturbances, especially land use change, have now made peatlands in Southeast Asia the most signiicant GHG contributors at the global level. In 2006, CO2 emissions from tropical peatland drainage contributed to the equivalent of Fire in peatlands is responsible for signiicant additional emissions. In his modeling, van der Werf (2008) estimated that carbon emissions due to ire in peatlands in Borneo and Sumatra was 457 million tonnes of CO2 per year. Indonesia is ranked as the third largest global GHG emitter when emissions from land use change on peatlands is included in the country’s of global emissions from fossil emissions. Figure 1 below shows the contribution of Indonesia’s peatland Emissions from peatland are a unique challenge for Indonesia as they fuel burning in the same year emissions to the global total for emissions from peatlands. 1.3–3.1% account 58% of global emissions from peat decomposition (Hooijerfor et al., 2010). Breakdown of global peatland area by surface and corresponding CO2 emissions Figure 1: Breakdown of global peatlands area by surface and corresponding CO2 emissions (Anon, 2010). Percent 100% Area 5 CO2 emissions from decomposition ! ! ! 90 5 58 24 18 Indonesia Other tropical countries1 Rest of the World2 5% of global and 50% of tropical peatlands are located in Indonesia Tropical peat has a share of more than 80% of emissions from peat decomposition Indonesia’s share of total emissions from peat decomposition is 60% or 12 times more than share of area 1 Papua New Guinea, Brazil, Peru, Sudan, Malaysia 1 Papua New Guinea, Brazil, Peru, 2 Canada, Russia, Scandinavia, USA Sudan, Malaysia. 2 Canada, Russia, Scandinavia, USA. SOURCE: Hooijer et al 2006; Wetlands International SOURCE: Hooijer et al. (2006); Wetlands International. PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 1.1 INTRODUCTION PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA While GHG emissions from peatlands contribute to global warming, changes in climate also afect peatlands, which highlights the cyclical nature of climate change efects. Future changes such as higher temperatures and variation in precipitation could lead to drought, which in turn increases ire risk, especially in degraded peatlands that have been drained. In addition, coastal peatlands could be at risk from saline water intrusion as a result of sea level rise, and prolonged looding could lead to the loss of biodiversity in peat swamp forests (PSFs). 1.2 LOCATION AND EXTENT OF PEATLANDS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Tropical peatlands are found in Southeast Asia, the Caribbean, Central America, South America and Central Africa. The most recent estimated tropical peatlands area by Page et al. (2011) is 44.1 million hectares equivalent to 11% of the global peatland area. 56% of these peatlands are found in Southeast Asia. In Southeast Asia, peatlands occupy mostly low altitude coastal and sub-coastal environments and are usually located at altitudes from sea level to 50m above sea level (Rieley et al., 2008). he total peatland area in Southeast Asia is approximately 24.7 million hectares in which 20.7 million hectares are in Indonesia (Page et al., 2011). he distribution of peatlands in Southeast Asia is shown in Figure 2 and Table 1. 2 Figure 2: Distribution of lowland peatlands in Southeast Asia (Data modiied from Page et al., 2011). REGION AREA/HECTARES Indonesia 20,695,000 Malaysia 2,588,900 Papua New Guinea 1,098,600 Myanmar Peat is deined as a soil type containing at least 65% organic matter. It is comprised of partially decayed organic matter such as stems and roots. The decomposition of organic matter slows down in the presence of water and absence of oxygen, and peat is formed when the rate of accumulation exceeds the rate of decomposition. Over thousands of years, this layer of peat can reach a depth of 20m. 122,800 Brunei 90,900 Philippines 64,500 Thailand 63,800 Vietnam 53,300 Lao PDR 19,100 Cambodia 4,580 Singapore 50 TOTAL DID YOU KNOW? 24,801,530 Peat SwamP ForeSt (PSF) is a natural vegetation in lowland tropical peatlands in Southeast asia. Most of the fauna and lora found in peat swamp forests are unique and highly adapted to the environment (i.e. acidic water and waterlogged condition). PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Table 1: Area of peatlands in Southeast Asia by country (Modiied from Joosten, 2009; National Environmental Agency Singapore, 2011; Page et al., 2011; Quoi, 2012). 3 Peat swamp forests have many ecological functions such as: 1. A source of freshwater supply. 2. Flood mitigation. 3. Carbon sink and store. 4. Safeguarding biodiversity. 1.3 DRIvERS OF LOSS OF PEAT SWAMP FORESTS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA The main drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in tropical peatlands are the agricultural and forestry sectors. Miettinen et al. (2012a) indicated that only 5,249,000 hectares, or 34% of the 15,528,000 hectares of former peat swamp forests in the western portion of Southeast Asia, are still covered with relatively intact forests. he remainder of the forest areas has been cleared for agriculture and plantations or degraded by logging and ire. he same study also reported that the deforestation rate for peatlands is at nearly 4% per annum which is considerably higher than the deforestation rate for all other forest types. Many development activities have taken place in peatland areas without suicient knowledge of the characteristics and eco-hydrology of tropical peat swamp forests and peat soils. As a result, many large-scale drainage schemes in tropical peatlands (such as the Mega-rice Scheme in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia) have been abandoned due to unsuitable soil, acidiication, rapid subsidence, looding, ire and other reasons. 1.3.1 PLANTATIONS: OIL PALM AND ACACIA Peat swamp forests in Southeast Asia are being deforested, drained extensively and oten burned for conversion to large scale plantations such as oil palm and Acacia plantations (Hooijer et al., 2010; Miettinen et al., 2012a). Global demand for oil palm and pulp and paper remain high and the high economic returns of such businesses are the main drivers for the expansion of these plantations. Miettinen et al. (2012a) showed that 3.1 million hectares of peatlands in Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra have already been converted to industrial plantations (two-thirds for oil palm and the balance for Acacia) in 2010. he same paper also further projected that half of the peatland area in Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra may be converted to plantations by 2020, if the current expansion trends persist. © JULIA LO / GEC © FAIZAL PARISH / GEC © FAIZAL PARISH / GEC Figure 4: Acacia plantation on peat. © JULIA LO / GEC PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Figure 3: Oil palm plantation on peat. 4 1.3.2 TIMBER EXTRACTION Peat swamp forests in Southeast Asia used to be an important source of valuable timber species such as Ramin (Gonystylus bancanus) and Meranti (Shorea platycarpa, Shorea uliginosa). It is possible, with the correct approach, to harvest timber from peat swamp forests on a sustainable basis. However, a high proportion of timber extraction from peat swamp forests in the region has not followed sustainable practices. he extraction rates have oten been too high and extraction methods using drainage have led to serious changes in the ecology of the system, reducing natural regeneration and also increasing the frequency of ire. Oten, the remaining forest is let in poor condition. Studies have shown low density of forest cover, poor recovery and depleted conditions in post-logging peat swamp forests in Malaysia and Indonesia (Chai, 2004; Danced, 2000; Istomo, 2010; Rucker, 2008). Over the last 20 years, over-exploitation and illegal trade has led to trade restriction under CITES for one of the key peat swamp forest species - Ramin. © DAvID LEE / GEC Figure 5: Logging operations on peatland Development of large scale agriculture projects has also led to signiicant loss of peat swamp forests. For example, in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, about one million hectares of peat swamp forest was clear-felled and drained for rice production. Unfortunately, the project failed and was abandoned. It not only failed to produce rice, but let behind the degraded peatlands, which until today continue to emit CO2 related to extensive drainage and annual ires. In addition, expansion of smallholder agriculture is also very signiicant, especially in Sumatra and Kalimantan. According to Miettinen and Liew (2010), about half of the peatlands in Sumatra that have been developed for agriculture or plantations were developed by smallholders (1.48 million hectares), while 1.3 million hectares were developed as industrial plantations. Figure 6: Abandoned and degraded peatland in ex-mega rice project area in Central Kalimantan PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 1.3.3 AGRICULTURE © JULIA LO / GEC © FAIZAL PARISH / GEC 5 CHAPTER 2: PEATLANDS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA GHG EMISSIONS 6 Globally, peatlands are the most important terrestrial carbon pool of the world, storing more than 500 billion tonnes of carbon. his represents 30% of the world’s soil carbon and twice as much carbon as the biomass of all the world’s forests combined. Tropical peatlands were estimated to store about 88.6 billion tonnes of carbon, while 77% of it is located in peatlands in Southeast Asia (Page et al., 2011). his carbon is stored mainly in the form of peat with a lesser amount in living tree biomass. Undisturbed tropical peatlands play a key role in climate regulation by absorbing large amounts of CO2. Peatlands also play a role in the regulation of two other GHGs – namely methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). CH4 and N2O, both have a higher global warming potential (GWP) than CO2, being about 25 and 298 times that of CO2 respectively (IPCC, 2007). hese two gases however have a comparatively smaller role in GHG emissions from drained and degraded tropical peatlands. herefore, most of the information presented here will focus more on CO2. 2.1 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) GHG luxes from tropical peatland ecosystems are a balance between three diferent processes: 1. Carbon uptake by plants through photosynthesis. 2. Carbon loss primarily through the respiration of living roots (autotrophic respiration). 3. Bacterial breakdown of the peat or heterotrophic respiration. Peat swamp forests in the tropics over the past 10,000 years have shown a positive balance by absorbing large amounts of CO2 from the atmosphere and storing it as tree biomass and peat deposit (Figure 7) (Jauhianen et al., 2012; Parish et al., 2008; Verwer and van der Meer, 2010). 2.1.1 PEATLANDS AS A CARBON SINK Peatlands in their natural state act as the most eicient carbon stores of all terrestrial ecosystems. In the tropical zone, peatlands store 10 times more carbon per hectare than adjacent ecosystems on mineral soil (Parish et al., 2008). Page et al. (2011) estimated that peatlands in Southeast Asia stored at least 68.5 gigatonnes (billion tonnes) of soil carbon. his igure represents 77% of tropical peat carbon and is equivalent to 14% of global peat carbon (Page et al., 2011). Figure 7: Diagram showing carbon stored in peatlands CO2 CARBON STORED IN vEGETATION AND SEDIMENTS PEATLANDS STORE LARGE AMOUNTS OF CARBON Carbon in peatlands is stored in two forms: tree biomass and peat deposit. • TREE BIOMASS OF A DENSE PEAT SWAMP FOREST: Even though the above ground biomass is less compared to the below ground peat deposit, it is still signiicant as an ecosystem which continually absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere. • PEAT DEPOSIT: he mean thickness used by Page et al. (2011) is 7m for Malaysia and Brunei and 5.5m for Indonesia. Maximum peat thickness has been reported as up to 20m (Hooijer, 2006). he thickness of the peat deposits (developed mainly over the last 10,000 years) demonstrates the unique ability of the peat ecosystem to absorb and store carbon over thousands of years. Peatlands which are the most important carbon store in the region can also turn into the biggest GHG emitter through anthropogenic disturbance. CO2 is the most important GHG resulting from human disturbances, and most CO2 emissions from peatlands in Southeast Asia are a direct result of drainage and ire (Figure 8). Figure 8: Diagram showing carbon emission in peatlands CO2 CO2 CO2 CARBON RELEASED PEATLANDS DEGRADATION LEADS TO CO2 EMISSIONS WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO GLOBAL WARMING Figure 9: Canals in peatlands for drainage and transport Drains or canals are an important feature of peatland development. heir main function is to lower the water table so that agricultural activities can be carried out. hey may also be used as a transportation mode for logging or plantations. However, drainage of peatlands leads to aeration of the peat material and hence allows oxidation to take place - this process is also called aerobic decomposition (Hooijer et al., 2006). his oxidation of dried peat material results in CO2 emissions. © JULIA LO / GEC i. DRAINAGE he amount of CO2 emissions resulting from drainage is very much dependent on the ground water level, i.e. the lower the water table, more CO2 will be emitted to the atmosphere. Figure 9 below shows the relationship between CO2 emissions and water table depth. his linear relationship implies that for every 10 cm of water drawn down from the water table there will be an increase in CO2 emissions of 9.1 t CO2/hectare/year (Hooijer et al., 2010). Figure 10: Relation between carbon loss (CO2eq) and water table depth (m) (Hooijer et al., 2012) he total cumulative emissions from 1995 up to 2006 from peatlands in Southeast Asia was estimated at 9.7 gigatonnes of carbon (Hooijer et al., 2010). his was equivalent to almost one-third of the world’s total emissions in 2009, which highlights the global signiicance of drainage for CO2 emissions. PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 2.1.2 PEATLANDS AS CARBON SOURCES 7 LULUCF Peatland N/A Documented numbers do not exist Total 30 526 496 290 830 1,120 1,271 528 1,860 538 1 CIFOR © NAGARAJAN / GEC Figure 11: Fire in peatlands Fire is extremely rare in pristine peatlands or those that have not been drained. Miettinen et al. (2012b), through their studies of peatlands in Sumatra, reported that only 7 ires/100km2 for 1996-2010 were in pristine peat swamp forests, Estimates for annual GHG emissions differ between whereares sources ires were highly concentrated in degraded areas with 140 ires/100km2. Fires MtCO2e, 2005 Peat fires are responsibleLULUCF for approximately half of the Peat decomposition IFCA 496 emissions from tropical peatlands 30(Hooijer et al., N/A 2006). Based on a study of the impact of SNC 2009 290 379 451the 199798 El NiÑo related ires on peatlands in Central Worldbank 600 1,260 538 Kalimantan, it was estimated that between 2.9 N/A N/A (or 0.81 and 9.2CAIT-WRI billion tonnes of CO2 was emitted 1,138 2.57 billion tonnes of carbon) Indonesia-wide as Hooijer 600 1,260 N/A a result of burning peat and vegetation, which 500 Int. N/A wasWetlands equivalent to 13-40% of the 0 mean annual global carbon emissions during that470period of N/A Van der Werft N/A time (Page et al., 2002). 2,398 1,138 1,800 500 470 600 528 1,870 © NAGARAJAN / GEC PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 8 ii. FIRE 2,398 Ballhorn et al. (2009) determined that 470 ires in 2007 led to an average burn scar depth of 0.33m for a severe 300 743 848 1,591 838 DNPI peatland ire. hey also further estimated that the peat ire in 2007 in Central Kalimantan released an Hooijer et al 2006 as a baseline and of peat ire in the contribution estimated 175 million tonnes of CO2. his underlines the importance taking into account that 50% of emissions might be and causeddrainage by to1 global climate change. Figure 12 shows the emissions from peat ires (decomposition) soil/roots respiration Using IFCA, WRI and Hooijer et al. 2006 as main sources from Indonesia in 2005 as well as projected emissions expected in 2020 and 2030 (Anon, 2010). Fire will SOURCE: IFCA; Ministry of Forestry Indonesia; Houghton; Worldbank; CAIT – WRI; Hooijer 2006; SNC 2009, Indonesia GHG Emission Cost Curve continue to play an important role in the fate of global peatland carbon stocks (Strack, 2008). Figure 12: Emission from peat decomposition and peat ires in Indonesia (Anon, 2010) Emissions from peat fire and peat decomposition are expected to increase by 200 Mt in a business-as-usual scenario Peat fire Peat decomposition Projected emissions, Million tons CO2e 1,000 900 800 700 600 500 902 972 772 472 532 577 ! 400 300 200 100 0 ! 300 2005 370 395 2020 2030 Emissions from peatland are going to increase in a businessas-usual scenario as it is expected that large areas will be converted to other land-uses going forward Emissions from peatland, especially from peat fire, are highly dependent on weather conditions and can show large fluctuations from year to year SOURCE: Hooijer et al. (2006) - PEAT CO2e; Alterra; Wetlands International; Expert Interviews; Couwenberg et al. (2009); SOURCE: Hooijer et 2006PEAT CO2e; Alterra; Wetlands International; Expert interviews; Couwenberg et al 2009; Van der Werft et al 2008 Van der Werft etal al. (2008). Methane or CH4 is a product of organic matter decomposition under water-logged conditions. CH4 emissions from peatlands in Southeast Asia show a clear relationship to water level. Values are generally low (and oten negative) for water levels 20cm below the surface and are higher and more variable when water levels are above this threshold (Couwenberg et al., 2009). Tropical forested peatlands generally do not emit much CH4 as there is normally an oxygenated layer just below the soil surface of about 20cm in which any CH4 is oxidized before it is released to the atmosphere (Figure 13). Figure 13: CH4 emission in relation to water level in tropical versus temperate peatlands PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 2.2 METHANE (CH4) AND NITROUS OXIDE (N2O) 9 In general, N2O emissions from natural peatlands are low, but agriculture on peatlands may release signiicant amounts of N2O (Strack, 2008). Areas which have been drained and on which inorganic fertilisers have been used usually produce high emissions of N2O. he mean N2O lux in drained peatland forests has been observed to be more than ten times higher in comparison to the luxes from other sites (Couwenberg et al., 2009). Although detailed data on CH4 and N2O luxes from tropical peatlands is still limited, it is clear that CO2 has the main impact (>90%) in tropical peat when concurrent CO2, CH4 and N2O luxes are compared across various land use types (Couwenberg et al., 2009). CHAPTER 3: IMPACTS OF FUTURE CLIMATE CHANGE PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA ON TROPICAL PEATLANDS 10 Natural peatlands have showed resilience to the changes in climate that have occurred in the past. However, the rate and magnitude of predicted future climate change and extreme events may push many peatlands over their threshold for adaptation. Climate change scenarios suggest major changes in temperature, precipitation and other phenomena that will have signiicant impacts on the carbon store, GHG lux and biodiversity of peatlands (Parish et al., 2008). 3.1 EFFECTS IN PRECIPITATION CHANGES It is predicted that the total rainfall in Southeast Asia will increase in the future as a result of global climate change, with a median change of about 7% in all seasons and strong seasonality within the region (Christensen et al., 2007). he predicted pattern is broadly one of an increase in wet season rainfall and a decrease in dry season rainfall. How these future changes might impact tropical peatlands was addressed in a study by Li et al. (2007). Out of 11 climate models for Southeast Asia, seven models predicted a decrease of future rainfall and evaporative fraction (i.e. the residual water ater balancing rainfall and evapotranspiration) during the dry season, especially south of equator, implying a decrease in water table and increase in surface dryness in peatlands. his will afect parts of Indonesia (Southern Sumatra, Southern Kalimantan and Papua) where most extensive peatlands occur. Such changes would increase the frequency of peatland ires and associated GHG emissions and the potential of turning these carbon sinks into carbon sources. 3.2 EFFECTS OF INCREASING TEMPERATURE Increases in temperature will generally enhance the decay rate and accelerate the microbial processes responsible for CO2, CH4 and N2O emission from peatlands (Charman et al., 2008). his process is complex and depends on the hydrological regime and other conditions. A combination of higher temperature and reduced rainfall would accelerate the oxidation of peat and result in the loss of carbon (Page et al., 2004). he predicted median warming for Southeast Asia is 2.5oC by the end of the 21st century with little seasonal variation (Christensen et al., 2007). his rise in temperature will increase the rate of evapotranspiration from peatlands, which in turn will increase the rate of peatland decomposition, peatland subsidence and frequency of ires. 3.3 SEA LEvEL RISE Sea levels are predicted to rise by 18 to 59cm over the next 100 years (IPCC, 2007). In low-lying peatland areas, intrusion of saline water into aquifers may give rise to increased salinity and changes in the ecology and functioning of the system. Inundation of coastal peatlands may result in biodiversity and habitat loss with conversion of freshwater peatlands to mangroves and brackish marshes. On the other hand, a rise in base sea level may allow the spread of new peatlands inland if land is made available for this (Charman et al., 2008). Natural undisturbed peatlands play an important role in maintaining freshwater tables in coastal soils. Coastal areas will be more vulnerable to salt water intrusion as a result of reduced freshwater supply from deforested and drained peatlands further inland. For example, farmers in the fertile Mekong delta in Vietnam where many peatlands and freshwater marshes have been drained for agricultural development have already sufered the impacts of sea water intrusion into their rice ields (IRIN, 2013). he hydrological regime is the principal factor controlling ecosystem processes in peatlands. Any changes in water balance will have far reaching efects on peatland ecosystem processes. A combination of increased temperatures and changes in precipitation will determine the hydrological status of peatlands (Charman et al., 2008). GHG exchange may be afected by hydrological changes combined with temperature rise. Drier surfaces emit more N2O and CO2 but less CH4, with the converse true for wetter surfaces (Charman et al., 2008). 3.5 FIRES AND HAZE In regions strongly afected by the drying efects of the El Niño - Southern Oscillation (ENSO) weather phenomenon, the frequency of drought is likely to increase due to the background increase in temperature and changes in precipitation. Fire frequency may increase in peatlands that are subject to greater extremes of drought (Charman et al., 2008). For example, the occurrence of ires in Indonesian peatlands is largely due to man-made drainage, logging and ire-setting, but the frequency and severity of ires is increased by changes in the length and severity of droughts. Severe peat ires have occurred in Indonesia during recent El Niño-induced droughts in 1997, 2002, 2004, 2006 and 2009 (Ballhorn et al., 2009). Fires in peatlands burn for much longer that ires on mineral soils and these ires generate much more smoke - as a result of incomplete combustion. Peatland ires burn into the peat soil and have been recorded at up to four metres below the peat surface. hese underground ires smolder at lower temperatures than normal ires and thus generate more smoke. It is estimated that up to 90% of the smoke which creates the regular transboundary smoke haze in the ASEAN region comes from peatland ires. Transboundary haze is one of the most serious regional environmental problems in the ASEAN region and has signiicant impacts on health, economy ( especially transport and tourism) and the environment. Figure 14a: Haze cloud in October 1997 Figure 14b: Haze in 2005 SOURCE: NASA. SOURCE: MODIS. Major increases in the area of peatlands burned have been documented in recent decades and this may continue in the future if peatlands dry out as a result of climate change and anthropogenic activities (Strack, 2008). Measures to reduce the risk of ires due to human activities – such as better water management, ire prevention and enhanced ire control capacity will also reduce the impact of climate change on peatlands. 3.6 FUTURE Future climate change will not only afect peatland ecosystems. It will also have huge implications to local human populations, particularly for those living on or in the vicinity of peatlands. Some of the efects include: a) b) c) d) Greatly reduced quantity and quality of freshwater supply. Increased subsidence and looding. Increased ire and haze. Increased saline intrusion. PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 3.4 HYDROLOGICAL CHANGES 11 CHAPTER 4: ACTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA TROPICAL PEATLANDS IN RELATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE 12 By the end of this century, many ecosystems will have exceeded their ability to adapt due to an unprecedented combination of climate change associated disturbances and other global change drivers (IPCC, 2007). Natural peatlands have, in the past, shown resilience to changes in climate. However, human intervention has pushed its limits and it may not be able to maintain its resilience for long (Charman et al., 2008). The best way to increase the resilience of peatlands would be through conservation and protection of undisturbed peatlands. For peatlands which are already disturbed or degraded, human activities can be minimized through better water management, ire prevention and control as well as restoration. Climate change mitigation refers to eforts to reduce GHG emissions. his can be done through the use of advanced technology such as renewable energy or can be as simple as protecting forests. Four actions are recommended for mitigating climate change in tropical peatlands: a) Avoiding new emissions from land use change b) Restoration of peatlands to reduce emissions and enhance sequestration c) Improved management practices to reduce emissions from existing production systems d) Fire prevention and control 4.1 AvOIDING NEW EMISSIONS FROM LAND USE CHANGE Natural peatlands are usually wet - a condition which allows peat to accumulate and allow carbon to be stored. Hence it is important to keep the remaining peatlands protected from future conversion, not only to maintain carbon storage and reduce emissions, but also to ensure that biodiversity and other ecosystem services are protected. Conservation of undrained peatlands can be a very cost efective management strategy for minimizing CO2 emissions (Joosten et al., 2012; Parish et al., 2008). 4.2 RESTORATION OF PEATLANDS: REDUCING EMISSIONS Peatland restoration is seen as the most cost efective way to reduce GHG emissions from degraded peatlands and combat global warming (Parish et al., 2008). However, complete restoration is oten diicult due to the complexity of peatlands and long time-scale for peat regrowth. Restoration is usually more successful if it takes place shortly ater the original damage has been done. Plans for restoration should be based on the management of the whole peatland area as a hydrological and ecological unit. 4.2.1 REWETTING/ RESTORATION OF HYDROLOGY Utilisation of peatlands oten require lowering the water table through drainage canals. herefore it is crucial to reduce water loss and elevate the water table in drained peatlands (Joosten et al., 2012). his can be achieved through blocking the drainage canals, which is a cost efective way of maintaining the water level of the restoration site. In existing production peatlands, a raised water table will help to keep the soil moisture content which improves the production yield of the crops/plantation. In degraded peatlands, restoration of hydrology will stimulate natural regeneration of vegetation. After: Area well-covered with vegetation including trees (Parit 6, RMFR in 2012) © JULIA LO / GEC Before: No trees and low-lying vegetation only (Parit 7, RMFR in 2010) © JULIA LO / GEC Before: Degraded area void of vegetation (Parit 6, RMFR in 2009) © JULIA LO / GEC © NAGARAJAN / GEC A rehabilitation programme was initiated by the Selangor Forestry Department in collaboration with Global Environment Centre for the Raja Musa Forest Reserve (RMFR), Selangor Malaysia. This site is one of the pilot sites in the ASEAN Peatland Forests Project (APFP) project. The activities were undertaken with the support from APFP, The SEApeat project, the private sector and local communities with a long term target to rehabilitate about 1,000 hectares of degraded peat swamp forest. After: Mahang trees clearly visible (Parit 7, RMFR in 2013) The main activities carried out included establishing canal blocks at the existing canals, implementing ire prevention measures and tree planting in seriously degraded areas. In the initial stage, most of the existing drainage canals at the targeted sites were blocked to maintain the water table level. Since 2008, nearly 900 canal blocks have been placed by the state Forestry Department inside the forest reserve as the irst step to restore the hydrology of the area. Subsequently, canal blocks were placed in the buffer zone outside the boundary to further support the maintenance of the water table. The replanting activities were focused on areas which had been repeatedly burnt and cultivated, and where natural regeneration was thought to be unlikely. This involved replanting suitable pioneer tree species that originated from RMFR. Over the last four years (2009-2012), more than 60,000 seedlings of Mahang (Macaranga pruinosa) and Tenggek Burung (Euodia rox burghiana) have been planted within the project site covering 80 hectares. Other forest species included Mersawa Paya (Anisoptera marginata) and Ramin (Gonystylus bancanus) have also been planted at the project site. Since the work started in 2008, good progress has been made. Vegetation cover, especially pioneer tree species, is slowly coming back to the once degraded areas. PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA CASE STUDY: RAJA MUSA FOREST RESERvE REHABILITATION PROGRAMME 13 PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 14 4.2.2 RE-vEGETATION In addition to canal blocking, it is important to re-introduce vegetation cover to degraded peatlands. A layer of vegetation can help keep the peat soil wet, and thus prevent further oxidation. Oten, degraded areas may be populated by pioneer species such as Imperata cylindrica or “lalang” grass, ferns and scattered trees. It is recommended to initially plant pioneer, fast growing peatland species to rapidly establish tree cover (Parish et al., 2012) and later interplant climax forest species that have buttresses, which play a key role in providing the structural elements for hydrological self- regulation (Dommain et al., 2010). Peatland restoration through rewetting and re-vegetation has been shown to signiicantly reduce ire risk and encourage regrowth of natural vegetation. It is recommended to invite the participation of local communities in the restoration process because community participation helps to ensure that the measures implemented will be sustained over time. 4.3 IMPROvED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES TO REDUCE EMISSIONS FROM EXISTING PRODUCTION SYSTEM 4.3.1 WATER MANAGEMENT IN PLANTATIONS It has been shown that for tropical peatlands, every 10cm drop in the water level results in 9.1 t CO2/ hectare/year being emitted (Hooijer et al., 2010). Hence, water management in plantations such as oil palm and Acacia plantations on peatlands is key to reducing emissions. High water levels are also important for preventing subsidence and for optimizing yields. A sound water management plan can reduce substantial emissions from these plantations. he recently adopted RSPO manual for the Best Management Practices for Existing Cultivation of Oil Palm on Peat (Lim et al., 2012) recommends maintaining water levels in the ield drains at 50cm for obtaining high yields and reducing GHG emissions. Lim et al. (2012) also recommend other ways in which oil palm plantations can reduce their GHG emissions: • FERTILIZER PRACTICES he use of ‘coated’ nitrogen will help to reduce N2O emissions. Fertilizer practices that optimize N-fertilizer and maximize organic fertilizer use, including composting and careful fertilizer application during rainy seasons, will also help to reduce GHG emissions. • CARBON STOCK Carbon stocks can be maintained and increased through maintenance and rehabilitation of bufer zones and high conservation values areas, planting other crops and ensuring optimal oil palm planting density. Conserving adjacent (or where appropriate, within plantations) forested areas will increase the carbon stock of the area. his can ofset emissions from other practices. • MILL PRACTICES Good mill practices such as methane capture, improving energy eiciency and production from palm oil mill eluent (POME) and empty fruit bunch (EFB) can also signiicantly reduce net GHG emissions. Drained and degraded peatlands are very prone to ire. Previously burned areas also have great potential to burn again. Besides emitting more GHGs into the atmosphere, ire from peat also creates other impacts such as smoke haze which regularly afects ive key countries in Southeast Asia - Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and hailand. As a result, ASEAN established the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution in 2002 and adopted the ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy (APMS) (2006-2020) in 2006. he main goal of the APMS is to promote the sustainable management of peatlands in ASEAN through collective action and enhanced cooperation to support and sustain local livelihoods, reduce the risk of ire and associated haze, and contribute to global environment management. he APMS includes a number of speciic actions to address ire prevention and control including: i. Identify peatlands in the region with high ire risk and develop and promote preventive measures. ii. Monitor weather conditions and hot spots in high-risk areas and issue alerts as appropriate. iii. Manage water tables in peatlands appropriately according to land use to prevent ire. iv. Develop and promote appropriate techniques for ire control in peatlands. v. Strengthen coordination and capacity among agencies involved in peatland ire prevention and control, including establishment of peat ire prevention units in agencies responsible for forestry and agriculture. vi. Active involvement of local community members and other local stakeholders in ire prevention and control. vii. Implement zero-burning strategies for all commercial agriculture and zero or controlled burning for local communities. Fire can oten be prevented through better water management and enhanced vigilance and ire control measures (Parish et al., 2008). 4.4.1 ZERO BURNING Fire is used as a traditional method of land clearing in many parts of the ASEAN region and is a key contributor of CO2 emissions. herefore, zero burning should be implemented to reduce the risk of ire. he ASEAN Secretariat (2003) produced a guideline for the implementation of the ASEAN policy on zero burning. he zero burning technique is a method of land clearing whereby the tree stand (either logged over secondary forests or an old area of plantation crops) such as oil palm are felled, shredded, stacked and let in-situ to decompose naturally. he basic steps of zero burning in existing plantations include: • Planning for replanting. • Removal of Ganoderma-diseased palms. • Construction of roads and drains. • Felling and shredding / chipping. • Stacking and windrowing. • Lining, holing and planting of oil palm seedlings. • Post planting management. PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 4.4 FIRE PREvENTION AND CONTROL: REDUCING EMISSIONS 15 CHAPTER 5: THE WAy FORWARD PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 5.1 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF PEATLANDS 16 he sustainable management of peatlands requires an integrated approach in developing common strategies for management of diferent uses within each peatland area. he requirements for biodiversity conservation, land rehabilitation and climate change mitigation / adaptation also need to be incorporated into management strategies. he close coordination between diferent stakeholders and economic sectors is also critical. he current management of peatlands is oten not sustainable and may have major negative impacts on biodiversity and the climate (Parish et al., 2008). A wise use approach is needed to integrate protection and sustainable use, and to maintain peatland ecosystem services despite increasing pressure from people and the changing climate. he existing APMS has outlined key strategies to ensure the sustainability of peatlands in Southeast Asia. Efective implementation of the APMS is crucial to prepare ASEAN countries in reducing potential risk from disasters and economic loss in the region resulting from peatland degradation (Table 2). It should be noted that the integrated management of peatlands is one of the most critical focus areas for the APMS and progress in this is fundamental to achieving many of the objectives. Table 2: Focal areas and respective operational objectives of the ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy (APMS) FOCUS AREAS 1. Inventory and Assessment OPERATIONAL OBJECTIvES 1.1 Determined the extent and status of peatlands in the ASEAN region (including issues of deinition). 1.2 Assess problems and constraints faced in peatland management. 1.3 Monitor and evaluate peatland status and management. 2. Research 2.1 Undertake priority research activities. 3. Awareness and Capacity Building 3.1 Enhance public awareness of importance of peatlands, its vulnerability to ire and the threat of haze through implementation of comprehensive plan. 3.2 Build institution capacity on management of peatlands. 4. Information Sharing 4.1 Enhance information management and promote sharing. 5. Policies and Legislation 5.1 Develop or strengthen policies and legislation to protect peatlands and reduce peat ires. 6. Fire Prevention, Control and Monitoring 6.1 Reduce and minimize occurrence of ire and associated haze. 7. Conservation of Peatland Biodiversity 7.1 Promote conservation of peatland biodiversity. 8. Integrated Management of Peatlands OPERATIONAL OBJECTIvES 8.1 Promote multi- agency involvement in peatland management. 8.2 Promote integrated water resources and peatland management using basin-wide approach and avoiding fragmentation. 8.3 Promote integrated forest and peatland management. 8.4 Manage agriculture in peatland areas in an integrated manner. 8.5 Promote integrated community livelihood and peatland management. 9.1 Promote best management practices. 9. Promotion of Demonstration Site for Peatlands 10. Restoration and Rehabilitation 10.1 11. 12. 13. Develop appropriate techniques for the restoration or rehabilitation of degraded peatlands. 10.2 Rehabilitate burnt, drained and degraded peatlands. Peatland and Climate Change 11.1 Protect and improve function of peatlands as carbon sequestration and storage. Regional Cooperation Financing of the Implementation of Strategy 11.2 Support peatland adaptation to global climate change. 12.1 Promote exchange of expertise in addressing peatland management issues. 12.2 Establishment of “centres of excellence” in the region for peatland assessment and management. 12.3 Contribute to the implementation of other related agreements and regional cooperation mechanism. 12.4 Enhance multi-stakeholder partnerships to support peatland management. 13.1 Generate inancial resources required for the programmes and activities to achieve target of the strategy. PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA FOCUS AREAS 17 PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 5.2 PUBLIC AND MULTI-STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT 18 Various parties including public and other stakeholders must engage actively in the sustainable use of peatlands. he use and management of peatlands is fragmented between a broad range of stakeholders including government agencies related to forestry, agriculture, water resources and the environment; local communities involved in harvesting of timber and non-timber forest products including agriculture; and plantation companies related to oil palm and pulp and paper. he activities of one stakeholder group may frequently conlict with the needs and desires of other stakeholder groups. Hence it is important that multi-stakeholder collaborative frameworks are developed to facilitate collaborative activities. Examples of successful multi-stakeholder mechanisms include the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) which links together seven separate stakeholder groups including plantations, reiners, retailers, bankers and social and environmental NGOs related to the oil palm sector. he Peatland Working Group (PLWG) of the RSPO has recently worked to assess the impacts of oil palm plantations on peat and develop two best management practice manuals related to oil palm cultivation on peat (Lim et al., 2012) and the maintenance and rehabilitation of natural vegetation associated with oil palm plantations on peat (Parish et al., 2012). 5.3 INTEGRATION OF PEATLANDS INTO ENvIRONMENTAL AND CLIMATE CHANGE POLICIES Scientists have long been aware of the role that degraded peatlands play in global GHG emissions. On the other hand, policy makers have been slower to react to this issue (Strack, 2008). he importance of peatlands has been emphasized in recent decisions of several global environment conventions including: UNFCCC, Ramsar Convention on Wetlands and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Countries should pay increased attention to the importance of peatlands in national and international policies and allocate necessary resources for policy implementation, especially to incorporate peatlands into their climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies and also national wetland strategies. Mechanisms and incentives for mitigation of emissions from peatland degradation and ire should be included in future climate frameworks (Strack, 2008). 5.4 POTENTIAL FINANCING OPPORTUNITIES FOR PEATLAND CONSERvATION 5.4.1 CARBON FUNDING: REDD/vCS Tropical peatlands are increasingly being recognized as one of the biggest sources for global GHG emissions other than fossil fuels. herefore, a relatively new mechanism called the Reduced Emission from Forest Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) could be the way for conserving the vulnerable carbon pools in tropical peatlands and at the same time reducing emissions from these ecosystems. Voluntary market schemes such as the Veriied Carbon Standard (VCS) have already provided a much needed platform for selling carbon credits in the global market. In 2011, emissions from peatlands and REDD were included in the Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) requirement (VCS, 2011). he new project category, Peatland Rewetting and Conservation includes two types of projects: rewetting of drained peatlands (RDP) and conservation of un-drained and partially drained peatland (CUPP). Local stakeholders need to be involved in all the inancial mechanisms so that it can be a win-win situation for all i.e. poverty reduction, biodiversity conservation, improved water management and halting of land degradation and carbon store conservation and restoration (Silvius, 2008). 5.4.2 INCENTIvES FOR SUSTAINABLE USE OF PEATLANDS Communities have a very important role as stewards of peatland resources and should be efectively involved in activities to restore and sustain the use of peatlands. However, in developing countries, poverty may be one of the key driving factors for unsustainable use of peatland resources. herefore, incentives are very important to support local eforts to practice wise use of peatlands. Without suicient revenue, poor people may be forced to utilize cheaper agricultural methods or practices (i.e. the use of ire for land clearing on peat). he private sector, such as large plantation owners, may also beneit from incentives to help them comply with best management practices on peatlands, which in turn would reduce the impact of peatland conversion. Best practices such as water management and rehabilitation of degraded forest areas will reduce GHG emissions but would require additional investments. Options for incentives for sustainable management of tropical peatlands are described by Macmillan (2013) and include: • Multi Donor trust FunD / AsEAn HAzE FunD / nAtionAl FunDs Establishment of funds at national or regional level to receive funds from government, private sector, international donors and donations from the general public. • incEntivEs At sitE lEvEl Site level incentives may include access to land or use of resources or provision of incentives to local communities for forest protection or rehabilitation. • PEAtlAnD-usEr PAy PrinciPlE Funding could be generated by charging users of the peatland area such as extractors of peatland products and those that undertake agriculture, plantation or eco-tourism activities. • PEAtlAnD PollutEr PAy PrinciPlE Fines and emission permits would generate funds for peatland management and serve as an incentive to decrease forest degradation and ires. • PAyMEnt For EcosystEM sErvicEs (PEs) Payment for ecosystem services may include options to support management of peatland areas which provide water supply to adjacent communities and developments by charging a levy on the water supply. • tAx incEntivEs Tax incentives may include rebates or discounts on tax (including levies, land premiums and other charges) for peatland developers for the introduction of best management practices or for forest rehabilitation on their land. • cErtiFicAtion Certiication schemes are available to promote best management practices for forestry (e.g. Forest Stewardship Council) or oil palm cultivation (e.g. Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil). hese certiication schemes generate premiums or preferential market access for those companies that adopt good practices. • otHEr non-MonEtAry rEwArDs Non-monetary rewards can include awards or recognition for good management practices. PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA he revenue from the sale of carbon credits should be funneled back to project sites for the protection of peatlands and also to generate income for local communities. Carbon credits could also ease the pressure on peatland conversion and at the same time generate alternative inancial returns. 19 PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 5.5 CONCLUSION 20 Peatlands in Southeast Asia play a globally signiicant role in carbon storage and climate regulation. In the past 30 years, peatland drainage and ires have turned peatlands in the region from a net sink of carbon to a net source. How peatlands respond to the changing climate still remains uncertain, but most of the feedback will be negative and peatland degradation and ire is expected to increase in future climate regimes. Based on the current trends, peatlands in Southeast Asia, especially in Indonesia and Malaysia, will continue to be under great pressure from the expansion of industrial plantations and other development. However, governments in the region, through development of national policies and the adoption of the APMS (2006-2020), have shown their concern about the need for enhanced sustainability of peatland management in the future. With the new opportunities for international support such as REDD+ and funds available locally and nationally, it is hoped that the necessary inancial assistance can be provided to enhance the sustainable management of peatlands and reduce their contributions to regional and global GHG emissions, as well as minimize the impacts of future climate change on peatlands. REFERENCES Anonymous 2010, Indonesia’s Greenhouse Gas Abatement Cost Curve, Dewan Nasional Perubahan Iklim, Indonesia. ASEAN Secretariat 2003, Guidelines for he Implementation of the ASEAN Policy On Zero Burning, ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. Bach, J 2000, Malaysia DANCED project on Sustainable Management of Peat Swamp Forest, Peninsular Malaysia, 10 Year Integrated Management Plan for he North Selangor Peat Swamp Forest, Selangor State Forestry Department and Danish Cooperation for Environment and Development (DANCED), Malaysia. Ballhorn, U, Siegert, F, Mason, M & Limin, S 2009, ‘Derivation of Burn Scar Depths and Estimation of Carbon Emissions With LIDAR In Indonesian Peatlands’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 106, no. 50, pp. 21213-21218. Couwenberg, J, Dommain, R & Joosten, H 2009, ‘Green House Fluxes from Tropical Peatland in Southeast Asia’, Global Change Biology, vol. 16, pp. 1715–1732, DOI 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02016.x. Chai, EOK 2004, Restoration of Ramin in Peat Swamp Forests of Sarawak. Joint Working Group Malaysia - he Netherlands: Sustainable Management of Peat Swamp Forests of Sarawak with Special Reference to Ramin. Forestry Department of Sarawak and Alterra, Sarawak. Charman, D, Laine, J, Minayeva, T & Sirin, A 2008, ‘Impacts Of Future Climate Change On Peatlands’, in Parish, F, Sirin, A, Charman, D, Joosten, H, Minayeva, T, Silvius, M & Stringer, L (eds), Assessment on Peatlands, Biodiversity and Climate Change: Main Report. Global Environment Centre, Kuala Lumpur and Wetlands International, Wageningen, pp. 143 - 151. Christensen, JH, Hewitson, B, Busuioc, A, Chen, A, Gao, X & Held, I et al. 2007, ‘Regional Climate Projections’, in Solomon, S, Qin, D, Manning, M, Chen, Z, Marquis, M & Averyt, KB et al. (eds), Climate Change 2007: he Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, pp. 847 - 940. Dommain, R, Couwenberg, J & Joosten, H 2010, ‘Hydrological Self-Regulation Of Domed Peatlands In South East Asia And Consequences For Conservation And Restoration’, Mires and Peat, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 1-17. Hooijer, A, Page, SE, Canadell, JG, Silvius, M, Kwadijk, J, Wösten, H & Jauhiainen, J 2010, ‘Current and Future CO2 Emissions from Drained Peatlands in Southeast Asia’, Biogeosciences, vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 1505-1514. Hooijer, A, Silvius, M, Wösten, H & Page, S 2006, PEAT-CO2: Assessment of CO2 Emissions from Drained Peatlands In SE Asia, Delt Hydraulics report Q3943, Netherlands. IPCC 2007, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, Pachauri, RK & Reisinger, A (eds). IPCC, Geneva. IRIN 2011, ‘VIETNAM: From rice to shrimps and ginger - adapting to saltwater intrusion’, IRIN, 28 December, viewed [25 Sept 2012], <http://www.irinnews.org/Report/94552/VIETNAM-From-rice-to-shrimps-and-gingeradapting-to-saltwater-intrusion> Istomo, Komar, TE, Tata, MHL, Sumbayak, ESS & Rahma, A 2010, Evaluasi Sistem Silvicultur Hutan Rawa Gambut Di Indonesia, ITTO-CITES Project, Bogor. Jauhianen, J, Hooijer, A & Page, SE 2012, ‘Carbon Dioxide Emission From An Acacia Plantation On Peatland In Sumatra, Indonesia’, Biogeosciences, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 617-630. PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Anonymous 2007, ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy, ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta. 21 PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 22 Joosten, H, Tapio-Bistrom, M-L & Tol, S (eds) 2012, Mitigation Of Climate Change in Agriculture Series 5: Peatlands - Guidance For Climate Change Mitigation By Conservation, Rehabilitation And Sustainable Use. FAO and Wetlands International, Rome. Li, W, Dickinson, RE, Fu, R, Niu, G-Y, Yang, Z-L & Canadell, JG 2007, ‘Future Precipitation Changes And heir Implications For Tropical Peatlands’, Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. L01403, DOI 10.1029/2006GL028364. Lim, KH, Lim, SS, Parish, F & Suharto, R (eds) 2012, RSPO Manual On Best Management Practices (BMPs) For Existing Oil Palm Cultivation On Peat. RSPO, Kuala Lumpur. MacMillan, DC 2013, Development of Financing and Incentives Options for Sustainable Management of Peatland Forests in Southeast Asia, ASEAN Peatland Forests Project and Sustainable Management of Peatland Forests Project, ASEAN Secretariat and Global Environment Centre, Kuala Lumpur. Miettinen, J & Liew, SC 2010, ‘Status of Peatland Degradation and Development in Sumatra and Kalimantan’, Ambio, vol. 39, no. 5-6, pp. 394-401, DOI 10.1007/s3280-010-0051-2. Miettinen, J, Hooijer, A, Shi, CH, Tollenaar, D, Vernimmen, R, Liew, SC, Malins, C & Page, SE 2012a, ‘Extent Of Industrial Plantations On Southeast Asian Peatlands in 2010 with Analysis of Historical Expansion and Future Projections’, Global Change Biology Bioenergy, vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 908 - 918, DOI 10.1111/j.1757-1707.2012.01172.x. Miettinen, J, Hooijer, A, Wang, JJ, Shi CH & Liew, SC 2012b, ‘Peatland Degradation and Conversion Sequences and Interrelations in Sumatra’, Regional Environmental Change, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 729 - 737, DOI 10.1007/s10113012-0290-9. National Environmental Agency Singapore, 2011. Peat proile of Singapore. Peat Site Proile Database. APFP-SEApeat Project. Viewed [11 April 2013] <http://www.aseanpeat.net/site_nomination_view.cfm?sid=16> Page, SE, Rieley, JO & Banks, C 2011, ‘Global And Regional Importance of the Tropical Peatland Carbon Pool’, Global Change Biology, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 798-818, DOI 10.1111/j.1356-2486.2010.02279.x. Page, SE, Wuest, R, Weiss, D, Rieley, J, Shotyk, W & Limin, SH 2004, ‘A Record of Pleistocene and Holocene Carbon Accumulation And Climate Change From Equatorial Peat Bog (Kalimantan, Indonesia): Implications For Past, Present And Future Carbon Dynamic’, Journal of Quaternary Sciences, vol. 19, no. 7, pp. 626-635. Page, SE, Siegert, F, Rieley JO, Böehm, HDV, Jaya, A & Limin, S 2002, ‘he Amount Of Carbon Released From Peat And Forest Fires In Indonesia During 1997’, Nature, vol. 420, pp. 61-65. Parish, F, Lim, SS, Perumal, B & Giesen, W (eds) 2012, RSPO Manual on Best Management Practices (BMPs) for Management and Rehabilitation of Natural Vegetation Associated with Oil Palm Cultivation on Peat. RSPO, Malaysia. Parish, F, Sirin, A, Charman, D, Joosten, H, Minayeva, T, Silvius, M and Stringer, L. (eds) 2008, Assessment on Peatlands, Biodiversity and Climate Change: Main Report, Global Environment Centre and Wetlands International (Netherlands), Kuala Lumpur. Quoi, LP 2012, Preliminary identiication of mangrove coastal peatlands in Koh Kong Province, Cambodia, APFP SEApeat Project Report. Rieley, JO, Wust, REJ, Jauhiainen, J, Page, SE, Wosten, H, Hooijer, A et al. 2008, ‘Tropical Peatlands: Carbon Stores, Carbon GasEmission and Contribution to Climate Change process’, in M, Strack (ed) Peatland and Climate Change. International Peat Society, Finland. Rucker, G 2008, Drat Report: hreat Analysis to Forest Coverage in Peat Swamp Forest in South Sumatra. A Contribution to an Assessment of Opportunities for Compensation Payments for Avoided Deforestation in South Sumatra, South Sumatra Forest Fire Management Project. Strack, M (ed) 2008, Peatlands and Climate Change, International Peat Society and Saarijärven Ofset Oy, Finland. van der Werf, GR, Dempewolf, J, Trigg, SN, Randerson, JT, Kasibhatla, PS, Giglio, L, Murdiyarso, D, Peters, W, Morton, DC, Collatz, GJ, Dolman, AJ & Defries, RS 2008, ‘Climate regulation of ire emission and deforestation in equatorial Asia’, PNAS, vol. 105, no. 51, pp. 20350-20355. Verwer, CC and van der Meer, PJ 2010, Carbon Pools In Tropical Peat Forest: Towards A Reference Value For Forest Biomass Carbon In Relatively Undisturbed Peat Swamp Forests In Southeast Asia, Alterra Report 2108, Wageningen. VCS 2011, Agriculture Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) Requirements: VCS Version 3, Veriied Carbon Standard. PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Silvius, M 2008, ‘Innovations for Financing Wise Use Peatlands in Indonesia’, in Riley, JO, Banks, CJ & Page SE (eds) Papers presented at the special session on tropical peatland at the 13th International Peat Congress Tullamore, Ireland, June 2008, CARBOPEAT Partnership, International Peat Society and University of Leicester, United Kingdom, pp. 39-49. 23 24 PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 25 PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 26 PEATLANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA ABOUT ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS ASEAN was established on 8 August 1967. The members of the Association are Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam. The ASEAN Member States are working together to address common issues through collective spirit, collaboration, consultation and cooperation. The ASEAN Secretariat is based in Jakarta, Indonesia. One Vision, One Identity, One Community ABOUT GLOBAL ENvIRONMENT CENTRE GEC is a Malaysia-based non-profit organisation with activities at local, regional and global level to address environmental issues of global concern. It was established in 1998 and supports field programmes in more than 15 countries mainly in the Asia Pacific region as well as information exchange and policy formulation. It works primarily through multi-stakeholder partnerships and collaboration with networks of like-minded organisations. Its primary programmes are: • Forest and Biodiversity Programme • Peatland Programme • River Care Programme • Outreach and Partnership Programme It has been recognised by the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity for its work on peatlands and also river basin management. It is a founding partner of the ASEAN Peatland Management Initiative (APMI) and the development of ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy (APMS); both endorsed by all ten ASEAN Member States. It coordinates many networks and partnerships at local and international levels. Building Partnerships for the Environment Book Design by Yap Ni Yan / GEC ABOUT APFP-SEAPEAT PROJECTS The ASEAN Peatland Forests Project (APFP), funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), is led by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Secretariat and selected ASEAN Member States. It aims to demonstrate, implement and scale up the integrated management of peatlands in Southeast Asia. The related SEApeat project, funded by the European Union (EU) through Global Environment Centre (GEC), seeks to reduce deforestation and GHG emissions caused by the degradation of peatland forests in Southeast Asia. The combined projects involve all ten ASEAN Member States in regional activities and/or pilot site activities. The projects aim to promote and support the implementation of the ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy (2006-2020) especially related to capacity building, fire prevention and sustainable management of peatlands in the region. The ASEAN Secretariat is the Executing Agency of the APFP while the GEC is the Regional Project Executing Agency of the APFP and the SEApeat project. Scan this QR code with your smartphone to find out more! www.aseanpeat.net FUNDED BY: IMPLEMENTED BY: FSC ISBN eco print eco ink