SOCIAL STUDIES / STUDIME SOCIALE Vol. 5, No. 2, 2011 / Vëll. 5, nr. 1, 2011 DIRECTOR / DREJTOR LEKË SOKOLI EDITOR IN CHIEF / KRYEREDAKTOR SEJDIN CEKANI EDITORIAL BOARD / BORDI BOTUES SERVET PËLLUMBI Chariman MARTIN BERISHAJ ALBANA CANOLLARI LIQUN CAO TONIN ÇOBANI ZYHDI DERVISHI GRIDA DUMA KRISTO FRASHËRI ILIR GËDESHI EGLANTINA GJERMENI BARBARA HEYNS ANJEZA HOXHALLARI KARL KASER NEVILA KOÇALLARI PAJAZIT NUSHI ALI PAJAZITI GËZIM TUSHI ALFRED UÇI BRUNILDA ZENELAGA “Education in ‘turbulent times’; the Albanian case in European and global context” 6th International Conference of the Albanian Institute of Sociology (Proceedings, I) “Arsimimi në kohë të trazuara: Rasti shqiptar në kontekst europian dhe global” Konferenca e 6-të Ndërkombëtare e Institutit të Sociologjisë Scientific Journal, certified by the Highest Scientific Committee of the Republic of Albania; decision no. 170, date 20th of December 2010 © Albanian Institute of Sociology / Instituti i Sociologjisë Ed: Lekë Sokoli Arti Grafik: Orest Muça Contacts / Kontakte: Rruga “Abdyl Frashëri”, pall. 3/3, Tiranë Tel: ++355 (4)2268819; Cel: 0694067682; 0682236949 E-Mail: info@instituti-sociologjise.org; isrrjeti@gmail.com www.instituti-sociologjise.org Contents: Eduardo BARBERIS & Valbona NANAJ Janos TOTH Simeon NIKOLIDAKIS & Fotini ANASTASOPOULOU Edo SHERIFI Eglantina HYSA Evagjelia KALERANTE Lekë SOKOLI Timothy HAGEN Nertila HAXHIA (LJARJA) & Romeo GURAKUQI Albana CANOLLARI Edi PUKA Anila SULAJ & Fatmir BEZATI Lediana XHAKOLLARI Jordan DACI Xhavit SHALA Ermela HYSA Veronika DUCI Elona MEHMETI Albanians and the others: educational attainments and attitudes of migrants and nationals in Italian schools ................. 5 Supra, inter and intrasocial motions: Prolegomena to the ontological poverty of societies ..................................... 15 The albanian students’ stances and perceptions regarding the choiche of profession............................. 23 Psychology service efficiency in educating children and adolescents ........... 33 Corruption and Human Development: Albania and EU-27 ................................ 43 Repatriation of Albanians: Redesigning a Student acculturation Policy ................. 53 Some Critical Themes regarding the International Migration of Albanians ..... 63 Safe, just, and smart: Home education as an essential option for families in Albania and around the world ................. 77 National Identity and Religions in Albania ................................ 85 The possible effects of self-construals and social relationships on happiness ......... 99 Education and Formation in adult education ................................. 109 School dropout by Roma children in Tirana ................................. 117 Constructs of Quality of Work Life: A Perspective of Mental Health Professionals ............................... 123 Human Rights as collective goods ........... 131 Interreligious communication, religious education and security issues .................. 139 Globalization challenges and integration process.................................. 147 Psychosocial effects of a life – threatening disease ..................... 151 Higher education vouchers in Albania ... 159 ALBANIANS AND THE OTHERS: EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENTS AND ATTITUDES OF MIGRANTS AND NATIONALS IN ITALIAN SCHOOLS Eduardo BARBERIS & Valbona NANAJ - University of Urbino “Carlo Bo”, Italy E-mail: eduardo.barberis@uniurb.it ABSTRACT Based on first results of the international research project GOETE, these paper analyses school trajectories of children with migration background (CMB), focusing also on specific issues concerning East-Central Europe (ECE) migrants. In particular, the attention is on lower secondary school pupils, and their transition to following education paths, according to influencing factors such as schooling, parenting, peers and institutions: immigration background accumulates with other social risks in a country characterized by low social mobility and high reproduction of disadvantage. To investigate these issues, we use a mixed-method approach, triangulating data on trajectories and institutions coming from: surveys with parents and pupils, focus groups and interviews with pupils, teachers, parents, principals, local stakeholders and experts. Keywords: immigration in Italy; educational trajectories; second generations; social disadvantage 1. Introduction: framing CMB disadvantage in Italian education.1 Disadvantages in education are often associated with ethnicity and migration: there’s a growing body of literature on this issue: even if there are exceptions (e.g. the school performance of Asian minorities in the U.S.), this trend seems confirmed in many countries. Relevant literature maintains that both ethnicisation of social disadvantage and discrimination are outcomes of a lack of appropriate support for migrant children 1 This article results from a joint reflection made by the authors. Though, chapters 1 to 4 have been written by Eduardo Barberis, chapters 5 and 6 jointly by Eduardo Barberis and Valbona Nanaj. It also took advantage by the debate occurred within the GOETE research group; in particular we would like to thank Silvia Demozzi and Federica Taddia (University of Bologna) that contributed to the analyses reported here. Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 5-13 6 and youth (Heckmann 2008; Parreira do Amaral et al. 2011): actually, PISA studies suggest that migrant and ethnic minority youth disadvantage are primarily due to the failure of European schools in dealing with diversity, more than due to diversity itself (OECD 2008). Thus, the degree of such disadvantage is connected to national education systems and to the contexts their embedded in, framing how difference is treated. We will focus here on the interaction between individual characteristics and institutional arrangements in educational inequality, analyzing how that disadvantages accumulate in the Italian case. An important issue both for the sending and the receiving countries, since it affects the creation of human capital and the socioeconomic development. 1.1. Italy and immigration It’s hard to define Italy still as a “new” immigration country – since it started to be such thirty years ago; it is anyway a latecomer, in comparison to many Western European countries. In this respect, Italy is fully within a “Mediterranean” model of migration (King 2002), the main issue Albanians and the others being an inconsistent institutional coping of the phenomenon, notwithstanding a politicization of the immigration issue from the early 1990s and an increasing pressure on welfare institutions due to the fast shift to a family migration: undoubtedly, one of the most important issues is the growth of CMB born abroad and, more and more, in Italy (see tab. 1). A challenge for the Italian nationmaking and welfare institutions: on the one hand, there’s an incomplete nation-making with long-lasting unbalances; on the other hand a welfare consistent with this frame – residual, fragmented, family- and categorybased. A system highly ineffective in coping disadvantages, that accumulate in a context of weak social mobility, both for traditional and recent at-risk populations (Kazepov & Barberis 2005). Given this background, we can wonder if Italy has a model of integration for its immigrants. If we think about grand narratives dominating the European debate (the English race relations, the French intègration républicaine) the answer is probably negative, tied to the lack of a grand nation-making narrative itself (Melotti 2008). Tab.1 Demographic indicators (resident population) – Italy 2006-2009 Indicator / Year 2006 Total population 59.131.287 Population < 18 y.o. 10.088.141 % of < 18 on total population 17,06 Total births 560.010 Resident foreigners 2.938.922 Resident foreigners < 18 665.625 Whose: born in Italy 398.205 Births by both foreigner parents 57.765 % of foreigners on total population 4,97 % of foreigners < 18 on total population < 18 6,60 % of births by both foreign parents on total births 10,31 Source: our elaboration on data from demo.istat.it 2009 Delta 06/09 60.340.328 10.227.625 16,95 568.857 4.235.059 932.675 572.720 77.109 7,02 9,12 13,56 2,05 1,38 -0,64 1,58 44,10 40,12 43,83 33,49 41,24 38,18 31,52 7 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 Though, we can see a mode quite consistent with its political culture and welfare state-making, whose main features are (Ambrosini 1999; Caponio 2008): an emergency coping; the gap between formal rules and actual practices; the delegation to civil society; the localism. As a whole, scholars in Italy variously defined this “mode” as indirect, implicit, subaltern_ we prefer here to define it as “micro-regulative”, lacking a state paradigm. 2. Italian education policy and CMB’s disadvantage The education system is no exception in this, and in comparative terms it is even considered the weakest integration policy areas in Italy (Huddleston et al. 2011). The outcome on CMB’s careers is clear: high drop-outs, late accomplishments and segregated choices of upper secondary schools (FGA, forthcoming; see also table 2 and 3). Tab.2 Share of late career students per citizenship and school level (school year 2008/09) Italians Non-Italians Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary 1,8 7,1 25,1 20,4 50,2 71,8 Source: our elaboration on MIUR 2009a Tab.3 Distribution of students per type of upper secondary school (school year 2008/09) School type General + Art Technical Professional Non-Italian pupils Total pupils 21,4 38,0 40,6 42,8 34,0 23,2 Source: our elaboration on MIUR 2009a, MIUR 2009b This issue has to be framed in the institutional context of the Italian education system: since the 1970s, it has been comprehensive, that is: disadvantaged groups are not taught separately, and the schools offer a universal education setting, in case with projects and professionals to address particular problems. Though, we could state that a comprehensive approach to emerging social questions (like immigration) have been much less object of a real debate, and have been pursued without adequate skills and resources – in a context where also the protection and support for “traditional” categories of disadvantage have been hit by retrenchment. Thus, schools and local authorities built up their know-how incrementally within local public-private partnerships, and this became more and more true starting from late 1990s, when decentralization became a keystone of new institutional reforms, in a way that is turning to be just a “decentralization of penury” (Kazepov 2010). In this context, emerging risks, like the ones concerning the integration of CMB, found fragmented answers, that we try to sort out in the following paragraphs. 3. Methodology We will work out the relationship between individual trajectories and institutional coping, as emerging from first results of the EC-funded research GOETE (Governance of Educational Trajectories in Europe).2 We investigated this issue in three cities in Italy (Bologna, Ancona and Catania), mirroring territorial differences in social needs and institutional answers. The focus is on pupils attending the last grade of lower secondary schools (usually 13 y.o., a crucial year, since they have to choose 2 For further information, see www.goete.eu 8 the upper secondary school likely to affect their future). To address the issue, the project used a mixed-method approach. In § 4 we account for a survey with pupils and parents’ on individual education trajectories and well-being, while § 5 analyses interviews and focus groups with actors included in a school-centred network (principals, teachers, pupils, parents, experts and professionals). 4. CMB and disadvantage in Italy: hints from a survey Questionnaires were administered in six lower secondary schools per city and to their parents. The students’ dataset includes 1388 cases, and the parents’ one 1074. The dataset is rich (> 250 variables) concerning well-being, relationships, school results and career, attitudes and behaviours. We analyse just main differences between immigrant and local population, using indicators of “settlement diversity”:    years lived in the country (8,8% of students and 12,8% of parents migrated to Italy, half of whom have been living in Italy for less than 5 years); citizenship (8,4% of students and 9,2% of parents aren’t Italian citizens, some 2/5 from ECE countries); place of birth (8,9% of pupils and 13,4% of parents were born abroad, again some 2/5 from ECE countries) Obviously these data are quite differentiated by city, since immigration is an issue mainly in Centre and Northern Italy: 12,6% in Bologna, 9,1% in Ancona and just 2,3% in Catania. 4.1. Irregular careers We have seen above official data on school regularity, showing that CMB are often late in their education career. Our datasets confirms this: 48,2% of Albanians and the others non-Italian pupils are late (with a slight over-representation for ECE CMB) – up to 67,3% for those living in Italy for less than 5 years – while “late” Italians in our sample are 7,6%. This is just partly due to bad achieving: there’s an effect of the institutional coping of migration (e.g. grades were newcomers are placed): actually, non-Italians repeating at least one year in their school career are 16,4% vs. 7,2% of Italians. So, while the share of “late” Italian is similar to the share of those repeating a year (7,6 vs. 7,2), the gap for CMB is wide (48,2 vs. 16,4), showing that failures aren’t the only reason for a slow career. Actually, 42,2% of CMB (and 50% of those from ECE countries), especially those living in Italy for less than 5 years, changed primary school (vs. 13% of Italians), and 16,5% changed lower secondary school (vs. 4,6%), thus it is likely that class insertion after moves is a relevant factor. 4.2. Satisfaction, motivation and wellbeing: the exclusion of newcomers Bad achievements are tied to a situation of “broken networks” that negatively affects attitudes and satisfaction and can magnify disadvantage. CMB are less satisfied by their school choice and – as Italian bad achievers state too – they would have preferred another one: they had no tool to choose (usually parents do), and they are dropped in an unfamiliar context. Considering a set of questions on pupils’ well-being (Kidscreen-10), we can see lower levels for almost every item, and the gap is wider exactly for those referring to relations: CMB feel more lonely and to spend less good time with friends. In this area, we have also a wider standard deviation, showing differences among CMB: sadness, loneliness and isolation are felt especially by those living in Italy for less than 5 years. Though ECE CMB mean data are usually closer to Italian than to other migrants. 9 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 Tab.4 Answers to the Kidscreen-10 questions (“Over the last week I:”), mean by nationality on selected items Italian Mean N σ ECE Mean N σ Other Mean N σ Felt fit and well Got on well at school Felt full of energy Felt lonely 3,88 1259 0,97 3,78 50 0,95 3,65 65 1,07 3,68 1247 0,94 3,55 49 0,84 3,41 64 0,97 3,51 1249 1,05 3,52 50 1,02 3,33 64 1,02 4,34 1242 1,04 4,24 49 1,03 3,86 64 1,36 Anyway, as other studies show (FGA, forthcoming), CMB are pleased by the school setting as an experience of peer relationship and especially newcomers love to go to school more than Italians, possibly because it is a “safe environment” where positive relations are more likely. 4.3. Poor relations Though, we should not overstate: in a set of questions on relationships with teachers and pupils at school, bot Italians and foreigners have same mean values, but newcomers rate a bit less peer group solidarity, and more teachers’ help – showing a need for reference persons, since they feel more lonely, awkward and outsiders. ECE CMB have profiles closer to nationals, though with stronger family relationships and weaker friendship networks. Other variables confirm this trend:   CMB have less friends than Nationals, especially within school; as for social networks to cope with problems, newcomers show a very limited support network for most of the relevant others (family members and friends, for example), while many seek advice on the internet Parents Had fun treated with your fairly friends 4,32 1249 1,02 4,34 50 0,77 4,06 64 1,15 4,31 1245 1,01 4,06 49 1,23 4,00 65 1,25 (38,1% of newcomers vs. 31,4% of long-staying migrants and 24% of those born in Italy). Thus, a rebalancing is needed with the role of institutions, visible with a higher share of newcomers seeking professional advice (psychologists, youth workers, school counsellors). 4.4. Family background In a context of weak but sought relations, the role of family is also quite ambivalent. On the one hand, it is more binding: CMB, especially newcomers and females, spend more time than their colleagues in activities like helping at home and looking after younger siblings – and spend also more time in other activities usually done at home (using TV, computer). This also means that they spend less time doing activities outside, thus curbing their relational chances. Furthermore, immigrant families often have poor tools to support their children in a frail period of their life: among the relevant others to cope with problems, CMB refer less than Nationals to parents. Answers to another questions show that they don’t feel like having someone to talk 10 about their problems (for ECE CMB, especially fathers are absent). This also means that they could feel more and more distant from their parents, with parental role loosing authority and relevance in children’s life. And this could be truer in the Italian school system, where homework and parental help is highly pushed, making things difficult for pupils with poor family capital in the destination country (Dalla Zuanna et al. 2009). Another side of this ambivalence concerns expectations and the gap between desired social mobility and support for it. On the one hand, it seems that immigrant parents obsessively repeat their children that it is important to do well at school, though their score is clearly under average as for actual interests in school progress and support (in this case, ECE are inbetween for mothers, laggards for fathers). Thus, there’s a poorer family dialogue, also on general issues like future, current political issues and the like. An ambivalence that becomes potential conflict when thinking about future careers: comparing future educational and job choices according to pupils and parents, the gap for CMB is much wider than for Nationals: there’s almost no nationality difference in pupils’ expectations, while immigrant parents have lower expectations, often lower than children. Furthermore, besides this relational dimension, there’s also a material dimension: immigrant families are overrepresented among lower class households. They are more often single-earner – and with lower status. Using the ISEI, we can see that the gap between Italian and Non-Italian mothers is around 29%, and the gap between fathers is some 23% (it is lower for ECE parents). Though, applying ISEI to children’s expectations, we can see there’s no gap at all in aspired jobs among pupils, and ECE CMB have the highest aspirations. Albanians and the others Thus, the gap between expectations and family socio-economic status is much wider within migrant families (60%) than within nationals’ ones (30%). So, there’s also a risk of fallen expectations in a country with limited intergenerational upward mobility. Not by chance, we can already see effects of delusion in long-staying CMB: they have lower aspirations than newcomers. Coding with ESeC, we see that their expectations are mainly in sectors where also their parents are overrepresented and that become a kind of destiny. 4.5. Reported behaviours: downward assimilation of settled migrants The GOETE survey had also questions on self-reported at-risk behaviours: we can see that 21,6% of CMB state they have played truant (vs. 10,2% of Italians, but also ECE have similar shares), especially long-stayers. Also other at-risk behaviours are overrepresented among long-stayers: they reported to have smoked tobacco, drunk alcohol, been sexually active, written/ sprayed graffiti more than the others. Part of the difference can be due to age (CMB are older due to late school careers), but the link with underachievement is anyway clear (cfr. also FGA, forthcoming). 4.6. Summing up risks for CMBs Above data show two different risk trajectories for newcomers and long-stayers: the first group feels excluded, the second is going toward a downward assimilation. In this respect, the importance of achieving at school should not be underrated. Somehow, a relevant share of CMB living in Italy for more than 5 years seem to “give up”. Thus, it looks very important to close the gap as soon as possible, since this has an effect not only on school career. ECE CMB are in-between, with behaviours and attitudes quite similar to Italians, but weak social relations: possibly, Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 proxy of a stigma that could lead to Mertonian deviance (accepted goals, poor means to achieve them), also in a context of broken family links... many ECE CMB have no or poor relations with their fathers, since often ECE migration to Italy is female. Though, deviance rate are not so high. From an institutional point of view, we can see that support agencies fail to cope properly with newcomers and to make up for their limited social resources; as time passes, a spiral of demotivation and downward assimilation starts, likely based also on fallen expectations. Though, school is just part of the problem: somehow the educational task is achieved, as the gap between nationals and CMB becomes smaller for those spending more years in the Italian education and belonging to generations born in Italy (Della Zuanna et al. 2009; INVALSI 2010). Though, the main issue seems an inconsistent support network, with a poor involvement of support professionals and of out-of-school agencies. We will try to sort this issue out in the last part of this paper, with a qualitative point of view on definition of disadvantage and coping and governance according to principals, teachers, parents and pupils. 5. Defining and coping immigrant disadvantage in local case studies As we mentioned above, the local dimension of coping is very relevant in the Italian institutional system. We will report here some qualitative evidences of coping strategies and defi nition of problems in the school-centred network case studies we analysed. First, it has to be said that in a context of retrenchment disadvantaged youth can be particularly hit, and also the motivation of institutional actors is hit hard: “There’s no positive mood on our side, we [teachers] are demoralized, discouraged, 11 overwhelmed by unpaid tasks, without any pampering from outside […] and this has an effect on pupils” [teacher]. All in all, school staff feels overwhelmed. Actually, their definition of disadvantage includes “big” structures (social values, parents’ weakness and – to a lesser extent – pupils’ culture), thus perceiving themselves as limited in their success chances. From this point of view, CMB “stress” further the institution, in a frustrating lack of adequate provisions to cope emerging issues. Anyway, in the last years, school staff progressed in the understanding and facing of CMB, acquiring skills in intercultural education, and defining different risk profiles (e.g. according to place of origin, individual and family migration history). Thus, the profiling teachers enact has a strong effect on individual coping, lacking enforceable enough inputs from the State level. Notwithstanding years of migration, national guidelines and institutionalized local coping practice, the first issue teachers underline is still the coping of new-comers, especially those having already a formal education in the origin country and being inserted at school in the middle of the year: the need to focus on language issues can easily turn into underachieving in many subjects, and thus in frustrating school failures. “If we notice that a 13 y.o. has knowledge equal to a first grade lower secondary school, we should put him/her there; though, such an older boy in a first grade causes discomfort...” [teacher] “Foreign pupils enrolling in December are absolutely lost […] they can make it the first year, but they’ll fail in the following one” [Albanian intercultural mediator] Furthermore, there’s the feeling that efforts made at school toward integration and intercultural participation are neutralised in everyday life. 12 On the one hand, these pupils are torn between parents’ expectations and cultural norms, and host country social models coming from the media and the peer group: “Italian habits are not for my children. After school on Saturday, mine stay home doing their homework, and we go out just together as a family […] They have friends at school, but on saturday they wander around; mine not, they haven’t yet a fiancee” (Filipino mother) “When they ask my daughter if she has a boyfriend, I tell: - Don’t ask her like that, we don’t follow such model like those kids, already starting at 10. And then my daughter answers: - Anyway none likes me, since I’m dark-skinned” (Albanian mother) In some cases, especially with females, this attitude can be an advantage in having success at school “Our children are more fragile than foreigners: they are used to make it out by themselves in many cases, and they respect school institutions more” (Italian mother) “Since I’ve been here, I had 4 excellent Albanian schoolgirls. Besides their commitment and reliability, there’s a family behind, that believes in them and doesn’t allow carelessness, since they show that what they have is luxury. I’ve in mind A*****, she’s relentless, she never stops, she is quiet and tenacious […] When her mothers comes and talks to me, she says that she and her husband work night and day, and they just ask their children to study […] A parent should be this way” (teacher) On the other hand, social relations at large too often have discriminatory features that undermines the effort to build positive relations at school: “We teach respect, and they also put into practice this lesson here. But just outside the Albanians and the others school walls everything is forgotten, our work is lost” (principal) Though, some difficulties and disadvantages are perceived as timebounded, as for lacking integration due to short stays and school attendance, and possibly to be solved as time passes. “They always stay at home, they don’t go to birthday parties. They have not been integrating yet […] I think that as time passes... now the elder brother will go to an upper secondary school, if he will be promoted: then, he will need to move alone, he will learn to take the bus; I think it’s just an issue of personal maturity, not great problems, but an experience they will gain little by little”. (Italian step-father of two Romanian children recently arrived in Italy). Nevertheless, there are also confirmations of downward assimilation trends, sometimes tied to class issues (lower class parents not investing in education), sometimes to relational dynamics: actually, an interesting emerging issue is that Italian pupils with learning or relational difficulties tend to get along better with immigrant pupils, probably being both excluded by “mainstream” children. “My son’s best friend is from Senegal” (Italian mother of a bullied schoolgirl). “My daughter get along well overall with foreign girls” (Italian mother of a schoolgirl with learning disorders). 6. Conclusions CMB are actually disadvantaged within the school system, due to an institutional setting unable to cope with diversity in a structured manner. The cycle of falling into disadvantage starts with an insufficient safety net for newcomers, in which the comprehensive education system turns to Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 be a (inconsistent) assimilationist machine, with a selective and subaltern inclusion of CMB and the blaming of those cut out, defined as non-deserving risk groups (mainly: male pre-adolescents with a long migration history) (Ambrosini 2004). This paves the way for demotivation and downward assimilation, thus reinforcing negative stereotypes and blaming. In this frame, ECE CMB have somehow an in-between condition: possibly favoured by an easier learning of the language and cultural vicinity, their first impact with the education system seems easier, and characterized (especially for the Albanians, and sometimes also for the Romanians) by a “mimetic strategy” (Romania 2004) that makes them “invisible”. This strategy tickles the implicit assimilationism of Italian management of immigration, with the effect of underrating social problems of new ECE CMB generations: the weakness 13 of friendship ties is a proxy of a possible failure of mimetism, and the persistence of stigmatization. The poor attention institutions and relevant stakeholders pay to longstayers perhaps don’t favour a downward assimilation (data on at-risk behaviours are quite positive for ECE CMB), but likely a subaltern path, with dangerous clashing and unmet expectations and weak upward mobility chances. As a consequence, the weak integration process in Italy could also affect origin countries: it is more likely that the attachment balance between the two countries is somehow undone and puzzled, since the Italian mode of integration do not state clear rights and duties, and with back-effects not so positive as they could be, since the upward mobility of new generations could be seriously hindered, thus lacking resources to win their day in transnational arenas. REFERENCES Ambrosini M. (1999) Utili invasori. Angeli, Milano Ambrosini M. (2004) Il futuro in mezzo a noi. In: M. Ambrosini, S. Molina (a cura di) Seconde Generazioni. FGA, Torino. Caponio T. (2008) (Im)migration research in Italy. A European comparative perspective. The Sociological Quarterly, 49(3): 445-64. Dalla Zuanna G., Farina P., Strozza S. (2009) Nuovi italiani. Il Mulino, Bologna FGA (forthcoming) Rapporto sulla scuola in Italia 2011. Laterza, Roma-Bari Huddleston T. et al. (2011) Migrant integration policy index III. British Council and Migration Policy Group, Brussels (available at www. mipex.eu) Heckmann F. (2008) Education and the Integration of Migrants. NESSE Analytical Report, 1 INVALSI (2010) Rilevamento degli apprendimenti – SNV. Prime analisi. Invalsi, Roma Kazepov Y. (ed.) (2010) Rescaling social policies: towards multilevel governance in Europe. Ashgate, Farnham. Kazepov Y., Barberis E. (2005) Policies preventing the risks of exclusion of families with difficulties in Italy. Synthesis Report. Peer Review in the Field of Social Inclusion Policies, mimeo (available at www.peer-review-social-inclusion.net) King R. (ed.) (2002) Migration in Southern Europe: new trends and new patterns, Studi Emigrazione / Migration Studies, 145 Melotti U. (2008) Migratory policies and political cultures in Europe: Is there something new? In: Heinrich Boell Stiftung (ed.) European Governance of Migration. Heinrich-BollStiftung, Berlin. OECD (2008) What works in migration education? Consolidating the research evidence. OECD, Paris. Parreira do Amaral M. et al. (2011) Governance of educational trajectories in Europe. State of the Art Report. Mimeo (available on www. goete.eu). Romania, V. (2004) Farsi passare per italiani. Carocci, Roma. SUPRA-, INTER AND INTRASOCIAL MOTIONS: PROLEGOMENA TO THE ONTOLOGICAL POVERTY OF SOCIETIES Janos TOTH - Eötvös Lorand University, Hungary E-mail: jatoth@freemail.hu ABSTRACT Notions of poverty and impoverishment are often filled with value-loaded connotations, and identified with deprivation both as a state and as a process. In this paper, we would like to show that poverty reveals itself not only as lack or scarcity but also as a totality of positive practices, attributes and strategies on individual as well as on group level. The study employs the Christian understanding of poverty to argue that the surpluses are of different nature and are interconnected with various types of deficits, constituting a complex network which equally affects material, moral, social, and spiritual dimensions. Our objective here is to outline certain aspects of a theory that aims at a new concept of “poverty” and “impoverishment”, which will enable us to include both the positive and negative individual and communal states and motions described in Christian tradition and the negative states and motions constituting the object of deficit-centered theories of poverty. Keywords: poverty, impoverishment, religion, society, social motion Introduction There is no research on poverty without having preconceptions about the nature of the phenomenon constituting its object. However, only a fraction of theories serving as the basis for those researches link their assertions on poverty to the preconceived notions that determine the demarcation of the domain of poverty through the selection and organization of different perceptions in a given intellectual framework.1 The unidentified nature of such preconceptions is relevant not exclusively in metatheories but it may also make the adequacy of a given theory questionable in additional researches, which results in a situation where these theories can not provide a 1 ”(...) the theory itself creates—it socially constructs—the terrain. A theory entails imposing interpretations (definitions, categories, and understandings) on behavior. Once we have a theory in mind, we pose questions that take those definitions, categories, and understandings for granted” (quoted from: Wallis 2010: 103). Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 15-22 16 general answer to at least two of the most basic questions, namely, “what is poverty” and “who is poor?”. Some compendiums rightly claim that poverty exists as a concept, not as a fact, and must be understood as such (Borgatta & Montgomerry 2000: 2209-10), which claim, although does not establish automatically the validity of statements that there are neither theories of poverty (Jordan 1996: 81) nor a sociology of poverty in the true sense (Roach & Roach 1972: 13), but instead reveals that metatheoretical approaches towards the theories of poverty are not unfounded. Accordingly, hereafter I will attempt to  present a specific underlying assumption which is easily recognizable in major economy- and society-focused theories of poverty and stands behind their deficit-centered concepts of poverty raise the question of to what extent deficit-centered approaches are capable to identify phenomenons with satisfying accuracy as “poverty”, or statuses as “poverty-stricken” trace a possible approach which, by going beyond deficits, tries to include surpluses of different natures among the indicators of poverty, some of them already identified during the history of Christian thought and finally, take some new aspects of poverty into consideration by the inclusion of which the conceptualization of impoverishment in some specific cases can reveal the dynamics between the modes of human symbiosis    Poverty as deficit As indicated before, one of the detectable assumptions underlying many 2 Supra, inter and intrasocial motions theories −which is central to our theme− is an understanding of poverty as a lack or deficit, meaning that poverty is a state A’ of an (individual or group) entity, which is determined by insufficiency or shortages in dimension(s) relevant to the specific viewpoint of the theory. This state of lack is unfavorable compared to a state A of exactly the same characteristics but not containing the aforementioned insufficiency or shortages. Here, it is not possible to undertake a detailed analysis of these theories or their applications but we may take it granted that such theories exist. We can also maintain that further research is needed to clarify exactly which theories and applications could be included in this category, which I will refer to from now on as “deficit-centered theories of poverty”. To signify phenomenons and entities as “poor” based on some perceptible insufficiency or shortages seems problematic not only from an economic, but also from social and anthropological point of view. Approaches to poverty focusing on economic definitions generally understand deficit in terms of income and different types of capital: The World Bank, for example, defined the absolute poverty line at $1 (from 2008, $1.25 measured in 2005 prices) a day, converted to local currencies using purchasing power parity (PPP) exchange rates (The World Bank 2008:1), while other approaches operate with the lack of such material needs of life as food, drinking water, home, clothing, means of production and medical supplies. However, this type of approach neglects that in economics −if the total cost of production and all the costs and benefi ts arising from the consumption Although in this paper we can not discuss the problem in detail, the full cost per full profit ratio does not correspond to the business costs per business profit ratio relevant to individual contractors and profit oriented organizations. The former also deals with various types of externalities while the latter tends to ignore those. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 or possession of a group of goods2 are taken into consideration−not all kind of incomes and goods have a positive economical value, or rather there are some types of incomes and goods that on the whole have positive economical value but their costs and benefits belong to different entities and not necessarily at the same time. For example the restoration costs of the economic damages and disadvantages caused by marketing a disadvantageous insurance product or by contributing to the production of a product that causes severe environmental damages may significantly exceed the income benefits of the insurance agent, employees, or shareholders in the industry where they are produced. Moreover, in the incomebased definition of the poverty line, only the income of the examined households are considered when summing up the expenses and commitments, whereas there are many additional items − like, among many other things, interest payments on consumer debts and home rental charges − that are easily dropped from calculations (see Short 2005: 35-36, Pressman and Scott 2010: 12). Hence comes the absurd situation where a family with several children living in a rented flat and encumbered with credit card debt, and a single man with an average income and living in his own house but without debt may be classified to the same income category, although the income available for spending after the essentials will differ significantly in the two cases. For material goods, the situation is quite similar in 17 the extent that there are goods where the restoration or compensation costs of their negative biological effects originating from their possession, consumption, or from a symbolic feeling of loss3 may also carry a negative economical value, independently of the fact that either the state or the individual does not undertake, or only partially undertake, the costs of restoration or compensation. C o n v e r s e l y, p o v e r t y c a n b e conceptualized in the field of economics not exclusively as a lack, but rather as the existence of something, although it still remains true that those values with which we can describe a poor and a nonpoor entity will belong to the same scale, even if closer to different ends of the scale. Now from a social point of view, poverty as an existence of something will not refer exclusively to quantitative, but also to qualitative differences in social organization: While a deficit-centered concept of poverty is useful to identify and examine social classes occupying lower positions in a social structure, the concept of poverty as the existence of something seems to be more adequate for describing the relationship between a particular social structure and modes of human existence excluded from that structure, thus forced to organize itself −even within the limits of a state or a geographic region− differently from the societies in which they previously participated. The potential relevance of this suggestion is based on the fact that the characteristics which make the difference 3 In classical economics Adam Smith showed through the famous example of the linen shirt and leather shoes that some things become valuable not only in their material reality or functionality, but also in the opinion-and judgement-producing capacities. “A creditable day-labourer”, Smith wrote, “would be ashamed to appear in public without a linen shirt, the want of which would be supposed to denote that disgraceful degree of poverty, which, it is presumed, nobody can well fall into without extreme bad conduct. Custom, in the same manner, has rendered leather shoes a necessary of life in England. The poorest creditable person, of either sex, would be ashamed to appear in public without them.” (Smith 2009:519). It is not unreasonable to argue that not only the lack of some goods, but also the possession or consumption of culture-dependent “inferior” goods can lead to a sense of shame and humiliation, stimulated by public reaction. 18 between these “alternative modes of existence” and the societies which they were former members of are not the variations or alterations of former social norms or lifestyle strategies, adjusted to the new situation: On the contrary, in these new modes of subsistence, the narrow sources available are used −in absence of external control mechanisms or other impacts− not for reintegration, but in many cases to develop, maintain and reproduce different types of concretes, namely, institutions, identities, values and norms, which are irreconcilable with and independent from those of the society. This approach, accompanied by the economic view of poverty (which is the dominant model of modernity) leads to the “culture of poverty” theory which we do not need to present here in details. What we need to talk about, on the other hand, is that the causes which leads to the exclusion of entities from a given social structure are not necessarily economic or social, but can be derived from the characteristics of the entity in question, hence there are poverty approaches focusing not only on economic or social, but also to anthropological dimensions. On the whole, although Sen’s capability approach and its criticisms are currently a part of poverty discourses, which we can meet mainly in classical sociology and economics. It is all the more interesting that according to surveys, the perception that link poverty to deviant morality and personal failure (which some 150 years ago in the English Poor Law explained the individual’s incapability to sustain himself and his family without external support with scientific ambitions) still influences the social image of poverty in a large degree (Feagin 1972a, 1972b, Zucker and Weiner 1993, Harmon 2010: 2-10). It is especially true in countries where (neo)protestant thought and new-born evangelicalism have an impact comparable Supra, inter and intrasocial motions or even greater than the secular world view. Considering, by the same token the connections that can be shown to exists between religious traditions and local characteristics of poverty policy in Catholic, Protestant and Evangelic countries (Kahl 2005: 118-123), it can be argued that even in our days, the influence of the so-called “religious factor” on the various concepts of poverty is not negligible. However, it can equally be assumed that this influence came from certain historically selected elements of religious understanding of poverty which was found relevant to actual sociocultural situations. This question will be examined further in the next section, divided into two parts; the first being devoted to an outline of different dimensions of the biblical meaning of “poor” using passages from the Bible and traditional exegetical commentaries; and the second dealing with the means and possibilities to produce an intellectual surplus in the field of poverty theories with the consideration of elements not influencing the deficitcentered view of poverty. The dimensions of Christian poverty Bible translations based on the Greek texts translate two words as “poor”: penes which means poor in a narrower sense and ptokos which has a more complex meaning. Penes simply means a person who has to work to earn a living, while ptokos, as we would like to point out in the following, has many different, contextbased meanings. According to these contexts, the word could signify 1. Poor in the material sense of the word a. Involuntary poverty: here, ptokos signifies a person who, independently of their intentions, does not have access, or has only very limited access 19 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 to goods needed for satisfying basic biological needs, hence needs to beg for alms. Voluntary poverty: here, ptokos signifies the person who, from their own free will, limits their consumption to what is biologically necessary or does not significantly exceed that level (subsistence from begging for alms is not peculiar here either). b. At the same time, this type of poverty is defined not only by the extreme lack of material goods: Concerning the identity of the poor inside the Christian community, the identification of Christ with the poor is more important. The poor are a sacramental presence of Christ for the Church, both mysterious and real, therefore, the state of a poor person carries a specific surplus both for themself, for their neighbors and for the whole community. Behind voluntary poverty stands the longing for living a life according to Christ’s teachings, the practical realization of discernment, renouncement and humility. While both voluntary and involuntary poverty give an opportunity to other people and to the community to respond with acts of charity and love by recognizing Christ in the poor. 2. Spiritual poverty Spiritual poverty in a general sense can be used to describe the nature of the human condition as fallible and weak, needing the grace of God. In addition, in Christian literature it is also often used to show a bipolar phenomenon, whose bipolarity is partially similar to the one recognizable in material poverty, but also differs from it in many respects. Similar because in spiritual poverty, as in material poverty, the lack of something is attached to a definite surplus, and also different 4 5 because in the latter mode the negatively understood material lack is associated with a positive spiritual and moral surplus, while in the the former case, both the lack and the surplus are positioned in negative value domains: The lack of spiritual goods and virtues are connected with “inferior”, “miserable”, “godless” attributes, thoughts and lifestyle strategies, hence spiritual poverty describes a human state or condition which is typical of sinners, the errant, and heretics. That approach to spiritual poverty was described in one of the agraphas as follows: „Jesus saith − I stood in the midst of the world, and in the flesh was I seen of them: and I found all men drunken, and none found I athirst among them. And My soul grieveth over the sons of men, because they are blind in their heart and see not [their wretchedness and their] poverty.” (Griffinhoofe 1903: 60) In addition, according to The Book of Revelations: „Because thou sayest, I am rich, and increased with goods, and have need of nothing; and knowest not that thou art wretched, and miserable, and poor, and blind, and naked.” (Rev 3.17) Unmistakably, here poverty was not used simply to signify a deficit, but was defined and valorized as the existence of something (in the first text as drunkedness and in the second case as a specific attitude of men to material goods). This bipolarity of spiritual poverty appears in numerous exegetical commentaries,4 and generally acts as an exclusive tendency in the Bible to propose inverse analogies between antagonistic subjects: We can get an example of this from the epistles of John, where having the “love of the world” testifies that the man in question does not have the “love of the Father” (1John 2.15), and in the same way, having aberrant and godless thoughts and deeds testifies for the state of spiritual poverty. see references in (Lampe 1961: 1206), esp. ’ptokeia’ D. And ’ptokos’ C. cf. Matthew 19:30, 20:16, 18:14 Mark 10:31, 9:35, Luke 18:14, 9:48 20 3. Poorness in spirit However, inverse analogies exist not only between antagonistic subjects, but can also be defined as the relation between the manifestations of one and the same subject as its different dimensions.5 Accordingly, being poor in spirit differs from spiritual poverty in the extent of referring neither to the lack of something divine nor to having godless things and deeds, but it rather signifies the existence of a divine virtue, namely, humility in people. Concerning the “poor in spirit” (ptokoi to pneumati), one of the most memorable passages in the Bible is certainly the first Beatitude of the Sermon on the Mount: “Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the Kingdom of heaven” (Mt. 5:3) Exegetic commentaries of this passage make it obvious that poorness in spirit comes not from some deficit, but states the meaning of a concrete attribute (and that attribute’s practical outcome): “What is meant by ‘the poor in spirit?’ The humble and contrite in mind. For by ‘spirit’ He hath here designated the soul, and the faculty of choice. That is, since many are humble not willingly, but compelled by stress of circumstances; letting these pass (for this were no matter of praise), He blesses them first, who by choice humble and contract themselves.” (St. John Chrysostom: Homilies on Mt. 15.2 in Schaff 1980: 92) „(...) a man being righteous and chosen of God does not esteem himself to be anything, but holds his soul in abasement and disregards, as if he know nothing and had nothing, though he knows and has. This is a fixed thing, like a law of nature, in the mind of men.” (Macarius the Egyptian: Hom. 12.3 in Mason 1921: 90) „For the faithful, truth-loving soul (...) esteems itself, and its diligence and pains and labor all unworthy in comparison with Supra, inter and intrasocial motions the unspeakable promises of the Spirit. This is the poor in spirit, whom the Lord pronounced blessed, this is he who hungers and thirsts after righteousness, this is he who is contrite in heart.” (Macarius the Egyptian: Hom. 29.7 in Mason 192: 222) 4. The poverty of Christ The basis of reference for the poverty of Christ is kenosis, the self-emptying process of God where, in Christ, He became man for man’s salvation. The meaning of Christ’s poverty in Christian tradition is that God became man so that man might become God (by imitation and participation). The Apostle Paul said that “Christ Jesus, who, though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped, but emptied himself, by taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men.” (Phil. 2:6-7) and “though he was rich, yet for your sake he became poor, so that you by his poverty might become rich.” (2Kor 8:9). The phrase “that you by his poverty might become rich” indicates that the type of poverty that Christ undertook, besides being an aspect of equality with God, it clearly indicates a deficit as well, at the same time it is presented as a surplus: in the continuation of the previous citation, we can read that “And being found in human form, he humbled himself by becoming obedient to the point of death, even death on a cross. Therefore God has highly exalted him and bestowed on him the name that is above every name, so that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth.” (Phil. 2:8-9), hereby, it is not unreasonable to say that according to the Bible, Christ’s poverty carries concrete (in the act of salvation) and potential (concerning the opportunities in the union with God) surpluses for the created man. The above outlines of the meaning of Christian poverty, although they were Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 not written with theological pretensions and do not intended to undertake the task of a detailed analysis of the connections between the dimensions they outline, seem suitable to make the following statements about the Biblical meanings of poverty: 1. 2. 3. 4. Poverty in a Biblical context is (generally speaking) a polysemantic concept, with different meanings relevant in different −material, moral and spiritual− dimensions Poverty as a state can be characterized with both having and lacking specific things, attributes and qualities Deficits and surpluses connected to poverty do not manifest independently from each other, but are different ends of a bipolar phenomenon: compared to each other, a deficit manifests as a parallel of a given surplus and surpluses manifest as parallels of deficits These different poles can equally be relevant just as well for the same as for different entities Concerning the correspondence between the deficit-centered and the traditional Christian approach to poverty, it can be said that on the one hand, differences outweigh the common elements, on the other hand, the hermeneutic potential of the conceptual framework of Christianity is not only different but also affects a significantly larger domain than that of the deficitcentered approach. Recognition of the differences between religious and scientific hermeneutic potentials, independently from scientific disciplines, often results in the renormativization of the religious approach − but our aims by contrasting the two cannot be more different than that: we merely tried to show that in certain cases, the reconceptualization of 21 poverty as something positive (as having something), or rather as a simultaneous and multidimensional network of deficits and surpluses is able to approach the phenomenon of poverty with a better focus and greater relevance, being either a useful supplement to, or a reasonable alternative of a deficit-centered approach. This alternative − which obviously still needs to be developed further− includes a specific approach that understands poverty as having and using resources of different quality of being, and impoverishment as moving in and between differently organized economical, social, and anthropological structures, a motion which gains the energy needed from operating these resources. As a consequence of that, the category of “poverty” and “impoverishment” equally embed the positive and negative individual and communal states and motions described in Christian tradition and those negatively understood states and motions which constitute the object of defi cit-centered theories of poverty. In my opinion, questions flowing from the above outlined integration cannot be bypassed in the field of social sciences, because it shows that expendable resources can be different from the viewpoint of the existence of societies and peoples, and the current situation, which tends to disregard some of these resources but makes others absolute is incompatible with the scientific description of “poor peoples”, “poor societies” and “poor economies”. Instead of positioning poverty due to this exclusivity automatically in negative value domains, it seems more useful to focus on the question whether poverty and impoverishment in the aforementioned sense have, on the whole, positive or negative effects on the individual and collective modes of human existence. This is equivalent to claiming that in this regard, we can equally speak about positive 22 and negative poverty, maintaining that the reference for this valorization of the phenomenon is necessarily ontological, Supra, inter and intrasocial motions and not to be determined merely by according to its economical, social, moral or spiritual dimensions. BIBLIOGRAPHY Borgatta, E.F. and Montgomery, R.J.V. (2000) Encyclopedia of Sociology (2nd ed., Vol. 3), New York: Macmillan Feagin, J. R. (1972a) ‘Poverty: We still believe that God helps those who help themselves’, Psychology Today, 1972;1 pp. 101-129. Feagin, J. R. (1972b) ‘America’s welfare stereotypes’, Social Science Quarterly, 52, pp. 921-933. Griffinhoofe, C.G. (1903) The unwritten sayings of Christ, Cambridge: Heffer Harmon, Mark D. (2010): When Mediated Poverty Stereotypes align with Public Opinion: A Clear Predictor of Ideology and Party in the U.S., Presentation to the Midwest Political Science Association, [Online], Available: http://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1000&context=utk_jourpubs [22 sept 2011] Jordan, Bill (1996) A theory of poverty and social exclusion, Camebridge: Polity Press Kahl, Sigrun (2005) ‘The Religious Roots of Modern Poverty Policy: Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed Protestant Traditions Compared’, Archives Européennes de Sociologie (European Journal of Sociology), Vol. XLVI, 1, pp. 91-126. Lampe, G.W.H (1961) A Patristic Greek Lexicon, Oxford: Clarendon press Mason, A.J. (1921) Fifty spiritual homilies of St. Macarius the Egyptian, London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge Pressman, Steven and Scott, Robert H. (2010) ‘Consumer debt and poverty measurement’, Focus Vol. 27, No. 1, Summer 2010, pp. 9-12. Roach, Jack L. & Roach, Janet K. (1972) Poverty. Selected Readings, London: Penguin Books The World Bank (2008) Poverty data: A supplement to World Development Indicators 2008, [Online], Available: http://siteresources. worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/ Resources/WDI08supplement1216.pdf, [17 jul 2011] Short, Kathleen S. (2005): ‘Material and Financial Hardship and Income-Based Poverty Measures in the USA’, Journal of Social Policy 34, 1, 21–38. Smith, Adam (2009) An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Digireads. com Publishing, [Online], Available: http:// bks4.books.google.com.ag/books?id=rBiq T86BGQEC&printsec=frontcover&hl=h u&rview=1#v=onepage&q&f=false [19 jul 2011] Wallis, Steven E. (2010) ‘Toward a science of metatheory’, Integral Review, Vol.6, No. 3, pp. 73-120. Zucker, Gail Sahar and Weiner, Bernard (1993) ‘Conservatism and perceptions of poverty: An attributional analysis’, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, vol. 23/12, pp. 925-943. 23 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 THE ALBANIAN STUDENTS’ STANCES AND PERCEPTIONS REGARDING THE CHOICE OF PROFESSION Simeon NIKOLIDAKIS - University of Pelonnese, Greece E-mail: simosnikoli@yahoo.gr Fotini ANASTASOPOULOU - University of Pelonnese, Greece ABSTRACT During the past years, the Albanian students experiencing intensely the social reality and co-estimating the labor market needs, both in Greece and Albania, tend to choose Technical Vocational Schools that offer them a faster and smoother absorption by the labor market. The sex is a major element in the choice of profession. Our research team, after a research conducted in the schools both of Attica and the rest of the country concluded that male students choose primarily the technical education, not being affected by their parents’ professions but with the hope for a better absorption in the labor market. The viewpoint that they choose a profession based on the needs of their country so that they will be able to practice it in case of return there is interesting. Finding a job within the Greek society is for them a crucial element of study. The majority of the boys do not wish to follow the Tertiary Education. Instead, they choose to work considering it as something more practical and with a safer future. On the other hand, the girls aim at their entrance in the Tertiary Education. The focal point of their interest is the faculties of Human Studies such as Philology, Pedagogics, the Law School and Psychology. These choices are directly interwoven with the family environment, the continuously re-adjusted position of woman within the Albanian family and the patterns of choosing a profession accepted by the social background. We indicatively cite the perpetuation of the notion about “male” and “female” professions which follow the female students’ course of choice. Within the same framework, the few male students that choose Tertiary education prefer, respectively, the faculties of science, technology and finance, guided towards professions with a good professional setting up both in Greece and their country. In our research, we categorized the students attending the Secondary education and through questionnaires and interviews we examined their stances and perceptions towards Tertiary and Technological education. Through the interviews we searched out their family and social motives affecting their choice, while the interviews conducted by the students helped us perceive the structure of the Albanian family and the motives that induced them towards this choice. Keywords: Albanian students, Technical Vocational Schools, labor market, sex, professions Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 23-31 24 The albanian students’ stances & perceptions regarding the choice of profession 1. Introduction The choice of studies in Tertiary education and furthermore the choice of profession in modern society is the outcome of various factors that are related both to the individual’s talents and interests and to sex, family and social reality. The present research concentrates on the Albanian immigrant choices in relation to education and their professional course according to the sex. However, we should also take under consideration the social conditions, the stereotypes as well as the phenomenon of immigration since they all affect decisively the individual’s professional course. The sex plays a particularly significant role in the choice of profession since professional stereotypes for both sexes exist nowadays. The distinction between male and female jobs has not completely vanished and it is based on the diversity of the two sexes in terms of their nature and abilities. Males are more advantageous against females as far as the muscular strength is concerned, whereas females are more capable in taking care, educating and bringing up individuals. This perception has lead to the generation of professional inequalities which are currently undergoing a decrease within the developed societies, however, lying there as remnants to affect young people concerning the choice of their profession (Kassotakis, [admin.], 2004: 178-182). The issue of roles according to the sex seems to be reproduced within the labor areas with women not being able to undertake positions of business strategy, designing and organization, even if they 1 have got a better education during the past years by attending the Tertiary education and exact sciences. One can notice The same situation in politics. The number of women participating in the centers of political decisions is limited. Although it is not a matter of our project, we should mention that the positive discrimination policies applied have not yielded something proving this way that the stereotypes are more powerful (Kalerande & Karafoti, 2004). Our observation lead us to the conclusion that every time that we refer to the choices of the female Albanian immigrants we should take under consideration the interrelated forms of social inequality, especially the inequality in terms of sex, nationality and social class. Therefore, their immigrant status and the professional choices are related and define life choices. The stereotypes concerning the sex are much more intense when the Albanian community is under question because it is about traditional societies with intense sexist traits. The term immigration, in terms of the Greek situation, refers mainly to the Albanian immigrants who consist over 50% of the immigrants¹. During the ‘90s, in particular, the Albanian immigrant population tends to increase, a fact which directly demands the reinforcement of intercultural education which until then had been on a preparatory stage as well as the more general tendency of the Greek society on issues of immigrant assimilation. What is interesting about the researchers is that even from the first years many Albanian communities and associations2 throughout Greece have been developing. Statistics coming from census. We indicatively state the associations of Elefsina and Aspropyrgos which take action in Western Attica. Indicatively: χου, Χ. & α , . (2010), « α α π ο α α α α : α Φα ο ο ο ο », ο: π ου, Φ. ( π .) M ο ο α α α υ π : ο α « ου ο α ου ου », , α: , 193-227. χου, Χ. & α , . (2010), « α ο ο ο α: ο αυ α ο ω ο-πο ο α χ α ο », ο α ου, . α ου α , . ( π .) α α ο : ο α ο , , α: α α, 457-493. 2 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 This population group basically wishes to be incorporated into the Greek society and, thus, it is intensely noticed a tendency for the assimilation of the immigrant children from the Greek reality. At this point, it worth mentioning the female immigration given the fact that the woman plays a crucial role in the child’s development, cultivation and is directly related to his/her education. During the previous years female immigration was addressed as the result of the male one, that is women and children were mentioned as dependent members. As a result women and children were following the man that is we are talking about a “dependent immigration” (Emke – Poulopoulou, 2007: 149-152). Even though the female immigrant has come into the labor market, she still remains responsible for the household and the children upraising. Thus, she legally remains dependent on her husband and her position is downgraded within the family (Emke – Poulopoulou, 2007: 152153). Our observation does not ignore the differentiations that may exist within the family due to the educational and social capital of its members that seem to affect the woman’s position in the family. But, it is generally observed that the positions undertaken by them within the professional areas as a household assistant, elderly nurse and baby-sitter are related to the roles they hold in her family environment. 2 Immigrant education and the greek reality Within a society as much as like the Greek one, multiculturalism is regarded as a given social reality and intercultural education is the means to create cultures symmetric interaction conditions (Govaris, 2004: 110). The procedure of interculturalism is defined as a situation and procedure of conscience based on the re-meditative notion and experience of the cultural pluralism 25 (Govaris, 2004: 85). Within the school community the Albanian immigrants acquire knowledge and theoretical background, through the procedure of incorporation, in order to overcome the needs of the school examination system. The issue of the immigrant education starts from the first years of their incorporation. It is observed that the parents more generally tend to boost their children to attend Greek schools, to learn the language and to try to rise, through Tertiary education, up in the Greek society. It is remarkable that many of the Albanian students do not speak Albanian and regard the Greek language as their mother tongue but without any intention from their side to reject their Albanian nationality. The issue of their children’s education is related to their successful course of their immigration. It is interpreted through the goals they set for progress, success and social mobility. The Albanian immigrants coming in Greece have mainly a low educational capital, something which is related not only to the divergence existing between the Greek and the Albanian culture but to the divergence from the dominant school culture. It is therefore natural that their educational goals are directly linked to their professional evolution in relation to the labor market. We observe that they should connect the two levels that of their education and that of their professional success. For most of them, their professional training is a one-way street. At this point, we should point out that the issue of their professional incorporation is connected to their acceptance and their broader incorporation into the Greek society since unemployment does not only create financial issues but also leads to exclusion and marginalization, a fact that the Albanian family tries to avoid. Learning and using a common language by all the citizens refers to the political principle of equality and to the right to form a common will (Gotovos, 2003: 178-180). 26 The albanian students’ stances & perceptions regarding the choice of profession Thus, within the school the theoretical perception that the immigrant student who attends from an early age a general or an intercultural school has proportionately the same probabilities to enter Tertiary education with a student of Greek citizenship. But researches indicate that despite this theoretical placement, in practice, in professional training there is a multitude of immigrant students in contrast to the general senior high schools where the number of immigrants attending them is limited. It is remarkable that in Primary education, according to a research by Ath. Gotovos and G. Markou,3 there are many foreign students (8,6%) whereas this percentage is dramatically decrease in the junior high school (6,9%) and the senior high school (3,2%). This is a phenomenon going through the time4 and we reach the conclusion that school drop-out, especially by the weak students is a consolidated tactics given the fact that they are boosted to search for a job or they thoughtlessly follow their parents’ profession. It is often the result of the teachers’ behavior usually using stereotype characterizations and humiliating comments. They do not offer any assistance and encourage them to drop out school, because they stereotypically believe that the students of the particular group have no chance to successfully continue the learning procedure (Evangelou & Kantzou, 2005: 37-39). 3. Research data 3.1 Selection of sample In our research we concentrated on immigrant students having attended the General Senior High School and managed to enter an Upper or Technological Education Institution (Tertiary Education). We used the method of questionnaires and the individualized interviews for cases that diverged from the sample. Besides, we looked for the percentage of Albanian immigrants in Universities and Technological institutions5 and we categorized them based on the sex and faculty so that, through the Case Study of the particular parts, we analyze the immigrants’ choices and reinforce the speculations of our research. The Albanian immigrants children show a special interest because a large percentage, as we will analyze afterwards, of the immigrant children choosing the General Senior High School finally manage to enter Tertiary education. Significant research studies about the immigrants have been made in Greece throughout the past years. However, the phenomenon of lack of statistics is a crucial problem since the study of the groups is particularly difficult. The immigrant population does not comprise a homogenous corpus and there are no figures about the accurate number of immigrants in Greece, since many of them entered the country without the necessary documents (Emke – Poulopoulou, 2007: 40-41). We studied 80 immigrants and through semi-constructed questionnaires and interviews we looked for their family background, their educational capital, their labor and family status. Our sample consists of 28 women and 52 men, between 18 and 24 years old attending Upper educational institutions. 3 A. Gotovos & G. Markou (2003). “Repatriated and foreign students in Greek education” Volume A’, General description. Athens: Institute of Homogenous and Intercultural Education. 4 Indicatively: Nikolaou G. (2000), Incorporation and education of foreign students in Elementary School, Athens: Ellinika Grammata 5 We should thank the President and the Administration staff of the Technological Educational Institution of Kalamata for the provision of the results. 27 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 3.2 The impact of family of the choice of professio Throughout the whole sample, parents have particular professions in Greece even if they have attended Tertiary education back in their country. Men engage themselves with professions of “building” whereas women in their majority work as household assistants, nurses or deal with their own household. Previous researches6 have dealt with issues of immigrant education in their country and from these it comes out that over 15% of the immigrants working in professions of the primary production have a degree in Tertiary education. Therefore, the data analysis makes us observe the more general tendency of males towards technological professions where the professional settling down seems to be faster. On the very opposite, females prefer humanistic professions consistent with the perception about the woman’s position in the Albanian family.6 Women basically prefer professions such as nursery, primary or high school teacher, psychologist, lawyer, baby nurse, speech therapist consistent with the mother role model. It is believed that they can be combined to the family and help the development and growing up of children.7 Statistics analysis Out of the sum of the sample and as it has derived from the questionnaires, apart from the sex we categorized the sample according to their studies. Thus, we distinguished the faculties of Tertiary education in upper and technological educational institutions. The categorization of faculties of the above mentioned institutions was realized on the basis of the mode of filling the application form with the relevant faculties that the students state when they fill in their preferences for faculties to enter Tertiary education after the final exams and they are separated into five fields. In particular, the first field (scientific field of humanistic, legal and social sciences) includes university faculties such as Foreign Language and Literature faculties, Greek Philology, Law School, Psychology, Sociology and Music. It also includes faculties of the technological educational institutions such as Library science, Social work and Baby nursing. The second scientific field ( scientific field of exact sciences) includes university studies such as Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Informatics, Biology as well as technological educational 6 Gretta, 21 years old, student of Philology:” the choice of my profession is partially conscious […]. The family played a significant role […] I am a woman […] I could not choose a “male” profession […] and I think about the family, I should be a very good role model for my children”. Elton, 19 years old, student of informatics at a technological institution: “I have engaged myself in computers since an early age because I liked them […] My parents supported my choice because they believe that I will easily find a job […] I always liked to deal with works done with hands just like my father […] I would not like my wife to do the same job […] there are professions that suit men more”. Eddy, 23 years old, student of a university faculty of economics: “I found it difficult to enter my faculty […] I do not really like it but I believe that it will suit me […] my parents wanted that very much […]I preferred the philological subjects”. 7 Gretta, 21 years old, student of Philology: “my profession will assist me in making my own family […] I am going to have free time in the afternoons […] I will be able to help my children study […] it is not sure if my husband will have the time to engage himself ”. Elton, 19 years old, student of informatics at a technological institution: “I would like my wife to engage herself with the children […] if she asked me, I would advise her to become a nursery school or an elementary school teacher […] these professions suit a woman […] I could never exercise such a profession. 28 The albanian students’ stances & perceptions regarding the choice of profession institutions with faculties such as Vegetable and Animal Production, Fish science and Greenhouse cultivations. The third scientific field (scientific field of health sciences) includes faculties of Medical sciences, Pharmaceuticals and Biology. The technological institutions of this field deal with paramedical professions such as Dietology, Speech Therapy, Obstetrics, Aesthetics and Nursing. The fourth scientific field (scientific field of technological sciences) includes faculties related to Informatics, Technology, Mechanics and Applied Sciences as well as Architecture. In terms of a technological institution level there are faculties such as Electronics, Ship building, Automation and Construction Works. In the fifth scientific field (sciences of economics and administration) there are departments of Marketing, International and European Relationships, Accounting, Economics and Administration. Within the technological institutions we find the same faculties under a different framework of institutionalized professional rights. Our sample includes 50 men and 30 women. 20 men out of 50 (a percentage of 40%) attend Upper Educational Institutions whereas 30 of them (a percentage of 60%) have entered Technological Educational Institutions. 18 women of the sample (a percentage of 60%) have entered Upper Educational Institutions (U.E.I.) and 30% of them (12 women) attend Technological Educational Institutions. Following this general distinction, we proceeded to the students ranking according to the scientific field in which their faculties belong. The results of the research showed that the 14 out of the 20 women that have entered U.E.I. (a percentage of 70%) chose the scientific fields of humanistic, legal and social sciences, 2 out of 20 (a percentage of 10%) chose the scientific field of exact sciences and the remaining 4 (a percentage of 20%) preferred the scientific field of economics and administration sciences. It is remarkable that the percentages of entering the two other scientific fields (those of health and technological sciences) were zero. Our next step was to examine the choices made by men having entered the Upper Tertiary Education. The results showed that 10% (2 men) decided to attend faculties with scientific fields of humanistic, legal and social sciences. Also, another 10% of men preferred the scientific field of exact sciences whereas 20% chose the scientific field of economics and administration. The rest 60% (12 men) preferred the scientific field of technological sciences with a zero percentage of those following the scientific field of health sciences. At this point, we observe that the field of technological sciences, which had a zero percentage among women, is the top preference among the majority of the men of the sample. On the other hand, the field of health sciences presents a zero percentage in both categories. After that, we examined the percentages of women that entered Technological Educational Institutions and the 5 scientific fields. The research showed that out of the total of 10 women of this category 7 of them (a percentage of 70%) entered faculties of the scientific field of health sciences, only 1 of them (a percentage 10%) chose the scientific field of economic and administration whereas the remaining 2 ones (a percentage of 20%) preferred the scientific field of technological sciences. No woman of the sample preferred the other two scientific fields (those of exact sciences and humanistic, legal and social sciences). We correspondingly examined the men entrance percentages into technological educational institutions. Three men out of 30 of this category in total (a percentage of 10%) preferred the scientific field of exact sciences, 6 of them (a percentage of 20%) chose the scientific field of health sciences, the remaining 20% entered Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 faculties of the scientific field of economics and administration whereas 50% preferred schools of the scientific field of technological sciences. A zero percentage regarding entrance in faculties of the scientific field of humanistic, legal and social sciences was presented, a phenomenon which was also noticed in the women category. Conclusions In our research, we found out that it is difficult for both male and female immigrant students to justify their professional choices. It perhaps seems as a resistance against a system that indirectly suppresses them on the basis that legislation does not address them as equal citizens as it does with the natives. The acquired higher educational level, especially, makes them realize to a greater degree the forms of inequality and the limited functions of the welfare state which seems to press heavily on their dreams and expectations within the Greek society. The fact that they are also affected by their families to undertake professional roles makes them connect education to profession. This issue is connected to the necessity of reinforcing their immigrant family as well as their simultaneous acceptance, through labor, by the Greek society. It is not at all accidental that the immigrants choose vocational schools and especially those immigrants that come from a family with a low educational capital. The choice of the vocational school expresses, as it happens in the Greek family as well, the limited goals within a school of limited demands with a simultaneous learning of an art which facilitates the immediate access into the labor market, since technical works are considered to be linked to a limited range of knowledge but, on the contrary, they need an increased number of skills. The 29 General Senior High School is considered to be the school of the native population. Thus, one more distinction line within education is formed, with studies of two different velocities for both the greatest number of natives and the greatest number of immigrants. The issue of choices, as far as studies are concerned, seems to reproduce the traditional stereotypes in terms of sex; these stereotypes are reproduced within the Albanian family and are related, in a broader sense, to the structures and functions of the Greek culture. In particular, the issue of professional occupation of women in sectors of services under a clerk - relationship, discourages the Albanian family to choose those studies that would jeopardize the professional roles of their children. When choosing professional roles, studies that guide the professional settlement in relation to the public sector are excluded for both sexes. At the same time, and always in relation to the sex, studies which do not go with the reproduced role models in relation to their role are excluded for women. At this point, we would like to comment that even if there are stereotypes within the Albanian immigrant community regarding the sex, in Greece they are reinforced within a Greek society which, even though it tries to present a model of a modern society attuned to the Western culture, to the European and International policy of rights, reproduces inequalities within its structures, both in terms of sex and of the “others”, the immigrants. It is important to notice that in the vocational schools of Secondary education a notion has been formed in which the vocational school is regarded as a school for native failures where the Greeks attending them come from lower social classes and lower educational capital. Correspondingly, for the largest number of immigrants the vocational school 30 The albanian students’ stances & perceptions regarding the choice of profession is their school; they feel different and get socialized within the environment of peer immigrants. For those people, their success in the examination for the Tertiary education and their entrance into an upper technological institution is considered a success and changes, theoretically, the immigrant status of the family through the capacity of the student in the upper technological education. The education model in Secondary education, even if it is not chosen by the natives, in combination to their entrance in Tertiary vocational education is the typical way for the immigrants to combine upper education with vocational education and labor market. To top it all, a point that we should highlight is that the policy of rights both towards the immigrants and the equality in terms of sex should be reinforced because it has not been fruitful. Moreover, an issue of democracy is under question since citizens are addressed under different criteria and the experienced forms of discriminations that penetrate the social, economic and political environments, defi ne the individual’s life by limiting his / her right in self-realization and the projection of preferences and desires. REFERENCES α , Χ.(2001). α απ πα υ . α: απ Γ ο ο , .(2002). πα υ α α. α: αχ ο χου, Χ. & α , . (2010), « α α π ο α α α α : α Φα ο ο ο ο », ο: π ου, Φ. ( π .) M ο ο α α α υ π : ο α « ου ο α ου ου », Κ , α: , 193-227. χου, Χ. & α , . (2010), « α ο ο ο α: ο αυ α ο ω οπο ο α χ α ο », ο α ου, . α ου α , . ( π .) α α ο : ο α ο , , α: α α, 457-493. α α ου, . & απα , .(1998). απ Α . α: Γ α α ο ου, Γ.(2000). Έ α α πα υ α απ α . α: Γ α α ο ου, Γ.(2005). απ Γ πα υ : π . α α χ . α: Γ α α Έ - ου οπο ου, . (2007). α α υ π . α: απα υα ου.ου, . (2005). υπ α α πα υ α . α: π υχο υα ου, . (2007). απ Ααυ α α. α: υπω ω ω φου, . (2003). απ Α υ π α α. α: υπω ω α α ο ου, . & υα ου, . (2003). απ α α : πα υ , α α Ψυ . α: απ υ , .& ου, . [ π .] (2005). Ό α . α: GUTENBERG α ου, . & Χ που ο , . [ π .] (2004). α α υ : Κ υ , α αα α α υπ . α: Γ α , Χ. & Θ ο ω οπο ου, . & ο ο , . (2007). πα α π π υπ α . α α α α π 31 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 απ α α . α: απ α ω , . [ π .] (2003). υ υ υ α πα α π α α . α: υπω ω , Γ. & α α , Γ. [ π .] (2001α). α π α α υ α. α: απα Anthias F. (1995). «Έ , υ α α α α » : , α , Κ Φ . Θ α ο : α α Θ ο ω που ο Χ. & υ ου, . [ π .] (1994). α α α α α α α . α: α .(1999). Έ π , πα , πα α . α: Έ , . (1993). α υ π α. α: υ α υ ω ου, Χ. (2006). ο α α ο α α. αο ο : . ου α . υ ω ου, Χ. & α α , . (2005). α α υ πα Έ . αο ο : ου α Φ α ου , . (1998). « α α πα υ » ο: α , α α οφο α. α: ου α . Έ - ου οπο ου, PSYCHOLOGY SERVICE EFFICIENCY IN EDUCATING CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS Edo SHERIFI - University of Tirana Department of Psychology & Pedagogy E- mail: edo_sherifi@yahoo.com INTRODUCTION This paper treats the functional necessity of the psychologist profession as a potential factor in reducing stress and depression levels which lead to aggressive behavior in people and induce social conflicts. This paper provides the first steps of school psychology service operation in the world and in Albania. In particular, it examines the role and efficiency of school psychologist as a monitoring and manager of problematic behaviors of children and adolescents at school. The study underlines the need of psychological services in social institutions. It emphasizes the idea that the efficiency of psychological services will improve if the decision-making bodies shall take the legislative initiative, completed by the bylaws, for the approval of the “Psychologist’s Legal Status”, as the profession is more than necessary in a democratic society. The research conducted on “School Psychology Service” in such schools as “Sami Frashëri”, “Petro Nini”, “Asim Vokshi”, “Osman Myderizi”, and “Sabaudin Gabrani”, became a motive for initiating this paper. This work defines the thought that it is time that the school psychology service was institutionalized as a permanent occupation, as an integral part of the organigram of the teaching staff in all schools in the country, both in urban and rural areas. The efficiency of psychological assistance is also reflected in the collaboration of the academic staff, parents, school administration, student’s senate, business community and adolescents themselves with the school psychologist. Harmonization of these factors has positively influenced the improvement of educational instruction indicators of these schools. The efficiency of psychological service in these schools is also observed in the reduction of bulling cases against children and adolescents at schools. The paper also examines the following issue: Why has psychological service not found the necessary extension in all the public and private institutions? Keywords: education, psychological service, collaboration, bowling, effective, behaviors. Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 33-42 34 Psychology service efficiency in educating children and adolescents I. Beginnings of school psychology service in the world. Emergence and extension of psychological service in the Albanian reality School psychology service has its origins in the late 19th and early 20th century. In 1892, Witmer opened the first psychological clinic for the children. Psychology knowledge was attempted to be used for the first time for a practical application in the treatment of educational problems. In the 20th century, Educational Psychology was represented by a group of authors, among whom Lev Vigotski, who published his masterpiece “Thought and Speech” and was praised by his contemporaries as the “Mozart of Educational Psychology.” J. Brunner, published his “Education Process” which emphasizes the idea that “In order to learn and acquire you should conceptualize, categorize”, etc. In Albania, the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Tirana was established in 1992 upon decision of the Ministry of Education and Science. In 1995 the branch of Psychology was established in this Faculty. From that moment up to September 2010, 1202 students were registered, part-time system and master and doctorate programs excluded. The figures are even higher as the branch of psychology is being developed in other public and private universities. The academic staff of the psychology branch at the Faculty of Social Sciences is qualified or graduated in the most prestigious universities of the world. Over the years, the branch of psychology and its sub-branches are gradually being performed. The curricula, textbooks and lectures have been updated and the most modern methods are applied in teaching. In 2004, the Ministry of Education and Science, through a two-year pilot project, applied psychology service at the compulsory and pre-university education. In some institutions of Tirana the first 140 psychologists have been appointed. Without doubt, this is a limited number compared to the needs of society, but it deserves praise as it is in its early steps. Psychologist as a profession Another major problem to be examined is the fact that the profession of psychologist is not yet considered as a specialized profession. The psychologist, as a professional, can treat and help people with behavioral and cognition disorders. He/she is professionally capable to make persons with problems adapt to memory, thoughts, emotional and personal problems. He/she can guide clients towards communication and social interaction and achieve the phenomenon of social facilitation. To make state institutions and public opinion aware of the necessity of psychological services in social life, the press and electronic media play a crucial role. The association of psychologists for the operation and assurance of the psychologist’s legal status, should undertake the necessary legal initiatives to collaborate with line ministries, the Faculty of Social Sciences and other decision-making institutions. But the psychologist has a duty to enhance professional performance in social life. Professionally he can become a psychological support to calm troubled souls and troubled minds. It is necessary that even the community accepts the psychologist’s role as promoter of a social climate which is not stressful and which does not cause conflict, because it often stigmatizes his role and contribution to society. The psychologists’ army, which * Note: Jerome Bruner: «Procesi of education».(I960).Harvard.University Press. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 is increasing every year, should always promote the ever-increasing professional values to be “imposed” to the social community with a high professional performance and polite service. Performance of its multi dimensional personality would increase the impact of the psychological service at community level. Psychology service in government institutions requires more recognition by the decision-making bodies to accept its necessity and extension in the entire life of the country. I emphasize this, because it is time to alter the public psychology service into a private one in order to be consolidated as a crucial service to the individual’s mental health. Let this be the appeal of a psychologist to all public and private stakeholders that the psychological service in our country be given the role that the societies with higher standards of civilization and social culture have given to it. These requirements make psychology service a necessity in the entire life of Albania. The Role of the School Psychologist School as the temple of knowledge is included in a thorough process for a more comprehensive reformation of unified teaching standards with the education system of the European knowledge society. Traditional teaching has been teachercentered, it is now more and more being replaced by interactive teaching, which is student-centered, by using teaching methods and activities that encourage learning and develop critical thinking and by involving high levels of cognitive processes. In this comprehensive reform process, the school psychologist is of a primary role. It is his duty to cooperate with the School Directorate to build up strategies of socio-educational programs in order to minimize the problematic behaviors of students. It is necessary 35 that he cooperates with head-teachers, to reassess the relationships between teachers and difficult students. A school psychologist by recognizing psychosocial characteristics of students offers to teachers a new vision for treating adolescents as collaborators and partners in educational activities in and out of school. He should collaborate with different teachers to minimize conflict within the class by managing with his expertise the social climate deterioration in the learning process. School psychologists, in their counseling sessions with adolescents with problematic behavior, should help teenagers to discharge negative emotions by freeing them from their stressful emotional condition. Cooperation with parents is a school counselor dimension of his profession. It is his duty to contribute in enhancing the role of parents and all community stakeholders to support the school community. Collaboration with the student’s senate to protect their rights is another direction of the work of school psychologists. Role harmonization of the above factors by the school psychologist will strengthen relations between them and will enhance the school educational process efficiency. This process is organized in accordance with the cognitive level of students, from pre-school to the higher levels of the education system. Western experiences show that in a school with about 2000 students, it is more than necessary to have a functional group of psychologists (social psychologist, counseling psychologist and school psychologist). School psychology service is necessary not only for the management of students’ psychosocial problems but also for the creation of a social climate of cooperation between students, teaching staff and school community support. A psychologist is necessary not only to help teens recover from their 36 Psychology service efficiency in educating children and adolescents Cooperation of stakeholders with the school psychology service to support education of adolescents problematic behaviors, but also to shape their individuality and orientate them with regards to the profession or career choice. The psychologist enables this mission based on a test of students’ psychological skills. The psychology service may and should function in the entire educational system, and should be extended in other areas in addition to the urban ones. Problematic behaviors of teenagers in some of the Albania’s capital schools were among those important motives which inspired this study. As a result of failures in school expectations, of experimentation with drugs, tobacco and alcohol, of feeling depressed; of demotivation to study, of lack of awareness of their skills, of coping with relationship problems with friends, concerns 37 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 about their sexuality, conflict relationships with teachers, aggravated family relations, poor time management, anxiety, stress, depression, sorrow for social and family reasons such as parents’ divorce or loss of close family relatives – all this wide range of teenagers problematic behaviors needs treatment from an expert in this field that is the school psychologist. It is of interest to know the techniques and therapies used by school psychologists to facilitate development processes that characterize teenagers by assisting his maturity and overcoming the social crisis to be selffulfilled. It is important that the school psychologist arranges psychological service based on individual documentation for any teenager whom he/she advises. Counseling sessions should not be spontaneous but organized and displayed in special “Files” per each client as well as in individual folders. Empathy and confidentiality are two principles that are respected within the professional psychologist status. For the purposes of this study, information was gathered from several instruments such as: 500 questionnaires addressed to teenagers in 3 high schools in Tirana, namely “Sami Frashëri”, “Petro Nini” and “Asim Vokshi”, and two 9-year schools: “Osman Myderizi”, and “Sabaudin Gabrani”. Through these questionnaires addressed to the pupils and teenagers of these schools, it was possible to gather first hand and very interesting information for the position of school psychologist and his/her tasks. Analysis of such collected information shows some achievements as well as a range of problems to be solved raised by the school psychology service in Albanian schools. The questionnaire addressed to the school psychologists consisted of 20 questions and aimed at getting a direct view of these psychology service specialists with regards to their role in the school community, the techniques they use to assess students’ academic skills, behavioral problems of teenagers at school, the psychologist’s relationship with the staff, the department, parents and school senate. Semi-structured interviews were applied to the teachers of these schools, parents of pupils and adolescents from 14 to18 years old. They brought their real experiences with regards to cooperation with the school psychologist by pointing out the motivational role of the The role of school psychologist as a coordinator of social relations at school 38 Psychology service efficiency in educating children and adolescents The role of school psychology service to facilitate the learning process and achieve defined expectations psychologist in many difficult and stressful situations for adolescents in the educational process. At the same time students are critic about the prejudiced attitudes of some teachers with regards to their school psychology service. In their interviews, parents have given different opinions. The answers are pro and against the role of psychologist to support establishing the identity of adolescents and minimize behavioral problems. Whereas in their interviews, teachers show some doses of nihilism and skepticism about the role of school psychologists as counselors not only to teenagers but also to the staff regarding specific professional techniques used in relationships with adolescents. In their interviews, representatives of school directorates unanimously accept the positive influence of the psychology service in minimizing problematic behaviors of teenagers and therefore encouraging and motivating them to achieve higher academic results. However, in their interviews they have a tendency to limit the psychologist’s role at school only in collaboration with teenagers. They ignore their relations and cooperation between them and psychologists aiming only complete dependency from school directorates without any partnership between them. The routine work of school psychologists is: counseling, psychoeducational assessment, psychological assistance and social assistance, and individual counseling. All information sources are permeated by a positive message that psychology service (in chosen schools) is integrated every year into the school community as one of the factors that motivate adolescents to have a positive attitude about teaching. An important task of school psychologists is to design tests for assessing the teaching load, their relationships with each other, with their teachers and their parents. Another important task of school psychologists is the development of tests to assess the orientation of graduates in choosing a future profession according to their psycho-social abilities. A new concern in schools is bulling. Bulling (behaving like 39 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 Prejudice hinders the professional work of psychologists and weakens their relationship with teenagers the strongest one) affects students’ sense of security. Bulling is very widespread and perhaps the less reported security problem at schools. Contrary to the popular belief, bulling occurs more often in school premises than on the way to school or even outside it. Bulling was thought of as a harmless behavior that affects youth’s character. Bulling is now known to have long-term detrimental effects to the victim, but also to the perpetrator. Bulling is often misunderstood as a narrow range of tacit antisocial behaviors which has conquered the elementary school yards. Bulling can happen in every class, from the first to the ninth grade. It is a fact that police The impact of school psychologists in bulling cases at schools 40 Psychology service efficiency in educating children and adolescents have taken more responsibility for the security of students by even helping school directors, but this does not happen in every school. Normal functioning of psychology service at schools and strengthening cooperation with supportive stakeholders of students and teenagers, it is what minimizes bulling cases. Efficiency of psychosocial service in social care institutions The psychologist is the main figure that determines the intelligence level of the mental age of disabled persons. It assesses the mental development level of children with respect to the fine global motoric, emotional and clinical status of the child, language, behavior, senses, and data on height, weight, neurological and neuro-motoric situation. The psychologist plays a key role in defining and implementing its program for the child’s mental development: comprehension, concentration, emotional level, expressive skills, reasoning and j u d g m e n t l e v e l . Fu r t h e r m o re , i n cooperation with the social worker, therapists, physiotherapist, orthophonist and care-takers, he/she defines and designs development programs for the PAK rehabilitation. The psychologist lays down the load a client can handle in various disciplines and activities to be conducted in accordance with his mental level development; determines therapeutic sessions, psycho-motor training, or programs for assimilation of pre-initial elements in order to achieve autonomy and self-service. In cooperation with other experts, the psychologist suggests methods and equipments that will be used and also integrated activities that will be performed; prepares a progress file for each child covering the emotional situation of the child, social behavior, language, communication, sensory development, etc; periodically assess achievements in the educational process, training of children through self-service programs and activities to integrate them and records them in his file; at the end of each year assesses progress in: behavior, autonomy, motority, orientation in space and time, sensitive development, speech and communication, learning, activities in workshops and personality development trends and records them in his file; intervenes in special psychic cases of children and determines causes and methods of treatment; based on his assessments the psychologist determines the degree of development of the child and the real possibility to be integrated and designs complementary social service programs for his future rehabilitation; assesses in particular children with disabilities when they start to become aware of notions of life, death, and time so that they may start analyzing and judging activities; determines rules and relationships for the care center staff, child, parent, and community. Why has the psychology service not found the necessary support and extension? The importance of a multidisciplinary team It might be the lack of the necessary psychological culture. Perhaps for tradition’s sake, the psychological service is delivered as an addendum to other professions, and therefore it is offered by everybody and by nobody. It happens often that people who lack the right information identify the psychology service with the psychiatry service. Indeed, these two types of services serve to the individual’s mental health, but they are not the same thing. Each of them is a separate profession. As far as mental health treatment is concerned, syllogistic teams should be established in order to perform a specific 41 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 professional assistance for each profession. Clinic psychologists assess emotional and mental problems. They treat clients who have behavioral disorders by using psychological techniques and therapy. A psychologist’s instrument is language. Whereas, psychiatrists are medical doctors specialized in the treatment of neurophysiological disorders! As such, in order to cure a patient’s mental health, they turn to drug use. Coordination of activities among psychologists and psychiatrists is the best method to achieve success. At the psychiatric hospital, we learned that there are about ten years that the full operation of a multidisciplinary team consisting of a psychiatrist, clinic psychologist, social worker and nurse, is required. But still there is no definitive solution for all hospitals. Psychiatrists should also handle the clinic psychologist’s role and the social worker’s role. Therefore, the psychiatric service cannot achieve proper results to improve mental health of the client. Such clinics may serve to manage problematic behaviors of persons who are stressed or who stress other people, friends and relatives, in order to minimize family and social conflicts. Conclusions  Application of psychology service in several education institutions in Tirana constitutes an innovation for education at national level. It marks another step forward in our education system’s approach to the European system of knowledge society.     Operation of the psychology service in these schools motivates students and teenagers to have a positive attitude towards teaching and a cooperative relation with all stakeholders who achieve high academic expectations. This paper defines the belief that the time has come for the school psychology service to be institutionalized as a permanent occupation, as part of the organigram of pedagogic personnel and to be integrated in all schools at national level. Efficiency of psychological support is also reflected in the collaboration of academic staff, parents’ community, school administration, student’s senate, business community and adolescents themselves with the psychologist. Efficiency of the psychology service is also noted in the reduction of bulling cases against children and adolescents at schools. Recommendations    The profession of a psychologist should function as a specialized occupation. Decision-making institutions need to adopt the “Psychologist’s Legal Status”; In terms of social state, psychology service deserves the support of state structures for its expansion from every neighborhood clinic ward in cities to higher institutions, alternated even with licensed private clinics; Psychology service in all social, health and education institutions is a necessity. BIBLIOGRAPHY Berliner, D. (2006). Educational psychology: Handbook of Educational Psychology Benjamin, Ludy (2005). “Annual Review of linial Psychology”. Bruner: Jerome: «Procesi of Education». (I960). Harvard. Universty. Press.” Carl. Gustav. Jung. (2004.) “Fan Noli”. (Psikologjia e se pavetedijshmes). 42 Psychology service efficiency in educating children and adolescents Carl. G. Jung. (2007.) “Fan Noli”. “ The Development of Personality” Charles G. Morris, Albert. A. Maisto. (2008.) “Psychology” Davide. Funder. (2007). “The Personality of Puzzle”. Musai. B. (DE) 1999 “Psikologjia e Edukimit”. “Zhvillimi, të nxënët, mësimdhënia” Orhani Zenel. Shtëpia botuese “Pegi” (2005.) “Psikologjia konjitive” Rapti. E: (2005) “Pegi” “Psikologjia Shkollore”. Pettijohn. F. Terr; Shtëpia e botimit; “LILO” (1996.) “Psikologjia” Seligman “M. Rashid. T. & Parks, A. (2006). “Positive Psychotherapy”. Sulstarova Anila. Viti i botimit (2004) “Teoritë e Personalitetit (Dispensë)”. Jex, S. M., & Britt, T. W. (2008). Organizational Psychology. Hoboke, Neè Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, In. Zimmerman, B. J., & Shunk, D. H. (Eds.) (2003). Eduational psychology: A century of contributions. Mahwah, NJ, US: Erlbaumb. 43 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 CORRUPTION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: ALBANIA AND EU-27 Eglantina HYSA - Epoka University, Tirana-Albania E-mail: elaci@epoka.edu.al ABSTRACT After 1990, Albania has passed from a centralized economy to a liberal one. Liberalization has brought both positive and negative effects to the politics, economy and other social aspects. There are two main components that measure a country’s progress toward success. Firstly, the economic growth is the most used and discussed indicator of the progress. During the last two decades the economists have been more interested in the economic development, consisting of the aggregate of health, education level and income rather than economic growth. Secondly, the corruption level is found to be a significant component of progress. Different researches have founded out a negative relationship between corruption level and countries’ progress. This study focuses on the relationship between corruption level and human development. The calculations are performed for both, Albania and European Union member countries, and a comparison of the degree of this relationship will take place. The analysis is extended in the regression of corruption level and the components of human development such as health, education and income by using the data for years 2002-2010. The main result of this study is that the relationship between corruption and human development is found to be much stronger in the Albanian case than in the EU countries. Keywords: corruption level, human development, quality of life, regression analysis “[Corruption is] the gangrene of democracy, the AIDS of democracy. (Miguel Angel Burreli Rivas, Foreign Minister of Venezuela) “Economic development is sustainable if, relative to its population, a society’s productive base does not shrink.” (Dasgupta, P. 2008) Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 43-51 44 Corruption and Human Development: Albania and EU-27 I. Introduction Albania, located in Western Balkan, near Euro area, is a country in transition. In 1990, with the fall of communist system the economic structure passed from a centralized economy to a liberal one. The generation of a high inflation rate parallel to the price and trade liberalization seeks out macroeconomics stabilization. But macroeconomic stabilization is not the only requirement for the economic trend of a country. Today’s “the trendiest objective”1 of a country, such as Albania, is to follow the trends of a “successful group of countries”,2 such as European Union. This trend does not have to do with just the economic growth but also with the development of the country itself, because the hidden pillar of economic growth is certainly the development of that country, components of which are health, education and living standards. “ I n t e g r a t i o n s h o u l d p ro m o t e convergence among participating countries independent of their income level (developed or developing countries). The same idea is also supported for the discussion of international (to create an integrated national economy), multinational (to create an integrated regional economy) or worldwide integration (to create an integrated world).” (Machlup F. 1976, p.74). Apart from the target of high developed economy, countries have to combat with difficult issues such as corruption. Corruption is called a difficult issue to deal with since it has to do with all the society levels. A country which has changed its political system, as in the case of Albania, is face to face with this evident problem. Even if Albania has more than 20 years in democracy, this country is still suffering from this disease. According to Corruption Perception Index (CPI), assumed to be the most objective measurement of corruption, in year 2010, Albania is ranked in the 87th place in a list of 178 countries. In order to test the relationship between corruption and human development, corruption perception index3 and three components of HDI are used. Since some of the components are found to have strong correlation between each other, the regression analysis is concentrated in the relationship of CPI and HDI (the aggregate of life expectancy index, educational index and income index). This study uses data during 2002-2010 period for both Albania and European Union countries for the regression analysis since for the case of Albania the CPI data of previous years are not available. The theoretical framework of the human development and corruption relationship will take place in the second part of the study. The third part will focus on the regression analysis of this relationship and the comparison of Albanian performance toward the European Union members’ performance. To sum up, a short conclusion will take place. II. Human Development and Corruption Relationship Corruption is generally defined as the abuse of political office or public position of trust for private gain, is not unique to modern systems of government (Goldsmith, 1999). A more explicit way of defining 1 The developing countries try to implement in general the systems that the developed countries apply because they struggle in order to reach them and as EU is thought to be successful group of countries, the other countries try to follow its way without taking into account the country specific conditions or without being critical to any EU policy. 2 Generally the success of EU is taken for grand but not later than the financial crisis of 2008 showed that some of EU countries were in trouble. 3 This study has used CPI since this index has had larger attention and influence comparing to the other corruption indexes. 45 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 corruption is the corruption pyramid which has been designed by Sanjeev Sabhlog, in 2009in his book titled “Breaking free of Nehru”. He divides the corruption in three categories; visible corruption, hidden deep corruption, and hidden policy corruption. cor Visible r up tion Figure 1: Corruption pyramid Politicians, senior bureaucrats dipping into public funds. national security risks from corrupt security forces. pol Hid icy den cor r up t ion dee Hidd p c en or r upt ion Day-to-day Transactional Prioritisational Policy negiect by politicians and bureaucrats as a result of focus on “making money”. Source: “Breaking free of Nehru”, Sabhlog, 2009 Most of the literatures regarding corruption (Akçay, 2006; Blackburn and Sarmah, 2007; Chakraborty, 2003; Qizilbash, 2001) have noted that the corruption level has an inverse relationship with the human development. According to Akçay, corruption impedes growth, reduces the spending on health and education. Lower growth means less GDP per capita, which have negative effects on living standards, life expectancy and human capital accumulation. Both these factors decrease the human development level. There are different methods and sources calculating the corruption index such as: the Corruption Perception Index (CPI) calculated by Transparency International (TI), International Country Risk Guide’s (ICRG) corruption index calculated by Political Risk Services (PRS), and the corruption index that is constructed by Kaufmann, Kraay, and Mastruzzi (2003). In this study, the corruption perception index has been taken into consideration and has been used to calculate its correlation to human development. CPI is based on a “poll of polls,” indicating impressions of business people, the local population of relevant countries, and risk analysts who have been surveyed. CPI is range between 0 and 10. A country having 10 as the overall evaluation indicates a highly clean country and 0 indicates a highly corrupted country. According to this scoring, the higher the CPI (the cleaner the country), the higher the human development index (HDI). In the late 1980s, the central focus of economists was the income growth. In the beginning of 1990s, the focus shifted toward the quality of life and the development strategies were oriented from production to welfare improvement. Seen that Albania is a potential candidate country for EU accession, it is important to analyze the aspects of the relationship existing between corruption and human development progress. This study will precisely consist on the analysis of the correlation between corruption and three Figure 2: Corruption and Development Less growth Corruption Less GDP per capita Less spending on health Less spending on education Source: “Corruption and Human Development”, Akçay, 2006 Low level of standard of living Low level of life expectancy Low human capital accumulation Low level of human development 46 Corruption and Human Development: Albania and EU-27 Figure 3: Components of Human Development Index Liv i stang nd ard s Ed uc ati on Me a of n ye sc ar ho s oli ng E xp ect of ed sc yea ho r s oli ng Gr o i n c ss n a o t ca me ional pit pe a r Life at expe bir cta th n c y He alt h Human Development Index Three dimensions Four indicators Source: HDRO main development indicators such as health, education and living standards. There are different views that define Economic Development. In the World Development Report, the World Bank presents the economic development as “Development is often taken to mean rising incomes. A still common view equates development with growth, though there has been a shift in emphasis since the 1970s to a focus on the distribution of incomes.” In Human Development Report, the United Nations present another alternative view such as “The essence of this view is that human development--what people can actually do and be--is the overriding purpose of economic development.” This study is focused on the analysis of corruption-economic development linkage of Albania and the European Union members taking as definition the second approach of economic development, and mostly basing on human development. Human development refers to a sustainable increase in living standards. It implies increased per capita income, better education and health as well as environmental protection. There have been different measurements in order to rank the countries according to their development level. The last method of measuring development is the combination of indicators such as life expectancy, educational attainment and income into a composite human development index (HDI). The main aim of HDI is to combine the social and economic development in a single statistical data of which 0 indicates the minimum level and 1 the maximum level. The concept of development has been widely discussed regarding the focus on just national income or in other social factors such as health, education. “A nation’s progress with respect to its material wealth is not independent of its progress in other spheres…economic growth promotes democratic development; education is good for health; and health is good for education” (Fielding D. 2000, p.6) HDI is composed by three components, Life Expectancy Index, Education Attainment Index and Adjusted Income Index. Each of them is computed according to the general formula: Actual valuei - Minimum valuei Index=-------------------------------------------Maximum valuei - Minimum valuei Where the fixed minimum and maximum values have been established for each of the indicators: 47 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2  Life expectancy at birth: 25 and 85 years; Adult literacy: 0% and 100%; Combined enrolment ratio: 0% and 100%; Real GDP per capita (PPP$): PPP$100 and PPP$40000.    Life expectancy index is calculated by using the direct formula presented above. In the Albanian case, the first index is founded to be 0.900.4 The educational attainment index is built as a linear combination of adult literacy and combined primary, secondary and tertiary enrollment ratios with weights 2/3 and 1/3, respectively: adult literacy rate of age 15 and above, results to be 99, 1 (UNESCO, 2010). This shows to be a good indicator when compared to other countries with the same income level. The third index, income index, is more complex and is based on the utility of income varying elasticity. GDP per capita of year 2008 in US$ is calculated to be 7.737 (HDRO, 2010). Finally, the HDI is the sum of the averages of the three indexes explained above and Albania is ranked in the 64th place from 169 countries with a total of 0.719. Educational Attainment = 2/3 Adult literacy + 1/3 Combined Enrollement “[Education] can add to the value of production in economy and also to the income of the person who has been educated. But even with the same level of income, a person may benefit from education – in reading, communicating, arguing, in being able to choose in a more informed way, in being taken more seriously by others and so on.”(Sen A. 1999, p.294). The Albanian education attainment index is 0.689. However, the Albanian education attainment index based only on III. Regression analysis As stated in the previous studies, higher levels of corruption are associated with lower levels of human development, health, education and income. This study also expects the same relationship between the variables for both Albania and EU member countries. Table 1 gives a general idea regarding the correlation between Corruption perception index, human development index and other three components of HDI. Given the strong correlation between all the independent Tabela 1: Correlation Matrix: Albania and European Union Countries (2002-2010) CPI CPI LEI EAI AII HDI 4 1 0.784829 0.818711 0.903161 0.846295 AL LEI EAI AII HDI 1 0.996041 1 0.966616 0.982758 1 0.993547 0.997821 0.988999 1 Referring the data to the UNDP official website CPI CPI LEI EAI AII HDI EU-27 LEI EAI AII HDI 1 0.493052 1 0.540679 0.995844 1 0.842927 0.800796 0.824931 1 0.637922 0.975594 0.982784 0.900496 1 48 Corruption and Human Development: Albania and EU-27 Figure 4: Scatterplot of HDI and CPI for Albania and EU countries (2002-2010) Human Development Index Scatterplot of HDI and CPI (Al/EU-27) EU-27 AL Corruption Perception Index variables in the Albanian case and also in the European Union countries multicollinearity is of concern. The scatterplot of human development index and the corruption perception index shows briefly the picture of this relationship for years 2002-2010. On the one hand, Albania is found away from EU countries with respect to this relationship. On the other hand, even if Albanian HDI and CPI are lower than HDI and CPI of EU countries; Albania is doing positive steps toward the enhancement of these indicators. According to these results, we can estimate that if EU is assumed to stay at the actual position and Albania improves with the same rates, Albania will need approximately 25 years to reach the average of EU member countries in HDICPI relationship. At the same time it is of great importance the analyses of all the variables’ trend which has been drawn in the graphs below. In the Albanian case, the human development and all its’ components have shown increasing trends except the CPI which decreased during 2004-2005 and 2008-2009. Human development, life expectancy and education index have an increasing trend in the European Union whereas income index has a volatile trend. From 2007 to 2009 the trend of education index has decreased. After 2008 the corruption perception index has significantly decreased. Next, the research demonstrates the regression equations and the results of this multiple equation. This equation is used for both, Albanian and EU member countries data. LEI, EAI and AII are Graph 1: Variables Trend for Albania and EU-27 (2002-2010) 49 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 expected to be statistically significant and have positive coefficients; an increase in these independent variables should decrease corruption, and as a consequence increase the CPI. CPIi = a0 + a1LEIi + a2EAIi + a3IIi + ei (1) This regression tries to explain the relation between corruption perception index (CPI) and three independent variables such as life expectancy index (LEI), education attainment index (EAI) and adjusted income index (AII). The first two components are founded to be insignificant for both AL and EU whereas the third component, adjusted income index is founded to be significant in both cases and the coefficient sign meets our expectations indicating a positive sign. (Appendix - Table2) As shown in the regression equation above, some of the variables are founded to be insignificant, probably because of the high correlation between variables. For that, a second equation has been studied. CPIi = a0 + a1HDIi + ei (2) Since HDI is the aggregate of the three components used in the first equation, the human development index has been used as an independent variable. HDI is founded to be significant for both, Albania and EU and also the coefficient is positive. While in the Albanian case the model explains around 72%, in the EU case it explains only 41%, which means that human development has a higher relationship with corruption level in Albania compared to the EU member countries. (Appendix-Table3) The percentage of corruption explained by the human development in Albania is in fact very high in comparison to the EU member countries, but we have to underline the fact that the data used for this regression analysis was very limited. In a more extending time lag maybe other 50 Corruption and Human Development: Albania and EU-27 results would show up. However, it can be said for sure that Albania is too far from “its target group countries”, EU countries, based on its low level of the human development and high level of corruption. IV. Summary and Conclusions Empirical studies have shown that corruption is responsible for low economic development, discourages investments on education and health, triggers high income inequality and poverty, high child and infant mortality rates. In addition, corruption is revealed to be an obstacle for foreign and domestic investment, inflation rate stability, currency volatility, etc. This study explored the relationship between corruption and human development in Albania and the group of countries within EU. Research results reveal that there is a statistically significant negative relationship between corruption i n d e xe s a n d h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t . Empirical evidence of the study, comparing Albania with the EU member countries, suggests that more corrupted countries tend to have lower levels of human development. In the Albanian case, the relationship between corruption and human development is found to be much stronger than in the EU countries. Appendix Table. 2 OLS Regression of Corruption Perception on 3 Components of Human Development Model - AL Model - EU-27 1.0261 0.4136 (0.89) -0.4995 0.2434 (-1.32) -12.2079 0.1253 (-1.84) 1.3487 0.3233 (1.09) 0.0015* 0.0055 (4.67) 0.0001** 0.0277 (3.07) R2 0.9607 0.8410 F 40.7519 8.8145 N 9 9 Life Expectancy Index Coefficient: P-value: Educational Attainment Index Coefficient: P-value: Adjusted Income Index Coefficient: P-value: Note: *Significant at the 1% level **Significant at the 5% level 51 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 Table. 3 OLS Regression of Corruption Perception on Human Development Model - AL Model - EU-27 26.6798* 0.004 (4.20) 6.5237** 0.0645 (2.19) R2 0.7162 0.4069 F 17.6666 4.8033 N 9 9 Human Development Index Coefficient: P-value: Note: *Significant at the 5% level **Significant at the 10% level REFERENCES Akçay, S. (2006). Corruption and human development. Cato Journal, 26(1), 29–46. Blackburn, K. and Sarmah, R. (2007), “Corruption, Development and Demography”, Economics of Governance. Chakraborty, L ekha S. (2003). “Public Expenditure and Human Development: An Empirical Investigation,” Paper prepared for the Wider International Conference on Inequality, Poverty and Human Well-Being, Helsinki, May 30-31. Dasgupta, P. (2008). Nature in Economics. Environmental and Resource Economics 39:1-7 Fielding, D. (2002). Health and Wealth: A Structural Model of Social and Economic Development, Review of Development Economics, 6, 393-414. Goldsmith, Arthur A. (1999). “Slapping the Grasping Hand: Correlates of Political Corruption in Emerging Markets,” American Journal of Economic and Sociology, 58(4): 865-863. Kaufmann, D., Kraay, A., & Mastruzzi, M. (2003). Governance matters III: Governance indicators for 1996-2002. Machlup, F. (1976). “A History of Thought on Economic Integration”, F. Machlup (ed.) Economic Integration Worldwide, Regional, Sectoral, The MacMillan Press Lmt., pp.74. Qizilbash, M. (2001). Vague Language and Precise Measurements: The Case of Poverty, Discussion Paper No. 20001-5, School of Economic and Social Studies, University of East Anglia, UK. Sabhlok, S. (2008). Breaking Free of Nehru, Anthem Press. Sen, Amartya K. (1999). Development As Freedom, Oxford: Oxford University Press. United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990,1991,1993). World Bank, World Development Report 1990: Poverty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). REPATRIATION OF ALBANIANS: REDESIGNING A STUDENT ACCULTURATION POLICY Evagjelia KALERANTE / ΕΤΑΓΓΕΛΙΑ ΚΑΛΕΡΑΝΣΕ - University of West Macedonia, Greece E-mail: ekalerante@yahoo.gr ABSTRACT The Greek economic crises shroud the future of Albanian immigrants with obscurity and unpredictability. Up until the economic crises, Albanian had been integrated into the Greek educational system, having a considerable presence at university level, a process interrupted, curbing the education- based aspirations of the Albanian family for social mobility and status-quo oriented vocational success that was to transcend the first generation immigrants’ limitations. Our research looks into their transition to Albanian society. More specifically, a dual model of education is described: a. the Greek educational system and b. the Albanian educational system. It is a civil rights oriented educational policy, respectful of the human condition and the complexity of the post modern society member, transferable between countries, as a rule. We scrutinize the educational structure policy to be developed in each country, as well as the detailed basic curriculum to be followed, along with the extra curricular activities practiced in the two countries. Keywords: economic crises, Albanian immigrants, transition, educational system, 1. Financial crisis in Greece: a readjustment policy in education The financial crisis in Greece has generated new standards (Freeman & Soete, 1997). Which are connected to uncertainty (Sennett, 1999) and insecurity (Harvey, 2005; Harvey, 2006) so that the certainty developed in the period before the financial crisis for possibilities of development and progress is refuted and citizens, both native and immigrants, feel their uncertain future in a country under new policies and financial dependence by an international system which limits the possibilities to formulate an opposing discourse. The financial situation, as it is formed with the concentration to the paying off the debts, cancels in the first place any form of welfare policy. The welfare state seems to collapse (Bauman, 2007) that is it is not able to fulfill its social obligations towards citizens. As a consequence, the political and social rights Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 53-61 54 Repatriation of Albanians: Redesigning a Student acculturation Policy are shrank on this level, that is the policy of rights is being weakened and especially the immigration policy (Triantafyllidou & Veikou, 2002) which, during the past decade, has shown a stable course towards the perception of isonomy of both native and immigrant citizens and the creation of “structures, opportunities” within an educational, political and social field. The educational system is readjusted based on the new economic situation that is it downsizes the provisions towards students and the procedure of diffusing knowledge, research and re-distribution of rights through education is substantially enfeebled. Up today, the Greek educational system has been open meaning that it created opportunities, even for the lower strata with an imperfect linguistic code through the prolonged attendance of the educational system for at least nine years, to improve their knowledge and become familiarized with the educational culture and especially with the upper social class culture, by obtaining skills and knowledge to utilize on a professional level and in professional fields. The same model has been in force even for the immigrants (with a particular reference to Albanian immigrants) who are fully represented in education since their immigration policy is related mainly to their family transition in the country of reception and who have the disadvantage of a poor knowledge of the Greek linguistic code and are placed off the dominant Greek culture. In brief, the immediate changes which have occurred in the educational system are: a) schools merging, meaning a larger number of students in the classrooms, b) abolition of the immigrant incorporation classes, c) abolition of tutorial substructures and d) the decrease of teaching aids and educational force. The total of such measures is related to the broader program of downsizing expenditures which for the case in question is interpreted as a decrease of costs for education and for the issue of our concern as a decrease of provisions towards the immigrants. Therefore, since the educational provisions towards immigrants are shrunk by the state and, simultaneously, families with unemployed members have to confront financial problems, we observe that the aim of immigrating or residing in the country of reception is cancelled since the connection ‘education – success – progress’ does not exist any longer. During the previous years the Greek educational system provided immigrants the potential to educate and reinforce themselves so that they would be able to attend Tertiary Education. The political possibility to benefit from welfare policies in all levels given to immigrants was linked to the implementation of a democratic progressive policy which, gradually, was incorporating elements of a European immigration policy in which the immigrant was specified under the capacity of a citizen. This way, nationalism policies, which stopped the emerging of racism among the total of natives, were typically refuted. The educational system, as it has been formulated after the financial arrangements, seems to be a close one, being limited only to the upper social strata which are able to reinforce their children’s education by providing them knowledge in cognitive fields which are not covered in education but are regarded as necessary for their professional incorporation. We observe that the upper social strata in Greece have access to a variety of choices improving this way the education provided in public schools either addressing private schools or tutorial classes. Immigrants are unable to follow the same course; they are financially enfeebled with their income undergoing a shrink. Even those ones Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 that can preserve their working positions address their children’s education as not a matter in question, as it happened the past years, because they are concentrated on the present period and their immediate survival. Moreover, the future in the sense of an educational course or social mobility seems to be far off their concern because they are unable to support it. On the contrary, the number of Albanian families returning to the country of their origin seems to increase, perhaps to secure their savings and to create those conditions that will help them re-incorporate in the country of origin. This choice creates a significant problem to their children being already embodied in some educational grade. It is observed that their children are not familiarized with the Albanian culture; Albania is “another” country and children are requested to get incorporated in the Albanian society and the Albanian educational system. To recapitulate, we observe that the coercive adjustments in the Greek educational system by placing in front of the costs decrease have worked against the Albanian immigrants residing in Greece since they realize that not only their financial income tends to shrink or their residing in Greece leads them towards a sub-proletarization population, but even that education can not longer work towards the improvement of the economical, social and political place of their children. Therefore, the arrangements that have been made in the educational system through the loss of supportive structures towards the lower strata and immigrants cancel their plan to succeed in the country of reception or in other possible reception countries. On the contrary, it escalates insecurity and uncertainty so that returning to the country of their origin seems to be a one way course towards a protective social environment in the sense that they 55 come back to their family incorporations, thus reducing risk. This plan of coming back, although it is interpreted by them both as a rational attitude and emotional choice, it does not seem to be so painless for their children who are requested to distinguish, understand and interpret different social environments in which to develop reception and acceptance strategies. 2. Suggested re-confinement strategies of the Greek educational system within a policy of rights towards immigrants Within this financial arrangements policy (Bauman, 2007), the Greek educational system is invited to examine its performance not only in financial terms but in relation to the policy of immigrant rights (Maroukis, 2005). In other words, it is about a policy which will take under consideration the broader functions and aims of the educational system (Bourdieu, 1974). If the one area is the alignment with the more general plan of confronting the debt needs of Greece, an issue related to the downsize of costs in all the fields, including education, the other area to investigate is how the educational system will satisfy its social goals since education constitutes a part of the social rights. So, what is the education we are talking about when there is a cancellation of the re-distributive policy of rights which was realized through education; that is when the policy to reinforce the lower strata and immigrants with programs about learning the linguistic code and familiarizing with the school culture is refuted? Such issues are connected to the projection into the future, a future linked to success, progress and prosperity (Zachou & Kalerante, 2010), especially of those immigrants who have made an investment by entering a procedure of social, political and economical readjustments (OECD, 2010). 56 Repatriation of Albanians: Redesigning a Student acculturation Policy The educational system is invited to estimate the consequences of the financial adjustments (Lundvall & Nielsen, 1999) and to create flexible structures to reinforce the education of immigrants taking under consideration the situation formulated by the immigrants’ need to return to the country of reception, in this case, Albania. The issue about the Albanian students, as being incorporated in the educational grades, is that when they return to Albania they can proceed with their studies and adapt to a different environment. The coming back to the country of origin means coming back to the culture of the country of origin which is unknown or partially known to the children attending Greek schools. During the past years, the Albanian family, in order to reinforce its incorporation (Berry, Phinney, Sam & Vedder, 2006) into the Greek society, followed an adaptation model supported through learning the Greek language and culture at the same time. The issue of success and progress mainly focused on the fast incorporation into the Greek society so that it is accepted by natives and racism is limited. Thus, Albanian immigrant offspring either learn no Albanian at all or their knowledge of the language is little. Simultaneously, even though the Albanian family itself uses the Albanian language among private or personal conversations, they avoid using this language when talking to their children. The financial change and the simultaneous coercive Albanians’ response to return to the country of origin should be taken under consideration by the Greek educational system. The fact that in the following years the number of Albanians coming back to Greece will be increased (Gropas & Triantafyllidou, 2007), creates the moral and political obligation of Greece to facilitate the Albanian immigrants re-incorporation, according to their wish, to the country of origin or even if they remain in the country of reception to preserve some Albanian citizen data on their identification card. The first case of returning to the country of origin is connected to the second one of the selective residing since the common element is to form Albanian “studies” as a necessity. In particular, we suggest learning the Albanian language in the Greek schools in the sense that the Albanian students have the possibility to learn their language as a syntactical structure and content in the form dominating the Albanian education. Additionally, they can be taught history and literature so that they come in contact with the culture and civilization of their country. These subjects, as part of a free choice, could be attended at will by Greek students, too, in order to increase Greek students’ professional opportunities in Albania and, at the same time, to develop feelings of solidarity and acceptance through the substantial acquaintance with the other, his/her culture and value. The program we suggest on the basis of cross-curricular and interdisciplinary approach (Levine & Havighurst, 1992) could be combined with the cognitive units taught in the typical syllabus. What we actually suggest is the enrichment of the Greek syllabus which, if, during the past years, was illustrated as a necessity for the formulation of an inter-cultural education, this argumentation is currently supported by ethics in education that incorporates the needs of an immigrant population to return to the country of origin. The point is how, during a period of financial arrangements about the costs limitation, a model of theoretical costs increase would be realized. The model we suggest is based on the opening of the educational structures towards the Albanian community as well as its political and cultural structures of its function. In particular, the Embassy educational sector, Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 the associations of Albanian immigrants as well as other cultural and educational institutions that can afford the means so that the costs do not weigh the Ministry of Education which will exclusively undertake the programs evaluation as well as matters of teaching content and functional arrangement. To recapitulate, we observe that the educational system passing through a severe coincidence for the Albanian immigrants should at least reinforce them regarding the increasing perspective of transition to the country of origin, by formulating the conditions to learn their language and culture that are unknown, insufficient or incomplete in order to be able to support the re-incorporation of the Albanian students who have been attending the Greek educational system into the Albanian education system. Finally, the implementation of a welfare policy even in the middle of this financial coincidence must stop the victimization of the Albanian students (Kalerante, Fotopoulos, 2010), who are actually immigrants that will return either to the Albanian educational system or to professional places in Albania. At this point, we would like to emphasize that the common element for the lower social strata of both natives and immigrants is that they will experience situations of intense insecurity and uncertainty and perhaps the destinations for their children will be beyond the country of origin leading to new notions about countries of reception within globalized systems. Therefore, the Greek educational system is invited to reinforce the educational model which is based on an internationalistic model in which the English language and technology familiarization are a one way track in an educational and professional course among international destinations. This last observation gives us the opportunity 57 to point out how these liquid situations in economy go through the educational system which should be open and flexible so that it can redefine its aims and readjust its program. 3. Re-formulation of the Albanian educational policy The financial situation as it is formed in Greece has an immediate impact on the systems functional structures existing in Albania. Especially, the Albanian policy should take under consideration the Albanian immigrants transfer from Greece to the country of origin, Albania. A first depiction of the situation has been formed and should be the concern of the Albanian policy that these individuals will reincorporate into the Albanian society, its social, political and economic structures. The issue we are preoccupied with is how the educational system will reincorporate the Albanian students coming from different educational grades into the Albanian system. In other words, the issue is how the conditions will be formed so that the repatriated Albanian families and their children will redefine their future and schematize a model of adaptation into the Albanian society. Especially, the Albanian children returning to Albania, as we have already mentioned, either speak no Albanian at all or know an imperfect and insufficient structure of the Albanian language which is a temperate, oral, communicative discourse. Therefore, they do not know the Albanian code that would facilitate the incorporation into the educational grades of the Albanian system. The fact that they were not taught the Albanian language in the Greek educational system and that the efforts of teaching by informal educational institutions, mainly Albanian associations, were limited and fragmentary seems to create a big problem for the repatriated 58 Repatriation of Albanians: Redesigning a Student acculturation Policy immigrant Albanian students. The fact that they do not know the language of their country of origin generates primarily the problem of incorporating into the Albanian society and they perhaps confront some sort of racism as the “others” within it. They are invited to get socialized quickly in attitudes, values and behaviors in order to be visible and acceptable by the social system. At this point we would like to highlight that beyond the incorporation into the educational system there is also the incorporation into the social system (Frith, 1980), into the citizen society, the everyday routine life of the Albanian society. We mainly focus on these students’ incorporation into the educational system. The insufficient or imperfect knowledge of the linguistic code means incorporation problems into the student environment, the peer society (Lauder, Brown, Dillabough & Halsey, 2006). Moreover, we should not ignore the psychological or social terms, the issue of incorporating individuals into the social domains in which they are obligatorily incorporated. The student must be adapted both to the macro environment, the social one, and to the micro environments in which he is incorporated as a child or teenager and as a student. The issue of incorporation as a child or teenager is connected to the recognition of his personality by people of similar age with whom he associates with and within the social framework he should be incorporated. Here, he is aligned with the system of values, through sequential testing procedures so that he is lead to a situation of his acceptance connected to the satisfaction received as individual and a social personality (Littlewood, 1999). The issue of incorporation as a student contains his adaptation on different social areas as they work within the educational environment (Rose, 2007) and are analyzed in a) relations with fellow students, b) relations with the teachers and c) relations with the cognitive subjects. In the fi rst area, theoretically, the students of a class have common aims that depict as a common perspective their harmonic co-existence and their success in the processing of their school obligations. The issue is linked to a value model (Frith, 1980) which implies a framework of behavior and various social definitions formulated through reproduction and forms of social inequality. The immigrant student is involved within this nexus of inequalities being addressed as the non “recognizable” and as an Albanian he is addressed as the “other”. The second area of relations with the teachers is analyzed mainly in the vehicle of knowledge and the vehicle of authority as it is interpreted by the student himself. Therefore, the immigrant student comes in contact to a structured system of relations which he is invited to decode and to accept thoughtlessly so that the unhindered diffusion of knowledge is facilitated and he makes himself a participant of the cognitive content and simultaneously to interpret the acceptable or delinquent behavior so that he avoids punishments or penalties as a result of the social control being exercised within the educational environment (Campel & Manicom, 1995). In the third area, the contact with the cognitive subjects is not defined only by the different concentration on the cognitive fields and the level of their cognitive or not proficient understanding but mainly on how these weaknesses are defined within the evaluation system existing in the Albanian educational system, that is the grading that finally defines the individual’s success or failure in the educational system and the professional fields. In social terms, the individual is invited to meet the needs of the examination systems linked to his progress and his success within a society which, for the Albanian immigrant, is a Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 society where he is continuously measured or which he continuously tries to conquer. Therefore, the Albanian educational system is invited to take under consideration these three areas and to readjust its structures in order to correspond to the needs of this population seeking its adaptation in the country of origin (Psimmenos & Kasimati, 2003). The model suggested is based on a system of supplementary education of the Albanian language and culture so that the student is familiarized with the system of his country. The educational system has the potential to organize the provision of condensed knowledge with simultaneous thorough examination on cultural issues. These structures must be utilized by the Albanian educational system in order to give perspective and content to the Albanian immigrant education being incorporated into the Albanian educational system. At the same time, we estimate that the cognitive field obtained in the country of reception, Greece, should not be abandoned. The systematic teaching of the Greek language and culture as well as the cognitive field will be useful since the students will feel that there is a continuation and interconnection of the two systems (Modell, 1993), the Albanian and the Greek ones. The relationships with Greece should not be split apart since the student should feel balance and stability through the reinforced possibility of transition from the one educational system to the other or of transition from professional areas (Dolby & Dimitriadis, 2004) in Albania to corresponding ones in Greece. 4. Conclusion We observe that the period of the financial crisis imposes the collaboration between the Greek and the Albanian system so that flexible forms of the Albanian immigrant adaptation will be 59 formulated. These groups of people will either transit directly to the country of origin or, later on, to any professional or educational level (Foray & Steinmueller, 2003; Frith, 1980) they will decide to choose between Greece and Albania. A common element for both systems is that they should look more closely into the teaching systems of technology and English language in order to increase the possibilities of the student population to supplement their education or to engage themselves in professional terms in other countries (Lauder, Brown, Dillabough & Halsey, 2006). As we have already mentioned, the Greek educational system should give emphasis on the provision of teaching the Albanian language as well, something that consists a strong request within the framework of intercultural education, but nowadays, it seems to be a necessity. It is a request incorporated into a broader political ethics in which the Albanian immigrant being repatriated should have the means to incorporate from the beginning in the country of his origin. At the same time, learning the Albanian language by the natives will blunt racism and will increase the possibilities for collaboration between the two countries on different levels. The Albanian educational system should prepare an educational system based on the Albanian language for the repatriated students who should become aware of the structure and content of the Albanian language as a communication and culture code. The challenge actually lies within this necessity of the supplementary education so that the students will be able to adapt themselves and under the best possible conditions to the Albanian environment. On the basis of these changes, a broader collaboration field is formulated in the sense that the notions of citizen 60 Repatriation of Albanians: Redesigning a Student acculturation Policy and policy of rights exist beyond the boundaries of the nation-states (Modell, 1993) and are incorporated into the individuals’ right to become members of a society (Alston & Robinson, 2005), form their preferences, define their future and feel creative (Deci, 1980). The Greek educational system calls for its reforms and restructuring so as to especially serve Albanian immigrants, but also natives who undergo nationalistic influences by the existent curriculum during their careers as students. Bi-level reforms ought to take place in the Albanian educational system, especially in regards with familiarization with Greek culture: a) Returning elementary and secondary level students ought to continue honing their Greek language skills so that they may move back to either continue studies or get jobs in changing times, as an expression of transnationalism (Beck, 2005b). REFERENCES Alston, P. & Robinson, M. (2005). Human Rights and Development: Towards Mutual Reinforcement. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bauman, Z. (2007). Liquid times leaving in uncertainty, Cambridge: Polity Press. Beck, U. (2005b). Power in the Global Age. Cambridge and Malden, MA: Polity. Berry, J. M., Phinney, J. S., Sam, D. L. & Vedder, P. (2006). Immigrant Youth in Cultural Transition: Acculturation, Identity and Adaption Across National Contexts. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Bourdieu, P. (1974). “The School as a Conservative Force” in J. Eggleston (ed) Contemporary Research in the Sociology of Education. pp. 32-46. London: Methuen. Campel, M. & Manicom, A. (1995). “Introduction” in Marie Campbell and Ann Manicom (eds) Knowledge, Experience, and Ruling Relations. Toronto: Toronto University Press. Deci, E. L. (1980). The psychology of selfdetermination. Boston: Lexington. Dolby, N. & Dimitriadis, G. (2004). Learning to Labour in New Times. New York, London: RoutledgeFalmer. Foray, D. & Steinmueller, W. E (2003) “The Economics of Knowledge Reproduction by Inscription”, Industrial and Corporate Change vol 12 (2), pp.299-319. Freeman, C. & Soete, L. (1997). The Economics of Industrial Innovation, ed. 3d. London: Pinter. Frith, S. (1980). “Education training and the labour process” in M. Cole & B. Skelton (ed). Blind Alley: Youth in a Crisis of Capital. G.W. & Hesketh. Ormserk. Hunt, A. (1999). Governing Morals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Harvey, D. (2005). A Brief of Neoliberalism. New York: Oxford University Press. Harvey, D.(2006). Spaces of Global Capitalism: Towards a Theory of Uneven Geographical Development. New York: Verso. Gropas, R. & Triantafyllidou, A. (2007). “Greece” in Triantafyllidou, A. & Gropas, R.(ed) European Immigration: A Sourcebook, pp. 141-155. Aldershot: Ashgate. Kalerante, E & Fotopoulos, N. (2010), “Students of an inferior educational System – Albanians in vocational school”, Sociology of Education Research Network. (submitted). Lauder, H., Brown, P., Dillabough, J-A. & Halsey, A. H. (2006). Education, Globalization and Social Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Law, J. & Mol, A. (eds) (2002). Complexities. Social studies of knowledge practices. DurhamLondon: Duke University Press. Levine, D. U. & Havighurst, R. J. (1992). Society and education. Boston: Alyn & Bacon. Littlewood, P. (1999). “Schooling, Exclusion and Self- Exclusion” in P. Littlewood (ed.) Social Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 Exclusion in Europe: Problems and Paradigms. pp. 1-21. Aldershot: Ashgate Lundvall, B.A & Nielsen P. (1999) «Competition and transformation in the learning economy», Revue d’ Economie Industrielle, vol. 88, pp. 67-88. Maroukis, Th. (2005). “Albanian migrants in Athens and the emergence of a transborder public sphere” in Chiodi, L. (ed) (2005), The Borders of the Policy. Migration and security across the EU and the Balkans, Istituto per l’ Europa Centro-Orientale e Balcanica (IECOB). Ravenna: Longo Editore Maroukis, T. (2005). “Albanian migrants in Athens and the emergence of a transborder public sphere. Ravenna: Longo Editor Modell, A. H. (1993). The Private Self. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press Modood, T (2007). Multiculturalism: A Civic Idea. Cambridge: Polity Press OECD (2010). Reviews of Migrant Education – Closing the Gap for Immigrant Students: Policies, Practice and Performance. Paris Psimmenos, I.& Kasimati, K. (2003). “Immigration 61 control pathways: organizational culture and work values of Greek welfare officers”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 29 (2) 337-371. Rose, N. (2007). The Politics of Life Itself: Biomedicine, Power and Subjectivity in the Twenty-First Century. Princeton, NJ &Oxford: Princeton University Press Sennett, R. (1999). “Growth and Failure. The New Political Economy and its Culture”. In Mike Featherstone- Scott Lash (eds). Spaces of Culture. City-Nation-World. London: Sage Triantafyllidou, A. & Veikou, M. (2002). “The Hierarchy of Greekness. Ethnic and National Identity Considerations in Greek Immigration Policy”, Ethnicities. 2(2), 189-208 Zachou, C. & Kalerante, E. (2010) “’Becoming a Citizen’: Albanian Women’s Civic Education and Political Engagement in Greece”, in Abraham, M. Chow, E. N., MaratouAlipranti, L. Tastsoglou, E. (eds) Contours of Citizenship: Women in a Global/Local World, Burlington: Ashgate, 77-95. SOME CRITICAL THEMES REGARDING THE INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION OF ALBANIANS Lekë SOKOLI - University “Marin Barleti”, Tirana-Albania Albanian Institute of Sociology E-mail: lsokoli@instituti-sociologjise.org; lsokoli@hotmail.com ABSTRACT The phenomenon of migration has been at the core of economic and social changes of Albania during last two decades. No other Center or East European Country has been affected to such extent by migration in such a short period of time. That’s why Albania as considered a kind of Laboratory for studying the migratory phenomenon in new Europe and global world, and specially an excellent laboratory for the studying of the dynamic and mutually interdependent relationship between migration and development. Trying to understand the international migration of Albanians and its meaning, the author treats some Critical Themes of migration, speaking generally. First Critical Theme is concerned with the size of Albanian migration: from one third (people born in Albania living abroad) to half (Albanian that have experienced migration, during the same period of time). Second, Albania is still a net migratory country and another Critical Theme is concerned with migrants, as contributors on Albanian economy. Albanian experience shows the positive and negative aspects of migration on originated countries and, regarding remittances, not only their “potential benefits”, but also the “potential costs”. The third Critical Theme is concerning with the conclusion that the international mobility of people is a controversial issue with attitudes ranging from openness and tolerance toward immigrants in good economic times, to reluctance and even xenophobia and resentment, particularly during times of economic slowdowns, unemployment, and financial insecurity such as the one we live in now after the financial crash of 2008-09. Another Critical Theme is concerning with the asymmetrical development of the world in the time of globalization. The nature of the current wave of globalization is such that international mobility of goods (commodities) and capital (money) across countries is much freer than the international mobility of people. This can be called the “people’s paradox of globalization”. Another Critical Theme regarded the illegal migration, is concerned with the conflict between Economic Logic and the Law. Another Critical Theme is concerned with the correlation between migration and development in the net migration countries, such as Albania. The case of Albania shows that Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 63-75 64 Some Critical Themes regarding the International Migration of Albanians there is a great difference between changing and progress. Albanian migration has been the key factor of an “extroversion” economy, meaning that internal consumption greatly exceeds the capacity of national production. The last Critical Theme is concerned with how we are measuring the progress. Albanian case shows the differences between the GDP growth and social progress. The author refers, thanks first to migration, the fast globalization of Albanian society and new concepts, such as: transnationalization, “globalizing communitarianism beyond borders”, multiculturalism, “Hybridization” of Albania etc. So, Migration is defining the features of Albanian society and it’s Future. Keywords: migration, social laboratory, critical themes, remittances, transnationalization, globalizing communitarianism, multiculturalism, “Hybridization” of Albania etc. Albania as Laboratory for studying the migratory phenomenon and not only Being very representative the migration of Albanians after ‘1990-s is much studied, not only from Albanian scholars but also from the social scholars of different countries, such as US and UK, Italy and Greece, Switzerland, France, Germany and so many other countries. For example, the last issue of the Journal “Perpjekja” (No. 26-27, January 2011) approaches Albanian migration from diverse perspectives. Just in the preface of this issue is written: The issue approaches Albanian migration from diverse perspectives, analyzing sociological, cultural and political phenomena relevant to an unprecedented (post-socialist) migration of almost half of the Albanian population between 1990 and 2010. It focuses on the main geographic destinations of the Albanian migration: Italy, Greece, USA, and Western Europe etc. One of the contributors of this issue is Russell King, from University of Sussex, UK. His article is titled: Albania as a Laboratory for the Study of Migration and Development (King, 2011), where the author explains: This paper argues that, because of its recent and intense experience of migration set against a background of transition, poverty and underdevelopment, Albania is an excellent laboratory for the study of the dynamic and mutually interdependent relationship between migration and development. Albanian migration is studied from different approaches. On of them is that of Julie Vullnetari, according to her, the development of Albania itself and its migratory policies, during last two decades of past-communist transition have had this trajectory: “From communist ‘gulag’ to Balkan ‘ghetto’ (Vullnetari, 2011). She writes: The fall of the Berlin Wall which symbolised the collapse of the socialist system in Central and Eastern Europe, was viewed with concern by some policy-makers in Western Europe who envisaged potential ‘flooding’ of their affluent countries with immigrants. Yet, this fear did not materialise and postcommunist East-West migration was rather moderate. The exception was Albania, whose emigration displayed features of an exodus – at least in the early 1990s – in terms of its ratio to the country’s population, its concentration over a short period of time, and the typology of these moves. From these sources we have (1) “migration of almost half of the Albanian population between 1990 and 2010” and, (2), in all ex-socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the exception Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 was just Albania, whose emigration displayed features of an exodus in terms of its ratio to the country’s population, its concentration over a short period of time, and the typology of these moves (Vullnetari, 2011). The exodus of this significant share of the Albanian population since 1990 is considered as one of Europe’s newest and most dramatic mass immigrations (King et al. 2006). But how many Albanians have emigrated, since 1990: one forth (UNDP, 2006), one third (Sokoli & Hroni, 2006) or half (Perpjekja, 2011)? It’s very difficult to give an exact number of the Albanian migrants during the last two decades. That’s because the Albanian migration was irregular (illegal) and very chaotic. Anyhow is very easy to joke with statistics or, speaking in the language of Huff [1954, (1985)] it’s easy to lie with statistics, such as with the statistics of Albanian migration. But we have tested some regions of Albania just to explore the relationship between household welfare and irregular migration risk. The results were really surprised. For example, in the families of Roma Community (i.e. the poorest Albanians) of two Albanian districts, named Levan-Fier and Morava-Berat, more than 50 per cent of the people were abroad: 42.4 per cent from Levan-Fier and 60.8 per cent from Morave-Berat (Sokoli & Hroni, 2006).1 In these families the remittances are naturally the major factor that distinguishes “poor” or “non-poor” households. Because of migration these families are likely to produce almost nothing. So, sociological surveys prove the greatest dimensions of irregular immigration of Albanians. It’s clear that No other Center or East European Country has been so affected by migration, in such a short period of 65 time like Albania. From this point of view, Albanian’s experience of irregular migration is “a kind of laboratory for studying the new migratory process” (Rusell King, 2003, De Zwager et al, 2005). So, regarding migration Albania is a Sui genres case in the Central and East Europe (ex-communist part of Europe). Understanding the international migration of Albanians In different studies on Albanian migration we can find different explanations, including right and wrong approaches and conclusions, understandings and misunderstandings as well. Why so many Albanians have migrated in this short time, quite different from the other countries? We must exclude the ethnic diversity factor. It is known that multiethnic states can also be fragile, especially in face of internal upheaval or external threat. Sometimes societies with long history of ethnic tolerance and integration can rapidly become engulfed in ethnic conflicts – hostilities between different ethnic groups or communities. This has recently been the case in the former Yugoslavia, a region renowned for its rich multiethnic heritage. The Balkans has long been the crossroads of Europe. Centuries of migration and the rule of successive empires have produced a diverse, intermixed population. The conflicts in former Yugoslavia have involved attempts at ethnic cleaning, the creation of ethnically homogenous area through the mass expulsion of other ethnic population. Croatia, for example, has become an independent ‘mono-ethnic’ state; the war which broke out in Bosnia in 1992 involved the ethnic cleaning; the war in Kosovo in 1999 was prompted by charges that Serbian forces were 1 In some studies about Albanian migratory phenomenon (such as, World Ban Assessments) is valuated, for example, that the poorest Albanians can not immigrate because of the cost of the process. Our survey shows that this conclusion is not correct. 66 Some Critical Themes regarding the International Migration of Albanians ethnically cleaning the Kosovar Albanian (Muslim) population from the province (in both cases of Bosnia and Kosovo, ethnic conflict becomed international). Western states intervened both diplomatically and military to protect the human rights of ethnic groups. Political repression, ethic cleaning, armed war, genocide - describes the systematic elimination of one ethnic group at the hands of another – always have produced international migration. Balkans diary is the most recent example (Giddens, 2004; Rupnik, 2004). But this is not the case of Albania, which is the most homogenous Balkan country regarding the ethnicity. The case of Albania is different in comparison to Bosnia, Kosovo etc. In Albania there’s no arm conflicts, genocide, persecution, ethnic problems, political repression, human rights violation and so on. The migration of Albanians can be defined as a “peaceful” migration. To describe the main global population movement, al least since 1945, scholars have identified four models of this kind of migration, which are: the classic model of migration – applies to countries such as Canada, United States or Australia; the colonial model of migration – pursued by countries such as France and United Kingdom, tends to favor immigrants from former colonies over those from other countries; the guest workers model – the immigration in temporary bases, to fulfill demands within the labour market of countries such as Germany, Switzerland, Belgium etc.; the irregular migration or illegal migration (Giddens, 2004: 259). Albanian migration has been first and foremost irregular, or illegal migration. The basic question: what are the forces behind this massive “peaceful” migration of Albanians? It’s known that many early theories about migration focused on socalled push and pull factors.2 More recently ‘push and pull factors’ have been criticized for offering only a simplistic explanation of a complex process. Instead scholars of migration are looking at migration patterns as ‘systems’ which are produced through interactions between macro-level and microlevel processes.3 Economic historians have shown that “the main variation in inequality (differences) in the past 150 years has been among countries rather than within countries. Therefore a main concern of current globalization is the contrasting in income levels, living standards, and economic potential across nations. These international disparities create powerful incentives for international migration.4 The development of the world is very asymmetric and international movement of people is inevitable. The asymmetry is even within countries, such as Albania. So, the proportion richest/poorest of Albanian families is 2.1 times higher than the average of other East European (ex-communist) countries (Sokoli, 2011). Here we have another reason for Albanian higher level of migration. The above mentioned reasons of international migration can give satisfied explanation of Albanian exodus of last two decades. So, I’ll try to 2 ‘Push factors’ referred to dynamics within a country of origin which forced people to emigrate, such as war, famine, and political oppression or population pressures. ‘Pull factors’, by contrast, were those features of destination countries which attracted emigrants. 3 Macro-level factors refer to issues such as political situation in the country, and different changes (not personal ones); micro-level factors refer to the migrant himself (his resources, knowledge, understandings, interests etc.). 4 Comparing the five countries with the highest level of incomes (Chatar, Luxemburg, Norway, Singapore and Brunei), with the five countries with the lowest level of incomes (Congo, Zimbabwe, Burundi, Liberia and Eritrea), result that the income of five first countries are 145 higher than the incomes of five last countries (Sokoli, 2011). 67 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 go in another direction. That’s because I am convinced that understanding the Albanian international migration means understanding Albania itself and Albanian post-communist transition. Albanian migration of last two decades and after is concerned with all the developments of Albania, including communist and post-communist time. All the development of Albania during the communist regime (1945-1990) is based on Marxist theory of transformation from capitalist to communist society. Marx writes … between capitalist and communist society lies the period of the revolutionary transformation of the one into the other. Corresponding to this is also a political transition period in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat. Marx (see, 1975: 226), says that the dictatorship of the proletariat is a necessary phase to move to the disappearance of class distinctions generally, to the disappearance of all the relationships in production5 upon which are based these class distinctions, the disappearance of all social relations that correspond to these relations in production, the overthrow of all ideas emanating from these social relations. So the democratic transition interrupted another transition: the communist one. And, rreferring to Marx’s scheme, and judging the depth of the transformations applied in Albania - compared with other countries of Eastern Europe - and the transformations performed comparably to other types of social transitions, we can say that: First, of all types of transitions, the post communist transition is the most representative Scheme I: Communist transition, according to Marx Capitalism (Communist transition = Socialism = dictatorship of proletariat) Communism Scheme II: The features of Communist Transition (Karl Marks) Communist transition = a necessary transitive phase… …to disappear all the relations on production upon which are based these class distinctions (First: owner relations) to disappear all social relations that correspond to these relations of production... …to go to the disappearance of class distinctions in general …to overthrow of all ideas that correspond these social relations 5 With relationships in production, Marks understood, first of all, relations of ownership over the means of production. 68 Some Critical Themes regarding the International Migration of Albanians one. This is regarded to the quantity and depth of the transformations performed. Second, the starting point of postcommunist transitions was different in different countries. This depending on three factors: the level of development (1) the degree of application of Marx’s formula - cited above, (2) and different levels of previous reforms (3). Third, it is confirmed that only ten years after the fall of the Berlin Wall, the characterization of East European Countries as “post-communist,” clearly lost every sense (Rupnik, 2002: 129-137). The common denominator of Hungary, Albania, the Czech Republic, Belarus or Kazakhstan shows almost nothing. Forth, of all former communist countries, Albania represents a special case, first of all, because in no other country Marx’s formula (quoted above) is implemented so faithfully, or blindly, than in Albania. All other countries have corrected the system, at least after ‘1960s.6 Albania, on the contrary, following the strategy “neither East nor West” went paradoxically in the road of the greater ‘communistization’: Albania of 1989 was a more communist country than in 1945 or in 1960. First, Albania was and remained the country with the highest level of the concentration of means of production in state hands. In Albania, as nowhere else, the state became the only owner and the only employer. The Albanian people were, as nowhere else, alienated to the state. But the state has lost these functions, immediately, in a very short time, let’s say, in one year. Albanian citizen, totally alienated from the state, felt suddenly abandoned. The main question was just the survival, at any cost. The migration was just the “life-boat” (the boat of Noès”). Fifth, Albanian communism remains up to the end a “heavy communism”, quite different from the “light communism” of other countries, such as the so-called the “communism of gulash” in Hungary, after the revolution of 1956. This means that Albania had some additional objective difficulties for a successful transition, against most other former communist countries.7 Sixth, in addition to this “plus objective difficulties” Albania had some “subjective additional difficulties”, for a successful transition versus the majority of East European Countries. That’s because, using with the words of the famous Zbigniew Brzezinski the behavior or engaging of the Albanian leaders towards a pluralist democracy has been and still is problematic.8 The above arguments lead us to the generalization: if the post-communist transition is more representative; the Albanian post-communist transition is the most representative one. So, the Albanian transition is a kind of laboratory for the study of transitional processes, received generally. Seventh, the migration of Albanians in such a great quantity was possible 6 It is widely accepted that after World War II, totalitarianism longest and most savage prevailed in Albania, Romania and Bulgaria” (Rupnik, 2002). Albania was the most unreformed, even compared with this to other former communist countries. 7 This is not a metaphor. Albania based its economic development in the heavy industry, as well as in large cooperatives and agriculture farms. Almost all inhabitants of the city of Elbasan, for example, earned their own living from the the Metallurgical Combine, at that time with more than 14 thousand workers, so too much for a small country, such as Albania. In these conditions the process of transformations towards the market economy was and is still very difficult. 8 In his article “The Great Transformation” Zbigniew Brzezinski (1993) has foreseen the historical calendar of former communist countries of Central and East Europe. He listed these countries in four groups according to the expected rate of development of democracy. In Brzezinski’s ‘classification’ Albania was one of the fourth groups (the fourth), because “the behavior or engaging of the leaders of these countries towards a pluralist democracy is problematic.” Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 thanks to some other geographical and social factors. Albania is a European country, near to Greece and Italy. So it was possible to pass the border… Another social factor is concerned with the traditional connections of Albanians of Albania with the Albanians of Diaspora. Except the well known Jewish’s experience, the Albanians represent the next case of spreading all over the world. The number of Albanians living abroad is valuated to be 3-4 times more than the Albanians of Albania itself.9 Now almost every Albanian, migrant or not is in a dilemma: to live in Albania or in another country. That’s motivated not only from the financial capital (economic perspective), but also from the social capital (sociologic perspective) as well. Some Critical Themes of migration & some Conclusions referring the Albanian migratory Experience The attention of the scholars is concentrated first of all in the study of the impact of immigration on recipient countries, so in the countries of destination. From the late 19th century to the mid 20th century, the international migration was an important engine for economic growth in such destination countries as the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, and New Zealand – the so-called New World countries. Most of the immigrants came from Europe (Ireland, Italy, Spain, Poland, and Scandinavia, and from Asian nations. In the early 21 st century, the geographical landscape of origin and destination countries for international migration has changed fundamentally. Many European and such Asian countries 9 69 (such above mentioned) have turned from being, historically, net emigration countries to net recipient countries. Albania is still a net migration country. But less attention is focused on studing the impact of migration on the countries of origin, such as the Albania. Almost all the studies are focused on economic impact, referring to remittances. But, there are some Critical Themes to highlight the international migration, regarding Albanian experience: First one is concerned with the size of migrants: from one third (Albanians living abroad) to half (Albanian that have experienced migration, during the same period of time). Is this connected with any “natural” feature of Albanians? The authors have written, anyhow, about “Albanians – as great recessives”. The concept “recessives” is used to characterize Albanians as people almost genetically tended to go abroad, to move from their homeland. This approach, or conclusion, is not correct. The Albanian Migration is an old and new phenomenon. But, during the history, there have been some waves of migration of the Albanians. The first one happened during the ‘40s of 14th century, under a very severe occupation of the emperor Stephan Dusan (Stefan Dushani). Many Albanians were forced to migrate, first of all in Greece. Their successors (arvanitas of Greece) have preserved the Albanian language until today (Frasheri, 2008: 79). The second wave of Albanian exodus was during the 15th century, at the end of Albanian resistance against Ottoman Empire under Skanderbeg. Again their successors (arberesh of Italy, and not only) have preserved the Albanian language until The Albanians populate not only Albania, but even another Balkan country (Kosovo), they constitute a qualified minority in FYROM, are distributed to all the other Balkan countries and have migrated to more than 35 other countries in all continents. It is said, not without basis, that there are more Albanians in Turkey than in Albania; there are more Albanians - together - in Greece and Italy than in Albania, there are Albanian Diasporas in USA, Canada and so on... 70 Some Critical Themes regarding the International Migration of Albanians today and many Albanian traditions (Tirta, 1999: 1998). The third wave of Albanian migration was that of first half of 20th century, around the First World War. But in every case, the migration of Albanians has been a forced migration. Later, in the second half of 20th century (up to 1990) Albania was totally (self) isolated by the rest of the world. Crossing the border was considered “treachery against the fatherland”, and so the most serious crime. During the history the myth of homeland through Albanians has been always very strong.10 From this short ‘picture’ we can draw two conclusions: First, the history of Albania can not help us to explain the Albanian exodus of last twenty years. Second, the Albanian migrants have conserved the main features of national identity. And we can explain the Albanian exodus of 1991 and after only based on the specific developments of this country concluding that what happened in Albania, under the similar conditions, may happen in every country of the world. Table: Potential benefits and costs of remittances for receiving countries Potential benefits Potential costs Ease foreign exchange constraints and help finance external deficits Ease pressure on governments to implement reforms and reduce external imbalances (moral hazard) Permit imports of capital goods and raw materials for industrial development Are spent on consumer goods, which increases demand, increases inflation and pushes up wage levels Are potential source of savings and investments for capital formation and development Reduce savings of recipient families and thus negatively impact growth and development (moral hazard) Facilitate investment in children’s education and human capital formation Reduce labor effort of recipient families and thus negatively impact growth and development (moral hazard) Are net addition to families’ income sources; raise the living standard of recipients Replace other sources of income, thereby increasing dependency, eroding good work habits, and heightening potential negative effects of return immigration (moral hazard) Reduce income inequality Increase income inequality Reduce poverty Promote the development of money laundering Source: De Zwarg et al. 2005. Competing remittances, Tirana: IOM, pp. 37-38 10 In a large volume of Maxims of the Albanian people, with about 14 thousand maxims, published by the Albanian Academy of Science in 1883, the first ones are: “my field, my tomb”, “the most difficult obstacle to pass in the life of a man is the doorstep of the house/the threshold of the house” and so on. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 The second Critical Theme of migration, regarding Albanian experience, is concerned with migrants, as contributors to the Albanian economy. Albanian experience shows the positive and negative aspects of migration on originated countries and, regarding remittances, their “potential benefits” and “potential costs”. There are two opposing views on the issue of remittances’ impacts on immigrant sending countries. One considers that remittances do not promote growth but on the contrary, they create dependency of sending countries on migration and decrease the likelihood of an improved economy. The next one considers the potential of remittance inflows to support growth and development. The table presents the views of the economic benefits and costs of remittances to a receiving country. The impact of remittance flows on poverty reduction is not studied empirically. But according to the Living Standard Measuring Survey (LSMS) 2002, across all households, remittances from immigrants presented 13 per cent of the household income while for households that received remittances they presented 47 per cent of the household income. A key question concerning remittances is whether they affect the labor supply of household members that do not immigrate. As regards Albania (Fuga, 2004) draws attention on this impact of remittance for the country??. Analyzing the impact of remittances on farming activity of rural households in Albania, they find that the provision of remittances significantly hindered farm efficiency, because of reduced labor effort. Clearly more qualitative and quantitative research has to be conducted. There is still a high dependence of Albania on remittances. A sudden decline in their 11 71 size, due to a recession in the immigration countries for example could devastate the Albanian economy. And they finance mainly imports (the “boomerang effect”) (De Zwader et al, 2006). Another Critical Theme of migration (the third one), regarding Albanian experience, is the impact of economic global crises on migratory issues. As observed in similar countries,11 the short-term impact of the economic global crisis in Albania covers al least three main areas: the first impact concerns the decrease for remittances;12 the second impact is the possibility that part of the migrant stock might return in Albania; the third area of impact is the decease in the flow of migration, mainly because of high unemployment rates in host countries (Gedeshi, 2010). The forth Critical Theme of migration, regarding Albanian experience, is concerning with the conclusion that the international mobility of people is a controversial issue with attitudes ranging from openness and tolerance toward immigrants in good economic times, to reluctance and even xenophobia and resentment, particularly during times of economic slowdowns, unemployment, and financial insecurity such as the one we live in now after the financial crash of 2008-09. The fifth Critical Themes of migration, regarding Albanian experience and not only, is concerning with the asymmetrical development of the world in the time of globalization. The nature of the current wave of globalization is such that international mobility of goods (commodities) and capital (money) across countries is much freer than the international mobility of people. Trade and capital-market regimes are more open than immigration regime. The asymmetric treatment of people’s Rua, T. A., Migration, Remittances and Development in Times of Crisis, UNFPA, Peru, 2010. The surveys clearly show that the number of Households sending remittances has decreased with 11 percent (Gedeshi, 2010). 12 72 Some Critical Themes regarding the International Migration of Albanians mobility in globalization opens the doors to various interpretations. In 1867 Karl Marx wrote, somewhat ironically, in the opening chapter of Capital about “commodity fetishism”. His metaphor refers to social relationships that in capitalist societies apparently are transformed into objective relationships with commodities or money rather than relationships with people who produce those goods. Another asymmetries is between “knowledge workers” (or talented elites) and manual workers. This asymmetries can be called the “people’s paradox of globalization” (Solimano, 2010). Another Critical Theme is concerned with the dilemmas post by migration. One of them is regarded the illegal migration, with the conflict between Economic Logic and the Law. However, economic maturity is now coexisting with slow or stagnant population growth, low fertility rates, and an aging population. In some advanced economies, the population is shrinking. Thus, immigration provides much needed workers, professionals. Another one regards the conflict between economic logic and the immigrant’s rights. The seventh Critical Theme is concerned to the correlation between migration and development in the net migration countries, such as Albania. First this is connected with our concept of progress. The case of Albania shows that there is a great difference between changing and progress. Albanian migration has been the key factor of an “extroversion” economy, meaning that internal consumption greatly exceeds the capacity of national production. The eighth Critical Thems is concerned with how we are measuring the progress. Albanian case shows the differences between the GDP growth and social progress. The present Albanian prime minister, for example, declared some days ago: “Germany and Albania are the more developed countries of Europe…” (Shqip, 19 August 2011). That’s because the only point of reference for the development in Albania has been and still is the growth of GDP. In fact, the average growth of GDP in the last six years has been about 5 per cent. In this growth there is a great impact of Albanian migration. But, the GDP of Albania is still very modest. With this cadency Albania can reach the average GDP of EU countries (supposing no growth of it) in about 50 years. What is more, the GDP growth is not an indicator of social progress. Economist Simon Kuznets was one of the architects of the US national account system. But, in his report presented in 1934, he categorically stated: The welfare of a nation can scarcely be inferred from a measurement on national income (Cit, Marks, 2011). More than twenty years later, in March 1958, speaking about the US measurement system, John Kennedy said: Even if we act to erase material poverty, there is another greater task; it is to confront the poverty of satisfaction – purpose and dignity – that afflicts us all. And after referring to a very high US GDP (at that time, Gross National Product) he continued: … but the Gross National Product counts air pollution and cigarette advertising, the ambulance to clear our highways of carnage. It counts special locks for our doors and the jails for the people who break them. It counts the destruction of the redwood and the loss of our natural wonder in chaotic sprawl… Yet the Gross National Production does not allow for the health of our children, the quality of their education or the joy of their play. It does not include the beauty of our poetry or the strength of our marriages, Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 the intelligence of our public debate or the integrity of our public officials. It measures neither our wit nor our courage, neither our wisdom nor our learning, neither our compassion nor our devotion to our country. It measures everything in short, except that which makes life worthwhile. Albanian experience as well as the experiences of other countries shows that Kennedy’s words still ring true… The (re)valuation of the measuring system is a point of debate between economists and sociologists. In Albania, during the communist rule (1944-1990), has not been any transparency about the material well-being of the people. Those data are considered “state secrets”. Twenty years after the communist collapse, almost the only reference of the Albanian progress is still the growth of GDP (Telo, 1998).13 The official poverty line is not calculated in national level… From the growth of GDP to the social well-being – this must be the present debate through scholars, sociologists and economists, first. The ninth Critical Theme, regarding Albanian migration, is concerned to the globalization of Albanian society, first thanks to migration. All the traditions are in discussion, even the national identity. The “transnationalization” of our societies requires further analysis. But there is a “state of inbetweenness” of Albanian migrants too. This is best expressed by a poem of Zafer Senocak called “Doppelmann” (cit. Abadan-Unat, 2003): 73 “I carry two words within me / but neither one hole / they’re constantly bleeding / the border runs / right across my tongue…”14 Anyhow, the challenges concerned with migration are quite different from the traditional ones. Whereas in the past most emigrants abandoned all symbolic ties of their place of origin and become citizens that took the local culture, spoke the local language, today more and more migrants retain significant, continuing ties with the countries of origin (Abadan-Unat, 2003). With the support of electronic revolution, internet, and the other means of communication the migration has severed the ties between time and space, going to be part of a so-called “globalizing communitarianism beyond borders”. The intensification of Diaspora-home15 relations leads to the globalization of Albanian domestic politics may be as what has been called the “long distance nationalism” (what was a characteristic of Kosovar Abanians before their independence). While discussing the changing nature of relations between migrants and their new home country, we have A new discourse about migration and multiculturalism; “Hybridization” of Albania – focusing on increasing the number of Albanians leaving in transnational communities; Globalization of Albanian society, and Albanian issues, including politics… John Stuart Mill, in his time, has written about the impact of “placing human beings in contact persons dissimilar to themselves” considering as 13 On this debated question, Parkins (2006: 19) writes: “The growth of GDP may result even when it profits only one person, such as an individual who owns a utility company, and even if the majority of the population is burdened with debts. The rich get richer and the poor grow poorer. Yet, from a statistical standpoint, this is recorded as economic progress”. All the projects of including the developing countries in the “global empire” of so-called ‘corporatocracy”, speaking in Parkins language, were conditioned by a ‘spectacular growth’ of GDP in those countries. But the countries are not developed…. 14 Tibi Bassam, in the book “Europe without identity” considers the formation of communitarianism as particularly negative… 15 Arjun Appadurai, speaks about creating a “Diaspora spaces”, including ethnoscape – persons of different origin living together; technospace – referring the new technologies that create new interdependence between people; financescape and mediascape (cit. Abadan-Unat, 2003: 6-7). 74 Some Critical Themes regarding the International Migration of Albanians “one of the primary sources of progress”. The tenth and the last Critical Theme, regarding Albanian migration, is concerned to the changing of social relations and Albanian society, in general, thanks to migration, first. I would like to illustrate this changing referring to a sole case, taken as a case study. It’s the case of an Albanian, a PhD scholar, who has ‘travelled” from a typical traditional Albanian family to a global family, perhaps in the real sense of this word. Here is what he confessed: “I am not an expert of international migration. But I have been an Albanian migrant for many years just in Greece and Italy, where are situated more than 80 per cent of Albanian migrants. I have exactly shared my active life in two regimes: about 20 years in communist time (1971-1991) and 20 years (1991-2001) in the post-communist epoch. In the first phase I used to be a mechanical engineer more than everything else and, in the second phase, I used to be sociologist, more than everything else. So I can confess something from my experience, covered with a thin theoretical approach. It’s not easy to imagine the traditional Albanian society and its dramatic change. I was born in a typical traditional region of Albania, with the magic name Dukagjin. It’s hardly imagining a long line of men and women with tears in their eyes, when I first moved from. A nine years old boy from their kin was ‘migrating’. In fact I was going to Shkodra (Scutari), the nearest city and the capital of the district. But this was considered migration. This picture remind up to 1991: every movement inside Albania was commanded by the state. But I was an international migrant, being at the same time a sociologist, one of the first scholars of sociology in the history of my country (under the communist regime, so up to 1990, sociology was unplowed). I spend several years in Greece and Italy, being part of the first wave of Albanian migration after the collapse of communist regime, of that biblical Albanian migration of 1991-1992. I experienced what a typical migrant used to experience. No more not less! I worked in more than 25 ‘professions’, doing two or three jobs at the same time. Than I turned back in Albania, but… 20 years later; Koh Samui, Thailand 2011: The Library Hotel. My family is changed in a ‘global’ family. My sun got married with a ‘cross-national’ KoreanCanadian girl. The ceremony was organized in an island of Thailand. It was a non traditional marriage. The participants were from more than 20 countries. My sun was a global student, different schools, different countries, and different cultures. Now he is a global citizen, travelling a lot and working in different countries. My daughters the same: one is engaged and is going to be married with a ‘cross-national’ PersianAmerican boy, the next one the same… So, Albanian society is changing rapidly thanks - first - to migration. And Albania is sight that serves as cautionary example to other countries, as a kind of Social Laboratory for studying the migratory phenomenon in new Europe and global world. REFERENCES Abadan-Unat, Nermin. 2003. “Moving towards European transnationalism: A Turkish View”, Migration and labor in Europe, Istanbul: MURCIR & NIWL. Barjaba, Kosta. 2003. Shqiptarët, këta ikës të mëdhenj (Albanians, these great recessives). Tirana: Korbi. De Soto, Hermine, Peter Gordon, Ilir Gedeshi & Zamira Sinoimeri. Poverty in Albania. Tirana: The World Bank. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 De Zwager, Nicolaas, Ilir Gëdeshi, Etleva Gjermeni & Christos Nikas. 2005. Competing for Remittances. Tirana: IOM. Germeni, E. 2000. Performance of Albanian imimmigrants in Greek labour market. Leuven: KU Leuven. Gëdeshi, Ilir. 2010. Global Crisis and Migration; monitoring a key transmission channel to the Albanian economy, Tirana: UNDP & IOM. Giddens, Anthony. 2004. Sociology, 4th edition, London: Polity Press. Goldin, Ian; Geoffery Cameron and Meera Balarajn. 2011. Exceptional people; How migration shaped our world and define our future, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Huff, Darrell. 1985. How to lie with Statistics. London: Pelikan Books INSTAT (Albanian Institute of Statistics). 2002. The population of Albania in 2001. Main result of the Population and Housing Census. Tirana, Albania. King, Russal, Nicola Mai & Stephanie Schwandner-Sievers. 2006. The New Albanian Immigration: Sussex Academic Press. King, R, N. Mai & M. Dalipaj. 2003. Exploding the immigration myth. Analysis and recommendations for the European Union, the UK and Albania, London: The Fabian Society and Oxfam. King, Russell. 2011. “Albania as a Laboratory for the Study of Migration and Development”, in Perpjekja, No. 26-27. Marks, Nic. 2011. The Happiness Manifesto; How nations and people can nature well-being, London: Nef. 75 Marx, Karl & Frederick Engels, and V.I. Lenin. 1984. on the Dictatorship of the Proletariat, Moscow, USSR: Progress Publishers. Parkins, John. 2006. Confessions of an Economic Hit Man, New York: A Pluma Book. Rupnik, Jacques. 2004. Balkans diary, Pristine: Kosovo Action for Civil Initiative. Sokoli, Lekë & Ilir Gëdeshi. 2006. Trafikimi, rasti i Shqipërisë (Human Trafficking, the Case of Albania): Tirana: Albanian Institute of Sociology. Sokoli, Lekë. 2010. The equivoques of transition (Ekuivoket e tranzicionit), Gjeopolitika (Geopolitics), nr. 5, 2010, pp. 78-98. _____. 2011. “Social differentiations and poverty: Albania in East European context”, Studime sociale (Social studies), Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 78-89. Solimano, Andrés. 2010. International Migration in the Age of Crisis and Globalization; Historical and Recent Experiences, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tela, Ilia. 1998. Well-eing and the poverty line (mireqenia dhe minimumi jetik), Tirana: Albanian Demographs Association. Tirta, Mark. 1999. Migration of Albanians (Albanian ethnography, no. 18)/Migrime të shqiptarëve (Etnografia shqiptare, nr. 18), Tiranë: Shkenca. Vullnetari, Julie. 2011. “From communist ‘gulag’ to Balkan ‘ghetto’: Albania and its migratory policies”, in Perpjekja, No. 26-27. Whitaker, K. S. 1996. “Explaining Cases of Principal burnout”. Journal of Educational Administration 34, 1: 60-71. White, G. 1981. Party and professionals: The political Role of Teachers in Contemporary China. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. SAFE, JUST, AND SMART: HOME EDUCATION AS AN ESSENTIAL OPTION FOR FAMILIES IN ALBANIA AND AROUND THE WORLD Timothy HAGEN - Epoka University, Tirana-Albania E-mail: thagen@epoka.edu.al ABSTRACT Education is a self-evident necessity for all children. Children need to learn the technical skills to be productive and the moral and social skills to live an ethical life in community. The reformer Martin Luther (1524; 1529; 1530) issued an early call for mandatory schooling to equip students with the skills needed for an informed, competent society that valued the critical pursuit of truth. Yet lived history shows that mandatory educational systems have been misused to indoctrinate children. A solution that decentralizes educational power and upholds the ideal of a liberal education should address this problem. Research and philosophy show that an educational system that gives more choice to parents is safe, just, and smart. Specifically, home education, that is, parent-directed education, provides a check to the power of government, accords with natural law, and provides superior academic results. Home education should therefore be permitted in Albania and worldwide. Keywords: Compulsory, liberal, home, school, education, Albania An Interesting Contradiction The rationale for mandating education for all children is obvious: Children need to learn the skills and virtues to be moral, productive citizens who contribute to a peaceful, just, and prosperous society. The idea that some people need a good education so that they can govern a nation well is not new; since ancient times a select group of young people have been trained—by parental choice or force of arms—to govern or serve in the civil service or military (Daniel 1:3-4; Painter 1889). Yet it was with the advent of the Reformation in Europe that the idea that all children should be given a formal education was introduced. When Martin Luther discovered that the religious leaders of his day had strayed far from the original teachings of the Bible, he called on parents and political and religious leaders to ensure Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 77-84 78 that all children had a formal education, especially in the ancient biblical languages, so that there would always be people able to teach and correct on the basis of primary source documents and a knowledge of human history and thought (1524; 1529). Such an education, now known as a classical or liberal-arts education, is designed not only to help people seek spiritual truth, but also to help them make wise decisions for secular government and in all other areas of life (1524; 1530).1 Luther’s call for mandatory education took some time to be implemented. According to Benavot, Resnik, and Coralles (2006, 10-1), it wasn’t until the eighteenth century that compulsory education for all children was implemented in some German states. This movement then spread throughout Europe to North America and globally in the ensuing years. Both the de-colonization movement and the rise of communism in the last century helped introduce compulsory mass education outside of Europe and in Albania, as newly-independent or newlyrevolutionized countries tried to create a productive workforce and a unified national identity through education (ibid., 9; Misja, Teta, and Kallulli 1986). This historical development led to an interesting contradiction. While compulsory education, as envisioned by Luther, may have been intended to equip children with the skills to engage in a critical pursuit of truth, the result, especially under theocratic, communist, and other dictatorial regimes, was that compulsory education became a vehicle of mass indoctrination,2 not critical inquiry. Safe, just, and smart A Proposed Solution Long before the dictatorships of the twentieth century, John Stuart Mill (1859) saw the natural tendency of humans to use schools as a means of indoctrination. His proposed solution was this: “If the government would make up its mind to require for every child a good education, it might save itself the trouble of providing one” (chap. 5, par. 13). Mill recognized that parents have the obligation to educate their children and that the role of government is not to indoctrinate children, but to ensure that they have an education. He proposed that the government subsidize or provide free education for children unable to afford it and monitor all children’s educational progress through annual exams. To avoid indoctrination, these exams should cover “facts and positive science exclusively” (ibid., par. 14). Any exams on controversial fields such as politics were not to test students’ opinions, but only student’s knowledge of existing opinions held by the various authors or sides of an issue. Albania has, to a large extent, adopted Mill’s proposed framework. Indoctrination is prohibited in public schools, education is compulsory, and parents have a choice of public or private schools. However, another, even more effective option for preventing government indoctrination is to allow home education. The purpose of this paper is to argue for the inclusion of home education as an option in Albania because home education is safe, just, and smart. Homeschooling is safe because it reduces the potential for the abuse of the power vested in a more centralized 1 For example, this Reformation idea of critiquing authorities on the basis of reason and primary sources very likely contributed to the scientific revolution in Europe, in which people felt the need to test all claims to truth on the basis of reason, observation, and if possible, experimentation. 2 Some may note that Luther practiced indoctrination himself; this is true. But the very doctrine he taught also contained the line, “Love your neighbor as yourself ” (Matthew 22:39b). Thus Luther had to grant to others the freedoms of inquiry, conscience, and communication that he exercised himself. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 educational system, it is just because it accords with self-evident parental rights, and it is smart because it often enables students to do better academically. Yet homeschools, like institutional schools, can be misused to teach ideas that oppose the rights of others to crucially pursue truth. Thus the structural solution that Mill proposes must be augmented with a content solution, namely, that all forms of education, including public, private, and home education, intentionally promote the critical pursuit for truth and the respect of fundamental human rights and freedoms. Home Education as Safe Education is a powerful tool. This very power makes it a tempting target for those who want to shape the minds of children and in doing so, to shape the future of a nation. Walter Lippmann (1928) summarizes the conflict that a centralized educational system sparks in a nation: May I remind you, then, that the struggles for the control of the schools are among the bitterest political struggles which now divide the nations?... It is inevitable that is should be so. Whenever two or more groups within a state differ in religion, or in language and in nationality, the immediate concern of each group is to use the schools to preserve its own faith and tradition. For it is in the school that a child is drawn towards or drawn away from the religion and the patriotism of its parents. (qtd. in Zimmerman 2002, 1-2). 3 79 Benavot, Resnik, and Corrales (2006) further note that “Mass schooling was part of a movement to weaken family socialization and home-based instruction” (10). While it is likely that those who wish to control education work out of sincere motives, the ideas taught may not be true, and if not true, then they could cause horrific harm to the listeners who adopt them. Thus the power of special interest groups to control the educational system must be diminished by decentralizing the power to decide matters of ideology and opinion. Albania currently does prohibit any ideological indoctrination in schools. However, two problems still remain: First, lived experience suggests that it is very difficult for any textbook writer, curriculum designer, or teacher to be completely objective. Second, even if education is secular now, the very structure of a centralized, mass educational system will make it a tempting target for those who wish to use the power of such a system to advance their doctrines. Private schools are an alternative to state schools and thus are part of the solution to the problem of concentrated educational power. However, private schools take time and money to open and are still under extensive government scrutiny.3 Home education provides an even more decentralized alternative to state education. Whereas opening a new private school could be very expensive, home education can be carried out at reasonable cost,4 thus enabling those who disagree with government-controlled instruction to more easily find an alternative. Home This scrutiny is justified because private schools need to be held accountable so that they don’t promote violence or civil conflict and so that they meet health, safety, and curriculum requirements. Yet this power could be misused. 4 Ray (2010) found that 65% of homeschoolers spent less than $800 on educational materials per student per year. However, the opportunity cost of one parent having to give up a job in order to teach the children can be a significant barrier to homeschooling, especially in situations where an average salary is not enough to support a family. 80 education is safe in the sense that it decentralizes the power to indoctrinate and allows for a wider spectrum of ideas to be taught. This in turn fosters the critical pursuit of truth, as with more ideas taught in society, the contradictory nature of some ideas will compel people to test them for truth. Home Education as Just A decentralized system of education that includes home education is not only safe, but it is also just because it is fair and because it expresses natural law. If one group demands the right to teach their ideas, fairness demands that others be able to do the same. Instead of giving a majority or minority group the exclusive right to control schools, a decentralized system that allows private schools and home education enables a parent to teach his or her child, if the parent wishes. Furthermore, home education is just because it is an expression of natural law. Cicero gives an early definition of natural law: This, then, as it appears to me, has been the decision of the wisest philosophers— that law was neither a thing to be contrived by the genius of man, nor established by any decree of the people, but a certain eternal principle, which governs the entire universe, wisely commanding what is right and prohibiting what is wrong. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Declaration), adopted by the United Nations in 1948 can be taken as an attempt to express an understanding of some of these “eternal principles” in writing. The Declaration addresses education in Article 26: 1. Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional Safe, just, and smart education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. ... 3. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children. Thus, if the Declaration gives us a good idea of some of the “eternal principles” that constitute natural law, then home education is just because it enables parents to exercise their “right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.” Home Education as Smart Home education may be theoretically safer and more just than a centralized, institutional system of education, but some may question the practical applicability of it. Horace Mann (1845) argued that although parents have the love necessary to give a child a good education, many of them lack the knowledge to do so (186). While that may have been the case in 1845, it is no longer the case now. Ironically, this may partly result from the very success of compulsory mass education worldwide, which has elevated adult literacy levels past 80% (Richmond, Robinson, and SachsIsrael 2008, 23). As most countries in the world have educational materials already published in local languages in order to implement mass education, almost any literate parent can use those materials and/ or the internet to locate additional research and resources so as to have the knowledge needed to teach his or her children. Research has found that on average, home-educated children achieve above national averages in the USA and Canada (Rudner 1999; Ray 2000 and 2010; Martin-Chang, Gould, and Meuse 2011). While Rudner’s and Ray’s studies did not include comparisons of demographically Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 similar populations, some studies achieve more compelling results by conducting assessments of similar students in public- and home-education settings. In comparing similar children with ADHD from public schools and home schools, Duvall, Delquadri, and Ward (2004), found that those educated at home did better, despite the fact that their parents only had high school degrees. Martin-Chang, Gould, and Meuse (2011) administered tests to similarly-aged publicand home-educated children from the same geographic region, controlled for parental education and income, and found that home-educated children outperformed their public-school counterparts. Interestingly, home-educated children from structured learning environments, that is, ones with planned objectives and lessons, achieved above comparable public-school peers, but children from unstructured home environments performed below the level of their public-school peers (ibid.). This supports the idea also put forward by others (Ray 2000, Winstanley 2009) that the individualized attention that home-educated children receive allows them to flourish. Fu r thermore, while some may question whether home-educated children will be socially “smart,” that is, socially competent, Van Pelt, Allison, and Allison (2009) found that Canadian homeschoolers who had entered adulthood tended to participate more frequently in organized group activities, were more likely to vote, and were more likely to work in health, social sciences, and arts than their average peers. Thus not only does home education have a theoretical purpose of being an expression of natural law and forestalling the danger of indoctrination through public schools, but it also serves the practical purpose of increasing student achievement. 81 The Necessity of a Liberal Education Some influential thinkers, such as the judges of the European Court of Human Rights (2006), seem to fear that home education may deprive students of the skills needed for democracy. While Van Pelt, Allison, and Allison’s (2009) study suggests that this is not a statistically valid concern, the concern may remain. Yet as noted earlier, not only home schooling, but also public education has the potential to be misused as an instrument of indoctrination, as the history of communist nations and dictatorships of the last century indicates. In reality, it is impossible to avoid all indoctrination in schools. The idea that no doctrines should be taught is itself a doctrine. Likewise, the idea that people should be free to seek, test, and adopt those doctrines they find most true is also a doctrine. However, this latter idea is one that is designed to facilitate the pursuit of truth. Instead of claiming absolute truth, this doctrine provides a framework in which individuals and societies can seek truth. A liberal education is designed to expose children to the vast range of human thought, art, and claims to truth throughout history. The great variety of ideas and claims in such a study should give students a taste of the range of human ideas, give them a vocabulary with which to discuss important ideas, and give them models of how great thinkers have critiqued other ideas or developed new ones. Robert Hutchins of the University of Chicago (1952, 48) termed this virtual discussion between the great thinkers and writers throughout history the “Great Conversation.” Hutchins further describes the civilization that values this Great Conversation as seeking the “Civilization of the Dialogue” that esteems inquiry, logic, and the exchange and testing of ideas. Again, if the Universal Declaration 82 of Human Rights can be taken as a good approximation of natural law and as the product of the Great Conversation, then Article 26 contains an acceptable summary of the goals of a liberal education: Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. (par. 2) Te a c h i n g s t u d e n t s t h e r i g h t s described in the Declaration can be done in public, private, and home schools. In order to lessen the danger of parents or institutional teachers imposing their doctrines on students, the curriculum for each year, whether in a home, public, or private school, should state how the goals of Article 26, Paragraph 2 of the Declaration will be promoted. Home Education as a Liberal Education Allowing home education in a society fosters the pursuit of truth. In having to select a curriculum, parents must practice the skills of researching, evaluating, and selecting or developing a philosophy of education and a curriculum. The parents, having practiced these skills, are better able to teach them to their children. Likewise, when a parent chooses to home school a child, the parent shows by example that it is appropriate to act on what one believes is best, even in opposition to the majority or to those in authority—so long as one does not infringe on the rights of others, including a child’s right to an education. Safe, just, and smart Furthermore, if a parent really wants what is best for a child, he or she will have to teach the child the skills of critical inquiry in pursuit of truth in order to equip the child to handle the many different and conflicting messages in society. For those parents disinclined to give a liberal education, a requirement that any parent who wishes to home educate outline the planned curriculum for the year and highlight how Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights will be implemented will help remind and encourage parents to provide a liberal education that values human rights. Mill’s proposed, unbiased annual exams could also be used to ensure that parents fulfill their obligation to provide an appropriate education. Such exams could encourage a liberal education by testing students on the range of ideas in Great Conversation, so long as students are not required to subscribe to those ideas.5 Finally, home education, by producing graduates who are deeply knowledgeable in the philosophy and worldviews of their parents and of the intellectual history of humanity, should foster a broader spectrum of viewpoints and thus contribute to a more lively debate in the search of truth, and, statistically speaking, a higher chance of finding the same. Conclusion Martin Luther’s goals of promoting good governance, critical thinking, and accountability through an education that emphasized knowledge of human thought, language, and historical primary sources are wholly appropriate. However, his suggested means of achieving this goal—compulsory 5 This range of ideas must be representative and include the idea that humans have a right to freely and critically pursue truth. Taylor (1992) notes that true stories can be selected in such as way as to predispose the audience to certain opinions, something that we must be cautious about in education, especially in mandatory exams. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 public education for all children—while beneficial in many ways, has at times been misused by those who would wish to stifle independent thought and force their doctrines on children. Albania’s educational system under communism illustrates how such an educational system can be misused. The current system that prohibits indoctrination in public schools and permits private schools to function is an improvement. A further improvement would be to allow home education. Not only does home education minimize the power of special interest groups to indoctrinate all children, but it also accords with natural law and shows impressive academic benefits. 83 In addition to the structural reform of education that Mill suggested, a commitment must be made to uphold the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and give a liberal education in order to introduce children to the Great Conversation of human thought and history, a conversation that, as a whole, teaches an open and critical pursuit of truth. Home education should, by its very nature, foster critical inquiry; a mandate that it uphold the goals of the Declaration will help ensure this. Thus home education should be allowed in Albania because it is smart, it is just, and it fosters the pursuit of truth. REFERENCES Adler, M. J. 1981. Six Great Ideas. New York, NY: Touchstone, 1997. Benavot, A., J. Resnik, and J. Corrales. 2006. Global Education Expansion: Historical Legacies and Political Obstacles. Cambridge, MA: American Academy of Arts and S c i e n c e s . h t t p : / / w w w. a m a c a d . o rg / publications/Benavot.pdf. Cicero, M. T. n.d. Excerpts from De Legibus (On the Laws). Trans. by Oliver J. Thatcher, 1907. The Constitution Society. 1999. http:// www.constitution.org/rom/legibus1.htm. Duvall, S. F., J. C. Delquadri, and D. L. Ward. 2004. A preliminary investigation of the effectiveness of home school instructional environments for students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. School Psychology Review. 33 (1): 140-158. http:// www.nasponline.org/publications/spr/pdf/ spr331duvall.pdf. European Court of Human Rights. 2006. Konrad and others vs. Germany. Application 34405/03. Reports of Judgments and Decisions 2006 – XIII. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/ tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm &action=prof&highlight=fritz | konrad | germany&sessionid=74934222&skin= hudoc-en. Hutchins, R. M. 1952. The great conversation. The Great Books of the Western World. Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/blogs/wpcontent/pdf/The_Great_Conversation.pdf. Lippmann, W. 1928. American Inquisitors. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1993: 22-23. Quoted in Zimmerman 2002, 1-2. Luther, M. 1524. Luther’s letter to the mayors and aldermen of all the cities in Germany on behalf of Christian schools. Trans. Painter. In Painter 1889, 169-209. -----. 1529. Small Catechism. In Book of Concord. 1580. Trans. W. H. T. Dau and F. Bente, 1921. http://bookofconcord.org/ smallcatechism.php. -----. 1530. Sermon on the duty of sending children to school. Trans. Painter. In Painter 1889, 210-271. Mann, H. 1845. Lectures on Education. Boston: Ide and Dutton. 1855. Google Books. Martin-Chang, S., O. N. Gould, R. E. Meuse. 2011. The impact of schooling on academic achievement: Evidence from homeschooled and traditionally schooled students. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science. 43 (2): 195-202. 84 Mill, J. S. 1859. On Liberty. The Harvard Classics. 1909-14. http://bartleby.com/25/2/. Misja, V., A. Teta, and A. Kallulli. 1986. Higher education in Albania. Monographs on Higher Education. Ed. W. Vollmann. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0007/000713/071382eo.pdf. Painter, F. V. N. 1889. Luther on Education. St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. http://ia600303.us.archive. org/4/items/lutheroneducatio00painuoft/ lutheroneducatio00painuoft.pdf. Ray, B. D. 2000. Home schooling: The ameliorator of negative influences on learning? Peabody Journal of Education. 75 (1 & 2): 71-106. -----. 2010. Academic achievement and demographic traits of homeschool students: A nationwide study. Academic Leadership Live. 8 (1). http://www.academicleadership.org/ cgi/article/print/Academic_Achievement_ and_Demographic_Traits_of_Homeschool_ Students_A_Nationwide_Study. Richmond, M., C. Robinson, and M. Sachs-Israel. 2008. The Global Literacy Challenge: A profile of youth and adult literacy in the midpoint of the United Nations Literacy Decade 2003-2012. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization. http://unesdoc.unesco. org/images/0016/001631/163170e.pdf. Safe, just, and smart Rudner, L. M. 1999. Scholastic achievements and demographic characteristics of home school students in 1998. Education Policy Analysis Archives. 7 (8). http://eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ ED424309.pdf. Taylor, P. M. 1992. Propaganda from Thucydides to Thatcher: Some problems, perspectives, and pitfalls. Opening address at the Social History Society of Great Britain’s conference. http://ics.leeds.ac.uk/papers/vp01.cfm?outf it=pmt&requesttimeout=500&folder=25 &paper=48. Tubbs, D. L. 2007. Freedoms Orphans: Contemporary Liberalism and the Fate of America’s Children. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. United Nations General Assembly. 1948. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 10 Dec. http://www.un.org/en/documents/ udhr/index.shtml. Van Pelt, D. A. N., P. A. Allison, and D. J. Allison. 2009. Fifteen Years Later: Home-Educated Canadian Adults. London, Ontario: Canadian Centre for Home Education. Winstanley, C. 2009. Too cool for school?: Gifted children and homeschooling. Theory and Research in Education. 7 (3): 347-362. Zimmerman, J. 2002. Whose America?: Culture Wars in the Public Schools. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 85 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 NATIONAL IDENTITY AND RELIGIONS IN ALBANIA Nertila HAXHIA (LJARJA) - University “Luigj Gurakuqi”, Shkoder-Albania E-mail: nertila71@gmail.com Romeo GURAKUQI - University “Luigj Gurakuqi”, Shkoder-Albania E-mail: romeo_gurakuqi@yahoo.com ABSTRACT This paper intends to give a historical panorama of religious pluralism in Albania and the scale of its influence in the formation of the Albanian National identity, at the same time it intends to give some analysis for the perspective. In this paper, the following issues will be briefly elaborated: 1. The religious composition of post-Ottoman Albania; 2. Platform of Albanian National Renaissance; 3. The contribution on Cultural Movement during the Renaissance and Independence by Catholic Albanians; 4. The state and religions in the newly constituted Albanian state of 1920s; 5. The Communist take-over of Albania at the end of 1944 produced serious consequences for the religious communities; 6. Status of Religious Freedom in the post-communist Albania. The Albanians, deprived from the same religious base, were constrained to use the argument of the same ethnic origin, common customs and linguistic unity to realize nation unity, the achievement of independence and the construction of a laic state. It is only by beliefs in these common features that it was possible to have a contemporary Albanian Identity. Generally speaking, the Albanians of the 21st century are by a majority unified in the protection of such pillars of their national identity, but at the same time they are not isolated from the rest of the world and from the existing challenges. The manipulation of the religious differences from extremism is one of the most difficult challenges which are faced by Albanians of the present day. From careful treatment of such a challenge the preservation of the future of the Albanian National Identity and the process of the European integration of that country depends on it. The Albanians, deprived from the same religious base, were constrained to use the argument of the same ethnic origin, common customs and linguistic unity to realize nation unity, the achievement of independence and the construction of a laic Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 85-98 86 state. It is only by beliefs in these common features that it was possible to have a contemporary Albanian Identity. Generally speaking, the Albanians of the 21st century are by a majority unified in the protection of such pillars of their national identity, but at the same time they are not isolated from the rest of the world and from the existing challenges. The manipulation of the religious differences from extremism is one of the most difficult challenges which are faced by Albanians of the present day. From careful treatment of such a challenge the preservation of the future of the Albanian National Identity and the process of the European integration of that country depends on it. 1. The religious composition of post-Ottoman Albania and the consequences of mass Islamisation of the Albanian people Ethnically, Albania is homogeneous; more than 95 per cent of the population is made up of ethnic Albanians. The officially recognized minorities are the Greeks, concentrated in the south, Macedonians, Serbs and Montenegrins. In addition to these minorities, there are Vlachs and Roma. This ethnic uniformity is incarnated into the two ethnic sub-groups to which Albanians actually belong: the Geghs in the North and the Tosks in the south, the approximate line of demarcation between them being the Shkumbini River which flows through Elbasan. The Ghegs and the Tosks differ from each other in linguistic, historical-cultural and socio-religious secondary characteristics. The religious composition of postOttoman Albania is often asserted to be as follows: 68-70 per cent Muslims (dispersed throughout the country), 18 per cent National Identity and Religions in Albania Orthodox Christians living in the south of the country and 12 per cent Roman Catholics dwelling in the north. However, these percentages do not reflect the distinction between Sunnis and Bektashis among the Muslims. Considering the profound differences between them, it would be more accurate to say that the population of post-Ottoman Albania comprised about 53 per cent Sunni Muslims, 20 per cent Orthodox Christians, 15 per cent Bektashis and 12 per cent Catholics. An analysis of the population’s religious composition by ethnic subgroups reveals that in the north the Ghegs were predominantly Catholics and Sunni Muslims, whereas in the south the two main religious affiliations of the Tosks were Bektashism and Orthodox Christianity. Emerging from a five-century Ottoman rule, at the down of Albanian Independence, Albanians no longer resembled a Christian nation. Moreover, the balance between the different religions was to the detriment of Christianity. Albanian Catholicism once called the arbanska vera, was now confined to about 12 percent of population. The Orthodox population was excessively tied to the Greek Church, which continued to identify religion with nationality. The remaining majority, about two-thirds of the population, had converted to the new religion that is Islam.1 In the wake of the culture of the East, the new faith, Islam, had also penetrated the mentality of the Albanian, his songs and dances as well; it had left its impressions on his customs and traditions, and had begun even to colour the heroic epic songs. This new religion of the Albanians according to its own principles, considered religion and nationality to be identical. If one opens the dictionaries of Arabic and Turkish, he will find the 1 Morozzo della Rocca Roberto, Nazione e Religione in Albania 1920-1944, Il Mulino, Bologna 1990, gives a full panorama of the history of Albanian Nation and Religion. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 concepts of din (religion) and millet (nationality) to be synonymous;2 they have only begun to diverge from each other in contemporary Turkish dictionaries. Mass conversion, involving almost two-thirds of the Albanian people, created a factor of differentiation that had consequences for Albania, because it created a series of causes for discord among the Albanian people. Part of Muslim Albanians, having the same rights as Ottoman citizens and hitching their destiny to the Ottomans, assumed some of the highest political and military posts in the empire administration. “The lure of government service and incentive of paying lower taxes counted much for a people often felt to have an instrumental attitude to religion”, said Tom Gallager.3 So, when the Christian peoples of the Balkans began to move towards independence at the beginning of the 18th century, Christianity for them was no longer tied to nationality.4 The Southern part of Albania, as all parts of this country has also been subjected to Turkish rule. The major part of the population of this region, even a part of so-called South Epirus has been populated by the Albanians of both Muslim and Orthodox religions (the Chameria region is compound by 70% Muslim Albanian and 30 % Christian Orthodox Albanians) 87 and from Orthodox Greeks. It is estimated by the Albanian sources that in Southern Albania (so-called North Epirus) about 30000 to 60000 inhabitants were of Greek origin, according to Greek estimates, 228000 inhabitants of Greek origin. On the other hand, likewise, the majority of the Orthodox, the Albanian Orthodox of Southern parts of the country, has been oriented toward Athens. Even those of Albanian ancestry (as Himara region population) were Hellenized to such a degree that it was hard to draw a line of distinction between a Greek of South part of Albania and an Albanian of Orthodox persuasion in that time. Furthermore, under the Turkish rule before establishment of an Albanian Orthodox Church all were members of the Greek Orthodox Church. This was not only in 19-th century, but also in the beginning of 20-th century and in some way it is prolonged even in the present days.5 In the end of the First World War, during the development of Peace Conference in Paris, the Albanian Orthodox leadership denied the Greek assertions that there was a Greek majority in the so-called Northern Epirus. In the files of National Archives in London we have found a great amount of documents, mainly memorandums form the Orthodox Albanians which all denied the Greek propaganda pretensions.6 2 Gallager Tom, Outcast Europe: The Balkans, 1789-1989, From the Ottomans to Milosevic, London and New York 2001, page 25. He gives further explanations: In the Ottoman Empire, “each religious community was regarded as autonomous millet (nation) under a religious leader invested with civil powers. As well as the Orthodox millet, there were, by the 18th century, Gregorian Armenian, Catholic, Jewish and also Muslim millets... The Millet system... Implied no connotation of national identity, though in the later age of nationalism it was to be invested with that idea... It was simply a convenient administrative device which in fact worked extremely well... Provided taxes were paid, the Turks did not care what their subjects did with themselves. Local administration, trade and education were entirely their own affair”. 3 Gallager Tom, Outcast Europe: The Balkans, 1789-1989, From the Ottomans to Milosevic, London and New York 2001, page 28. 4 Stadtmüller Georg, Islamizimi tek Shqiptaret (manuscript in the Albanian language translated by Zef Ahmeti) German version in: Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteeuropas, 1955, Bd. 3 pp. 404-429, München 1955 5 Huey Luis Kostanick, The geopolitics of the Balkans; George G. Arnakis, The role of religion in the development of Balkan Nationalism, at The Balkans in Transition, Assays on the development of Balkan life and politics since the eighteenth century, edited by Charles and Barbara Jelavich, University of California Press, 1963 pp: 44, 142. 6 See: Public Record Office (PRO), Foreign Office (FO).371.3570; 3571; 3572 and FO.608.28; FO.608.29; FO.608.30; FO.608. 38; FO.608. 47. 88 2. Platform of Albanian National Renaissance Fro m t h e b e g i n n i n g , n a t i o n a l ideolog i s t s o f A l b a n i a n N a t i o n a l Movement have propagated a kind of ‘civil religion’ which was epitomized in Pashko Vasa’s famous and influential nationalist poem O moj Shqypni (‘Oh poor Albania’): Awaken, Albanians, wake from your slumber. Let us all, as brothers, swear an oath not to mind church or mosque. The faith of the Albanians is Albaniasm.7 When it became clear that the Ottomans could not protect their interests, the Albanians began to assert their own national claims so as not to be overwhelmed by neighbourly competitors. Faik Konica, one of the most influential Albanian intellectuals rediscovered and popularized the exploits of Skanderbeg (the Albanian King of 15th century, who held out against the Turks of the same period), especially promoting Skanderbeg’s emblem, the black double headed eagle on a red background which later became the national flag. 8 In the case of Albania, the Cultural Renaissance preceded in long time terms the processes of national unity, the foundation of the state and at the same time the economic and political post-ottoman formation. The Representatives of the Albanian Renaissance and the great Albanian statesmen understood that a Christian nation could really remain behind because of the Ottoman domination, nevertheless, released from Turks; it was quite possible to be easily and briefly reintegrated in the European Civilization from which it was disjoined. Meanwhile, a person who has 7 National Identity and Religions in Albania considerably changed his religion after the liberation from the ottoman occupation would not so easily and passionately welcome European civilization, because the Ottoman occupation had shaped a different mentality, had imposed different customs and a different law system act. Thus, the Albanians, deprived for the time being from the same religious base, were constrained to use the argument of the same ethnic origin, common customs, linguistic unity to realize nation unity and the achievement of independence. Only belief on these common features made it possible to hope that those would still work as internal propulsive instigators of the political life. Albanian elites needed to define the Albanian nation and establish its capacity and right to exist. The indigenous culture, particularly Albanian ‘folklore’ and language, became the basis of constructing a distinct national identity and pride, and a distinct territorial definition. The romanticized attributes and heroic ideals of national character were taken from a reservoir of folk and Kanun culture and all those served to establish an ethno-cultural continuity based on the assumption that “in essence the preservation of customary law was one of the most important elements in helping the Albanian people to maintain their individuality under Ottoman domination.9 Towards the turn of the century, Albanian national literature had begun to appear in Italy amongst the ItaloAlbanians, the Arberesh. They actively strove to publicize, throughout Italy and Europe, the aims of the Albanian national Duijzings Ger, Religion and the politics of ‘Albanianism’- Naim Frashëri’s Bektashism writings, at Albanian Identities Myth and History, editors Stephanie Schwander-Sievers and Bernd J. Fischer, Hurst&Company, London 2002 pp. 61. 8 Vickers Miranda, The Albanians: A Modern History, London: I.B. Taursi, 1995 pp. 46. 9 Schwander-Sievers Stephanie, Albanians, Albanianism and the Strategic Subversion of Stereotypes, at “The Balkans and the West, Constructing the European Other, 1945-2003, edited by Andrew Hammond Hampshire 2004 page 116-117. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 movement through their most important journal Fjamuri Arberit (which in the Italian-Albanian language means The Flag of the Albanians) The Italo-Albanians found the most trustful supporter in the figure of Elena Gjika, (nicknamed Dora D’Istria, a Romanian princes of Albanian descent. She published a study of Albanian nationality on the basis of folk songs. In her studies she pointed out that “the Albanians, although divided by religion, formed one nation and had the right to enjoy freedom and progress’.10 To an articulate group of Albanians, who were at first encouraged by Abd ulHamid “being an Albanian” came first, and the religion they professed was now a secondary matter, a purely private affair. The American scholar, George G. Arnakis has underlined exactly that: “for the first time in Balkan history, it was language, and not religion, that was to become the vehicle of national aspirations.”11 Another scholar of the Albanian studies, Ger Duijzings, wrote that, “Albanian nationalism forms... an exception to this common Balkan pattern of overlapping ethnic and religious identities and religiously inspired nationalism”. 12 Noel Malcolm is considering this feature of Albanianism “the myth of indifference to religion.13 Shortly before the Congress of Berlin, Albanian national leadership, Orthodox, Catholic and Muslim, began to speak in terms of nationalism over and above the loyalties of religion. Later on, Father Gjergj Fishta, one of the most famous scholars and politicians 10 89 of the Albanian Nation of 20th century, from the Franciscan Fathers Convent in Shkodra, tried to explain to the Albanians the differences which exist between a civilization and another one, between a culture and another one, understanding the fact that culture is a product of human spirit. Father Fishta also concretely determined the distinctions which exist between the Asian cultural system and the Western European Culture. The Albanians, seeing themselves partitioned by the Treaty of Saint Stephen at 1878, came to their senses and organized the League of Prizren at the end of the 19th century. But the politicians of Europe, having considered them to be Turks, and having decided to banish the Turks from Europe would not think of doing anything for them. This danger opened the eyes of the Albanians to start their movement based on national unity and ethnic appertaining. The League of Prizren leaders didn’t confuse the Albanian cause with the Ottoman one and therefore stood apart and did not mix themselves up with the Turks. The immediate objective of the new nationalist movement was to prevent Montenegro, Serbia and Bulgaria from annexing parts of Albanian territory by virtue of the Treaty of San Stefano. In a meeting held at Prizren, the nationalist leaders declared: “we make no distinction between creeds. We are all Albanians. They constituted themselves into an “Albanian League” and they appealed to the Congress of Berlin to let all Vickers Miranda, The Albanians: A Modern History, London: I.B. Taursi, 1995 pp. 47. Arnakis George G, The role of religion in the development of Balkan Nationalism, The Balkans in Transition, Essays on the development of Balkan life and politics since the eighteenth century, edited by Charles and Barbara Jelavich, University of California Press, 1963pp.141. 12 Duijzings Ger, Religion and the politics of ‘Albanianism’- Naim Frashëri’s Bektashism writings, Albanian Identities Myth and History, editors Stephanie Schwander-Sievers and Bernd J. Fischer, Hurst&Company, London 2002 pp. 60. 13 Malcom Noel, Myth of Albanian National Identity-Some key elements, as expressed in the works of Albanian Writers in America in the early twentieth century, at “Albanian Identities-Myth and History edited by Stephanie Schwandner-Sievers and Bernd J. Fischer, Hurst &Company, London 2002, pp. 73. 11 90 Albanian speaking areas remain within the Ottoman Empire. Both Montenegro and Greece received significantly less Albanian territory than they would have gained without this organized protest of Albanian leadership.14 3. The contribute of Catholic Albanians on Cultural Movement during the Renaissance and Independence If we scrutinize the history of the Albanian Cultural Movement during the Renaissance and Independence, or the history of diplomatic efforts to achieve the international recognition of the Albanian Question, and finally, if we analyze rebellious efforts of the Albanian against the Turkish occupation, one will easily reach the conclusion that the Albanian Catholic Community has played a decisive and irreplaceable role in the achievement of National Independence. On the other hand, I would like to stress that the same parallel role has been played by the Muslim and Orthodox Albanian intelligentsia, mostly the ones educated in the West. What I would like to say is that well educated Albanian intellectual leadership has been compact in following the national goals. Albanian diplomatic representation in 1911-1913, especially at the Ambassadors Conference in London and after the First World War in the Conference of Paris in 1919, Filip Noga, Dom Nikoll Kaçorri, Father Gjergj Fishta, Mons. Jak Serreqi, Mons. Luigj Bumçi, all from the Albanian Catholic Community, managed to get rid of the unfounded claim of the neighbouring chauvinist circles that “some of the Albanians had fought against them”. When Dom Nikollë Kaçorri, Luigj National Identity and Religions in Albania Gurakuqi stood by the side of Ismail Qemal Bey (1912) and Mons. Luigj Bumçi stood aside the Albanian new Prime Minister Turhan Pasha Permeti (1919-20), to demand the independence of the homeland; he did not calculate the percentages of the religions in Albania! When Monsignor Jak Serreqi wrote to the League of Nation that in Albania, Christians and Muslims are brothers and want to live in the same state, he did not base his argument on percentages of the religious compositions of the Albanian nation. Only after these prolonged efforts of the Albanians leadership, was Albania created, Albania that we have today. What we would like to say is that neither twenty centuries of Christianity nor three centuries of Islamisation could sever the Albanian ties with the great Indo-European family. Nevertheless, the nucleus of immigrants from Anatolia within Albanian territories or the inclusion of the Albanian elements in the Ottoman administration, influenced in the delay of the independence process, obstructed the clarification of the position towards the progress, but did not stop it. After five centuries of Ottoman occupation, though of a different religious composition, Albania preserved the national identity and the laic content of national ideology in its own Renaissance Movement. 4. The state and religions in the newly constituted Albanian state of 1920s In the newly constituted Albania, meaning the Albanian state of 1920s, two important factors appear in relation to the organization of the religious Communities. First, the new state opted to have no proclaimed official religion 14 Gallager Tom, Outcast Europe: The Balkans, 1789-1989, From the Ottomans to Milosevic, London and New York 2001, page 49. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 and proclaimed the Legal Status of Religious Communities (LSRC). 15 Secondly, the civil code was adopted in 1928. In this context, three “national churches”, independent from the state, but increasingly controlled by it, were instituted: the Christian Orthodox Church, which proclaimed itself autocephalous in 1922,16 but was not recognized by the Istanbul Patriarchate till 1937; the Sunni Muslim Community, which declared itself independent of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1923;17 and the Bektashis, who were driven towards independence by the abolition of the dervish orders in Turkey in 1925. Even we can say that Bektashism, was and is now a valuable link between the three religious groups. Uniquely, the Albanian Catholic Church maintained close ties abroad, with Vatican. Where the Muslims are concerned, two important developments should be noted: First, leadership of Sunni Muslim Community from the end of the 1920’s was provided by reformers, and secondly, the Bektashian Order acquired de facto the status of a full15 91 fledged and distinct religious Community with its own statutes and organization, despite remaining officially attached to Sunni Muslim Community till 1945.18 Likewise, after five centuries under the Turkish occupation, the majority of the Orthodox Church in Albania was oriented towards Athens. Even those of Albanian ancestry were Hellenized to such degree that it was hard to draw a line distinction between e real ethnic Greek people and an Albanian of Orthodox persuasion. This was so not only in the closing years of nineteenth, but also in the beginning of twentieth century. The Albanian government in the interwar period did much to absorb all the Orthodox of South Albania into the Albanian Orthodox Church, and it also made clear that the Çams of the so-called South Epirus region (they are 30% Albanian Christian Orthodox and 70% Muslim Albanians) were not subject to the obligatory exchange of populations between Greece and Turkey, because these people were not Turks but “Albanians of Muslim faith”.19 PRO.FO.371.8532 pp.84 Legal Status of Religious Communities. It was sanctioned that: religions, may organize themselves as religious communities independent of one another. The several religious or denominational communities may maintain relations with the great religious centers outside Albania on spiritual and dogmatic question only. The higher clergy…must be: Albanian subjects; must know the Albanian language; must be in possession of civil and political rights; must be of Albanian race or members of a family which has been established in Albania for three generations….Clergy belonging to Albanian districts in which the Albanian language is not spoken are excepted from the provisions of this paragraph. The state reserves the right to supervise the administration of (religious communities) estates and of annual incomes in accordance with the special law of associations… 16 See: PRO.FO.371.7328, pp. 87 doc. No C 506/506/90, Acting Consul Heath-Smith to Marquess Curzon of Kedleston, Durrazzo, January 2, 1922. In this report: discusses conditions essential for creating autocephalous Orthodox Church and degree of Albanian support, patriarchal activity, anti- patriarchal activity, teaching of Greek in Orthodox schools and the moderate attitude adopted from the Albanian government of that time in that process of organization of Albanian National Orthodox Church; PRO.FO.8531 pg 43(44), League of Nations, Commission of Enquiry in Albania, Report of Activities from December 19th, 1922 to February 1st, 1923: The question of the formation of an Independent Orthodox Albanian Church. 17 PRO.FO.371.8535 pp.77 The statute of the Albanian Mussulman Community. 18 Clayer Nathalie, Islam, State and Society in Post-Communist Albania, in Hugh Poulton/Suha TajiFarouki (editors), Muslim Identity and the Balkan State, Hurst & Company, London in association with the Islamic Council, London 1997, pp.118-119. 19 George G. Arnakis, The role of religion in the development of Balkan Nationalism, at The Balkans in Transition, Essays on the development of Balkan life and politics since the eighteenth century, edited by Charles and Barbara Jelavich, University of California Press, 1963 pp. 142. 92 5. The Communist take-over of Albania at the end of 1944 produced serious consequences for the religious communities T h e C o m m u n i s t t a ke - o v e r o f Albania at the end of 1944 produced serious consequences for the religious communities. Following the military victory and liberation, the Communists launched an assault against the religious bodies. The new regime chose to weaken gradually the religious bodies, subordinate them to the state, use them as long as they could further its program and then destroy them. That would require 20 bloody years.20 A dogmatic Stalinist, Enver Hoxha considered religion a divisive force and undertook an active campaign against religious institutions, despite the virtual absence of religious intolerance in Albanian society. The Agrarian Reform Law of August 1945, for example, nationalized most property of religious institutions, including the estates of monasteries, orders, and dioceses. Many clergy and believers were tried, tortured, and executed. During the first years of dictatorship system, the destiny of the nation rested on the hands of a former tinsmith, Koci Xoxe, former Minister of Internal Affairs, who had emerged from the fi lthy shanty towns of the most Hellenophile section of the Orthodox population; an initiate of left-wing freemasonry of France; and some segments of non-Albanian origin or former employees of ottoman administration who at that time embraced 20 National Identity and Religions in Albania communism. The forced isolation of the Hoxha years had greatly shocked the fundaments of national pride, which was based on the religious tolerance and fraternity and at the same time discreted the patriotic slogans used by the communist dictatorship to justify its power. Moreover, this was also a sign that Hoxha’s dictatorship system and his inheritance was not exclusively Stalinism. It was a perfect tradition of backstairs intrigue and political wheeler-dealing. By May 1967 religious institutions had been forced to relinquish all 2,169 churches, mosques, cloisters, and shrines in Albania, many of which were converted into cultural centers for young people. As the literary monthly “Nendori” reported the event, the youth had thus “created the first atheist nation in the world.”21 The clergy were publicly vilified and humiliated, their vestments taken and desecrated. Many Muslim mullahs and Orthodox priests buckled under and renounced their “parasitic” past. More than 200 clerics of various faiths were imprisoned, others were forced to seek work in either industry or agriculture, and some were executed or starved to death. Many clerics from all religious persuasions, especially from Catholics, were sent to jail or killed, land and goods belonging to the communities were confiscated, many religious schools were closed, and the liberty of press was suppressed.22 Under these conditions it was only at home and in secrecy that the religious traditions, Muslim as well as Christian, could be preserved and transmitted. Jacques Edwin E., The Albanians, An Ethnic History from Prehistoric Times to the Present, McFarland, North Carolina & London, 1995 pp.447 21 Haxhia-Ljarja Nertila, The Catholic Church and the Communist regime in Albania (1944-1990). Ph.D. Thesis (manuscript), Tirane, 2009, pp.154-156. 22 Haxhia-Ljarja Nertila, The Catholic Church and the Communist regime in Albania (1944-1990). PhD Thesis (manuscript), Tirane, 2009, pp. 157-161. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 The cloister of the Franciscan order in Shkodër was set on fire, which resulted in the death of four elderly monks. Hoxha’s brutal antireligious campaign succeeded in eradicating formal worship, but some Albanians continued to practice their faith clandestinely, risking severe punishment. Individuals caught with Bibles, icons, or other religious objects faced long prison sentences. Parents were afraid to pass on their faith, for fear that their children would tell others.23 Officials tried to entrap practicing Christians and Muslims during religious fasts, such as Lent and Ramadan by distributing dairy products and other forbidden foods in school and at work, and then publicly denouncing those who refused the food. Clergy who conducted secret services were incarcerated. Specially, the persecution of the Albanian Catholics was a genuine genocide that bears no comparison with any assault on any other compact section of the population in Albania.24 Historically, the patriotism of the Albanian Catholics and their contribution to culture and politics were unquestioned until the day the communists took power and started to persecute them in a maniacal fashion. The reasons for this attitude are clear today. Prof Giusepe Valentini a well-known Italian albanologist, who spent many years in Albania before 1944, points out that their natural outlook was toward the West and that their philosophical, theological and legal cast of mind was entirely opposite to that of communists. “Being cultured and with a very high level 23 93 of education, the Albanian Catholics had always aroused some people’s jealousy”. Thus, the communist regime, under the order of his fanatic leader Enver Hoxha, exterminated from the ranks of the Catholic intelligentsia not only those it considered active enemies, but also those who were reckoned simply to be “potential enemies”. Together with the Catholic clergy nearly all former intelligentsia which had studied in the West was either marginalized or eliminated through imprisonment.25 Besides, their extermination obliterated Albania’s chances of turning its eyes towards Europe. In the historical sense, it might be said that their extermination had heavy consequences for the actual situation of the Catholic community. Since 1992, the improvement of the Catholic position has not been a goal of any political governmental party, although there were some signs of changing it in the period 1992-1996. The Catholic community today still continues to be out of any satisfactory representation at highest ranks of the Albanian administration, the diplomatic service, and generally out of an equal treatment which is characteristic of a real and pluralist democratic society. I would like to stress that such an attitude constitutes a huge deficiency for the integration capacity of Albania in the European Union, but unfortunately is not yet publicly underlined in the Western chancelleries. Albania’s government under the leadership of Ramiz Alia, in the end of 1990’ became more sensitive to the Haxhia-Ljarja Nertila, The Catholic Church and the Communist regime in Albania (1944-1990). PhD Thesis (manuscript), Tirane, 2009, pp. 167-169. 24 For a more detailed information about the persecution of Catholic Church and Catholic Community in Albania see: Edwin E. Jacques, The Albanians, An Ethnic History from Prehistoric Times to the Present, McFarland, North Carolina & London, 1995 pp.450-456. 25 Lubonja Fatos, Albania after Isolation: The Transformation of Public Perceptions of the West, at “The Balkans and the West, Constructing the European Other, 1945-2003, edited by Andrew Hammond Hampshire 2004 page 128. 94 barrage of criticism from the international community and started to adopt a relatively tolerant stance toward religious practice, referring to it as “a personal and family matter.” 6. Status of Religious Freedom in the post-communist Albania Since the end of 1990, following the collapse of the Communist Regime, religions have reappeared in Albania, thus drawing the attention of many observers in the neighboring countries as well as in more distant ones, and attracting numerous missionaries of various persuasions. After fifty years of Communist rule (during twenty four of which religion could not be practiced openly), significant numbers are either atheist or, while retaining their faith, do not attend places of worship. Only people over sixty and certain families have kept the tradition alive. Consequently the young – a very high percentage of the population- are now targeted by all the religious missions. So, the percentages given in the first part of this paper are not valid for the Albanian situation after 1990, in the sense that we have not an update of the religious percentages for nowadays. Most Albanians remain secular and do not practice their religion. The Albanian Constitution of 1998 provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects this right in practice. According to the 1998 Constitution, there is no official religion and all religions are equal; however, the predominant religious communities (Sunni Muslim, Bektashi, Orthodox, and Roman Catholic) enjoy a greater degree of official recognition (e.g., national holidays) and social status based on their historical presence in the country. (Starting from 2010 we have an official recognition for Albanian Evangelist Church and Albanian Evangelist Community). All registered National Identity and Religions in Albania religious groups have the right to hold bank accounts and to own property and buildings. Official holidays include religious holydays from all four predominant faiths. According to official figures, there are 14 religious schools in the country, with approximately 2,600 total students. The Ministry of Education has the right to approve the curriculum of religious schools to ensure their compliance with national education standards, and the State Committee on Cults oversees implementation. There are also 68 vocational training centers administered by religious communities. Government policy and practice contributed to the generally free practice of religion. The Government is secular. The Ministry of Education asserts that public schools in the country are secular and that the law prohibits ideological and religious indoctrination. Religion is not taught in public schools. While there is no law restricting the demonstration of religious affiliation in public schools, there have been instances when students were not allowed to do so in practice. The generally amicable relationship among religions in society contributed to religious freedom. Society is largely secular. Intermarriage among members of different religions is extremely common. Religious communities take pride in the tolerance and understanding that prevails among them. 7. Some perspectives After five centuries of Ottoman occupation, though of a different religious composition, Albania preserved national identity and laic content of national ideology in its own Renaissance Movement. Albania has a laic state and the religions are separated from the state. The amalgamation of Muslim religion with ethnic and national identities is not an argument which can readily be applied Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 in the case of the Republic of Albania where there is no direct confrontation with non-Albanian elements and about 30 per cent of the population is of Christian confessions.26 At the same time we have to understand that the religious situation in Albania after 1990 is rather different from the traditional figures. But, a division between two mentalities represents a potential danger for the disintegration of any nation. The inclusion of the Albanian elements in the Ottoman administration influenced in the delay of the independence process obstructed the clarification of the position towards the progress, but without stopping it. In the case of Albania, there is a movable cultural reality, that is to say, it is a country which faces within his national borders two different traditions, each with his own criteria of judgment and with their own different historical stands towards modernity. 27 Nowadays, these two traditions are not fully based on the religious considerations and appertaining. They are mainly founded on the educational and civilization systems which influenced the contemporary Albanian citizens. In Albania where there is no ethnoreligion-based confrontation within the country, the strategy of identifying national identities with religious ones does not appear so fruitful. As in others non-Western societies, the expansion of the West has promoted both the modernization and the Westernization. Furthermore, Western propaganda appears stronger and has greater advantages especially among those individuals attracted by the West. Those attracted by the West are mostly young and educated town-dwellers and intellectuals. One of the advantages enjoyed by the 95 Christian churches is that many Albanians have had to travel to Italy, Germany and Greece to work or to study. Yung generation of that country which has been educated in the Western universities and generally intellectual elite of main cities as Tirana, Shkodra, Korça, Durrësi, and Prishtina is growing up with a laic and European mentality. Generally, Albanians today, based on their traditions, have achieved a consensus in the unified presentation of their desires and problems, starting not from the religious considerations, but from national considerations and European standards. But, in any case, the internal Albanian development will depend mostly on the manner of how to go forward when discussing the process of consolidation of state of law and democracy, the strict preservation of laicism of the state institutions, the equal treatment of regions and religions components in the political and administrative representations. The avoidance of the political influences with religious background in the strategic determination of the Albanian integration will be decisive in the stability of that country. Those, according to my opinion, will be the preliminary condition which will do more steady public and social life of the Albanian state. Furthermore, an Albania which will steadily and really proceed in the European and North Atlantic integration, and which will stand away of the shadow of international organizations with a religious background, an Albania which will close the doors of financial supports for terrorism, traffics, and corruption , will be a secure place in the political and social point of view. Albania as such, for sure would be a secure country in the 26 Clayer Nathalie, Islam, State and Society in Post-Communist Albania, in Hugh Poulton/Suha TajiFarouki (editors), Muslim Identity and the Balkan State, Hurst & Company, London in association with the Islamic Council, London 1997, pp.135 27 Plasari Aurel, Vija e Teodosit rishfaqet, nga do t’ia mbajnë shqiptarët? in Hylli i Dritës, Tiranë 1993/2-3. 96 political and social point of view, which will avoid the internal confrontation with cultural background, which will continue to rebuild its European identity, a friendly, stable Albania and progressive in South East Europe. An important role in this direction will play the future of Kosova, its future international status, the appropriate solution of actual democratization and Europeanization problem in that region and finally the ending which need to put into practice the new leadership of Kosova, to all Asian terrorist infiltrations. If Kosova in the future international status would have an independent state, this means that this country would not be a place of national and religious discriminations. A new state in Balkan must be a conciliatory entity for the social and political order in a geopolitical territory which has been for centuries disputable in historical point of view; The state of Kosova must be a factor of stability in the Balkan and Europe, a secure political entity against terrorist and integralist infiltrations and in the same time a space freed from international criminal activities. A place such as Kosovo will influence directly in the stability of Albania, politically very fragile, but at the same time over Macedonia and Montenegro where there are a large number of populations of the Albanian ethnicity living. On the other side, Albania and the Albanians of the beginning of the 21st century are not yet isolated from the rest of the world and the challenges which we are facing in the contemporary period. The manipulation with cultural particularities from the religious extremism is one of the most difficult challenges of the contemporary world which is influencing the religious sensitiveness within the post communist Albanian society. Being mostly a rural society and very backward in some of its segments, post communist Albania has been generally unprepared to face such a challenge in the political, juridical and National Identity and Religions in Albania cultural point of view. Certainly, most of the Albanians, respecting everyone’s religion, tend to have a laic vision of social life and try in every way to imitate western stile of life. But this is not for the all segments of society especially in the segments with a remote non Albanian origin, who yet live with the remembrance of the Ottoman grandfathers, and an oriental stile of life and thinking. The challenge with which is faced in all periods of the Albanian identity, at least, has emerged again, and if it will not be treated with the extreme prudence and large vision, would be e great problem for the future of that country, and not only. The opening of Albania, free movement of peoples, different relationship, have created the spaces for the penetration in that country, parallel with real missioners of religions and of the representatives of some integralist sects and so-called foundation, which constitute an unprecedented developments for the Albanian tradition, specially for the Islamic one. Some recent developments within the Albanian Islamic Community have been kept up with a great attention from public opinion. In the last meetings of General Council of this community, on 14 and 15 May 2005, has clearly predominated the perseverance to follow the traditional school of Muslim Albanians based on Hanefi’s Islamic School of Law. But this decision of General Council of Albanian Islamic Community have been followed with severe reaction from the vahabist movements, compound by the young students and imams educated in Arab world. Different Albanian scholars and annalists think that the vahabist movement represents a real danger for traditional Albanian Islam. Historically, Albania, though formerly part of Ottoman Empire, being far away from epicentre of Islamic vahabists, continue to follow an Islamic tolerant tradition which has been brought here from the Turks. Representatives of Vahabist Movements Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 since 7 years ago are trying to take control of the General Council of Albanian Islamic Community or to create parallel structures. The fact is that with this stream are being educated most important part of religious students, and unfortunately they have the future in their hands. Because of those facts, the Albanian Islamic Community is before the challenge of determination of their own future physiognomy. But the treatment of this challenge is a problem which affects all Albanian society, because it conditions a number of strategic developments in internal and external fields of Albanian policy. The seriousness of treatment of this question needs the attention and the effective reaction not only from the leadership of the Albanian Islamic Community, but at the same time, from the Albanian civil society and the state institutions generally. In 97 accordance with the interests of national security and European integration of the country, the Albanian political class must be conscientious for the importance of careful treatment of religious matters in the country and not to give free space religious leaders with fanatic formation to manipulate actual and future developments. Concluding, we can say that it is the fact that Albanians of today apart from the religious appertaining, incline mostly towards a full integration of their country in the European Community. But if the Albanian society will not treat this with the high attention religious matters or will not take care to rebuild the Albanian identity based in the European identity of this nation and in the same way as the Albanian National Renaissance did, every perspective would be obscured. BIBLIOGRAPHY Arnakis George G, The role of religion in the development of Balkan Nationalism, The Balkans in Transition, Essays on the development of Balkan life and politics since the eighteenth century, edited by Charles and Barbara Jelavich, University of California Press, 1963. Clayer Nathalie, Islam, State and Society in PostCommunist Albania, in Hugh Poulton/ Suha Taji-Farouki (editors), Muslim Identity and the Balkan State, Hurst & Company, London in association with the Islamic Council, London 1997. Duijzings Ger, Religion and the politics of ‘Albanianism’- Naim Frashëri’s Bektashism writings, at Albanian Identities Myth and History, editors Stephanie Schwander-Sievers and Bernd J. Fischer, Hurst&Company, London 2002. Gallager Tom, Outcast Europe: The Balkans, 1789-1989, From the Ottomans to Milosevic, London and New York 2001. George G. Arnakis, The role of religion in the development of Balkan Nationalism, at The Balkans in Transition, Essays on the development of Balkan life and politics since the eighteenth century, edited by Charles and Barbara Jelavich, University of California Press, 1963. Haxhia-Ljarja Nertila, The Catholic Church and the Communist regime in Albania (19441990). PhD Thesis (manuscript), Tirane 2009. Huey Luis Kostanick, The geopolitics of the Balkans; George G. Arnakis, The role of religion in the development of Balkan Nationalism, at The Balkans in Transition, Assays on the development of Balkan life and politics since the eighteenth century, edited by Charles and Barbara Jelavich, University of California Press, 1963. Jacques Edwin E., The Albanians, An Ethnic History from Prehistoric Times to the Present, McFarland, North Carolina & London, 1995. Lubonja Fatos, Albania after Isolation: The Transformation of Public Perceptions of the West, at “ The Balkans and the 98 West, Constructing the European Other, 1945-2003, edited by Andrew Hammond Hampshire 2004. Malcom Noel, Myth of Albanian National Identity-Some key elements, as expressed in the works of Albanian Writers in America in the early twentieth century, at “Albanian Identities-Myth and History edited by Stephanie Schwandner-Sievers and Bernd J. Fischer, Hurst &Company, London 2002. Morozzo della Rocca Roberto, Nazione e Religione in Albania 1920-1944, Il Mulino, Bologna 1990, gives a full panorama of the history of Albanian Nation and Religion. National Identity and Religions in Albania Schwander-Sievers Stephanie, Albanians, Albanianism and the Strategic Subversion of Stereotypes, at “The Balkans and the West, Constructing the European Other, 1945-2003, edited by Andrew Hammond Hampshire 2004. Stadtmüller Georg, Islamizimi tek Shqiptaret (manuscript in the Albanian language translated by Zef Ahmeti) German version in: Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteeuropas, 1955, Bd. 3, München 1955 Vickers Miranda, The Albanians: A Modern History, London: I.B. Taursi, 1995. 99 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 THE POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF SELF-CONSTRUALS AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS ON HAPPINESS Albana CANOLLARI - Oxford Brookes University, UK/Phd Studente; Kristal University, Tirana-Albania E-mail: acanollari@gmail.com ABSTRACT The present study examines whether interpersonal closeness to family and closest friend are predictors to happiness, and whether happiness can be explained by independent and interdependent self-construals. A questionnaire was developed and it was administered to 212 English participants in the United Kingdom. The questionnaire included three parts. Participants were first asked to indicate how close they are, ought to be and ideally wish to be to their family members (grandparents, parents, siblings, aunts/uncles and children), and their closest friend. Part B included the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) prepared by Argyle (2001). Singelis (1994) 24-items Self-Construal Scale was the last section of the questionnaire. This study suggested that individuals who scored high in interdependence were closer to others than individuals who scored low, whereas individuals who scored high in independence were happier than the ones who scored low. It was found that happiness was predicted by how close people are to family members and closest friend. Being close to both made no difference from being closer to family or friends separately. However, not being close to either predicts unhappiness. Keywords: Actual, Ought and Ideal closeness; Culture; Independent and Interdependent Self-Construal; Well-being and Happiness Introduction Many great minds have proposed and proved with research that people are different from culture to culture (Hofstede, 1980; Markus and Kitayama, 1991). Research has also been conducted on the idea that people differ not only at national level, but also indeed within culture and the way they view themselves (Singelis, 1994). Among others, Singelis has given an important contribution in the concept of individuals’ independence and interdependence self-constructs by Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 99-109  100  The possible effects of self-construals & social relationships on happiness looking at them as two separate dimensions of the self. Another area of interest that has grown rapidly during the last two decades is the exploration of the pursuit of happiness, which is very much exposed. Because it is subjective, it is known to be difficult to measure. The study aims to explore how the notion of happiness can be explained by independent and interdependent self-construals. It also aims to find the impact of being close to family and friends on happiness. Individualism and Collectivism versus Independence and Interdependence Numerous writers have concluded that people differ in various characteristics on behalf to different factors. An important factor that distinguishes people from oneanother is culture, which makes the society people live in be different. Hofstede (1980) first came up with the notion that cultures can be recognized as individualist and collectivist. Amongst other dimensions, he proposed the individualism/collectivism dimensions, which illustrate the way all cultures are different from each other. He viewed these dimensions in the level of cultural description. In 1991, he came up with a definition by stating that: “Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which throughout people’s lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.” (Hofstede, 1991:51) After Hofstede’s suggestion a lot more work has been done. According to Kagitcibasi and Berry (1989), the concepts of individualism and collectivism were identified as one of the major themes of cross-cultural psychology in the 1980s (source: Triandis et al, 1998). Markus and Kitayama (1991) contributed to the concept of individualism and collectivism dimensions as well, but from a different prospectus. Based on the idea that people in different cultures have different construal of the ‘self ’ and of ‘others’, they developed the concept that people have independent and interdependent self-construal, which can be described as cultural conceptions of the self. In other words, it is an individual’s way of measuring self relative to the other. Whilst collectivism and individualism operate in cultural level, independent and interdependent self-construals operate at individualistic level. In general, collectivism and interdependent self-construal are associated with cultures in Africa, Asia and some part of Eastern Europe, while individualism and independent self-construal are part of the Western cultures. People in non-Western cultures hold an interdependent image of self-stressing “connectedness, social context and relationships” (Markus and Kitayama, 1991). Therefore, the ‘self ’ is viewed as interdependent in complex with the others and it is the ‘other’ or the ‘self-in-relationto-other’ that is central in individual’s experience. Furthermore, their expression and the experience of emotions and motives may be significantly formed and controlled by the reaction of the others. By contrast, people living in Western countries hold an independent view of self that emphasizes the “separateness, internal attributes, and uniqueness of individuals” (independent self-construal). In other words, they view themselves as being separate and unique from other people and that their internal thoughts and beliefs guide their lives and behaviour. In cross-cultural research on happiness, it was found that cultures seen as collectivist Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 are seen to be less happy, whereas individualistic ones are seen as happier (Argyle, 2001; Diener et al 1995). In other words, people from individualistic rich societies are happier than people who live in collectivistic poor countries. In a theoretical paper, Ahuvia (2002) discusses individualism/ collectivism dimensions and the cultures of happiness. He explains how in individualistic societies people are encouraged to be themselves. By contrast people from collectivist cultures consider others first and they are not encouraged to think of themselves; therefore less happy. In other words, he is suggesting that a person who is collectivised and interdependent would score significantly lower in subjective well-being (SWB); whereas, individualised and independent individuals would score high in SWB; therefore happier. However, he has difficulty explaining himself when individuals within culture are compared. He first claims that individuals in individualistic cultures have the freedom to pursue their intrinsic goals, which bring happiness. According to Kasser (1997), intrinsic needs are self-acceptance, autonomy, and relatedness, having satisfying relationships with family and friends, community feelings. The issue he raises is that these goals are actually characteristics of people from collectivist cultures; therefore, they are not less happy. According to Kasser, these goals do make people happy. On the other hand, extrinsic goals are goals concerning financial success/ money, wealth and material success. Nevertheless, the last ones are known to be goals of people in the Western culture. Is he claiming that the values of the happiest people in the USA are the ones that we know interdependent people hold (i.e. community feelings)? Perhaps this confusion can be resolved if we think that independence and interdependence are not opposite ends meaning that people can be independent and interdependent. Singelis (1994) and  101  collegaous argue that an individual could have both self-construals within his/her internal world. The self-construals can be developed separately in the individual enabling him/her to be independent and interdependent (Hawk and Brislin, 1992; Cross and Markus 1991; Yamaguchi, Kuhlman and Sugimori, 1992). Singelis defines self-construal as the “constellation of thoughts, feelings, and actions concerning the elation of the self to others and the self as distinct from others (1999:316).” Therefore, he designed the 24-item quantitative Self-Construal Likert –type scale to measure the complex structure of feelings and thoughts that include independent and interdependent selfconstruals as separate dimensions. What Singelis is suggesting is that both independence and interdependence are not two distinct dimenstion. Therefore, people can be independent and be happy. However, they also can be interdependent and be happy. In this study, we will discuss whether both independence and interdependence correlate with happiness. Gender differences and Self-Construals Differences in women and men’s behaviour can be explained by individual differences in the self-construal (Markus and Oyserman, 1989). To prove this theory Cross and Madson (1997) showed in their recent research that American women are more likely to describe themselves in terms of relatedness of others, whereas American men are more likely to describe themselves in terms of independence from others. For individuals with interdependent self-construal close friendships develop their sense of self and maintain their self-esteem. By contrast, individuals with independent self-construal avoid behaviours that encourage intimacy to protect their sense of autonomy and separateness. Cross and Madson defined independence  102  The possible effects of self-construals & social relationships on happiness as “being free of connection with other people.” They concluded that men have an independent self-construal; whereas women, an interdependent self-construal. Cross and Madson’s research was argued by Baumeister and Sommer (1997) in which they suggested that men and women are more similar than different. They both pursue belongingness, but in different aspects. They concluded that women’s sociality is oriented toward dyadic close relationships, whereas men is toward a larger group. Happiness and Social RelationshipsFamily and Friends Another important aspect in pursuing happiness is the impact of social network. Argyle (2001) demonstrated with research that the main cause of happiness and positive emotions are social relationships (pg. 74). The first basic relationship to be experienced is the relationship we built with our family members. When kin get together they like to talk, eat and most likely provide “social support” for each other. By social support Argyle (1983) defines the “availability of family and friends or others who can provide emotional support and material help”, which is good for our physical and mental health (Henderson et al., 1978:145). Social support can reduce and eliminate stress. The relation between parents and children is to a certain extent a joy. Hoffman and Manis (1982) suggested that parents give a lot of “stimulation, affection, and fun” to their children (source: Argyle, 2001). Shapiro and Lambert (1999) found that fathers were more depressed, especially when separated from children. Argyle suggests that the importance of different relationships varies with stages in life. For children parents are very important. Then as they grow friends become more important. Afterwards, there is love and marriage, and so on (pg. 86). Family ties differ from culture to culture. In Western Europe and America, the main kin for a person are his/her parents, siblings, and children. Relations to uncles and aunts, who are considered outside the nuclear family, may be associated with cultures such as Africa. In other words, in individualist cultures people are more likely to be attached to their nuclear family (people that they live with until they are independent). By contrast, in collectivist cultures individuals are connected to their extended family, which includes their aunts, uncles, cousins, etc. Another source of social support, which is known to provide a “main effect,” is friendship. Larson (1990) carried a study, which required participants to report their mood in random occasions and discovered that they were in the most positive when with friends. Many more studies show how happiness and friendship correlate at different levels. Costa et al. (1985) found a factor of quality and quantity of friendships, which correlated .29 with happiness. Close friends are an important source of happiness because they are similar in attitudes and beliefs, so when in need to talk friends raise our self-esteem. Weiss (1973) found that to avoid loneliness people needed a close relationship. According to Argyle friends can be defined as people that we can trust, like and whose company we enjoy (1983: 142). In addition, Larson (1990) concluded from his study that when people are with friends, it puts them in a positive mood, therefore happier. He suggests that this is due to the enjoyable things that friends do together. Friends are important to us as they can provide “companionship, social integration, and acceptance by the community” (Cohen and Wills, 1985). Recent feminist theory suggests that relations have powerful significance in women’s lives (e.g. Belenky et al. 1986). As Gilligan (1986) claimed, a willingness and ability to care are standards of self-evaluation Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 for many women (source: Markus and Kitayama, 1991). Additionally, Argyle (2001) suggested that women’s friendships are closer involving more affection and social support, whereas for men, social network are important. The present study The aim of study is to explore the impact of the Singelis Independent and Interdependent Self-Construals on individuals’ happiness in the United Kingdom. This study also looks at the effect of social relationships on happiness. These are the hypotheses that the study predicts: Hypothesis 1: There will a positive correlation between independence and happiness. Hypothesis 2: Individuals who are close to their family members will score high in interdependence than the ones who are not so close. Hypothesis 3: Individuals who are close to their closest friend will score high in interdependence than those who are not so close. Hypothesis 4: Individuals who are close to family members will score high in happiness than individuals who are not close. Hypothesis 5: Individuals who are close to their closest friend will score high in happiness than those who are not so close. The question raised is whether interdependence, when used in conjunction with independence and closeness to family and best friend, adds to happiness. The result section will be presenting statistical tests performed to see whether the above hypotheses are supported. Method Participants To maximize randomization, the sample included individuals in Oxford, Reading, and Shrewsbury. 212 respondents  103  filled in the questionnaire (96 Females; 116 Males). Four of them failed to respond to the OHQ, so they were excluded from further analysis. The sample included 96 students, 105 employed, 7 unemployed and 4 retired, aged between 18 and 69 (Mean Age =31.14 and Standard Deviation =11.7). 120 of participants were single, 74 were married, 9 were in relationship, and 9 were separated. This study examines the effects of social relationships (family members and closest friend), and Singelis (1994) independent and interdependent self-construals on the subject of happiness within British culture, so only English participants were involved. Design and Procedure The participants were asked to fill in their age, gender, occupation, nationality, and marital status. A pilot study was administered to 14 participants. Not many changes needed to be done. Asking about nationality was one category, which was added as it was noticed that people from other nationalities were willing to complete the questionnaire. Changes were done on the format in which the pilot was demonstrated. In Part B of the questionnaire participants were asked to write down the equivalent number from 1 to 6; instead, this was changed into circling the rated number from 1 to 6 to make it easier for the participants to answer. Participants were informed that the questionnaire would take 10 minutes from their time. They were also informed that it was confidential and anonymous between the experimenter and the supervisor at Oxford Brookes University. Respondents were reassured that they did not have to finish the entire questionnaire if they felt uncomfortable and that, if they had questions about the research or results, the experimenter would inform them. The questionnaire consisted of 5 pages of A4 paper format. Pens or pencils were provided  104  The possible effects of self-construals & social relationships on happiness to the participants. (Please refer to Appendix for a copy of the questionnaire). The questionnaire consisted of three parts: Part A consisted of 3 separate questions in which participants were to answer questions regarding their closeness to some members of their family if those members were applicable to them, i.e. how close do you think you are (actual), you ought to be (ought), and wish to be (ideal) to grandparents, parents, siblings, aunts/uncles and children. Respondents were asked to circle the appropriate number for each of those three questions in a 5-point Likerttype format (1-Very Close, 5-Not At All). Part A also had a section asking participants how close they think they are, ought to be and wish to be to their closest friend rated from 1 to 5 with 1 being Very Close and 5 Not At All. Therefore, the lower score indicates higher in closeness to specific target. Romantic relationships were omitted in this study because of their complexity, which contains a range of various factors that need to be explored separately. The study was interested on finding distinctions between ‘blood relations’ (family) and ‘nonblood’ or ‘elective’ relations (friendship). Furthermore, because not enough respondents answered the questions on children and grandparents, they were dropped for further analysis. Therefore, Parents, Siblings and Aunt(s)/ Uncle(s) were collapsed in one category (closeness to family). Friends were separated as a different category called closeness to friends. Closeness to family and friends were looked at separately for actual, ought and ideal. However, due to limitations of the length of this report, only Actuality will be reported and discussed in relation to Happiness and Singelis Self-Construals. Closeness to family and friends were looked at separately. It was decided that the actual closeness to parents, siblings, and aunts/uncles to be considered as one variable called CLFAM3 because these three targets were found to be the most significant. Furthermore, closeness to family was divided into two categories (CLFAMCAT; 1= close, people who ticked Very Close; 2= less close, including the rest of scores). A4FRIEND was the name of the variable for closeness to the closest friend. This variable was also divided into two categories CLFRICAT (1= close, people who ticked Very Close; 2= less close, including the rest of scores). Part B included 29 statements of the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) developed by Argyle (2001). The number of respondents who completed the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire equals 208. The questionnaire has been found to be reliable and valid when compared to Oxford Happiness Inventory (OHI, Argyle, Martin, & Crossland, 1989). Participants were asked to rate their agreement with the items in a 6-point Likert-type format scale (1-Strongly Disagree; 6-Strongly Agree). Therefore, the lower score indicates less happiness. The reliability coefficient for the happiness subscale was acceptable (alpha= .86). Even when Factor Analysis was performed, the deletion did not improve the percentage, so the original alpha score was considered. The items that were originally marked (-) were scored in reverse. Part C included 24 statements of the Measure of Independent and Interdependent Self-Construal Scale (SCS) (Singelis, 1994), which measures individuals’ independence (12 items) and interdependence (12 items). Sample independent items included “I’d rather say ‘No’ directly than risk being misunderstood” and “I am comfortable with being singled out for praise or rewards.” Sample interdependent items included “I have respect for the authority figures with whom I interact.” and “It is important for me to maintain harmony within my group.” Respondents were asked to indicate their agreement with the items in a 7-point  105  Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 Likert-type format (1- Strongly Disagree to 7- Strongly Agree). Therefore, the lower score indicates low in independence or interdependence. There were 210 samples, which were considered for further analysis as two were dropped out for not completing the entire questionnaire. The reliability coefficients for both interdependent (alpha=. 68) and independent (alpha=. 62) self-construal subscales were acceptable. Preferably, the alpha should have been higher. However, even when a Factor Analysis was run, the new score did not make significant differences (for independent self-construal alpha =. 67, items=14; for interdependent self-construal alpha=. 64, items=10). Based on the diversity of scores, individuals were categorized as high or low in independence (INDEPBI) and Interdependence (INTERDBI). The data was entered manually in the SPSS computer program and many statistical tests were performed. Results Table 1 shows the Analysis of Variance performed with OHQ being the dependent variable; INDEP, INTERD, and AGE being Covariates; and CLFAMCAT, CLFRICAT, and GENDER being the Fixed Factors. As the table reveals, independence is highly significant predictor of happiness (F= 12.07; d.f. = 1; p=0.001) and ETA score equals 6.5% out of 13, so independence predicts almost half of the variance. This suggests that independent people are happier, which supports the first hypothesis. Linear Regression test was also performed, which showed that independence is a predictor of happiness (F= 5.67; d.f. = 2; p= 0.004). Furthermore, the analysis of variance shows that being close to your closest friend predicts happiness (F=5.12; d.f. = 1; p=. 025). This finding supports hypothesis number five of this research, which predicted that individuals who are close to their closest friend would score high in happiness. It is worth mentioning that there is an interaction between closeness to family and friend. This suggests that being close to both family and best friend predicts happiness. So number 4 hypothesis is supported as well. If people are close to either family or friend, they are still happy. However, if not close to both target, then unhappy. Table 2 and 3 show the mean difference to both family and closest friend for males and females. Table 1. Univariate Analysis of Variance summary table Dependent Variable: OHQ Source d.f. F Sig. Partial Eta Squared INDEP INTERD AGE CLFAMCAT CLFRICAT GENDER CLFAMCAT*CLFRICAT Error 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 173 12.07 .928 .014 1.61 5.12 1.34 4.64 .001 .337 .906 .206 .025 .248 .032 .065 .005 .000 .009 .029 .008 .026 a.R Squared =. 179 (adjusted R Squared =. 131)* Significant at 5% level  106  The possible effects of self-construals & social relationships on happiness Table 2. Closeness to family and friend by gender Gender Mean FAMILY S.D. N Mean FRIEND S.D. N Female/Very Close Female/Not close Male/Very close Male/Not close 125.5 123.1 119.7 120.9 19.06 15.5 19.67 16.67 38 14 31 24 121.8 114.5 122.3 107.0 13.35 20.69 15.54 15.02 15 17 16 29 Chi square was carried out on Gender, Closeness to family, and Closeness to friends. It showed that more females were very close to their family (N=104) than males. More men were very close to friends (N=118) than females. 94 of females were not close to their friends. 87 of males were not close to their family. T-test was carried out which showed that there is mean difference (t=2.6; d.f. = 204; p= .010) between female respondents (M=122.86, N=93) and male ones (M=116.3; N=113). Having a higher mean, females in this study were found happier. Being interdependent does not predict less happiness. The analysis of variance (Table 1) shows that interdependence does not predict happiness (F= 0.928; d.f. =1; p= 0.337). However, Pearson Correlation Test was performed on OHQ (N=206), INDEP (N=204) and INTERD (N=204), and it was found that there is a positive correlation between happiness (OHQ) and independence (INDEP; r= 0 .268; p< 0.01; 2-tailed). There is also a positive correlation between happiness (OHQ) and interdependence (INTERD; r= 0.159; p< 0.05; 2-tailed). Independent T-tests were carried out measuring happiness and closeness to family and friend. It was found that there is a significant relationship between happiness and closeness to family (t= 2.654; d.f. =184; 2-tailed p=. 009), and a significant relationship between happiness and closeness to friend (t= 3.15; d.f. = 204; 2-tailed p= .002). The graph below shows how happiness is predicted by closeness to family members and closest friend. These findings support once more hypothesis 4 and hypothesis 5. As the graph shows, when people are less close to friends, they are significantly unhappy. Graph 1: Closeness to family/friends and happiness Note - CLFAMCAT (closeness to family members with both categories ‘close’ and ‘less close’ included); CLFRICAT (closeness to closest friend with both categories ‘close’ and ‘less close’); OHQ (Oxford Happiness Questionnaire) Gender T-test revealed that closeness to family was predicted by how interdependent Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 people were (t= 2.8; d.f. = 187; p= 0.005, 2-tailed). This supports hypothesis number 2. Independence did not predict closeness to family or best friend. In addition, interdependence did not predict closeness to friends, which rejected hypothesis 3. Discussion Happiness and subjective well-being are fundamental and necessary conditions for the satisfaction of basic needs. The current work sought to integrate previous researches that have explored on the subject of independence/ interdependence and happiness. It also tried to explore the impact of social relationships on happiness in an individualistic society such as the United Kingdom. On one side, Markus and Kitayama (1991) following Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, developed the concept that people from individualistic cultures hold an independent view of themselves, whereas people from collectivist cultures hold an interdependent view of themselves. In addition to this view, Ahuvia (2002) discusses that people in individualist societies are happier when compared to people in collectivist ones, who, because of their poor economy, will be unhappy. By contrast, Singelis (1994) challenged this idea by designing a 24-item Self-Construal questionnaire. This questionnaire suggested that people within one culture could have both independent and interdependent selfconstruals that are grown separately within  107  the individual. It is this last point that the current study supports. People can have an independent and interdependent view of themselves. In this individualistic society such as the United Kingdom, people who scored high in independence were found to be happier than those who scored low, who are not necessary interdependent. By contrast, it was found as predicted that people who scored higher in interdependence were closer to their family and friends. In other words, we can say that interdependence is a predictor to how close people are to their family member, whereas independence as predicted is a fundamental predictor of happiness in an individualistic society such as the United Kingdom. Perhaps, independent people in an individualistic society are happier because they fit in with the norms of its society. It was also found that both family and closest friend are predictors of happiness. This supports Argyle’s (2001) as he claims that social relationships are the main cause to happiness. To conclude, the study suggests that in an individualistic society, people are found to be high and low in independence and interdependence. It concludes that independent people are happier. Alternatively, interdependent people were not found to be less happy. They were indeed found to be closer to their family members and friends. To examine in more details whether interdependence can contribute to happiness, it would need to be an aim in a future research. REFERENCES: Ahuvia, A.C. (2002). Individualism/ Collectivism and cultures of happiness: A theoretical conjecture on the relationship between consumption, culture, and subjective well-being at the national level. Journal of Happiness Studies 3:23-36. Argyle, M. (2001).The Psychology of Happiness. 2nd ed. Routledge. Argyle, M. Hills, P. (2001) The Oxford Questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, Vol 33, pg 1073-1082. Argyle, M. (1983). The Psychology of Interpersonal Behaviour. 4th ed. Hammondsport; Penguin. pg 142-145.  108  The possible effects of self-construals & social relationships on happiness Baumeister, R.F., Sommer, K.L. (1997). What do men want? Gender differences and two spheres of belongingness: Comment of Cross and Madson (1997). Psychological Bulletin, Vol 122, pg 38-44. Cross and Madson (1997). Models of the Self: Self-Construals and Gender. Psychological Bulletin, Vol 122, pg 5-37. Hofstede, G. (1980). The Organization in its Environment. p. 89-99. Markus, H.R. & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the Self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review 98, 224-253. Singelis, T.M. (1994).The measurement of independent and interdependent selfconstruals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 20 No. 5, October (p.580-591). Triandis, H.C., Chen, X.P. & Chan, D.K. (1998). Scenarios for the measurement of collectivism and individualism. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 29, 275-289.  109  Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 EDUCATION AND FORMATION IN ADULT EDUCATION Edi PUKA - “Aleksander Moisiu” University, Durres-Albania; Faculty of Education E-mail: edipuka@yahoo.it ABSTRACT In adult age, development is achieved starting by putting into question the personal means of recognition, feelings, relationships, behavior and believes previously gained which constitute the basis of personality. For the adult to find a new personal development, it is necessary to implement a process of regeneration and separation, through which what was previously thought, existed and believed, at a certain point does not exist any more; in a way, it is therefore transformed. Human life coincides with a teaching itinerary, the denying of which would lead to a denial of life itself; in fact, knowledge and educational needs can not appear limitless and unending because an adult notes that requests for change correspond to impulses involving mind, body and interpersonal relationships. Keywords: education, pedagogy, diversity, background; I. Introduction In adult age, development is achieved starting by putting into question the personal means of recognition, feelings, relationships, behavior and believes previously gained which constitute the basis of personality. For the adult to find a new personal development, it is necessary to implement a process of regeneration and separation, through which what was previously thought, existed and believed, at a certain point does not exist any more; in a way, it is therefore transformed. Human life coincides with a teaching itinerary, the denying of which would lead to a denial of life itself; in fact, knowledge and educational needs can not appear limitless and unending because an adult notes that requests for change correspond to impulses involving mind, body and interpersonal relationships. People, as human beings, are in the process of education and in fact they are even educated, because they do not live in isolation and they do not remain abandoned in their fate in the enormous effort to document the continuation of Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 109-116  110  their education, but they live in a cultural world and people who are different from each-other. It is exactly the presence of such diversities and the confrontation between them that provokes great changes and therefore, asks for the enrichment and continuous growth of the individual. This discussion mainly applies to the evolutionary age, in which development has not finished yet, against any evolutionist point of view which would consider it finished with the adolescent age, the social and psychological tasks of individuals who are in the middle of their life course, are the factors that permit the continuity of their education. It would be fair to talk about lots of adult ages, not just one, as much as the different definitions that different cultures have elaborated in order to respond to their need to define the adult age. This problem is not presented if we follow the organic model, according to which the ages of human life are readable only through evolution categories, according to which the adult results a cautious individual capable of coming to life and to immortalize the species and culture he is part of. This definition is seen with equanimity by the social scientists who focus their attention on the ontogenetic aspects of human maturity, which bring back to the different and relative manifestations from one individual to another, which put the subject in front of the task of turning into a personal identity, different from the others. The image of oneself, which the individual tries to protect, in comparison to the others, tends towards independence and more personal freedom. Identity cultures which modern societies accept, base on independence rights and reciprocal respect, contribute to formulate a modern idea in adult age. (Demetrio, 1990: 22-23) Pursuing this direction, the idea of Education and Formation in adult education adult is distinguished by a temporary and, in the final analyzes, it is the individual who builds his own impermanence. Thus, age is a personal acquisition in a daily revision and as such it is destined for instability; but the only suitable way to give a sense of time is that of experimentation with the others and the confrontation with the not always image that he send. Ultimately, self-representation is an illusion. In fact, it is the others who represent us or we represent ourselves through the others and come to know ourselves this way. The individual himself does not know how to represent himself, because he can not do it and needs mediation of others to give him an identity. In this case, identity, especially as an adult, is manifested at the moment in which he is able to communicate the existence of his ego to the others, through language or other forms. (Demetrio, 1990: 37) II. The Andragogical Theory The treatment of the flow of life ”considers the individual as a continuous generator of his biography, a personal history equipped with meaning, mediation, interaction with others, and with the circumstances which he happens to live in”. (Saraceno, 1988: 22) With the definition of adult age as a phase of the complex human experience, should be considered the way this complexity, as a change generator, can be encouraged and facilitated. The specific notion which needs to be analyzed is that of change. Some state that: by making a relation between age and adult age, it would be more fair to talk about andragogy; this term implies: to lead the adult in the direction which he needs to be self-directed, to know how to appreciate his readiness to learn and he is interested to learn what is related to the solution of Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 the problem of his concrete everyday life. The central hypothesis of the theory of andragogy is concentrated in that of an adult who has an autonomous idea of himself and feels the need for recognition of his independence. The adult represents an incremental backup of his experience of life, which should not be left apart, but on the contrary, it should be appreciated in the formation processes and, moreover, these experiences generate a change in the organization of the individual thought of an adult, who needs to learn about the role he has in different stages of his life. It is even important to analyze the contribution and meaning assigned to change by the main trends of psychosocial and therapeutic thought which have underlined the fact that adult age is still opened to formation. (Demetrio, 1990: 81). S t a r t i n g f ro m t h e b e h a v i o r i s t treatment, the topic of change may be analyzed under the light of the relation between the subject and the environment and the impacts that are defined in such an interaction. In this field, the notion of learning has an essential role, which is the process through which an activity is initiated and modified reacting against a specific situation. In the transposition in the formation field of the behaviorist model, education is transformed into a conditionality of special behaviors, which means manipulation. Thus, education is not meant as a complex system of effective cognitive events that operate between them, but as a set of mental and emotional factors, which are subject to modification. Therefore, the individual’s change comes through the structuring of the educational environment. Cognition, on the contrary, gives less importance to the environmental conditionality in the modification  111  processes of change. This is due to the fact that in this orientation the same environmental stimulus is interpreted differently by specific subjects equipped with characteristics that distinguish them genetically and socially. The individual is not a passive receiver of environmental stimulus, but he elaborates them starting from his mental recognition. In this meaning, adult education is perceived as education of mind, the activation of the processes which the subject can answer in order to change what his image of the world is. Change is implied as a representative transformation which first happens in the cognitive level and then is able to influence the emotional and affective area. (Demetrio, 1990: 83) Finally, another approach to be considered is that of cultural psychology, according to which, the individual is not only equipped with cognitive dimension, but even with an affective, social and historical dimension, that characterizes him and make his unique. These assumptions create a vision of change which presents innovation compared to the previous ones: first of all, the subject transforms his cognitive model based on the meaning of personal cognitive processes and not on results; the change is relational, which means that benefits from the role of one who interacts with an intelligent mind. In other words, the change starts when the individual notices that, from a passive receptor he can turn into an actor of his own knowledge formation, acquiring the usage rules. Generally, change should be considered as an interruption of experience, perception system and reality interpretation with which people move in the world and organize their life. If it is true that change contains a modification, can be achieved by being prepared, or because it is an anticipated transformation in the biographical model, or because the  112  possibility of change is part of the personal model of value and of the life project itself. Conversely, it can be achieved by being unprepared, even because the incident that change provokes appears suddenly, or because the change related to the anticipated means is perceived as dangerous and negative. (Morgagni-Pepa, 1993: 111) III. The adult and the psycho-social character The psycho-social character incorporates different learning strategies. On the one hand, it means to supply with such cognition resources that allow the individual an anticipated socialization and transitory changes and states, which are predicated and predictable, as well as a capacity of reality-reading which enables to determine the opportunities and the possible ways for an individual project of change. On the other hand, it means to supply with knowledge resources, abilities to enter into relations and psychological competencies to face the shocking unexpected changes. Turning back to adult formation, an important observation is having access in a way or a formative experience which supplies with resources for the development of social competences beyond the professional and cultural content. These competences may be understood as rational capacities (to establish and develop various relationships) as well as capacities of reality reading. Fully competent and skillful people may get lost in their social world when exposed to other (new) rules. This is what everybody experiences when moving to a foreign country where one needs to learn the mechanisms, formal and informal rules and the relational styles which govern life in that community. The fact is that a lot of people find their own country to be a foreign one as Education and Formation in adult education soon as they find themselves outside the boundaries of their own groups of direct reference; therefore it is important to supply with competences of transportation from one group to another, from one culture to another, casing of confrontation and learning. (Morgagni-Pepa, 1993: 123) Which are the objectives to be achieved? The cognitive and psychosocial objectives are the most notable ones. The first ones need to know and develop capacities of critical analysis and self-criticism related to complex and ambiguous topics; it is also important to learn how to develop confrontation skills in a dialogue related to personal and collective situations which can be considered historically and culturally ‘’new ‘’. The second ones need to become aware of the existence of the denied attitudes and behaviors from the ethnical point of view, but sometimes, in fact, even supported. If these represent the objectives to be achieved, there are problems posed to permanent education which includes the entire individual and social human life, which consist in attempts of correction, organization and orientation of the acculturation process. This attempt aims what every educative process does: to realize the social integration and personal growth processes avoiding the trauma and imbalances of the typical deformations of the socio-cultural history. (Laporta, 1979: 53) Life-long education can not be limited to acquisition of cultures in which we interaction their basis and their historical existence. Its task is not to immortalize, but to make the acculturation relation that they establish as harmonic and efficient as possible, especially with the prevailing culture. Its fundamental problem is always that of respecting the personality of the one who is being educated, thus, that of the whole culture that he represents and embodies. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 Co-existence in a society is based on the solidary behavior which enables individuals to react in conflictual or peaceful way, towards the others interventions. Groups and communities are a residency in which maturity is tested and developed. The learning of co-existence and interaction rules starts in the early stages of life and implies, for the whole life, a functional need in the material and psychological survival of individuals. Loss of membership relations, their crisis and the concern which derives from them, is equal to the substantial threat of this practice which is made up of the dimension and reciprocity. Interaction and conflicting are deeply rooted and inevitable phenomena, a social interaction finalized with the achievement of results and private or public benefits. (Demetrio, 1990: 134) Interaction is the result of learning and progressive acculturation; an adult experiences moments of interaction in many fronts, being unprepared to face the tasks which put him in situations of priority and prestige. An adult in groups does not only learn to decide and compete, but groups and community are collective forms of territory identification and preservation of personal roots. In such a situation, interaction and reciprocity are cases of liberation from ignorance and cruelty, and serve to delineate the maturity profile of the work involved in raising the personal conditions of life against exploitation and injustice. Learning to work, to be part of a group and ask for the others’ solidarity is another moment through which maturity is built by resigning from personal individuality in the name of general interests. Another aspect which goes hand in hand with learning is that of a better understanding of learning. The cultural changes that we experience in an international and local scale put  113  the education institutions, systems and organizations in the center of a storm which they were not prepared about. (Josso, 1995: 28) As the learning act heads towards the individualization of the education process, formation ways need to be conceived to fulfill the needs of a society which does not even know where it is heading for. IV. Learning Stages and Basic Formation To be formed and transformed as a person implies being formed and transformed as a professional and as a socio-cultural actor. Learning does not mean to learn this or that thing, but to find out new ways of thinking and acting differently; it means starting to look for may be called something different. That is why today, we can say that the learning act, transformed into a searching act, may allow them to learn, develop creativity, skills, their capacity to evaluate, communicate and negotiate. Fundamentally, the learning process is an informal process. In fact, there is an informal formative process which not only works in the level of consciousness, but even in the unconscious one, and these informal education processes are activated in the young subjects as well as in the adult ones. Adult education has continuously tries to eliminate this “separation” vision in education but it has not made its way in the pedagogical projections. (Alessandrini, 1995: 64) It is clear that such a theory, which approaches the formation problem in a more detailed way, considers the subject and the environment in which he lives, as an entirety which establishes the global process of learning; it is important to consider human beings as total subjects so that the formative process forces us to start from the subject himself, from his own  114  world, and to activate the processes that are found within the subject and which need to be “unlocked” and restored in motion with the relevant strategy. The learning concept represents a constellation of concepts related to the content, with he cognitive forms and the ability that an individual acquires and processes through education. The first concept belongs to the organization of knowledge; the information that the individual acquires in the continuity of his personal experience during the everyday life do not constitute elements in isolation, but they constitute the organized cognitive structures: schemes. These deal with the anchoring of new elements of information in terms that enables knowing and assimilating facts and specific examples of events that the individual comes across. Schemes have a creative function because they do not only get information, but they create it; the other function of the productivity of knowledge. The detailed recognition of a problem or field of experience allows the individual to make useful interventions to understand new situations, helps to better involve facts and events and to formulate predictions. (Morgagni-Pepa, 1993: 220) The second subgroup of the concepts belongs to the regulation strategies of control that the adult puts into action during learning. Learning is an active process, because it plans, supervises and verifies the results obtained from the individual student learning. A third subgroup and the last of concepts, belongs to the general or specific nature of knowledge and skills. Learning theories applied to education have shown that the knowledge and skills learned in school are generalized in different contexts. In fact, thanks to the contribution of intercultural studies, this assertion is strongly put into question: Ability and Education and Formation in adult education knowledge are not independent from the context where they are acquired and used, but they are associated with it. (MorgagniPepa, 1993: 222) Learning is the result of formation, it is important to distinguish two types of learning: the simple one which happens by the addition of new elements, in the sense that the past culture of the individual is improved, but not modified in its elements; another type is the complex one, which mainly occurs by modifying the previous knowledge of the person, in other words, complex learning highlights the fact that the culture of the individual is modified. While the simple learning directs the attention towards “a new element”, the complex one directs the attention towards new connections that the individual should establish between the new things and things already present in his experience. Complex learning refers, above all, to the creation of adults who are already experts in their job and for whom learning signifies always adding, but even, mainly modifying. Learning new concepts and skills related to the exercise of the employee’s role itself, inevitably, results in a modification in the notion that the subject has for his role and image; taken together, they can be synthesized on the principle of learning as a form of change. This stems from the fact that cognitive and psychological areas of a person constitute a system; according to the systems law, an action on one part of the system determines the possible actions and reactions not only in that part, but also in all other subsystems which are interdependent. By analogy, in the individual’s cultural system, a change in the knowledge and skills subsystem, determines changes in all the other subsystems such as perception of the role and global conception of professionalism. (Bruscaglioni, 1991: 43-44) It is possible to hypothesize a general  115  Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 model of adult learning in three phases: from the beginning, the adult has a global vision of what should be taught, even because he is an expert in the work he is engaged, or because he has elaborated dreams on such a topic, psychologically important ones, therefore co-defined from emotional aspects. Formation needs to work on this initial global image, which will affect the ways of learning in further details. In the second phase, the adult learns different notions. During the last phase, the global concept is reviewed for the reinforcement of the complete and final results and for a possible development of what is learned. From the observations made on adults, it turns out how they really learn something when the external and internal motivations act simultaneously. External motivations of learning are associated with the result that the individual receives, for example: a prize, feeling prepared, and the opportunity to reach new goals. Perhaps these are necessary to motivate individuals to enter and to participate in the didactic situation. While internal motivations are those dealing with pleasure the learning process itself such as: the so-called interest in the subject, the desire to exercise intellectual skills and development. These are necessary to determine the complex learning, namely, to modify the preceding cognitive and psychological field. The formation task is not that of motivating learning in subjects that have no motivation, but that of using pre-existing motivation, often, the real challenge lies in knowing how to release the possible motivations which are difficult to show. (Bruscaglioni, 1991: 47-48-54) Another aspect to be considered in the general area that has to do with learning is the one associated with the construction of a group that, from a psychological viewpoint, appears to facilitate this process even in the education of adults. To explain the phenomenon of specific aid which the group context provides in the learning results, a set of serious factors are emphasized, among which, the fact that participation in a group activity allows and facilitates the ability of individuals to better elaborate the personal doubts and uncertainties, and through interpersonal interactions, facilitates the emergence of emotional aspects that have a strong capacity to mobilize energy. The second group of factors highlights the fact that the change of individuals is made difficult by the preceding cultural “affiliation” of individuals or reference groups, to whom learning new things and change would mean betraying such groups of belonging, and violating the previously acquired norms. Finally, the third group of factors regards the active group of learning as the headquarters of interpersonal representation. Dynamics between individuals and subgroups that are manifested in the learning group are also active in representing the dynamics inside each individual. For this reason, it is possible to assume that each individual has within himself different trends and opportunities of choice, differentiated elements of behavior and inhomogeneous cultural impulse. (Bruscaglioni, 1991: 123-125) V. Conclusions It is exactly with such things that formation deals, which has the responsibility to support the manifestation of different attitudes among individuals; it favors the establishment of an effective communication system and this means that it manages to facilitate the confrontation and that a differentiated but complete integration of the attitudes and ideas of different people is built. In  116  conclusion, we can say that that a subject, particularly balanced or, as we say today, open and flexible, will be characterized precisely by all of the following elements: inhomogeneous parts can also be well integrated among each other, but they Education and Formation in adult education will inevitably determine uncertainty, indecision and any internal conflicts in the experience of a person. However, all of this would happen only if there are any stages of change, breakthroughs, and difficult new topics. REFERENCES: Alessandrini. G., “Verso la formazione continua”, in “Adultità”, n. 1, 1995, pg. 64; Bruscaglioni. M., “La gestione dei processi nella formazione degli adulti”, Franco Angeli, Milano 1991, pg. 43-44-47-48-54-123; Demetrio. D., “L’età adulta. Teorie dell’identica e pedagogia dello sviluppo”, La Nuova Italia, Firenze 1990, pg. 14-22-23-37-134; Josso. C., “Formarsi in quanto adulti: sfide, rischi, poste in gioco, risorse e difficoltà”, in “Adultità”, n. 1 1995, pg. 28; Laporta. R., “L’autoeducazione delle comunità”, La Nuova Italia, Firenze 1979, pg. 53; Morgagni. E – Pepa. L., “L’età adulta: il sapere come necessità”, Guerini, Milano 1993, pg. 111-123-220-222; Saraceno. C., “Pluralità e mutamento. Riflessioni sull’identità al femminile”, Franco Angeli, Milano 1988, pg. 22.  117  Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 SCHOOL DROPOUT BY ROMA CHILDREN IN TIRANA Anila SULAJ & Fatmir BEZATI - University of Tirana-Albania E-mail: sulaj_anila@yahoo.com ABSTRACT Education of children of Roma community in Albania has numerous problems related to primary school attendance (primary and secondary, 9-year education) leaving a considerable number of children uneducated. The social phenomenon of school dropout by children of Roma community in Tirana city is continuing to be evident. In our study carried out in Roma community in Allias, Tirana was concluded that out of 423 children of this community from 7 to 16 years old, 270 or 64% of them were quitting the school, 67 children or 16% were attending school 1 or 2 times per week. 86 children or 20% of them were attending school regularly. From all interviews was very convenient from 270 children 182 or 42, 5% were engaged or employed in different kinds of jobs. Some of the children were working together with their parents. According to our study education of children of Roma community in Albania remains problematic. The other problem is employment of children which needs engagement and taking of immediate measures by state social services in local and central governments. Keywords: dropout, school, children, Roma, Tirana Introduction The Roma community has settled in Albania since above 600 years ago (Kolsti, 1991). Researches of the origin of this community explain that they arrived in Albania mid 15th century. The mobility of this group has been interpreted in various ways, giving arguments on the mobility from different places in the course of history, like India, Persia, Iraq, the Byzantine Empire territories and those of the Ottoman Empire (Harluck 1938; Fraser, 1992). Based on data of 1993, there have been about 20 000 Roma people in Albania (Anonymous, 1997b). During the period of the communist regime there was an assimilation process of the Roma community, which was accompanied with loss and assimilation of the Roma culture in the country (Fonseca, 1995a). Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 117-122  118  During this period, Roma children together with other children were obliged by law to attend primary school. Like in other former communist countries, the Roma community in Albania is considered as one of the parts of the population which lost considerably in the economic and political changes of 1980-1990. Having been uneducated and lacking qualifications, their position in society changed drastically, leaving them totally unemployed. As a result, the new generation (the children) of this community was unable to attend school due to the fact that it was impossible for their families to support education for their children. There have been few cases when Roma children attended school in the primary education. (Kovacs, 1996). Recently, there have been trends showing improvement of the situation concerning education of Roma children in Albania, and there has been signifi cant growth in school attendance in the primary and secondary education level (9-year school) Based on Albanian legislation on preuniversity education, children in Albania are obliged to attend 9 years of school (primary and secondary education). However, school attendance by Roma community based on a 1996 ERRC report appears to be: 60% of Roma children dropped out of school before they completed the first grade, and the majority of the Roma students were could not pass grade one. Data from this study show that 40% of the children of Roma community complete only 4 grades of the 9-year education (Anonymous, 1999). Based on explanations by the parents of these children, the reasons why their children drop out or do not attend school is related with discrimination of children on Roma community in schools, especially in rural areas and regions where Roma community leaves far from schools. On the other hand, School dropout by Roma children in Tirana there is another phenomenon – that of marriage of Roma girls at a very early age (early adolescence). There is no accurate data on the level of education of Roma community in Albania. Based on some information in an article in Gazeta Shqiptare (17-11-1997), out of 2708 Roma people who live in Tirana, 80.2 % were illiterate, 6.5% have completed primary education, 1.2% has completed high school and only 1% has a university degree (Anonymous, 1998); Cahn, 1998). There have been attempts by Albanian government and NGOs to improve the situation of education among Roma community in Albania. In 1995, “Baltaz” – a private school licensed by the Ministry of Education and Science – was built in Tirana for the education of Roma children in their native language, teaching their history and culture (Anonymous, 1995). Despite the various attempts, the number of children attending school was law (27 children). This school was closed in 1997 because of fi nancial problems (Kovacs, 1999; Courthiades, 2000). There have been even later attempts from private and public enterprises to promote education of the Roma community in the country. In 1997, schools were built by NGOs for Roma children to attend, for example “Xurdelin” and “Rromani Baxt” kindergartens in Tirana. The social phenomenon of poor school attendance has been evident in these schools as well (Courthiades, 2000). The program of the Institution for an Open Society, sponsored by Soros Foundation launched and undertook a series of programs about education of the Roma community in Albania and other countries. Programs of this foundation have been supported by many countries of the communist bloc. They include projects and programs in local governance through pilot projects for the education of Roma community. In 1998, The Foundation of Open Society  119  Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 through a project for Development of Education in Albania developed a program by funding Roma students together with Roma and non Roma teachers to improve school performance and promote high learning outcomes in the education of Roma children in 9-year schools. There have been continuous attempts and initiatives, both private and public for improvements in the education of Roma children. In addition, these attempts have been intensified with projects and investments in building schools and different associations which focus on education of Roma children (Anonymous, 1997a). School dropout is a social phenomenon which remains a hot problem in the community of Roma children in Tirana. This is proved by many studies in this field. Often, there is no support for studies and projects concerning this problem-sometimes, when started, projects are not completed. The excuse in both cases is that school attendance by Roma children is a very diffi cult problem to tackle. This study aims at raising awareness among the public, government institutions, NGOs, in order to evaluate the phenomenon of school dropout in the Roma community in Allias (Tirana). This study covers the years 2009-2010. Materials and Methods This study was carried out within a one year period, the academic year 2009-2010, among the Roma community Allias (Tirana). For this reason, a simple questionnaire was compiled, in two parts. It served to collect information on school attendance. The questionnaire had a general and a specific a part. The general part included simple questions like: name, last name, age, place of residence, parents’ occupation, name of school and grade attending. The specific part of the questionnaire included questions that focused on specifi c information about school attendance. The beginning of the this part included questions as such: do you attend school or not, reason for not attending, how many times do you go to school, how long have you been out of school for, are you happy with school, do you work, what do you do, are you accompanied by your parents. 423 children took part in this process; they were interviews in the 9-year schools in Allias and the area around. In addition, two centers represented by NGOs were included in this study. These centers provide education for Roma children. In the period of one year, 423 Roma children grades one to nine were interviewed. Results and discussion The outcomes of the survey carried out during the academic year 20092010 show that school attendance by Roma children was very low. Out of 423 surveyed children, 270 did not attend school at all, having dropped out of it. This considerable part, about 64% of the interviewed group shows clearly that the Table 1. School attendance by Roma Children Roma children studying Did not attend school Went to school 1 or 2 days a week Attended school regularly Exploitation of children through work 423 270/423 (64%) 67/423 (16%) 86/423 (20%) 182/270 (42,5%)  120  School dropout by Roma children in Tirana Table 2. Happiness of Roma children at school Evaluation Very Happy Happy Somewhat Happy Not that Happy Not happy at all Values in % 11/ 153 (7%) 17/153 (11%) 3/153 (2%) 50/153 (33%) 72/153 (47%) social phenomenon of school dropout is in high occurrence in the Roma community living in Tirana. According to some remarks by authors of social studies in their social studies on education of Roma community in Albania, there have been cases of dropout and lack of attendance in schools by Roma children. Some authors show that school dropout and lack of attendance in 9-year schools has been in high numbers among the Roma community. Their figures show that in various populations there has been about 50% up to 80% of Roma children (Anonymous, 2009, Anonymous, 2010). Despite attempts by the local and central government to increase attendance of Roma children in schools, the situation in the 9-year school system does not have any apparent improvement. It is evident that there is an increase of illiteracy in the Roma community as a result of the fact that many most of the children drop out of school while still in grade one, thus not completed at least one grade. Only 67 (16%) attended school once or twice a week, figures which show that even this group of children were not happy with school and school attendance was not periodic. There is some improvement for 86 Roma children or 20% of those attend public schools, social centers for specific Roma children education and kindergartens. More than half of Roma children who attend regularly belonged to the social centers for the Roma community and the other part belonged to public schools. Employment or exploitation of children for work by their parents or their families is an outcome of this situation (Liegeois, 1995). It is a serious social problem. There are about 270 or 42.5% of the children who did not attend school and were exploited for work by their parents. A considerable number of children (6-14 years old) are found as beggars in the streets of Tirana, often alone or surveyed by their parents or their custodians. Results of studies carried out by UNICEF-Albania reported the school dropout incidence until 55% of all roma children community in Tirana (Anonymous, 2010). Happiness at school was another part of the survey. Results from Table no. 2 show that only 7% of the Roma children who attended school were very happy, 11% of them were happy and the other part expressed they were somewhat happy 2%, not that happy 33% and not happy at all 47%. In other words, 82% of the children interviewed were not happy with school and did not like it. There were cases when children expressed they had experienced discrimination by the other community of children. Among the discrimination, forms mentioned were calling names, insults, and refusal to stay together by the part of the non Roma community. There have been many projects and studies to increase school attendance but their results have not been promising. The social projects carried out initially were based on investing for construction of appropriate schools for the Roma community, social centers, kindergartens, education centers, etc (Lakshman, 1996; Liegeois, 1999). There have been cases when Roma children received separate education from the other community of children; this has produced a negative impact in attending public schools and has not promoted social skills for this category of children in their cohabitance with various communities in public 9-year schools. Social exclusion of some groups of children, including Roma children, is an evident concern which is Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 spreading and getting more and more serious (Goltson, 2002). Roma children can be labeled as endangered group just because of their ethnicity, since this is a factor. However, this does not determine the risks for a considerable number of this category, which are deprived of the right for social services, because many of them have not been registered at birth. Lack of birth registration of Roma children deprives them of the right for public social service as well as nongovernmental care (Janusz 1994; Anonymous, 1999). The education situation in the 9-year school system for the Roma community is not good and presents hardship due to some extent to the abovementioned deterring factors. It requires serious commitment by public social services agencies, the support of NGOs, state institutions which tackle problems in the education of children and that of Roma families. Conclusions There have been many serious problems with school dropout by the children of the Roma community in our  121  country. Attendance of school at the level of 9-year school system (primary and secondary education) by Roma children has been low, and the number of illiterate children in this community is increasing. The social phenomenon of school dropout by children of the Roma community in Tirana remains present. Our study, carried out in the Roma children community in Allias (Tirana) indicates that out of 423 children ages (7-16) 270 (64%) did not attend school or had dropped out of it. The results of this study show that 67 (16%) attended school once or twice a week and only 86 (20%) of them attended school regularly. Exploitation of children through work alongside with school dropout and lack of attendance remains a serious problem. 42.5% of the Roma children, who do not attend school, were engaged in work alone or together with their parents. Education of the Roma children appears to have serious problems. In addition, exploitation of these children through work is a sharp social problem which requires measures by state social services which operate at the local and central level. REFERENCES: Anonymous, Albanian Human Rights Group (1997a), a document, Tirana. Anonymous, ACCESS Association (1997b). Balkan Neighbors Newsletter, Vol. 5, Sofia. Anonymous,ACCESS Association (1998). Balkan Neighbors Newsletter, Vol. 7, Sofia. Anonymous, Amaro Drom (1999). “Balkan Roma Conference for Peace and Security” in Yilli i Karvanit, Issue Nr. 27. Anonymous, (2010). UNICEF-Albania. Anonymous, (2009). UNDP-Albania. Anonymous, Center for International Development and Conflict Management (1995). “Minorities at Risk Project” in Evaluation of the Gypsy Population and of their Movements in Central and Eastern Europe and in Some OECD Countries (University of Maryland). Anonymous. European Roma Rights Center (1997c). No Record of the Case: Roma in Albania, Report, pp: 27-59. Cahn, Claude (1998), researcher at the European Roma Rights Center in Budapest, CEDIMESE interview, March 1998, Budapest. Cahn, Claude (1999). Researcher at the European Roma Rights Center in Budapest. CEDIMESE Interview in April 1999, Budapest. Courthiades, Marcel (1990s), “A Social and Historical Profile of the Roma in Albania, Part III.” Conference Papers.  122  Courthiades, Marcel (2000). CEDIMESE electronic interview with Marcel Courthiades (a linguist, specialist on the Roma dialectecs), March-April, 2000. Fraser, Angus (1992). The Gypsies (Blackwell, Oxford UK, Cambridge USA) pp: 41-45. Friedman, Victor (1998). “The Romani Language in the Republic of Macedonia:Status, Usage, and Sociolinguistic Perspectives”, Acta Linguistica Hungarica 123-128. Fonseca, Isabel (1995a). “Among the Gypsies”, The New Yorker, 25 September. Fonseca, Isabel (1995b). Bury Me Standing, (London:Chatto &Windus). Goltson A.J. 2002. Europe Gypsy’s Problems. Foreign Affairs Journal 81(2), 146-162 Harluck, Margaret (1938). “The Gypsies of Albania”, Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society, April 1938. Janusz Bugajski (1994). Ethnic Politics of Eastern Europe, A Guide to Nationality Policies, Organizations, and Parties. Center for Strategic and International Studies, Armonk, NY and London, M.E. Sharpe, pp.107-108. Kanev, Krassimir (1999). CEDIME-SE Interview on 8 January 1999. Kolsti, John (1991). “Albanian Gypsies, The Silent Survivors” in The Gypsies in Eastern Europe, (New York: Sharpe). School dropout by Roma children in Tirana Kovacs, Petra (1996). “The Invisible Minority. Roma in Albania”. Journal of Minorities and demographic changes 7(4), pp: 245-353. Kovacs, Petra (1999). Program Manager of the “Managing Multiethnic Communities Project at the Open Society Institute in Budapest”, CEDIME-SE electronic interview on 18 October. Courtiades, Marcel (1995) “Between Conviviality and Antagonism: The Ambiguous Position of the Romanies in Albania”, Patrin No.3/1995. Lakshman-Lepain (1996). “Religions Between Tradition and Pluralism” in Human Rights Without Frontiers, European Magazine of Human Rights. Lakshman-Lepain (1996). “Religions and the Law on Associations Recognition De Jure and De Facto” in Human Rights Without Frontiers, European Magazine of Human Rights pp: 67-79. Liegeois, Jean-Pierre and Nicolae Gheorghe (1995), Roma/Gypsies: A European M i n o r i t y, M i n o r i t y R i g h t s G ro u p International, Report. Liegeois, Jean-Pierre (1999). Romi, Tsigani, Chergari [Roma, Tsiganes, Voyageurs] translation in Bulgarian, (Sofia:Litavra Publishers). Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2  123  CONSTRUCTS OF QUALITY OF WORK LIFE: A PERSPECTIVE OF MENTAL HEALTH PROFESSIONALS Lediana XHAKOLLARI - University “Luigj Gurakuqi”, Shkoder-Albania E-mail: lxhakollari@gmail.com; lxhakollari@unishk.edu.al ABSTRACT Most of the adults spend a large part of their time at work. Over time, the work becomes like a second family. On the one hand work is an earning of one’s living for the family, on the other hand it could be a self-realization providing enjoyment and satisfaction. This article reviews literature on quality of work life (QWL) in terms of its meaning and constructs specifically from the perspective of mental health professionals. This research study is focused specifically on quality of work life in psychiatric hospital employees in Albania this because productivity and efficiency of an organization depends greatly on the quality of work life of employees. Mental and psychological health of psychiatric hospital employees is a critical factor for their performance at work. Any carelessness can have undesirable consequences for patients. This can happen from lack of authority in decision-making, fatigue, fear of attack patients, social isolation, shift work schedules, etc. Data were collected through questionnaires, interviews and observations. First study aims at covering a wide range of aspects and features of life at work, make a comprehensive assessment of satisfaction of mental health professionals in psychiatric hospitals with quality of life at work. Secondly this study will determine to what extent the facts of life work chosen as research variables assessed by staff as important. Other goals related to respondents’ demographic characteristics such as gender, age, experience, marital status, education level, etc. Are explored interesting issues about the level of satisfaction and relationship between demographic characteristics and satisfaction with the specific construct of QWL. Keywords: Quality of Work Life, Mental Health Professional, Job Security, Adequate and Fair Compensation. Introduction Mental Health Services in Albania focus on four districts of the country where they are located psychiatric hospitals and psychiatric wards (Tirana, Elbasan, Vlora, Shkodra). The QWL concept was introduced into the work place in the late 1950s. It was initially introduced as a way of focusing on the effects of employment Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 123-130  124  Constructs of Quality of Work Life: A Perspective of Mental Health Professionals on worker health and general well being, and a way to enhance the quality of a person’s on-the-job experience. (Bowditch & Anthony 2005). Up until the mid 1970s, the focus was on work design and improving work. Quality of work life is a concept of behavioral scientist, and the term was first introduced by Davis (Mathur, 1989; Hian and Einstein, 1990). It was first introduced in 1972 during an international labor relations conference (Moen, 1999). However, beginning in the 1980s QWL has come to include other features that affect employees’ job satisfaction and productivity for example, reward systems, physicalwork environment,employee involvement, rights and esteem needs (Cummings and Worley, 2005). The concept of quality-of-work-life (QWL) has been used in a variety of ways, encompassing an approach to industrial relations, a method of work re-design involving team decision-making and a movement to enhance organizational effectiveness (Nadler & Lawler 1985). Quality of work life (QWL) is a process by which an organization responds to employee needs by developing mechanisms to allow them to share fully in making the decisions that design their lives at work (Robbins, 1989). QWL and job-related outcomes such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment have been important topics in human resource (HR) and organizational development (OD) since the beginning of 1960s (Cummings & Worley, 2005; Leopold, 2005). Previous studies indicated that employees’ perception on work life quality significantly influenced their job satisfaction. As early as 1960’s researchers have begun to study and connect the dots between work and family. Numerous works on work life thereafter proves that what happened in the workplace have significant impact on individuals and their families. (Greenhaus & Beutell,1985; Kossek & Ozeki, 1998; Lewis & Cooper, 1987). QWL includes life satisfaction, job satisfaction, and work-specific facet satisfaction such as satisfaction with pay, co-workers, supervisor, among others (Danna & Griffin, 1999). Heskett, Sasser and Schlesinger (1997) define QWL as the feelings that employees have towards their jobs, colleagues and organizations that ignite a chain leading to the organizations’ growth and profitability. A good feeling towards their job means the employees feel happy doing work which will lead to a productive work environment. This definition provides an insight that the satisfying work environment is considered to provide better QWL. QWL has been well recognized as a multi-dimensional construct and it may not be universal or eternal. Beauregard (2007) said that the key concepts captured and discussed in the existing literature include job security, better reward systems, higher pay, opportunity for growth, participative groups, and increased organizational productivity. Quality of work life is a dynamic multidimensional construct that currently includes such concepts as job security, reward systems, training and career advancement opportunities, and participitation in decision making. In health care organizations, such as hospitals, specifically clinical laboratories, quality of work life has been described as referring to the strength and weakness in total work environment. QWL is a process by which an organisation responds to employee needs by developing mechanisms to allow members to share fully in making decisions that design their lives at work (Robbins 1998). Subsequently, organisations cognisant of issues surrounding the concept of QWL appear to be more effective at retaining their employees and achieving their goals. QWL consists of opportunities for active involvement in group working arrangements or problem solving that are of  125  Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 mutual benefit to employees or employers, based on labor-management cooperation. People also conceive of QWL as a set of methods, such as autonomous work groups, job enrichment, high-involvement aimed at boosting the satisfaction and productivity of workers (Feuer 1989). It is noteworthy that employees perception of Quality of Work Life varies based on demographic and organizational variables. Understanding this perception would help the leaders of the industries to work on improving the Quality of Work Life. Rice (1985) emphasized the relationship between work satisfaction and Quality of people’s lives. He contended that work experiences and outcomes can affect person’s general Quality of life, both directly and indirectly through their effects on family interactions, leisure activities and levels of health and energy. Efraty and Sirgy (1990) conceptualized QWL in terms of “need satisfaction.” In their later research, Sirgy et al. (2001) defi ne QWL as “employee satisfaction with a variety of needs through resources, activities, and outcomes stemming from participation in the workplace.” They proposed that QWL be measured in terms of employees’ needs. Specifically, seven dimensions of needs were suggested: (a) health and safety needs (protection from ill health and injury at work and outside of work, and enhancement of good health); (b) economic and family needs (pay, job security, and other family needs); (c) social needs (collegiality atwork and leisure time off work); (d) esteem needs (recognition and appreciation of work within and outside the organization); (e) actualization needs (realization of one’s potential within the organization and as a professional); (f) knowledge needs (learning to enhance job and professional skills); and (h) aesthetic needs (creativity at work as well as personal creativity and general aesthetics). The key elements of QWL in the literature include job security, job satisfaction, better reward system, employee benefits, employee involvement and organizational performance (Havlovic, 1991; Scobel, 1975). Thera are eight main conceptual categories which together make up the quality of working life. These are: 1) Fair and appropiate compesation; 2) Work conditions; 3) Use and development of capacities; 4) Chance of growth and security; 5) Social integration in the organization; 6) Constitutionalism; 7) Work and the total space of life; 8) Social relevance of the work in the life. (Walton, 1975). Research Methodology Aim of this research:This study attempt to investigate the current state of affairs in terms of satisfaction with quality of work life in an organization. It will be attempted to identify the predictors of satisfaction with quality of work life from range of facets of work life. It is hoped to be able to point out specific indicators that have a significant effect and may constitute problem areas if dissatisfaction is experienced. Secondly, it will be determined to what extent the facets of work life chosen as variables for the research are regarded as important. Additional objectives are concerned with the demographic characteristics of the respondents relevant to needs and quality of work life in order to determine what sub-groups exists according to their commonality of needs and perceptions of the quality of work life. Interesting patterns will be explored with respect to levels of satisfaction and relationships between demographic characteristics and satisfaction with specific facets of work life. The question an hypotheses of current study are: Q1: What is the level of satisfaction with quality of work life among mental health staffs?  126  Constructs of Quality of Work Life: A Perspective of Mental Health Professionals Q2: What is the level of satisfaction with each of constructs of quality of work life? H 1: There is a significant relationship between personal factors (age, status, education level, work position, work experience) and overall satisfaction with quality of work life. H 2. Satisfaction with fair payment is positively related to overall satisfaction with quality of work life H 3. A safe and health working environment is positively related to overall satisfaction with quality of work life H 4. Developing human capacities is positively related to overall satisfaction with quality of work life H 5. Chance of growth and security is positively related to overall satisfaction with quality of work life H 6. Social relationship in organization is positively related to overall satisfaction with quality of work life H 7. Regualtions and rule orientation is positively related to overall satisfaction with quality of work life H 8. Balanced role of work is positively related to overall satisfaction with quality of work life H 9. Social coherent in the work organization is positively related to overall satisfaction with quality of work life. Sampling: The purpose of this study are mental health professionals employed in psychiatric hospitals in Albania. In this study, the sampling method used is simple casual (probalibitar sampling) where each employee based on random selection from the list of the population had an equal chance and independent to be elected. In conclusion in this study took part 36 employees from a psychiatric hospital in Vlora, and Shkodra. Instruments: The study used quantitative research methods as well as qualitative ones. The necessary information is collected through semi-structured questionnaires, natural observation and depth interviews. The methodology developed in this work was initially based on bibliographical review of research of the main factors and criteria in QWL considerate in literature. Quality of work life was assessed by using Walton`s scale. The questionnaire was completed by a total of 36 employees in Shkodra and Vlora Psychiatric hospitals. A five-point Likert-type scale ranging from “Strongly dissatisfaid” (value of 1) to “Strongly satisfied” (value of 5) was used to measure QWL. The questionnaire involves 33 polar affirmations regarding QWL. Among different methods of estimating reliability Cronbach`s Alpha is used. It shows that for the 33 items of Walton`s scale, =0.89. So the questionnaire is reliable enough. The basic descreptive statistic had been used for analysis of the data set. Variables: Demographic characteristics of employees, satisfaction with various factors of work and the facts of life at work and individual perceptions of the importance of the latter are considered as independent variables, and general satisfaction with the quality of life at work is considered dependent variable. Findings and Discussion The collected data were analysed using the SPSS 16 package. The analysis reveals that the respondents were aged 21-30 years (16.7%), 31-40 years (30.5%), 41-50 years (36.1%) and over 51 years (16.7%). Marital status was singles (12.1%), married (75.8%) and divorced/separated (12.1%). Their education was secondary education (48.6% ) bachelor degree (25.7%), 4 years higher education (14.3%),masters degree (11.4%). Their positions were physicans (6.2%), psychologists (12.5%), social workers (9.4%), staff nurses (40.6%), custodians (6.3%), sanitary (25%). In this study majority (89%) of respondents are female and remaning 10% are male.  127  Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 Level of satisfaction with QWL The research questions is: “What is the level of satisfaction with quality of work life among mental health staffs?”. Based on the five-point scale used, the minimum QWL rating was 2 and a maximum of 4. The median QWL rating value was 3.11 With a standard deviation of SD=.590. The mean QWL rating was 3.13 implying that overall the level of QWL is good or at a moderate level. 2. 3. Level of satisfaction with conceptual categories of QWL The research questions is: “What is the level of satisfaction with each of constructs of quality of work life?”. For initial analysis of the 33 questions considered in this study had been gouped in 8 criteria idealized by Walton (1973). For each criterion the average of the questions of the research referring to the criterion had been calculated and is presented in Table 1. This table indicate the mean ratings for the conceptual categories of QWL. 1. It was discernible from the table that the first most satisfied factor as perceived by mental health employees was “Social integration in the work force” with a mean score of 3.64. This indicates that the coordination and cooperation in the organization 4. 5. 6. is developed which justifies that the employees are socially integrated. The second most satisfied factor perceived by mental health employees was “Opportunities to use & develop human capacity” with a mean score of 3.26. This indicate that employee participation is encouraged which enhance employee-employee and employee-employer relationships in the organization. The third most satisfied factor perceived by mental health employees was “Social relevance of work” with a mean score of 3.21. This indicates that being a public organization psychiatric hospitals promotes social responsibility within the employees as well as among patients. The fourth most satisfied factor perceived by mental health employees was “Eminence of Work Life” with a mean score of 3.21. The fifth most satisfied factor perceived by mental health employees was “Fair and appropriate compensation” with a mean score of 3.07. This indicates that the organization follows adequate income and fair compensation schemes. The sixth most satisfied factor perceived by mental health employees was “Safe & healthy working conditions” with a Table 1. The mean rating for the conceptual categories of QWL Conceptual categories of QWL 1. Fair and appropriate compensation 2. Work conditions 3. Use and development of capacities 4. Chance of growth and security 5. Social integration in the organization 6. Constitutionalism 7. Work and the total space of life 8. Social relevance of the work in the life General Average (QWL) Mean SD Level of stisfaction 3.07 3.02 3.26 2.67 3.64 2.99 3.21 3.21 3.13 .838 .735 .798 .892 .805 .908 .700 .917 .590 Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate  128  Constructs of Quality of Work Life: A Perspective of Mental Health Professionals 7. 8. mean score of 3.02. This indicates that the working conditions are somewhat conducive and transparent. The employees working are satisfied with the hygiene and tha maintenance of the organization which automatically proves that the employees are safe and free from risk of illness\injury. The seventh most satisfied factor perceived by mental health employees was “Constitutionalism in work organization” with a mean score of 2.99. This indicates that proper hierarchy exists in the organization where everyone is aware of his or her responsibilities. The eighth most satisfied factor perceived by mental health employees was “Chance of growth and security” with a mean score of 2.67. This indicates that there is not a provision of enhancement programmes for mental health employees. Moreover special training programmes are not organized for boosting employees capabilities. Insecurity of job leads to discouragement and anxiety. Correlation of QWL Based on the conceptual framework of the present study, the QWL was independent variables of some dependent variables some called conceptual categories and other demographic variables. The findings reversed that the personal factors: age, status, education level, work position, work experience were not relate to the QWL at 0.01 level. Thus, the research hypothesis Nr 1 “There is a significant relationship between personal factors (age, status, education level, work position, work experience) and overall satisfaction with quality of work life” was rejected. The descriptive statistics, correlations of QWL and other predictor variables are shown in Table 2. The findings indicate that the QWL is positively realted to all conceptual categories of QWL. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level and the results of Table 2 show that all correlations are significant (r < 0.01). The findings indicate that the QWL is positively realted to all conceptual categories of QWL. “Fair and appropriate compensation”, “Use and development of capacities”, “Work and the total space of life”, relate to QWL at moderate level, others like “Chance of growth and security”, “Constitutionalism”, relates to the QWL at high level, while “Work conditions”, “Social integration in the organization” and “Social relevance of the work in the life” relate to QWL at moderate to high level. Table 2. Correlation between QWL dimensions Pearson Correlation (r) 1. Fair and appropriate compensation 2. Work conditions 3. Use and development of capacities 4. Chance of growth and security 5. Social integration in the organization 6. Constitutionalism 7. Work and the total space of life 8. Social relevance of the work in the life .537 .650 .554 .797 .701 .847 .522 .738 Sig (2-tailed) (p) Level and its of relation .007 .001 .005 .000 .000 .000 .009 .000 Moderate Moderate to high Moderate High Moderate to high High Moderate Moderate to high Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 Conclusion The study found that there is a moderate level of satisfaction among employees regarding the Quality of Work Life. All conceptual categories of QWL determine the satisfaction with quality of work life in the organization. All these factors are positively correlated with quality of work life. So by improving these factors quality of work life in psychiatric hospitals can be enhanced. QWL is the shared responsibility not only of the management and employees, but also by the society. To improve quality of work life is first to identify and then try to statisfy employee`s important needs thorugh their experience in their working environment. Depending upon the situational requirements, management may select the relevant needs of the employee`s to improve them with short term plan. The results of the present study could be more effectively utilized for the promoting QWL among mental health professional. Mental health staffs who feel  129  supported by their administratons and belive they had the appropriate tools and information to do their jobs, have better professional QWL. Further research Future researches should include other salient variables and also examine more complex interactions of quality of work life with democraphic characteristics and other variables among mental health staffs. It is recommended to present a comparison between QWL level in mental health workforce and other professions. This study was limited to the executives in two type of hospitals, so it is not generalizable to other hospitals. Replication in other setting and comparative analysis are likely to enhance this framework. Acknowledgement The author would like to thank the mental health staffs at Vlora and Shkodra Psychiatric Hospitals for their support in data collection. REFERENCES: Beauregard, T. A. (2007), “Family Influences on the career life cycle. In M. Ozbilgin & A. Malach-Pines (Eds.)”, Career Choice in Mangement and Entrepreneurship: A Research Companion, pp.101-126. Bowditch, James L. and Anthony F. Buono., (2005), “A Primer on Organizational Behavior ”, John Wiley and Son, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey C u m m i n g s T G , Wo r l e y C G . , ( 2 0 0 5 ) , “Organizational development and change”, Cincinnati, OH: Thomson South-Western College Publishing. Danna, K. & Griffin, R. W. (1999), “Health and well-being in the workplace: A review and synthesis of the literature”, Journal of Management 25(3), pp. 357-384. Efraty D, Sirgy JM. (1990), “The effects of quality of working life (QWL) on employee behavioral responses”, Soc Indic Res 22. pp. 31–47. Feuer, D., (1989), “Quality of work life: a cure for all ills?”, Training: The Magazine of Human Resources Development, 26: pp. 65-66. Greenhaus, J., & Beutell, N. (1985), “Sources of conflict between work and family roles”. Academy of Management Journal, 10, pp. 76-88. Havlovic, S. J., (1991), “Quality of work life and human resource outcomes”, Industrial Relations, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp.469-479. Heskett, J.L., Sasser, W.E., Jr and L.A., Schlesinger, (1997), “The service profit chain”, New York: The Free Press. Hian, C.C., and Einstein , W.O., (1990), “Quality of work life (QWL): What can unions do?”,  130  Constructs of Quality of Work Life: A Perspective of Mental Health Professionals S.A.M. Advanced Management Journal, Vol. 55, No. 2, pp. 17-22. Knox S, Irving JA. (1997), “An interactive quality of work life model applied to organization”, JONA; 27 (1). pp. 39-47. Kossek, E.E., Ozeki, C. (1998), “Work-family conflict, policies and the job-life satisfaction relationship: a review and direction for organizations’ behavior-human resources research”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 83 pp.139–49. Lau RS & Bruce EM. (1998), “A win – win paradigm for quality of work life and business performance”, Human Resource Development Quality; 9 (3). pp.211-26. Lewis, S., Cooper, C. (1987), “Stress in twoearner couples and stage in the life cycle”, Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol. 60. pp. 289–303 Mathur, R. N., (1989), “Quality of working life of women construction workers”, Commonwealth Publishers, New Delhi, India. Moen P., (1999). “Effective Work/Life Strategies: Working Couples, Work Conditions, Gender, and Life Quality”, Social Problems, Volume 47, No. 3, pp. 291-326. Nadler DA, Lawler EE. (1985) “ QWL: perspectives and directions. In: Buback KA, Grant MK, eds”, Quality of Work Life Health Care Applications. St Louis, MO: The Catholic Health Association of the United States, pp.15–26. Robbins, S. P. (1989), “Organizational Behavior: Concepts, Controversies, and Applications”, NJ: Prentice Hall. Rice, R. W., (1985), “Organizational Work and the Perceived Quality of Life towards a Conceptual Model”, Academy of Management Review, April, Col. 10(2), 1985, pp .296-310. Robbins, S. P. (1998), “Organisational behaviour” (8th ed.). New Jersey: Simon & Schuster. Scobel. D. N., (1975), “Doing away with the factory blue”, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 53. pp. 132-142. Sirgy MJ, Efraty D, Siegel P, Lee DJ. (2001), “A new measure of quality of work life (QWL) based on need satisfaction and spillover theory”, Soc Indic Res; 55. pp. 241–302. Walton, R.E., (1975) “Criteria for Quality of Working Life”. In L.E. Davis, A.B. Cherns and Associates (Eds.) The Quality of Working. New York: The Free Press, Life, 1: 91-104.  131  Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 HUMAN RIGHTS AS COLLECTIVE GOODS Jordan DACI - Wisdom University, Tirana-Albania E-mail: jordan.daci@gmail.com ABSTRACT The most prevalent conception of human rights draws on a theory of natural rights: human rights are the inalienable entitlements of individuals, based on their nature as human beings (moral person); they protect those potentials, attributes, and holding that are essential to a life worthy of human beings.1 Meanwhile, from the perspective of jurisprudence and legal history, human rights may be defined also as the basic and the very first legal norms that were ever produced by human beings. In other words, Human Rights are the very fundamental norms of original social contract and the basic source of other legal norms. Thus, Human Rights can be considered also as collective goods, since they make the most essential part of society’s interests and their respect and protection is a precondition for the security and peace of the human society. Keywords: Human Rights, Common interest, Human Society, State legitimacy, Human Rights as Legal Norms, Democracy, Law, Jurisprudence. 1. State, Law and Human Rights State and Law are the two main perquisites for the existence, for the respect, protection and for the promotion of Human Rights. The latter are the very reason for the creation of State and Law as its primary product designed to control human beings and to protect them from themselves. As such from a contemporary 1 2 point of view, state is perceived as the political system of a body of people who are politically organized; the system of rules by which jurisdiction and authority are exercised over a body of people,2 or as “an institution, that is to say, it is a system of relations which men establish among themselves as a means of securing certain objects, of which their activities can be carried on. From another point of view the state can be defined also as P.I.O.O.M., Alex P.Schmid.“Research on Gross Human Rights Violation”. P.I.O.O.M. P.Leiden 1989, pp 6. Black’s Law Dictionary. Eight edition. Thomson West. USA 2007, pp. 1443. Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 131-137  132  an association of human beings established for the attainment of certain ends by certain means. It is the most important of all the various kinds of society in which men unite, being indeed the necessary basis and condition of peace, order, and civilization.”3 As such, the fundamental reason for the creation of state is to safeguard human rights which are inseparable, undividable and inalienable from human beings. They are vital, necessary and indispensable to a modern society, which without them would be unable to function and cannot be developed.4 Nevertheless, the protection of human rights as the basic of the human society unity and the essential part of the society common interest cannot be achieved without the help of law. The law itself is described by Montesquieu as the relations subsisting between it and different beings, and the relations of these to one another.5 At any case, we should make a clear distinction between the law as a divine rule and absolute true of nature or the law of nature and the law as a positive act deriving from the state. While natural law represented the law “imposing” to human beings the principle of ideal or unlimited or perfect freedom, the positive law is imposes to human being rules which aim to control and limited the perfect freedom, very often understood also as the natural impulse or desire which Hobbes attributes to mankind of subduing one another is far from being well founded.6 Thus, man living in under the rule Human Rights as collective goods of the law of nature, was permanently living in a state of war were the perfect freedoms of man was also its greatest enemy. Under these circumstances, men decided to go out from the state of war and enter into human society under the rule of positive law enacted by state as its own creation. This process is described in Hobbes inquires, “For what reason go men armed, and have locks and keys to fasten their doors, if they be not naturally in a state of war?” But is it not obvious that he attributes to mankind before the establishment of society what can happen but in consequence of this establishment, which furnishes them with motives for hostile attacks and self-defense? For Montesquieu, as soon as man enters into a state of society he loses the sense of his weakness; equality ceases, and then commences the state of war.7 Therefore, for Montesquieu the law in general is human reason, inasmuch as it governs all the inhabitants of the earth: the political and civil laws of each nation ought to be only the particular cases in which human reason is applied.8 Thus, we may define law as product of human reason, or as Thomas Jefferson used to simply describe it as “written reason”.9 Nevertheless, it should be emphasized that law is not a phenomenon with a nature wholly independent of our beliefs about it, but one that is constituted by our understandings and expectations.10 Although, the concept of law is a paradigm 3 John Salmons. Jurisprudence 129 (Glanville L. Williams ed., 10th ed. 1947). As cited in Black’s Law Dictionary. Eight edition. Thomson West. USA 2007, pp. 1443. 4 Jordan Daci. “Te Drejtat e Njeriut”. Botimi III. Julvin 2, Tirana 2011, pp 35. 5 Charles de Montesquieu. “The Spirit of Laws”. Translated by Thomas Nugent, revised by J. V. Prichard, based on an public domain edition published in 1914 by G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., London. Rendered into HTML and text by Jon Roland of the Constitution Society, pp.19. 6 Ibib. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid, pp.22. 9 Thomas Jefferson. The Writings. Ed.Paul Leicester Fors (New York:1898),9:480; 18:1 (“The Batture at New Orleans”), 15:207. Cited in Donald R. Kelly, The Human Measure: Social Thought in the Westerns Legal Tradition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Pres 190), p.186. As cited in Russell Hittinger. “Natural law in the positive laws: A Legislative or Adjudicative Issues?”. The Review of Politics. Available at EBSCO Database, 2001, pp.7. 10 N.E. Simmonds. “Law as moral idea”. University of Toronto Law Journal 2005, pp.68. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 concept of a non-natural kind that is intrinsically related to natural kinds,11 the humankind perception of law and how it should reflects peoples’ understandings and expectation remains an ongoing discussion among scholars. In one hand, the law would be also as a set of norms enacted by the legislative power with the scope to regulate the social relationships between individuals in one hand and between individuals and state in another hand, the enforcement of which is guaranteed by the sanction imposed to people via the force mechanism of state. Certainly, the law as product of society made by people through the state and for the people must reflect people’ understandings and expectations that are nothing more or less than the prevailing moral values of a particular society. Therefore, there cannot be any division between the law and moral, because such laws would be considered as vain. Even Latin people used the expression “Leges sine moribus vanae” (laws without moral are vain). On the other hand, the law should be understood first as “lex” or the act of the sovereign body that represents the People with its primary scope to regulate the relationships between individuals in one hand and between individuals and state on the other hand. Secondly, the law should be understood as “Jus” or the whole body of norms including norms deriving from subordinate laws 12 that constitute the system of domestic law in a given country. To conclude, the notion of Human Rights is closely and strictly related with the notion of state and law since Human Rights are the very reason why  133  people created the state. As such Human Rights represent the basic moral values and human society’s interests. The Law which would not properly take into account human rights would not be considered a proper law, since will lack the basis requirements such as morality and legitimacy. In addition, also a state which would not properly respect, protect and promote human rights would not be a legitimate state, but rather a group of people constituting a model of state being far away from a democracy. 2. The Social Nature of Law and its relationship to the State The notion of Human Rights as collective goods cannot be explained with explaining the social nature of law and its relationship to the state. The notion of law is essentially related with the notion of society, state and in last century also with the international community. That’s why, Curtis F.J. Doebbler, defines human rights as “the main requests that individuals make to their own government, whose legitimacy is often based on its ability to provide a proper answer to these requests.”13 From a different perspective, the law itself is a product of People’s interaction in society, made by the People and for the People. As previously explained, human being created the law as part of the social contract they reached to enter into human society, in which human beings are tied to “membership”14 of each of them into the state and so they are interdependent. As Kant explained, the human beings in order to be related in a mutual relation with each 11 Robert Alexy. “On the Concept and the Nature of Law”. Ratio Juris. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.Vol. 21, No. 3., USA 2008, p.284. 12 A subordinate law is an act issued by a non sovereign body, based and with the scope to enforce a law. 13 Curtis F.J. Doebbler. “International Human Rights Law: cases and Materials”. CDP, Special printing. United States of America 2003, pp 6. 14 Tony Honore. “Making Law Bind”. Oxford University. USA, 987, pp. 129.  134  other must get out from the State of Nature where everyone have respect only for his or her interests and their own fantasy.15 As such, the social nature of law cannot be question as soon as the law itself is as a product of the society. In addition, while the social contract represents the very first positive law, the human society represents the very first type of state. The later is nothing more than a “Mortal GOD” who accepts or proclaims something as just, that thing proclaimed as law.16 For Hobbes, human beings “did as God”17 through the art and as result of this process they created the State as an artificial human beings. Consequently, the main property of law is the principle “Iustum quria iussum” (everyone can do everything that don’t do harm to others). This principle explains the difference between the human society and the state of nature or the state of war, A state also of equality, wherein all the power and jurisdiction is reciprocal, no one having more than another, there being nothing more evident than that creatures of the same species and rank, promiscuously born to all the same advantages of Nature, and the use of the same faculties, should also be equal one amongst another, without subordination or subjection, unless the lord and master of them all should, by any manifest declaration of his will, set one above another, and confer on him, by an evident Human Rights as collective goods and clear appointment, an undoubted right to dominion and sovereignty.18 At the end, the scope of people to enter in human society was to better secure their natural rights and freedoms what was under permanent threat of the other unlimited natural rights and freedoms. Plato also in his book “the Republic”, inter alia explains that human beings entered into society and constituted the state to secure the exchange between each-other.19 Hence, the law as social product embodied in itself prevailing moral and customary rules of society. From this perspective, law is related with peoples’ manners and costumes as forms of pure and regular manners. The law would be very simple and natural only when it expresses the prevailing forms of pure and regular manners of the People from which law is produced.20 This important and symbiotic relation between laws, society and state is further explained by Solon being asked if the laws he had given to the Athenians were the best, he replied, “I have given them the best they were able to bear.”21 This mean that laws should derived from the soul of the people, only in this way, the law would be very simple to be understood and easily enforcement, because such laws express the very meaning of people on their mutual relationships including their relationships with the state. This symbiotic relationship 15 Il Rapporto Cittadino-Stato nel Leviathan di Hobbes, Di Michelle Averchi. www.dialettico.it.html. Accessed on 26.11.2002. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 John Locke. “Two treaties of government”. From the Works of John Locke. A New Edition, Corrected. In Ten Volumes. Vol. V. Printed for Thomas Tegg; W. Sharpe and Son; G. Offor; G. and J. Robinson; J. Evans and Co.: Also R. Griffin and Co. Glasgow; and J. Gumming, Dublin. 1823, pp 106. 19 Plato. The Republic, pp 36. 20 Ibid. As cited in Charles de Montesquieu. “The Spirit of Laws”. Translated by Thomas Nugent, revised by J. V. Prichard, based on an public domain edition published in 1914 by G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., London. Rendered into HTML and text by Jon Roland of the Constitution Society, pp.163. 21 Pliny, Natural History, xxxiii, art. 13. As cited in Charles de Montesquieu. “The Spirit of Laws”. Translated by Thomas Nugent, revised by J. V. Prichard, based on an public domain edition published in 1914 by G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., London. Rendered into HTML and text by Jon Roland of the Constitution Society, pp.162. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 is further explained by Plato,22 “When a people are not religious we should never have recourse to an oath, except he who swears is entirely disinterested, as in the case of a judge and a witness.”23 The relation between the law and the state is essential, since the state represents the human society and is the sole creation of people authorized by them to act for them and on their behalf as tool to better secure peoples’ rights and freedom. Thus, when the state proclaims a law, it acts as a mouth of people, speaking for them and on their behalf. From this perspective, the law is a law as long as is proclaimed by a state, as the only authority empowered by people to enact legislation. 3. Human Rights as Collective Goods The notion of human rights as collective goods is strictly related with the notions of the social and legal relationships. Social relationships are the result of interactions between the subjects of laws regulated by legal norms. The reason why a social relationship shall be regulated by one or several legal norms is the necessity of society to be able to secure and maintain the peace between its members by defining rules of behavior through legal norms before a dispute over a relationship between two or more members of the society takes place. The reason why the resolution of the dispute will be based on rules of behavior accepted by all members before the dispute takes place is the related with the obligation of all members of the society to accept the legitimacy of the applicable legal norm  135  and to obey to what it orders, forbids or allows to be done. From this perspective the legal norm or the law itself in wider sense, does nothing more than defines and protects the common interest of society. The importance of interest defined and protected by the legal norm defines also the importance of the legal norm itself, which in consequence defines also the place of this norm within the hierarchy of legal norms of a given country. In fact, this is the whole idea of the legal system that Kelsen has argued in his Pure Theory of Law. Kelsen had emphasized “that a norm belongs to a certain system follows simply from the fact that the validity of the norm can be traced back to the basic norm constituting the system.”24 On the other hand, according to him the basic norm is the constitution itself. Therefore, it is obvious that the main criteria used by Kelsen to define the content of the basic norm as well as to construct the idea of the legal system is the theory of interest according to which legal norms shall be ranked according to the importance of interests they define and protect. In fact, this is also the sole parameter that we can use even today in explaining the principle of legality that will not make any sense if legal system wouldn’t be understood as a well defined hierarchical structure. Beside defining the constitution as the basic norm, we can also defined the constitution as the social contract reached between the governors and the governed, or the social contract through which people created the state. Hence, a contemporary constitution would be an updated version of the original social contract. The latter is 22 See Father Joubert, Science of Medals, p. 59, Paris, 1739. As sited in Charles de Montesquieu. “The Spirit of Laws”. Translated by Thomas Nugent, revised by J. V. Prichard, based on an public domain edition published in 1914 by G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., London. Rendered into HTML and text by Jon Roland of the Constitution Society, pp.163. 23 Ibid, pp.162, 163. 24 Hans Kelsen. «Hans Kelsen’s Pure Theory of Law (1st Ed.)». 2004. (§27). As cited in Hanno Kaiser. “Notes on Hans Kelsen’s Pure Theory of Law (1st Ed.). 2004”. (§27). Professor’s Hanno Kaiser webpage. I disponueshëm në: www.hfkdocs.com/files/Kelsen_Pure_Theory.pdf.  136  the very first legal norm or set body of legal norms that were ever produced by human beings. Meanwhile, as many philosophers such as Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu, Rousseau etc, have pointed out the main reason for the creation of the state was to protect the basic interest of people, or what we call today as Human Rights. Thus, from the perspective of jurisprudence and legal history, human rights could be defined also as the basic and the very first legal norms that constituted the social contract. In other words Human Rights are the very fundamental norms of original social contract and the basic source of other legal norms, the content and validity of which is defined by Human Rights in the same way as the validity of legal norms is defined by the basic norm (the constitution). In addition, as a consequence of the universal value of human rights they are also universal judgment standards used to determine the validity of state legitimacy and of the state law. As such, fundamental human rights in one hand can be considered also as legal principle or basic legal norms inter alia, because they impose to individuals and government general standardized behavior manners in an identical way as the legal principle impose general standardized meanings and understandings to other legal norms. On the other hand, Human Rights as basic norms can be considered also as collective goods, since they make Human Rights as collective goods the most essential part of the society interests and their respect and protection is a precondition for the security and peace of the human society. 4. Conclusions The original and the contemporary notions of state and law are closely and strictly related with the notion of Human Rights, which make the most essential part of the society interests and their respect and protection is a precondition for the security and peace of the human society. From this perspective, Human Rights are also the essential part of social contract and represent the basic legal norms that define the content and the validity of other legal norms in a given legal system. As such, Human Rights can be considered also as collective goods of human society which cannot exists in an environment that does not respect, protect or promote Human Rights. The natures of Human Rights as collective goods make sense just if we accept the idea that Human Rights are the essential interest of the society and they protect those potentials, attributes, and holding that are essential to a life worthy of human beings.25 Therefore, no one can disagree with the idea that considers Human Rights as collective goods as long as they make the essential part of the social contract which has secured peace a development for human society. BIBLIOGRAPHY Black’s Law Dictionary. Eight edition. Thomson West. USA 2007. Charles de Montesquieu. “The Spirit of Laws”. Translated by Thomas Nugent, revised by J. V. Prichard, based on an public domain edition published in 1914 by G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., London. Rendered into HTML and text 25 by Jon Roland of the Constitution Society. Curtis F.J. Doebbler. “International Human Rights Law: cases and Materials”. CDP, Special printing. United States of America 2003.. Hans Kelsen. «Hans Kelsen’s Pure Theory of Law (1st Ed.)». 2004. (§27). As cited in Hanno Kaiser. “Notes on Hans Kelsen’s Pure Theory P.I.O.O.M., Alex P.Schmid.“Research on Gross Human Rights Violation”. P.I.O.O.M. P.Leiden 1989, pp 6. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 of Law (1st Ed.). 2004”. (§27). Professor’s Hanno Kaiser webpage. I disponueshëm në: www.hfkdocs.com/files/Kelsen_Pure_ Theory.pdf. IL Rapporto Cittadino-Stato nel Leviathan di Hobbes, Di Michelle Averchi. www. dialettico.it.html, accessed on 26.11.2002. John Locke. “Two treaties of government”. From the Works of John Locke. A New Edition, Corrected. In Ten Volumes. Vol. V. Printed for Thomas Tegg; W. Sharpe and Son; G. Offor; G. and J. Robinson; J. Evans and Co.: Also R. Griffin and Co. Glasgow; and J. Gumming, Dublin. 1823. John Salmons. Jurisprudence 129 (Glanville L. Williams ed., 10th ed. 1947). As cited in Black’s Law Dictionary. Eight edition. Thomson West. USA 2007. Jordan Daci. “Te Drejtat e Njeriut”. Botimi III. Julvin 2, Tirana 2011. N.E. Simmonds. “Law as moral idea”. University of Toronto Law Journal 2005. P.I.O.O.M., Alex P. Schmid. “Research on Gross Human Rights Violation”. P.I.O.O.M. P. Leiden 1989. Plato. The Republic. Pliny, Natural History, xxxiii, art. 13. As cited in Charles de Montesquieu. “The Spirit of Laws”. Translated by Thomas Nugent, revised  137  by J. V. Prichard, based on an public domain edition published in 1914 by G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., London. Rendered into HTML and text by Jon Roland of the Constitution Society. Robert Alexy. “On the Concept and the Nature of Law”. Ratio Juris. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.Vol. 21, No. 3., USA 2008. Father Joubert, Science of Medals, p. 59, Paris, 1739. Ac sited in Charles de Montesquieu. “The Spirit of Laws”. Translated by Thomas Nugent, revised by J. V. Prichard, based on an public domain edition published in 1914 by G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., London. Rendered into HTML and text by Jon Roland of the Constitution Society. Thomas Jefferson. The Writings. Ed.Paul Leicester Fors (New York: 1898),9:480; 18:1 (“The Batture at New Orleans”), 15:207. Cited in Donald R. Kelly, The Human Measure: Social Thought in the Westerns Legal Tradition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Pres 190), p.186. As cited in Russell Hittinger. “Natural law in the positive laws: A Legislative or Adjudicative Issues?”. The Review of Politics. Available at EBSCO Database, 2001. Tony Honore. “Making Law Bind”. USA-Oxford University, 1987. INTERRELIGIOUS COMMUNICATION, RELIGIOUS EDUCATION AND SECURITY ISSUES Xhavit SHALA - Albanian Center for National Security Studies E-mail: xhavit_shala@yahoo.co.uk; ABSTRACT The object of study and research of this paper is interreligious communication, religious education and the impact they have on the security issues. The purpose of this paper is the presentation and the handling of communication and dialogue between religions and the trends that threaten it; communication crisis between religious beliefs and its consequences for security, communication features and interreligious dialogue among Albanians as a contribution to European democratic values, factors that contribute to the creation of these values and those that threaten it, and the relation of religious education with security matters. Study and research of interreligious communication and religious education is of interest, because religious affairs are regarded as very important for our national security, across the history of the Albanian state. That is because of the conditions of our country; a geographic location that has relatively a small population of four traditional religious beliefs, now also open to non-traditional religious missionaries. The study and research of interreligious communication and religious education is of interest in regional level and beyond. The lack of communication and interreligious dialogue has often resulted in ethnic and religious hatred, in crimes against humanity, terrorist acts and genocide, becoming thus a serious threat to regional and even global security. The study argues and concludes that communication, dialogue and religious tolerance represent national treasures of our culture, which have been created and survived for centuries, should be securitized and therefore be treated as assets at risk. The study also concludes that religious education does not violates the secularism of the state and of the education system, but is an investment in protecting interreligious dialogue and communication, and the religious tolerance for our national security itself. At the end, the paper also puts forth a number of conclusions and some recommendations Keywords: interreligious communication, religious education, national security, religious tolerance, passive neutrality. Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 139-146  140  Interreligious communication, religious education & security issues 1. Communication between religious beliefs; The main trends. The rivalry and the rejection of dialogue between religious beliefs and their relationship with the state, society and individuals have had a major impact on the development and progress of human society. Precisely when, instead of collision, communication and dialogue dominated between religions, and religion was separated from the state after the onset of the era of secularism, when pluralism and religious tolerance become part of society; then the society went in the path of development and progress. The opinion that people of a certain religion have about another religion helps us identify the existence of three worldviews: “religious exclusivism” expressed in the lack of communication trends and the exclusion of other religious beliefs; “religious inclusivism” the trend of including other religious beliefs and “religious pluralism” the trend of accepting the legitimacy of other religious beliefs. People that subscribe to the view of religious exculisivism see their faith as the only true one. According to them all other religions are false and are an expression of a satanic act. Oftentimes, intolerance and violence are accompanying features of the behavior of these groups. The representatives of exculisivist group find their inspiration in a twisted interpretation of passages from scripture like the Bible1 and the Qur’an.2 Such a spirit of exculisivism exists even within the same religion, allegedly claiming authenticity for one current compared to another variant of the same religion.3 On the other side, the groups that embrace the philosophy of Religious Inclusivizm also regard their religion as the only true one but unlike the exclusivists they do not regard all other religions as false but they see them as incomplete and partly developed. Europe was able to escape religious fanaticism and enter the path of development only when the viewpoint of accepting the legitimacy of other religions and religious pluralism became a dominant pattern of thought. According to the representatives of this group, all religions are legitimate, valid and true when seen from within their particular culture. According to them, all religious traditions are deserving of respect. The term religious diversity can also be used to denote religious pluralism. Religious exclusivism and religious pluralism are two worldviews that are completely opposed in the way they see other religions. 2. Crisis of communication between religious beliefs and Security. Often, if allowed free rein, followers of such exclusivist movements can incite religious hatred and violence against members of other religions undermining the security of a state. Religious exculisivism is often the main cause behind civil wars, crimes against 1 The Bible, in addition to passages on love and peace contains passages that are taken to imply the application of represive measures against those who do not embrace the faith. For example, Mateu, 12:30 states, “He who is not with me is against me, and he who does not gather with me, scatters. 2 The Koran divides the people into groups: into Muslims and Non-Muslims. The Muslims form the Islamic community and the territory where they live is “Dar al –Islam” (abode of Islam) an area under the operation of Islamic law.The Non-Muslims are inhabitants of “Dar –al – Harb” (place of war). They must obey Islamic law and in order for them to preserve their religious faith and protect their properties, they must pay taxes. 3 Although itself an Islamic State, Iran created reservists unit and followed from very close the actions of the Taleban, because it feared the religious exclusivism of the Sunni Pashtun Taleban. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 humanity and genocide. In such cases these teachings represent a serious threat for the security not only of the states affected by it but for regional and global security also.4 This has happened in the MiddleAges as demonstrated by the crusades and continues to our days, with the most recent examples being Bosnia and Afghanistan, the 9/11 terrorist act in the United States and most recently the terrorist act of Anders Behring Brejvik5 in Norway. This concept of religious exculisivism becomes even more dangerous when it is transformed into state policy. Such theocratic states were common in the Middle Ages but they have surfaced again in more recent times in the Middle East. The transformation of religious exclusivism into state policy is followed by other developments in domestic politics. Such states, because of their policy of not accepting as legitimate any other faith, practice systematic violations of human rights and freedoms. They often become a place of shelter that attracts like-minded militants from other countries. In the foreign policy area, these states become a concern for the region. They encourage and export terrorism threatening regional security. Afghanistan is a sufficient illustration of such a case. The coming to power of the Taliban in Afghanistan presents a typical case of religious exclusivism where such a doctrine become state policy which recognized on the Sunni but also within  141  Islam where recognitions applied only to the Sunni branch. The religious exclusivism of Taliban had repercussions on the internal security of Afghanistan. Upon coming into power in 1996, the Taliban established the rule of shariah and curtailed human rights and the rights of women in particular. In Afghanistan, Bin Laden used the opportunity and in March 1998 unified under his command the terrorist groups operating at the time by establishing the Shrines Liberation Front , which later became known as Al Qaeda. The Taliban rule became an issue of great concern for Central Asian Republics.7 These countries feared that religious extremism would spread into their territory from Afghanistan and would destabilize their fragile systems of government. The Taliban religious exclusivism became a matter of concern for global security also. The 9/11 terrorist attack against the United States was prepared and originated from Afghanistan.8 3. Communication and interreligious dialogue: The Albanian cultural treasures; The European democratic values Communication and interfaith dialogue that exists in Albanai is a value that the West welcomes into the European family where we are striving to enter. 4 For more see: Xhavit Shala- Albanians at the Crossroads», page 42-56, Tirana, May 2004. A publication of the Albanian Center for National Security Studies. 5 In his manuscript of 1518 pages titled “A Decleration of European Independence 2083”, Anders Brejvik speaks openly of his hatred for muslims. He puts forth arguments for thier extermination and elimination of islmic states. 6 Excerpt from the affidavit of the accused Ahmet Ibrahim Al Nagar given before the Egyptian justice. He was arrested in 25.6.1998, in the Institution “El Hagri” and extradited to Egypt. – Albania, cited source, date 2 December 2001, pg 5. 7 Alexander del Valle – Genesis and the actuality of pro-Islamic strategy of USA. 8 Most of the figures that were later to become heads of terrorist networks came out of the “Afghan schools”. Figures such as Osama bin Laden, Ajman Zavahiri, the one responsible for organizing the 9/11 attacks in New York, Al Zarkavi in Iraq and others, at one time or another spent time in Afghanistan.  142  Interreligious communication, religious education & security issues This value is one of the most precious treasures of our culture and national heritage, created in centuries by our nation, through the celebration of and development of a religious tolerance that is communicated through generations, worthy of an ancient and civilized European nation. These are also the European democratic values. Following is a list of the factors that have made possible this interreligious dialogue and harmony of the Albanians: a. the Albanian national identity was build upon the foundation of our language, tradition and culture and not on our religious affiliations.9; b. the presence of an Albanian Islam, with a folk nature and softened by the presence of the Bektashi faith10; c. certain aversion for intolerant forms of Islam, such as wahabism 11 ; d. the forced religious estrangement of the Albanian youth brought about by communism; e. the fact that economic and social conflicts have never become religious ones and the tradition of the Albanian political forces, which, historically, have not sought out constituencies based on religious differentiations.12 These are some of the factors that have cemented the communication, our religious harmony and tolerance and that have maintained traditional religious beliefs of Albanians from fanaticism, extremism or religious fundamentalism. But the cultural treasures of a nation 9 remain always vulnerable, if we do not take care of them, if we do not identify the factors that threaten and invest to neutralize the impact of these factors. That’s why the communication and the religious tolerance, being the national treasures of our culture that have been created through centuries, should be securitized 13 and should be treated as assets at risk.14 4. Communication and interreligious dialogue, passive neutrality and active secularism. Immediately after the declaration of independence, the Albanian state, while initially very weak, considered interreligious ccommunication, dialogue and religious harmony, and religious matters in general as very important to its security. In 1923, Visarion Xhuvani, who was later to become the Archbishop of the Albanian Autocephalous Orthodox Church says: “We all know that religious issues have always been a bit complicated here. We all know how much they cost the state. God forbid that they can be used as tools [against the state] in the future.”15 Given these circumstances, the Albanian patriots asked, as expressed in the words of Mehdi Frashëri, that “the Government needs to be a bit more inside [the affairs] of religions …”16 The Albanian patriots from that time on continued to work to establish the principle that the religious communities Veton Surroi - Religions and Civilizations. Newspaper “Korrieri” 14 november 2003. Mehdi Frasheri- The ancient History of Albania and Albanians - Pg 44 -45. 11 Prof. Dr. Arbër Xhaferri «Religion, Politics and the Albanians», published in the «Religions and civilizations in the new millennium- the Albanian case» page 68. 12 Artan Fuga, “The attitude of the Albanians of today towards religion.” 20 prill 2004 / TN / QSHDNJ. 13 The classification of certain issues into the category of security problems has been defined as “securitization of the issues” which implies the introduction of additional measures to confront the threat. For additional information see the Copehagen School, Buzan, Waever, de Wilde, 1998: 23. 14 See Xhavit Shala: “National Secuirty and Albanian Religious Issues”. Remarks delivered at a Conference on Preserving National and Religious Values, held in Skopje, September 3, 2010. 15 Albanian State Archives, F. 246, D- 68, Fl. 471, 1923. 16 Albanian State Archieves F. 246, D- 68, Fl. 637, viti 1923. 10 Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 in spite of their size in numbers were to be treated and represented in an equal manner. It was this principle that has served as the pillar of inter-religious dialogue and tolerance in our country ever since. The sanctioning of principles, such as the laicité of the state, the freedom of faith and the right to change it, the equal treatment of religious communities, defining in detail the manner of appointment of religious primates, and the detailed regulations of their financial resources have been provisions that have encouraged interreligious dialogue and communication. They would have a positive impact on the consolidation of religious tolerance among Albanians and the security of the new Albanian state. Given this specific feature of religious beliefs of the Albanians, the problems that the religious community may have within, can not be just their own but of all the Albanian people. We are right when we worry, because any of the traditional Albanian religious communities is not immune to the risks. The main factors that risk communication and inter-religious tolerance in our country are: The arrival in an uncontrolled manner through NGOs of religious spectrum of various religious sects and movements17 in Albania, which affect the right of Albanians to exercise their traditional religious beliefs; The crisis and the political, social, economic, and financial instability that 17  143  our country suffered during the transition years (1991, 1992, January-March 1997, and September 1998); associated with the absence of a legal state and serious violations of law, order and security, the lack of financial support from the state and the hope of getting support from abroad; delays and failure in returning the property to religious communities; the absence of a law on religious communities, the favorable geographical position of Albania, as a country situated between the East and the West, and the absence of efficient state structures18 that would manage legal relations and reciprocal obligations between the state and the religious communities.19 We must all work together to neutralize the threat of infiltration by religious extremism in our communities. It is unfortunate that during the first years of pluralism, the state dropped any material support to religion. Unlike their ancestors committed patriots, the Albanian legislators did not engaged in the restoration of that necessary legal infrastructure to protect the Albanian religious beliefs against risks. That’s why the Albanian legislators should enable the Albanian state to move away from the position of passive neutrality employed during these years and pursue a policy of active secularism.20 This is because our edifice of religious harmony is as great as it is fragile. “It takes only one serious rift, it takes only the radicalization of only one of Khatar Abou Diab, Patrik Karam, Riçard Labevier, Zhulien Lariezh, Olivier Roy dhe Antuan Sfeir: Dictionnaire Mondial de l’Islamisme - A publication of the French publishing house “Plon” that devotes a whole chapter to Albania was released in August of 2002. 18 Since 1992 the Albanian State Committee on Cults has been the only state body operating in the field and until 1999 this body did not have a defined status. For the first time the duties of this agency were set forth in the decision of the Council of Ministers no. 459, dated 23.9.1999, “On the Creation of the State Committee on Cults”. This structure has been continually reduced in staff and now has ended up with a small staff of no more than four to five employees. In many other states, of the former Communist East in particular, such structures operate at the level of a Minister. 19 The Albanian Govenrment and the four traditional Albanian religious communities signed agreements mandated by the Constitution in October 24, 2008, 18 since the introduction of democratic rule and ten years since this had become a legal obligation. 20 “National Security and the Challagnes of integration”, page. 107. Tiranë, May 2003. A publication of hte Albanian Center for National Security Studies.  144  Interreligious communication, religious education & security issues our religions, for the edifice to come down,” our great writer, Ismail Kadare, has said.21 The State has the duty to ensure that freedom of religion should not remain declarative. The State should take all necessary measures to guarantee the effective enjoyment of freedom of religion. Because of this, the State must protect the religious beliefs from interventions that aim at promoting distortions, extremist trends, or any other phenomena of radicalization among religious faiths. This is what it means to pursue active secularism. Such a policy does not undermine the principle of seperation of state and church which is sacred to a democratic state. This does not affect the right of each citizen to believe as a private right of people, which is recognized and protected in all international documents dealing with human rights. Instead, being secular but active, the state undertakes to guarantee and realize in practice of the right to freedom of religion. In this context, the question of religious education takes particular importance. 5. Religious education and Security Fifteen years ago, after an interruption of more than a quarter of a century, Albanians were allowed again to worship in freedom. The new democratic state established by law the principle of laicité and the country broke for good with the policy of state atheism. But while time has passed, our country has still to find a legal arrangement on the issue of religious education which can not wait any longer. Political Parties hesitate to involve one self with the issue of religious education from fear that the principle of Laicité and of a secular educational system could be undermined.22 During the communist period religion and religious education were replaced with the teaching of Marxist Leninist ideology. Belief in the divine was replaced by belief in the party. This type of teaching permeated not only the school curricula but every cell of the society. Marxism was gradually transformed into a religious creed, like the opium for the people. Due to the demographics of religious communities in Albania, the issue of religious education can not be simply an educational or pedagogical issue but also a matter that affects our national security as well. The introduction of children and teenagers to twisted religious education, aggravated by the association of such teaching with economic aid by suspicious organizations, can open our children up to easy manipulation and make them tools of illegal activities and a serious threat to communication, dialogue and religious tolerance in our country. While the State has stood aside, NGOs with missionaries from Arab countries, Italy, Greece and other countries, that are located in Albania are already working on providing religious education according to their own means and goals. Some of these associations providing religious education have drifted away from the traditional religious teachings in the country and in some cases are also making diversions against them. For many years in our country an entire system of of illegal or semi-legal religious education has been in operation.23 When we talk about religious education 21 Remarks delievered at the International Conference «Religions and Civilisations in the new Millenium – The case of Albania», held in Tirana in November 13-14, 2003. 22 See Xhavit Shala: “The Democratic State and Religious Education”. “Tirana Observer”, dt. 1.2.2006. 23 According to reliable sources from our law enforcement agencies, in the Region of Elbasan there were about 500 children aged from nine to 15 years of age that were attending illegal or semi-illegal course conducted by Arab NGO, with a selafi-wahabi backed funding and origin/ The Information is confirmed by the Intelligence Service branch in Elbasan. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 we must first make clear the difference that exists between religious teaching and religious education. While religious teaching aims to provide general information about religions and their rituals, the term religious education implies a system of teaching that aims to instill and deepen belief in a certain faith and also includes a system of studies to train the clergy. If one looks at world practices in religious education, it would note that while these practices may vary widely in their application, they are always treated with seriousness. Western practices, which we often refer to, vary widely. According to the American system, religious education in public schools is prohibited and the system allows only the presentation of religious information from a natural and academic perspective. Such information is provided through theology course or theology departments. The U.S. has had a strong tradition of separation between the state and religion. State schools do not offer religious studies for children. The religious education of believers and ministers is provided by the religious bodies. In Europe there exist different systems of education and different ways through which the states funds religious education. These systems vary from state to state. In Norway there is a class that focuses on providing information on main religions. Greece provides classes that focus mainly on Greek Orthodox practices while Italy and Spain clases that focus mainly on Roman Catholic teaching. In Germany and the Netherlands students can choose to attend classes on Protestant or Catholic teaching or opt to take a class in ethics, instead. In former communist countries religious education has largely taken the place that was once occupied by the old communist system of indoctrination. 24  145  Like the United States, France also forbids state funding for religious education due to the traditional separation here between the French Republic and the Catholic Church. But France is swiftly moving towards abandoning this system and is seriously considering introducing religious education into its public system. The presence of a large Muslim community of a mainly northern African origin and the need to introduce to them appropriate education on Islam and other religions is pushing the change forward. Many hope that these changes will help facilitate a better integration of the Muslim population into French society and prevent incidents such as the ones that took place at the end of 2005. The religious education system in the United Kingdom is of special interest.24 Children there are given the opportunity to receive religious classes on six religions that are prevalent in the UK and Commonwealth, namely Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, and the Sikh faith, beliefs that are present and in the territories of United Kingdom and Commonwealth .Such a variety of teaching comes as no surprise when one learns that one hundred years ago there were Muslim MPs seating in British parliament. The English system of religious education is based on some very important principles. First of all, while religious teaching in the UK is required by law, the system is a secular one. The teaching does not intend to convert people or promote a particular faith but instead aims to provide information on the various religions and promote respect for the values of life. Religious indoctrination is strictly forbidden. Both the curricula and the staff teaching it uphold secular principles and the religious classes are considered a regular John M Hull, University of Birmingham England - Religious Education and the Globalised Economy.  146  Interreligious communication, religious education & security issues professional responsibility of the teacher. The teachers in these classes may have a degree in theology or religious studies and are expected to teach other regular classes also. They are not necessarily representative of a faith or have any special belief. Specialist teachers, who graduate in theology or religious studies, are trained to teach other subjects of the curriculum. On the other hand, religious education in England is becoming critical and spiritual. The British system of religious education promotes the values of critical thinking and is aimed at helping children and students develop their ability to think critically and to provide them with understanding about religious values and a well rounded view of the world. Its goal is to develop a civic sense within a multicultural society. Decentralization is another important principle of the English system of religious education. Despite being a legal obligation, the application of religious education curricula is the responsibility of local authorities. The religious education class is part of the curricula that is determined in cooperation between teachers and parents Discussion whether the religious education is needed or not in our country already is already exceeded. The problem is how to put on legal tracks and to legalize the education. What will be its relation with public education? 6. Conclusions and recommendations  Communication and interreligious dialogue are important for safety. Lack of communication and the exclusion of other religious beliefs, otherwise known as religious exclusivism has often resulted in ethnic and religious hatreds, in crimes against humanity,    terrorist acts and genocide, becoming thus a serious threat to the security of a country, region and beyond Communication and inter-religious dialogue for the Albanians are treasures of our national culture, as well as the European democratic values. But these values are at risk and as such they need to be securitized. Therefore the State should move from a passive position of neutrality towards a more active policy of secularism. This does not affect the principle of seperation between the stet and religion which is sacred to a democratic state. Instead, being secular but active, the state undertakes to guarantee and realization in practice of freedom of religion. Religious education does not violate the secularism of the state and secularism of the education system. For the specifics of our country, this education can not be simply a pedagogical and educational problem, but is an investment to maintain communication and interreligious dialogue, and religious tolerance for our national security itself. Given the circumstances that exist in Albania, it would be appropriate to consider including a class on religious education into our public school system in a way that respects fully the laicité of the state and the secular nature of our educational system. The class should provide sufficient information on the main religions in Albania with the goal of providing the students with a well rounded view of the world and promote the development of a critical thinking and of respect for the values of the society.  147  Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 GLOBALIZATION CHALLENGES AND INTEGRATION PROCESS Ermela HYSA - Albanian University, Tirana - Albania E-mail: ermelahysa@yahoo.com; kontakt@albanianuniversity.edu.al ABSTRACT Common Challenges of globalization and diplomacy. Would be the homogenizing communication system, the most effective way that would consolidate an important adaptation between sovereignty system and interdependence? A Contemporary integrated, accessible and effective political should be much more interactive and interdependent internationally. Unquestionably, this does not mean the dissolution of national sovereignty, but an independent alternative that a State should choose to transfer more powers from the center to the periphery, by delegating a portion of sovereignty in international structural level. The real challenge that is submitted at this point, is the internal reaction to the pressures of globalization, which intensified through cultural exchanges, increasing integration of markets, goods, services, capital, free movement, increasing, factors which influence the contraction of national sovereignty , as a consequence of the comprehensive homogeneity and pluralism. I n conditions when the globalization is increasingly intensified, the importance of the regional cooperation also increases to the lower levels, reflecting the common interests and challenges of regional actors. Basically, this involves the necessity of efforts and common resources to cope with global challenges, existing conditions and similar conditions, almost identical to the development or implementation of national aims, but this is not sufficient for a successful cooperation if there isn’t a political commitment for the cooperation. The integration can’t be fully understood without regional integration processes. Western civilization should be viewed as a challenge that requires a comprehensive commitment to achieve the standards, which would enable balanced development and a more efficient application of experiences, opportunities and practices, as well as a more efficient use of resources. This requires not only political commitment but also institutional and structural steps. The interconnection that the globalization has led is multidimensional. The globalization is a process which aims at establishing a unique global system that Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 147-150  148  Globalization challenges and integration process has got a worldwide impact. According to this view, the globalization is associated with the homogenization that is due to the destruction of cultural, social, economic and political diversity and as a single process combined with a complex of processes that often complete each-other, but collide as well. The globalization is primarily expressed at the global economic interdependence or at the global economic interdependence or at the dependence from each-other of the countries. The multinational corporations influence on macroeconomic policies owing to their power. They are able to respond every fluctuation of financial market. So, they also exert a big influence over national governments, exerting on them pressure through threats to make investments in other countries where the labor is cheaper and the markets are more profitable. The global competition has moved inside the local economies, where inside special economies there are combinations between what is domestic and foreign. The Government’s intervention in the management of their economy becomes more difficult, as it is difficult to proceed without global standards, following a completely independent monetary policy. The difficulties arise in realizing components of social welfare state. The measures at the view of such state are national basis. The global economic interdependence get off the need of economic sustainable development. They can be reached on the basis of further perfection of production under the conditions of each country where there are the biggest opportunities and facilities. They also require a fair competition for mutual benefits for all. The Globalization is certainly a controversial process that not only promotes new forms of interaction, but also potentiates the traditional methods. It should be noted that it also challenges the sustainability of old methods of diplomacy, making them insecure and insignificant. With the emphasis on technology, the globalization seems to be also extending the scope of diplomacy so much that makes a substantial part of the population not only informed, but also actively involved in diplomatic practice. The fall of political effectiveness One of the most important dimensions of globalization is the political one, where the state is increasingly linked to a policy of forced interaction. Political globalization must fight the massive problems. Maelstrom of globalization and local competition restrict the action space in national policy, making possible that many be handled effectively only on global level or in other words, internationally. Globalization challenges unquestionably require new form and arenas of politics, towards a successful and promising integrating. The means that traditional policies mainly organized in territorial and national level are not adoptable to economic policies increasingly internationally organized, free of boundaries and matter. These issues and many other problems such as: increased government control in people lives, the increase of regional and national conflicts for reasons of religious, ethnic, ideology, racial etc.., must be solved not only in national or local level but also by consentaneity by thought and action of all citizens in the regions where they live. Common challenges of globalization and diplomacy Globalization has not only brought new actors but it has also presented new issues of interstate relations. This brings difficulty in the modern diplomacy development. At first, it increases the complexity of relationships and a conflict possibility. Forcing the actors into ever smaller spaces, the globalization increases the tension and makes diplomacy more complex, at the same time it amplifies the  149  Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 diplomacy field, since the recent spectrum is always difficult to identify clearly the turbid line that links local issues to those which are international. The globalization impact has also increased the cross-border connection of many areas related to international politics. The increased complexities of international system have noted the accent of this issue regarding to international relations1. This is a clear indication for the necessity of extending the diplomacy concept to take over the responsibility the complex nature of international modern system and the adaptation of diplomatic practice to accommodate the new reality. Globalization is also reducing the importance of traditional actors as: state, to that scale that the high one undermines the spatial sovereignty and tends to boost the pressure from both sides, both above and below that threat the dominance of state to diplomacy direction. It’s important to note the rising profile of new actors in diplomacy implementation, it’s a phenomenon that reflects lightly the dominance of neo-liberal industrial values of capitalism in the past cold war. Transnational agencies and multinational corporations have now become the main center of power so much, that they always choose at the agenda the global interactions. The globalization of the contemporary form of diplomacy in so many ways reflects the nature of relations between different actors in the international system evolution. While the interstate system itself is mainly an European word universalism, it can be expected that diplomatic practices will be affected significantly by this European value system. As long as the globalization period is going to continue to be unexpanded, tensions will continue to grow along wrong lines defined by cultural civilizations a result of the globalization tendency to deny the 1 specifics of relatively poor regions. In this context, diplomacy will increasingly need to focus more on proactive measures to prevent the degeneration in armed conflict, reflecting the increased accent of non-state actors. Multilateral diplomacy will become even more important during the future period to accommodate the increased character of international political system cosmopolitan, where in the context of the globalization age will inevitably reflect the contradictions of the period. It will create new areas of conflict and at the same time will improve the cooperation. The globalization hasn’t change only the context where the diplomacy is conducted, but has also had significant impact in the way diplomacy is conducted. Diplomacy, on the other hand, can not be separated from its social and industrial base. For this reason the context of international political economy plays an important role in constructing the nature of diplomatic relations. Economic issues are looked forward to grow even more by the importance. In the current context of globalization, the economic diplomacy also represents an effective instrument for national external activity, not just as a simple set of the practice associated with the foreign trade support. At the moment of “Globalization”, the economic relations become even more complex and international relations remain at last for now, based on political and military traditional power. Conclusions At nowadays intensive processes of globalization and regional integration, diplomacy can’t be just a foreign policy activity, but should also conceived as a public environment accorded to the favor of regional common interests. This means that if a state of the region, RP Barston (1996), Modern Diplomacy, London: Longman, p.1  150  Globalization challenges and integration process gradually meets the criteria of European Union Integration, it should be on behalf of all countries of the region. At this point, diplomacy must play the most important role in creating a dialogue of mutual interest, through encouragement of public opinion, which in this case is the main motivator of regional expansion of integrating achievements. Diplomacy must integrate and strengthen, not only the positive image of the origin country but also at the neighboring states. This policy will initiate a coordinated diplomatic activity of regions states, addressed to the collective contribution. In the globalization process, new democracies have also managed to remove the role of previous political ideologies. Despite the contradictions, it must be admitted that the trend towards globalization remains a necessity to development. Therefore, the most effective way would consist in adopting the significant report between sovereignty and interdependence. In other words, the preservation of national cultural characteristics and the enrichment of the culture through global harmonization of life, towards a homogenizing and open communicative system. REFERENCES Agne, J., and Corbridge, S. and Mastering Space. 1995. Hegemony, Territory, and International Political- Economy. London: Routledge. Amin, S.1997. Capitalism in the Age of Globalization, London: Zed Press Axford, B. 1995. The Global System: Economics, Politics, and Culture, Cambridge: Polity Press. Barston, R. P. 1988. Modern Diplomacy, London: Longmans Bauman, Z. 1998. Globalization: The Human Consequences. Cambridge: Polity Press. Beitz, C. 1979. Political Theory and International Relations, Princeton: Princeton University Press Berridge, G. R. 1995. Diplomacy: Theory and Practice, Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Heatsheaf. Castles, S. 2000. The racisms of Globalization, in Ethnicity and Globalization: From Migrant worker to Transnational Citizen, London: Sage. Clifton, Morgan. 1990. “Issue Linkages in International Crisis Bargaining”, American Journal of Political Science, Vol.34, No.2, pp311-33. Chossudovsky, M. 1997. The Globalization of Poverty, London: Zed Press. Friedman, J. 2003. Globalization: the State and Violence. Oxford: AltaMira Press. Frost, M. 1996. Ethics in International Relation: A Constitutive Theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gelinas, Jacques. 2003. Juggernaut Politics: Understanding Predatory Globalization, London: Zed Books. Germain, R. 1999. Globalization and its critics. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Goldstain, J.S. 1994. International Relation. New York: HarperCollins. Germain, R. 1999. Globalization and its Critics, Basingstoke: Macmillan Groom,A.J.R, & Tayler, P. 1990. Frameorks for International Cooperation. London: Pinter. Hoogvelt, A.. 2001. Globalization and the PostColonial world, Basingstoke: Palgrave Hopkins, A. G. 2002. Globalization in world History, London: Norton. Mengisteab, Kidane. 2004. “Africa’s Intrastate Conflicts: The Relevance and Limitations of Diplomacy”, African Issues, Vol. 31, Nos. 1 and 2, pp 25-39. Olukoshi, Adebayo. 2004. “Globalization, Equity and Development: Some Reflections on the African Experience”, Ibadan Journal of Social Sciences, Vol.2, No. 1, pp 23-42.  151  Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 PSYCHOSOCIAL EFFECTS OF A LIFE – THREATENING DISEASE Veronika DUCI - University of Tirana, Faculty of Social Sciences E-mail: veronicaduci@gmail.com ABSTRACT The diagnosis of cancer can be the starting point of putting into question previous beliefs. Individuals who are able to answer to these questions and to find meaning tend to adapt better. In this study nine semi - structured interviews were conducted with people diagnosed with cancer. The purpose of this study is to explore the process of dealing with a life threatening diagnosis and the impact that has on the lives of cancer patients. It is focused on the lives of individuals before getting the diagnosis, during and after the diagnosis. Using the notion of meaning in life, a number of other changes take place, such as social and emotional support, motivation, acceptance or denial of death, the lowest point, emotional coping techniques and anxiety management. The questions are comprehensive, in order to emphasize the important interaction of medical and psychosocial factors in coping with cancer. Keywords: health, psychosocial effects, cancer survivors, death anxiety Introduction According to statistics (INSTAT, 2004), it is estimated that every year almost 3500 to 4000 individuals will be given the diagnosis of cancer, ranking as the second cause of mortality in Albania. Tumorial diseases come after cardiovascular diseases as a major cause of death, which resulted in 93.1 deaths per 100,000 thousand inhabitants in 2004. Based on mortality data of the last decade, it is noted clearly that cardiovascular and tumorial diseases have undergone a steady growth. Today, one in two Albanians dies as a result of a cardiovascular disease. Although Albania has a much higher mortality than Western countries, again this is lower than many countries in transition. It remains to be discovered if this is a longterm trend and what are the real reasons. Studies in the field of chronic diseases have had a spontaneous character. As a result of demographic and epidemiological transition, cardiovascular tumorial and some other diseases is likely to become Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 151-157 more frequent, whereas in industrialized countries are declining for two decades. These statistics are merely indicative of a living reality, which means (in the depth of it) much more than some figures in a chart or graph. Operationalization of terms In this study cancer survivors will be considered all individuals who are diagnosed with cancer and those that their lives are affected by this diagnosis, including family members, friends and caregivers (Lance Armstrong Foundation). Theorists have conceptualized meaning in life as a perception for the coherence of the world and for the purpose of human existence. Searching for meaning in life is regarded as a fundamental element of human beings, a unique process to each individual. The successful development of meaning in life may contribute to feelings of wonder and bliss in life. Also, it is associated with feelings of fulfillment, satisfaction and wellbeing. Purpose of the study The purpose of this study is to explore the impact of cancer diagnosis in the lives of the participants of this study. Specifically, this study has studied the psychosocial changes in the life of the individuals by taking into account the significant role of emotional support, the main motivation, acceptance/denial of death, the lowest point, emotional coping and anxiety management techniques Research questions This research is based in three main research questions. These are : 1. Which are the coping strategies that the survivors used during the process of dealing with the disease? 2. Which were the psychosocial effects of the diagnosis? 3. What changes have made in their lives, in a holistic perspective, regarding cognitive processes, health care, emotions, and changes in their family and social life? Literature review The number of people affected by cancer, including not only individuals diagnosed with the disease but also their families and friends, is shocking. Although all people are at risk there has been a significant reduction in cancerrelated deaths worldwide. These reduction in the number of deaths is due to the implementation of prevention and early screening efforts for some specific forms of cancer, increasing the examinations for the general population and those at greatest risk for developing the disease, and advances in research and in clinical care. Albania, as a transition country does not follow these trends. In Albania from 1993 to 2004, there has been an increase in the number of patients diagnosed with cancer. Levels of cancer survival depend to a large extent on where the tumor is initially displayed (eg. breast, colon etc.). Progress and stage of cancer when diagnosed (e.g. if the tumor has made metastasis), implementation of prevention (tobacco control, skin-protective behavior etc.) as well as efforts for early detection of four forms of cancer (breast, cervical, colon and prostate) have stepped up examinations of the general population and in people at a high risk for developing these diseases. Despite the optimistic prospects for a considerable number of individuals diagnosed with cancer today, a more detailed examination of the literature and statistical trends shows that not all the members of the society enjoy the benefits of current knowledge about cancer. Survival rates lag in social layers - economic, racial minorities and ethnic populations and not receiving proper medical services in relation to risk of developing cancer and dying. Physiological and psychosocial issues for cancer survivors Physiological symptoms of cancer may be acute and chronic and may occur during therapy as well as after it. These symptoms may include pain, malaise, nausea, fatigue, hair loss etc., depending on the forms of cancer and the type of therapy that the patient is subjected to. These effects can be devastating, resulting in loss of mobility and changes in bodily functions and appearance. Psychosocial issues related to cancer diagnosis include fear, stress, depression, anger and anxiety. However, the effects of cancer in an individual are not always negative. Cancer can give to the individuals the opportunity to discover another meaning in their lives, build stronger ties with family and friends, to adopt a commitment of “giving back” to those who have similar experiences. After the diagnosis and/or therapy, survivors may still have an active, vital life, but they can also live in fear or uncertainty that the cancer may return. Individuals with cancer may experience difficulty in managing pain and disability caused either by the disease or by the undergoing therapy. Emotional impact on survivors may include feelings of helplesness, lack of self - control, changes in self - evaluation and self image for survivors and increased stress and anxiety in people who care for them (National Cancer Institute, 2004). Social wellbeing may be affected by the diagnosis and therapy of cancer. Physiological difficulties like pain and disability may result in a perception of a reduced social wellbeing, because the time spent with dear people may be shorter. Also, survivors experience difficulties in school or work related to their ability to interact with friends and colleagues. Thompson and Janigian (1988) have suggested that a “scheme of life,” or a cognitive representation of the life of an individual, form the basis of a rule that gives meaning, coherence and purpose in life. They speculate that a scheme of life incorporates the image of yourself, a system of assumptions about the world, a series of goals to reach and events related to the achievement of them. According to this view, physiological and social dysfunction that continues long after treatment can challenge previous beliefs regarding the order, coherence and purpose. Impairments in social functioning seem to reduce interactions with the world. This can affect the meaning, since it is found that low levels of social activity correlate with low life satisfaction and self fulfillment, in patients with cancer (Bloom & Spiegel, 1984). Social interaction is associated with a greater understanding. The quality of family relationships is associated with higher levels of purpose in life and religious and existentialist wellbeing (Folkman, & Moskowitz, 2000) Methodology The purpose of this study is to explore the psychosocial impact of cancer disease in the lives of the participants in this study, in relation to emotional support, coping strategies and changes in their lives after diagnosis. To achieve this purpose a semi-structured interview has been used for data collection.The unit of analysis for this research is the psychosocial process that comes after the cancer disease and its effect on meaning in life. Participants in this study were nine individuals affected by cancer in various stages of healing. Some of them did finish therapy before many years, while others were still being treated. The first participant was selected directly from the research questions. The following participants were selected based on their suitability to the theoretical basis of this study. So, four individuals were initially identified, who were long term survivors,  154  Psychosocial effects of a life – threatening disease and the researcher subsequently selected the other five who had completed treatment or were in its end. Data analysis Data analysis was based on open coding process, in which concepts are selected and described according to their dimensions and characteristics. Initial categories were developed further in relation to causal circumstances, consequences, context, action and interaction and intervening factors. Finally, selective coding was used in order to consolidate and integrate the main research issues. There are different ways to perform encoding. For example, coding by row row can be used, or sentences or paragraphs or compare documents. In this study, the coding used sentences and paragraphs. Some of the categories that were initially identified were the changes in the meaning in life, the expression of emotions, emotional coping, etc. Some other categories are managing emotions, acceptance of death (an important element of this category is the lowest point, which was common in all participants), the mourning for the loss of several major functions, reaction to diagnosis, new life, etc. Results and discussion A. Life before diagnosis i. Physiological and psychological concerns For the participants of this study their life before the diagnosis ranged from satisfaction and relative happiness to disappointment and sadness. In terms of physiological concerns all participants reported that they had good health before the diagnosis. They obviously have been sick before, but the diseases that had were the easiest ones, such as tonsils, influenza, appendicitis, etc. Furthermore, some participants said they had never been hospitalized in their lives. On the other hand family problems had an impact on mood and psychological distress for some of the participants. A participant has had problems in his family, but he coped better with them comparing to his wife (both were participants in the study). One reason for this may be the fact that he was always at work, while the spouse was a housewife throughout her married life. He says: “I could not believe it that I had cancer, I never considered the symptoms as serious. And still I don’t have any “heavy” symptoms, that’s not the way I know and heard of cancer”. However, other participants of this study report that their family life before cancer has been normal, quiet and they had an active social life. ii. Family and social support Each of the participants in this study had support systems ranging from good to very good but also some experienced isolation. For some people the lack of social support was a problem in their lives. One married woman, who also could not have a child, said “No one considered me in his life... Neither husband nor... none, unless you have your one child... My life was a zero, so I lived, in the air. In the air... But what I really want to explain is that I wasn’t as I would like to be. I was always rigid, lonely, sad and I never had courage for anything”. Other participants in this study have said that they had an active social life and a supportive family and social group. That it is also observed later, when they were diagnosed with cancer. iii. Motivation The topic of motivation is important in order to describe the person’s changes during these stages. It is very important to understand who was the major motivation in a person’s life and how it has changed after the cancer experience. One participant said that her two Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 grandchildren have been the most important thing in her life, before she got sick. She did not care much for herself, but more for others: “I didn’t think much of it. I said to myself that I would care for the children..if it weren’t for them I would be worse. But I had my mind on them: now I should take them to their courses, now they will eat, I must cook, do the ironing, laundry, so I had something to occupy myself. Otherwise I would be lost”. The majority of participants felt that family was the most important thing for them and then came work and friends, and believing in God. Another participant said “The most important persons for me were my daughters, my family and perhaps even work, as these were the things for which I have worked, fought and contributed. Perhaps it is my nature as a mother and wife”. B. During diagnosis The stage of diagnosis begins when individuals confront cancer diagnosis given by a physician and communicated by him or by relatives. This is a moment that can change a person’s life and it is impossible to ignore. i. Awareness/acceptance of death The challenge of diagnosis consists in finding meaning from the new and negative information that their has taken life and, simultaneously, to calm the emotions of anger that accompany a cancer diagnosis. Individuals of this study have been diagnosed with terminal disease of different duration. Some of them have faced death and survived longer than doctors had predicted. They should make the choice that every patient with cancer makes: is it a death sentence or is simply another disease to be cured and which will gradually recover? When diagnosed, any person processes his awareness of death to a level that can vary from total denial to total acceptance (Kübler – Ross, 1969). In this study, each  155  participant saw the confrontation with death as an essential element of finding meaning. Also, denial is defined as a defense mechanism that protects the individual from stressful awareness, which can vary from an awareness until the other end of the continuum, in total denial of reality imposed by an unconscious impulse. Data from this study suggest that the denial should not be seen only in its traditional psychoanalytic sense, but more as Elizabeth Kubler-Ross (1969) pointed: that people can use denial in a positive way at various stages. They may think little about death, but, later, they have to put aside this thought, in order to continue their lives. Life requires attention to to meet the obligations, to care for the loved ones and to support yourself and others. Acceptance of death may also be seen from a positive and negative dimension: (a) negative acceptance of death - because the individuals thinks that he will die, he does not receive any medical treatment and expects the inevitable death and (b) positive acceptance death - the person perceives the possibility of death, so he tries to understand what death is, who is he/she and what is its place in this world and what death actually is, under this prism? ii. Important steps and acceptance of death: the lowest point and emotional calming All participants of this study have achieved a deeper level of acceptance of death, which was not a fully deliberate pursuit of this goal, but more as a result of events that resulted in a very low point of despair or near death, which has made them seek for answers. Some have coped with death by accepting it or denying completely the possibility of it happening. The period of acceptance of death came after a time or a moment of deep despair, which is described as the lowest point of their experience. The low points are characterized by periods of very great emotional pain (McCann &  156  Psychosocial effects of a life – threatening disease Pearlman, 1990). The descriptions of the participants about their lowest points are very interesting, as well as the moment of making the first step forward, of not giving up. One participant indicated that: “For a moment i felt despair. I was doing the chemotherapy back then, it was really bad. But there was one time that I was really bad... and I said what will I do now, how will I live... nothing, I will go in vain, I will not exist. I kept it for me, this feeling of sadness” Then: “...But then I didn’t think of it anymore, I did it myself, I said that I will care for the children, I will fix one thing, than another and the time passed... I got out of it”. Most participants of this study, having conducted the necessary therapy, they have reached a certain level of acceptance of death. Despite the fact that they did not want to think they will die, they regarded the event as inevitable. A change that all participants reported was the appreciation of life, which now it was greater. After the period of the most difficult moment and then coping / acceptance of death, they have come to cherish and appreciate life more. In this traumatic experience they did not change their motivation and direction in life. For the majority of participants both before and after the disease the family and relatives have been the most important thing. On the other hand they changed their way of thinking and perceiving situations and their disease. For example, one participant says that she now has no fear of the future, preferring to live more the present. Another says that the disease of cancer besides experiencing the trauma has given him a very strong belief in himself. A third has reflected much on this period, which has made him relax and cope better with the situation “crying would not solve anything.” iii. Relief of symptoms The relief of the symptoms of cancer has not been a climactic moment in the history of the disease. This is because the participants were prepared for everything, including death. Specifically, a participant after 11 years continues to be concerned for her health, she says: “This is a disease that can come back at any moment”. For another participant the fight with cancer is ongoing, but every time he gets positive results from his medical tests, he is even more optimistic: a restrained optimism. The same applies to other participants. C. New Life Gradually, there comes a moment in life where life stabilizes, the person understands what he/she can expect from the relief of symptoms and reconceptualizes the impact of cancer in his life. He/she may be feeling stronger after this experience. People are transformed by this experience and know that there is no old life to get back to. Their lives have changed forever. It is difficult to determine where each person has passed the line and has reached a point where he feels at ease in his new life. The new life in this study, the life in which cancer is no longer a major part of their lives, has not come for all. Four of the participants continue to do chemotherapy while another is continuing therapy, but remains at a critical stage yet. However, for four other participants the new life after the cancer has come. How have they experienced this turning point in their lives? What has changed as a result of the disease? What has remained the same? In only one participant life had no substantial changes, while for many others this is not the case. Many of them have undergone structural changes in their personality and in life satisfaction. Some of them say they are already living a “second life”. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 Conclusions A dominant factor that has emerged as a central structure in this study has been awareness and acceptance of death. The ways they used to cope with this issue was important for the progress of the disease, major motivation, their priorities, the ways they used for problem managing etc. Although there are a variety of methods that an individual can use to cope with cancer, and, consequently, the possibility of a death, this study identified some common elements in how individuals faced cancer. A significant role has been the effect of denial. Denial was used by participants in this study in a positive as well as in a negative way. Most of them, after they had passed the lowest point of this experience, managed to recover their morale, their patience and optimism. The more they approached the  157  acceptance of death, the more they changed. The extreme use of denial or avoidance can sometimes result in the deterioration of the disease and the wider pathology. But in this study individuals had more severe diagnosis than the first stage: from the second stage to third. Indeed, to some of them it had been communicated that they have only a short period of time to live. Confrontation with death has the power to destroy all life assumptions. The challenge that the participants faced would be rebuilding their lives, including in it their disease. In this change they included also their beliefs and support systems (family, work and friends). Another change in the lives of the participants related to the way of perceiving life and the world. Most of them claim that life has already received more value for them, consider it as more precious, more expensive. REFERENCES Bloom, J.R., & Spiegel, D. (1984). The relationship of two dimensions of social support to the psychological well-being and social functioning of women with breast cancer. Social Science and Medicine, 19, 831-7. Folkman, S., & Moskowitz, J.T. (2000). Positive affect and the other side of coping. American Psychologist, 55, 647-654. Institute of Statistics (2004). Annual report: Albania in numbers. Tirana Kübler – Ross, E. (1969). On death and dying. NewYork: Macmillan. Lance Armstrong Foundation website www. livestrong.org McCann, I. L., & Pearlman, L. A. (1990). Psychological trauma and the adult survivor: Theory, therapy and transformation. New York: Brunner/Mazel. National Cancer Institute (2004). Plans and priorities for cancer research. taken from thewebsite of National Cancer Institute: http://plan2004.cancer.gov/ Thompson, S.C. & Janigian, A. (1988). Life schemes: A framework for understanding the search for meaning. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 7, 260-80.  158  Psychosocial effects of a life – threatening disease  159  Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 HIGHER EDUCATION VOUCHERS IN ALBANIA Elona MEHMETI - Albanian University, Tirana-Albania Email: mehmetielona@gmail.com; mehmetielona@albanianuniversity.edu.al; ABSTRACT After being supported for so many years by the state, “used”, reformed, changed, and politicized it seems that higher education in Albania now is changing face again. From a public good, higher education is being transformed into a private good, for the sake of being more manageable, with the aim of offering a better quality and a more egalitarian higher education. As a consequence “quality” and “equity” have become the main points of the Albanian government’s reform which is trying to implement its program, among others, through a voucher system. The paper, discuses the “pros” and “cons” of using a voucher system in higher education in Albania. This analysis is important policy wise and culturally interesting since vouchers in higher education are a controversial concept and absolutely new to Albania’s cultural, economic and social background. The aim of this analysis will be to offer a perspective to the “working group of voucher system” offering a comparative study of voucher systems implemented abroad especially in ex communist countries. The paper will conclude with a general analyses referring to the changing role of the higher education system in the 21st century. 1. An overview of the Higher Education System in Albania The beginning of the 1990s followed a relatively peaceful change in the Albanian economic and political system. Albania started a process of reform from one of the most Stalinist and totalitarian communist regimes towards a more democratic form of government. The road towards the type of society that Albanians would like to have, with material goods, human rights and development possibilities for the individual, has not been easy. Economic development started out with impressive results, but unfortunately it later emerged that these good results were not really based on any thorough reform of the economic system (Hagelund 2001, 4). Higher education, as one of the main institutions which experienced important transformations during the beginning of Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 159-166  160  90s, is one of the examples of an institution that is still in the middle of important changes. However, we have to admit that higher education in Albania is quite new. The first institutions were opened after the Second World War. The pioneer of higher education was the pedagogical institute which was a two year institution and its aim was to prepare high school teachers. Later, more higher education institutions were opened; however, it was only in September 1957 that the first University was established. As the University was established during the period when the socialist party was ruling, the main stakeholder of this institution was the state, and higher education in general was an invention of the socialist party. There was not a higher education system before the Second World War. In the past students studied at foreign universities, mainly in Eastern Europe. Higher education in Albania was established not only to prepare future students in different disciplines, but also to spread the philosophy of the ruling party, and in some way to serve as a tool, by preparing the coming generation with socialist philosophy. 1.2 Important Changes in Higher Education System The change of the political system in 1992 after the students strike in 1990 was followed by radical changes in all institutions in Albania. Higher educations institutions, as one of the important sources for the diffusion of the socialist philosophy to the new generation, was undergoing important transformations. According to Hagelund, the government and the donor community place a very high priority on education. However, many problems remain to be solved. The major problem concerns traditional teaching methods with rote learning and rigid state curricula which stand in the way of innovation and initiative. The lack of modern teaching materials and Higher education vouchers in Albania acceptable physical framework also plague educational institutions (ibid, 8). 1.2.1 University Management The first University Act entered into force in 1994 and in 1999 was replaced by a new Act which, was developed following the recommendations of foreign experts. The Act defines the institutional landscape with the Ministry of Education, state and private educational institutions, the Rectors’ Conference and the National Accreditation and Quality Assurance Institute. There are rules concerning the election of leaders (Rector, Deputy Rector, Deans, Heads of Department), about governing bodies, budgets, personnel, students and studies and the division of competence between the Ministry of Education and the local leaders and bodies. Academic freedom and the autonomy of the institutions in certain areas receive explicit mention. In 2007, after signing the Bologna Agreement (the Bologna Agreement was signed in 2003 in Berlin meeting) the Act of Higher Education was replaced with a more advanced one, which was debated for many months with different actors. The new things about the new act were the improvement of the university autonomy and the financial autonomy of universities. In the same act it was stated for the first time the financing of higher education institution will allocated in a form of a “grant” as other European universities do. In the act it is affirmed that universities can use the money they gain from the student’s fees, and the unused money can be used in the next academic year. However, the state takes in consideration the money the universities has gained from students fees when it is time to allocate the budget to universities, moreover the Council of the Prime Minister as well as the public opinion has the right to ask for transparency of university fiancées. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 What was the “hot” topic for the public opinion and the academics at that time was that the election for university rectors was decided by the President; consequently the rector was a president competency (Valmora, 2007). One of the other concerns regarding the act was the short time the act would be in practice, it was only for 3 years, and after three years it was a another act that will substitute the last one (ibid) Besides the pro and cons of the act, the act in itself for the first time included the private higher education institutions (especially in the subsequent articles that enriched the new act) that were emerging in the last 4 years in Albania. 1.2.2 Latest developments in Albanian Higher Education The landscape of higher education has completely changed in Albanian due to the incensement in numbers of private higher education institutions. In this academic year in all the country there are fifteen public universities, and twenty nine private universities, in which are enrolled 80.696 students in public universities, and 22.238 students in private universities (Instant, 2009). The system of education, and higher education Private versus public universities Cons and pros 1.2.3 Quality assurance and Evaluation 2. Vouchers System in Higher Education The idea of vouchers according to McEwan, Patrick J were proposed by Thomas Paine in The Rights of Man west 1967 (McEwan, 2000) and previously in France towards the end of the ninetieth century. However the first voucher model was  161  released by Milton Friedman (1955: 1962) and again during the War and Poverty, there were other authors that gave “voice” to the policy debate like Chubb& Moe 1990, Cookson, 1994 up to Peterson & Hassel in 1998, beside the developments in the late nineteen’s there were other personalities who concentrated on vouchers like Vicky Lee & Elyssa Wang, Bahram Bekhradnia & William Massy, meanwhile concrete policies of vouchers, specially in higher education, have started to practice in Europe. From literature review there is a common point regarding vouchers, that there is not a single voucher policy, but many, referring to Bekhradnia and Massy there are 4000 scenarios of vouchers in education. But what is a voucher in higher education? According to the report of University State of New York “The Vouchers System and Higher Education in New York State” (New York, 1970) a voucher system in higher education would provide education grants (vouchers) directly to student rather that grants to public institution of higher education. On the other hand it is supposed that the institutions would then retain their present level of income by raising tuition to approximate the full cost of the instruction. Subsequently, it is never stated in the literature that the state by introducing vouchers would cover the full cost of higher education in private and public institutions. Nevertheless, the reasons for proposing vouchers in higher education are not entirely ideological (Bekhradnia & Massy, 2009), it is assumed that the support for vouchers goes hand –in –hand with the free market economic models, and the arguments proposed in their favor are common to other such liberal positions. According to Bekhradnia & Massy it is argued from the proponents of vouchers that:  162  - - - - - Increasing the power of the consumer and reducing that of the supplier will increase the competition and consequently will improve the quality and efficiency; Putting vouchers in the had of the students candidates will empower them by increasing their choice; Providing vouchers to students candidates as a “privilege” will have a psychological effect by making them aware of the value of education, consequently the vouchers will widen participation and increase demand; If the vouchers are introduced will increase the amount of private funding in higher education, as individuals are required to top up the voucher to mach the fees that universities charge; Because the government no longer need to fund universities directly the amount of bureaucratic controls will be reduced. 2.1 Vouchers in ex dictatorial countries Although the literature on the vouchers in education is quite vast, full of examples and literature review, in the case of higher education there are only some examples that refer to vouchers in American higher education1, Australia2 in Chile, Georgia and Hungary. However, the examples of Chile, Georgia and Hungary are only introduced for those students with the highest entry scores (Bekhradnia & Massy, 2009). Nevertheless, there is an interesting experiment in Russia which started in 2002 “About Experiment on the Transition of Several Higher Education Institutions to Financing by using State Personified Higher education vouchers in Albania Financial Certificates” which regulates the course of the vouchers experiment (Kleshchukova, 2005). The main principles of the experiment (referred as GIFO) mean an obligation of the state to finance the course of the study of the school-leaver in university. As mentioned by the author every academic year the value of the financial obligations is determined for every category of students by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, divided by 5 categories where each category had its price (ibid, 33). Higher education institutions in this case are allowed to set their own prices for each educational program, each higher education institution that takes part in the experiment is obligated to determine and declares prices for each specialty, education program and form of education. Students, who have received GIFO of the first category study for free, no matter what price is determined by the institution. It is important to mention that GIFO depends only on the results of Standardized State Examination and does not depend on the students’ achievements during their study at the higher education institution. The reason why I choose Russian voucher experimental model in higher education to take as an example for comparing the future model of vouchers in Albanian higher education, derives from some reasons listed below: 1. Although the great difference in the population and culture, the two countries were under the same political system for nearly 50 years, consequently the same political 1 In Colorado, where vouchers have been applied in the earnest and comprehensively as the Government’s mechanism for channeling public funds to higher education institutions. 2 In Australia there were two committees gathered in 10 years (in 1987, 1997) and the review of the two committees did not recommend the introduction of an education voucher system in higher education. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 system influenced very much higher education institutions, politic and educational culture; 2. Higher education institutions charged no fees, and higher education was expected to be a public good; 3. The transition period, after the dictatorial system ended, was very common in reference to higher education institutions, like masification, the emerging of private higher education system, etc; 4. The rationale in building the voucher scheme, based on the results of the Standardized State Examination. The vouchers schemes as was pointed out in the paragraphs above are different, but one of the points that is common in the philosophy of vouchers is the aim the voucher system has. From the beginning vouchers aimed in bringing equity, improving quality and efficiency in higher education, however the hidden objective of the vouchers especially in the countries that it is introduce; is to optimize state budget expenditures for education; to distinguish the “good” higher education institutions from the “bad” ones, so prestigious universities will flourish and unpopular would disappear (ibid, 36). Beginning from the main and obvious objectives of the voucher system equity, improving quality and efficiency in the Russian experiment. The author concluded that although there was an improvement regarding equity in reducing the number of wasted years of study, because of GIFO there is a trend that students will attend most popular programs of study, and in 10 -15 years those who will take pure science education will to a large extend come from rural background, and as professionals 3  163  receive limited pay for their skills. This effect happens mainly because pure science programs are not very popular among students. This means that students with the GIFO of third category and lower are admitted to free of charge places, in this case higher education institutions will survive by expanding admission to popular programs, while pure science will suffer a decline. In regard to the quality and efficiency, the evaluation is more difficult because the quality the efficiency of teaching and research can not be easy measured, however the example Kleshchukova brought in referring to an interview made with the Rector of Mari State Technical University G. Oshchepkov was very interesting. The rector pointed out that a higher education institution can not function without constant minimal financial guarantees. In his opinion GIFO creates a situation of instability. If such a voucher model will be implemented the participating institution will have changing faculty staff and unstable salary level3. In other words, a voucher system can negatively affect the possibility of long term strategic planning, which is needed for improving performance in the institution (ibid, 65). 2.1.1 Pro and con of voucher system in Albanian Higher Education In 2005 the Albanian government gave to education and especially to higher education a higher priority, placing education in the top of the government agenda for the coming 4 years. One of the most important reforms that occurred in higher education in the years that followed was the increase of student’s number in higher education system in general. Compared with the number of students in 2005, the increase Mari State Technical University was one of the universities in which the experiment of vouchers began.  164  is nearly three times (Musai, 2010). As a consequence of the “mass higher education” the government and the society in general has to face, beside the inappropriate university infrastructure, lack of university personal (especially high qualified academics) also a great difficulty in financing and supporting higher education. Having a different structure of higher education, which is no more considered to be a public good, but also a private one, having a great emerge of private higher education, it is necessary to think of a new models of financing higher education. Besides different ways of financing higher education, one of the most “attractive” is the voucher model, which according to the specialists has 5 objectives 1. The contribution in the financial growth 2. Efficiency 3. Equity 4. Better governance and 5. Financial stability (ibid) Thinking of Jongbloed scheme “pro and cons of vouchers” (Jongbloed, 2004) and bringing his analyses of vouchers in the Albanian reality we will have: Pros 1. 2. 3. Introducing the vouchers in higher education will strength the student choice, and consequently will strength the responsibility of such students in choosing a more “realistic” and profitable education (study program)4; Increase the efficacy of provision, in a way that higher education institutions will respond better to the society and the markets needs; Increase the quality of provision, Higher education vouchers in Albania 4. will force higher education institutions (private and public, without neglecting public higher education institutions ) to work harder on quality issues, and as a consequence offer a better quality in education; Increase the private contribution to cost of education (topping up the vouchers). Coming from a “socialist” philosophy, although the last trends with private higher education institutions, most of the parents and student candidates still think that higher education is a still a public good, and the state has to take care of their education. Nevertheless, with the mass philosophy in higher education the state can not support higher education, therefore other stakeholders (like student fees, in topping up the vouchers) will be a great support for the system. Although the advantages of vouchers in Albanian higher education there is the other face of vouchers that specialist has to consider before implementing the system. Referring again to Jongbloed scheme and to the experience of the Russian voucher model, in regards to equity, improving quality and efficiency the prospective disadvantages might be. Cons 1. Need for government regulations to protect subjects, individuals, quality and equity. Referring also to the Russian model of vouchers, there is always a threat in regards 4 It is a tread in the last ten years in Albania that students prefer to attend programs in social sciences, especially in law, political science, international relations, and economics with the aim to have high paid jobs. Nevertheless, there is a great number of unemployed people in the market that finish the “fancy” study programs without any prospective in finding a qualified job.  165  Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 2. 3. 4. to pure science study programs, in the experiment mentioned above in Russian universities there was a trend where higher education institutions were planning to expand admission to popular programs, because in this way they will get more students and consequently more money. Considering quality and equity, the Albanian government before implementing any voucher model, has to offer a clear perspective to students and parents of higher education quality in regards to programs and institutions. Only after making a transparent evaluation of each program and institution, the government has to take in consideration also how to secure equity, where each student has the possibility (although the geographic position) to study in the program he/she chooses, having a voucher support. Large variations in enrolment and funding may lead to under – utilization of capital and insecure jobs for teachers. In reference again to the experiment in Mari State Technical University, and to his rector G. Oshchepkov who pointed out that a higher education institution can not function without constant minimal financial guarantees. Policy makers in designing the voucher scheme have to take in consideration that higher education institutions need a minimum budget, to guarantee their every day activity. According to Bekhradnia & Massy there is also a risk with the present arrangements in funding higher education, that universities may feel to admit more students and have lower standards, and there is concern too that universities and their staff may feel increasing pressure to award more favorable degree results in order to remain attractive to students. 5. Bekhradnia & Massy also pointed out a very interesting disadvantage that refers to a wide voucher implementation scheme, which according to the authors the Government loses its most powerful tool for steering the higher education system in the national interest. In the case of the Albanian “fragile”5 higher education system, the immediate shift of steering from the government to the student (from public to private stakeholder) will bring a great confusion in regards to the future of the system. Conclusions Although vouches remain a serious alternative approach for funding higher education, before implementing a large scheme of vouchers the Albanian Government in my opinion has to first 1. Evaluate the quality of higher education programs and institutions; 2. Increase the quality of secondary education in order to build a solid ground in respect to equity; 3. Secure information to students for higher education institutions, in regards to quality and programs they offer; 4. Secure a financial guarantee for teaching and research to higher education institutions in order to support their existence; 5. Guarantee equity in the system for students coming from more disadvantage social classes; 5 Fragile it is used in the context that Albanian higher education, as analyzed in this paper also, is quite young and has been for these 20 years in the middle of strong and difficult political and economical changes.  166  Beside the need for initiating a different scheme of financing higher education (like vouchers) the policy makers have to consider that a full implementation of vouchers will differ the landscape of Albanian higher education, where the state is not any more a stakeholder but a spectator. Before implementing a large scale of Higher education vouchers in Albania vouchers the policy makers have to consider ( like Jongbloed & Koelman pointed out ) that the choice of intervention mechanisms will not be a matter of economic theory, but also a matter of social and political arguments. Consequently any change in funding higher education mechanism will influence in political and social clime of the country. REFERENCES Barr, N. (2002) Funding Higher education Policies for Access and Quality, House of Commons Education and Skills Committee. Sixth Report of Session 2001-2002 ss. 1-31; Bekhradnia & Massy (2009), Vouchers as a mechanism for funding higher education, Higher Education Policy Institute. Bureau of Research in Higher Education and Professional Education Albany (1970) Voucher System and Higher Education in New York State, The University of the State of New York Carnoy, M (1998), National Voucher Plan in Chile and Sweden: Did privatization reforms Make for Better Education?, Comparative Education Review, Vol . 42, nr 3. Clark, B ( 1998), Entrepreneurial Pathways of University Transformation & Ch. 7: The Problem of University Transformation, Pergamon Press pp 127-148 . Gogo, V ( 2007), “Ballë për Ballë për arsimine lartë” “Face to Face for higher education”, “Koha Jone”, available at http://www. kohajone.com/html/artikull_4930.html Hagelund, B (2001), Higher Education in Albania, University of Copenhagen. Faculty of Social Sciences. p. 1-24. Instant (2009), “Instituti i Statistikes në Shqipëri” “Statistic Institute in Albania” Jongbloed, B (2004), Funding higher education: options, trade-offs and dilemmas, CHEPS Jongbloed, B & Koelman, J (2000), Vouchers for higher education?, CHEPS Kleshchukova, M (2005), Merit Based vouchers for higher education in Russia, Hedda Program McEwan, Patric J (2000), The Potential Impact of Large-Scale Voucher programs, Teachers College, Columbia University Musai, B (2010), “Arsimi i lartë përballë sfidës së financimit” “Higher Education facing financial challenge” Teixeira, P.N & Johnstone, D.B. & Rosa, M.J & Vossensteyn, H, Cost – sharing and accessibility in Higher Education: A Fairer Deal? Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2  167 