Phys

PHYSICS HIGHER SECONDARY SECOND YEAR VOLUME - I Revised based on the recommendation of the Textbook Development Committee Untouchability is a sin Untouchability is a crime Untouchability is inhuman TAMILNADU TEXTBOOK CORPORATION COLLEGE ROAD, CHENNAI - 600 006 c Government of Tamilnadu First edition - 2005 Revised edition - 2007 CHAIRPERSON Dr. S. GUNASEKARAN Reader Post Graduate and Research Department of Physics Pachaiyappa’s College, Chennai - 600 030 Reviewers P. SARVAJANA RAJAN S. RASARASAN Selection Grade Lecturer in Physics Govt.Arts College Nandanam, Chennai - 600 035 P.G. Assistant in Physics Govt. Hr. Sec. School Kodambakkam, Chennai - 600 024 S. KEMASARI Selection Grade Lecturer in Physics Queen Mary’s College (Autonomous) Chennai - 600 004 GIRIJA RAMANUJAM P.G. Assistant in Physics Govt. Girls’ Hr. Sec. School Ashok Nagar, Chennai - 600 083 Dr. K. MANIMEGALAI Reader in Physics The Ethiraj College for Women Chennai - 600 008 G. SANKARI Selection Grade Lecturer in Physics Meenakshi College for Women Kodambakkam, Chennai - 600 024 G. ANBALAGAN Lecturer in Physics Aringnar Anna Govt. Arts College Villupuram. P. LOGANATHAN P.G. Assistant in Physics Govt. Girls’ Hr. Sec. School Tiruchengode - 637 211 Namakkal District Dr. N. VIJAYAN Principal Zion Matric Hr. Sec. School Selaiyur Chennai - 600 073 Dr. HEMAMALINI RAJAGOPAL Authors S. PONNUSAMY Asst. Professor of Physics S.R.M. Engineering College S.R.M. Institute of Science and Technology (Deemed University) Kattankulathur - 603 203 Senior Scale Lecturer in Physics Queen Mary’s College (Autonomous) Chennai - 600 004 Price : Rs. This book has been prepared by the Directorate of School Education on behalf of the Government of Tamilnadu This book has been printed on 60 G.S.M paper Printed by offsetat: Preface The most important and crucial stage of school education is the higher secondary level. This is the transition level from a generalised curriculum to a discipline-based curriculum. In order to pursue their career in basic sciences and professional courses, students take up Physics as one of the subjects. To provide them sufficient background to meet the challenges of academic and professional streams, the Physics textbook for Std. XII has been reformed, updated and designed to include basic information on all topics. Each chapter starts with an introduction, followed by subject matter. All the topics are presented with clear and concise treatments. The chapters end with solved problems and self evaluation questions. Understanding the concepts is more important than memorising. Hence it is intended to make the students understand the subject thoroughly so that they can put forth their ideas clearly. In order to make the learning of Physics more interesting, application of concepts in real life situations are presented in this book. Due importance has been given to develop in the students, experimental and observation skills. Their learning experience would make them to appreciate the role of Physics towards the improvement of our society. The following are the salient features of the text book. N The data has been systematically updated. N Figures are neatly presented. N Self-evaluation questions (only samples) are included to sharpen the reasoning ability of the student. While preparing for the examination, students should not restrict themselves, only to the questions/problems given in the self evaluation. They must be prepared to answer the questions and problems from the text/syllabus. – Dr. S. Gunasekaran Chairperson III SYLLABUS (180 periods) UNIT – 1 ELECTROSTATICS (18 periods) Frictional electricity, charges and their conservation; Coulomb’s law – forces between two point electric charges. Forces between multiple electric charges – superposition principle. Electric field – Electric field due to a point charge, electric field lines; Electric dipole, electric field intensity due to a dipole –behavior of dipole in a uniform electric field – application of electric dipole in microwave oven. Electric potential – potential difference – electric potential due to a point charge and due a dipole. Equipotential surfaces – Electrical potential energy of a system of two point charges. Electric flux – Gauss’s theorem and its applications to find field due to (1) infinitely long straight wire (2) uniformly charged infinite plane sheet (3) two parallel sheets and (4) uniformly charged thin spherical shell (inside and outside) Electrostatic induction – capacitor and capacitance – Dielectric and electric polarisation – parallel plate capacitor with and without dielectric medium – applications of capacitor – energy stored in a capacitor. Capacitors in series and in parallel – action of points – Lightning arrester – Van de Graaff generator. UNIT - 2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY (11 periods) Electric current – flow of charges in a metallic conductor – Drift velocity and mobility and their relation with electric current. Ohm’s law, electrical resistance. V-I characteristics – Electrical resistivity and conductivity. Classification of materials in terms of conductivity – Superconductivity (elementary ideas) – Carbon resistors – colour code for carbon resistors – Combination of resistors – series and parallel – Temperature dependence of resistance – Internal resistance of a cell – Potential difference and emf of a cell. Kirchoff’s law – illustration by simple circuits – Wheatstone’s Bridge and its application for temperature coefficient of resistance measurement – Metrebridge – Special case of Wheatstone bridge – Potentiometer – principle – comparing the emf of two cells. Electric power – Chemical effect of current – Electro chemical cells Primary (Voltaic, Lechlanche, Daniel) – Secondary – rechargeable cell – lead acid accumulator. IV UNIT – 3 EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT (15 periods) Heating effect. Joule’s law – Experimental verification. Thermoelectric effects – Seebeck effect – Peltier effect – Thomson effect – Thermocouple, thermoemf, neutral and inversion temperature. Thermopile. Magnetic effect of electric current – Concept of magnetic field, Oersted’s experiment – Biot-Savart law – Magnetic field due to an infinitely long current carrying straight wire and circular coil – Tangent galvanometer – Construction and working – Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid – magnetic field lines. Ampere’s circuital law and its application. Force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic field and electric field – cyclotron – Force on current carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field, forces between two parallel current carrying conductors – definition of ampere. Torque experienced by a current loop in a uniform magnetic field-moving coil galvanometer – Conversion to ammeter and voltmeter – Current loop as a magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole moment – Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron. UNIT – 4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT (14 periods) Electromagnetic induction – Faraday’s law – induced emf and current – Lenz’s law. Self induction – Mutual induction – Self inductance of a long solenoid – mutual inductance of two long solenoids. Methods of inducing emf – (1) by changing magnetic induction (2) by changing area enclosed by the coil and (3) by changing the orientation of the coil (quantitative treatment) analytical treatment can also be included. AC generator – commercial generator. (Single phase, three phase). Eddy current – Applications – Transformer – Long distance transmission. Alternating current – measurement of AC – AC circuit with resistance – AC circuit with inductor – AC circuit with capacitor - LCR series circuit – Resonance and Q – factor: power in AC circuits. V UNIT–5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND WAVE OPTICS (17 periods) Electromagnetic waves and their characteristics – Electromagnetic spectrum, Radio, microwaves, Infra red, visible, ultra violet – X rays, gamma rays. Emission and Absorption spectrum – Line, Band and continuous spectra – Flourescence and phosphorescence. Theories of light – Corpuscular – Wave – Electromagnetic and Quantum theories. Scattering of light – Rayleigh’s scattering – Tyndal scattering – Raman effect – Raman spectrum – Blue colour of the sky and reddish appearance of the sun at sunrise and sunset. Wavefront and Huygen’s principle – Reflection, Total internal reflection and refraction of plane wave at a plane surface using wavefronts. Interference – Young’s double slit experiment and expression for fringe width – coherent source - interference of light. Formation of colours in thin films – analytical treatment – Newton’s rings. Diffraction – differences between interference and diffraction of light – diffraction grating. Polarisation of light waves – polarisation by reflection – Brewster’s law - double refraction - nicol prism – uses of plane polarised light and polaroids – rotatory polarisation – polarimeter UNIT – 6 ATOMIC PHYSICS (16 periods) Atomic structure – discovery of the electron – specific charge (Thomson’s method) and charge of the electron (Millikan’s oil drop method) – alpha scattering – Rutherford’s atom model. Bohr’s model – energy quantisation – energy and wave number expression – Hydrogen spectrum – energy level diagrams – sodium and mercury spectra - excitation and ionization potentials. Sommerfeld’s atom model. X-rays – production, properties, detection, absorption, diffraction of X-rays – Laue’s experiment – Bragg’s law, Bragg’s X-ray spectrometer – X-ray spectra – continuous and characteristic X–ray spectrum – Mosley’s law and atomic number. Masers and Lasers – spontaneous and stimulated emission – normal population and population inversion – Ruby laser, He–Ne laser – properties and applications of laser light – holography VI UNIT – 7 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER – RELATIVITY (10 periods) Photoelectric effect – Light waves and photons – Einstein’s photo – electric equation – laws of photo – electric emission – particle nature of energy – photoelectric equation – work function – photo cells and their application. Matter waves – wave mechanical concept of the atom – wave nature of particles – De–Broglie relation – De–Broglie wave length of an electron – electron microscope. Concept of space, mass, time – Frame of references. Special theory of relativity – Relativity of length, time and mass with velocity – (E = mc2). UNIT – 8 NUCLEAR PHYSICS (14 periods) Nuclear properties – nuclear Radii, masses, binding energy, density, charge – isotopes, isobars and isotones – Nuclear mass defect – binding energy. Stability of nuclei-Bain bridge mass spectrometer. Nature of nuclear forces – Neutron – discovery – properties – artificial transmutation – particle accelerator Radioactivity – alpha, beta and gamma radiations and their properties, α-decay, β-decay and γ-decay – Radioactive decay law – half life – mean life. Artificial radioactivity – radio isotopes – effects and uses Geiger – Muller counter. Radio carbon dating – biological radiation hazards Nuclear fission – chain reaction – atom bomb – nuclear reactor – nuclear fusion – Hydrogen bomb – cosmic rays – elementary particles. UNIT – 9 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (26 periods) Semiconductor theory – energy band in solids – difference between metals, insulators and semiconductors based on band theory – semiconductor doping – Intrinsic and Extrinsic semi conductors. Formation of P-N Junction – Barrier potential and depletion layer. – P-N Junction diode – Forward and reverse bias characteristics – diode as a rectifier – zener diode. Zener diode as a voltage regulator – LED. VII Junction transistors – characteristics – transistor as a switch – transistor as an amplifier – transistor biasing – RC, LC coupled and direct coupling in amplifier – feeback amplifier – positive and negative feed back – advantages of negative feedback amplifier – oscillator – condition for oscillations – LC circuit – Colpitt oscillator. Logic gates – NOT, OR, AND, EXOR using discret components – NAND and NOR gates as universal gates – integrated circuits. Laws and theorems of Boolean’s algebra – operational amplifier – parameters – pin-out configuration – Basic applications. Inverting amplifier. Non-inverting amplifier – summing and difference amplifiers. Measuring Instruments – Cathode Ray oscillocope – Principle – Functional units – uses. Multimeter – construction and uses. UNIT – 10 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS (15 periods) Modes of propagation, ground wave – sky wave propagation. Amplitude modulation, merits and demerits – applications – frequency modulation – advantages and applications – phase modulation. Antennas and directivity. Radio transmission superheterodyne receiver. and reception – AM and FM – T.V.transmission and reception – scanning and synchronising. Vidicon (camera tube) and picture tube – block diagram of a monochrome TV transmitter and receiver circuits. Radar – principle – applications. Digital communication – data transmission and reception – principles of fax, modem, satellite communication – wire, cable and Fibre - optical communication. VIII EXPERIMENTS (12 × 2 = 24 periods) 1. To determine the refractive index of the material of the prism by finding angle of prism and angle of minimum deviation using a spectrometer. 2. To determine wavelengths of a composite light using a diffraction grating and a spectrometer by normal incidence method (By assuming N). 3. To determine the radius of curvature of the given convex lens using Newton’s rings experiment. 4. To find resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine the specific resistance of the material. 5. To compare the emf’s of two primary cells using potentiometer. 6. To determine the value of the horizontal component of the magnetic induction of the earth’s magnetic field, using tangent galvanometer. 7. To determine the magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular coil. 8. To find the frequency of the alternating current (a.c) mains using a sonometer wire. 9. (a) To draw the characteristic curve of a p-n junction diode in forward bias and to determine its forward resistance. (b) To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to determine its reverse breakdown voltage. 10. To study the characteristics of a common emitter NPN transistor and to find out its input, output impedances and current gain. 11. Construct a basic amplifier (OP amp) using IC 741 (inverting, non inverting, summing). 12. Study of basic logic gates using integrated circuits NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR and EX-OR gates. IX CONTENTS Page No. 1 Electrostatics 1 2 Current Electricity 53 3 Effects of Electric Current 88 4 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current 5 134 Electromagnetic Waves and Wave Optics 178 Logarithmic and other tables 228 (Unit 6 to 10 continues in Volume II) X 1. Electrostatics Electrostatics is the branch of Physics, which deals with static electric charges or charges at rest. In this chapter, we shall study the basic phenomena about static electric charges. The charges in a electrostatic field are analogous to masses in a gravitational field. These charges have forces acting on them and hence possess potential energy. The ideas are widely used in many branches of electricity and in the theory of atom. 1.1 Electrostatics – frictional electricity In 600 B.C., Thales, a Greek Philosopher observed that, when a piece of amber is rubbed with fur, it acquires the property of attracting light objects like bits of paper. In the 17th century, William Gilbert discovered that, glass, ebonite etc, also exhibit this property, when rubbed with suitable materials. The substances which acquire charges on rubbing are said to be ‘electrified’ or charged. These terms are derived from the Greek word elektron, meaning amber. The electricity produced by friction is called frictional electricity. If the charges in a body do not move, then, the frictional electricity is also known as Static Electricity. 1.1.1 Two kinds of charges (i) If a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, it acquires positive charge while the silk cloth acquires an equal amount of negative charge. (ii) If an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, it becomes negatively charged, while the fur acquires equal amount of positive charge. This classification of positive and negative charges were termed by American scientist, Benjamin Franklin. Thus, charging a rod by rubbing does not create electricity, but simply transfers or redistributes the charges in a material. 1 1.1.2 Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other – experimental verification. A charged glass rod is suspended by a silk thread, such that it swings horizontally. Now another charged glass rod is brought near the end of the suspended glass rod. It is found that the ends of the two rods repel each other (Fig 1.1). However, if a charged ebonite rod is brought near the end of the suspended rod, the two rods attract each other (Fig 1.2). The above experiment shows that like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other. Silk Silk F Glass Glass +++ ++++ + ++ + + ++ F Glass ++++ +++ F F -----Ebonite Fig 1.2 Two charged rods of opposite sign Fig. 1.1 Two charged rods of same sign The property of attraction and repulsion between charged bodies have many applications such as electrostatic paint spraying, powder coating, fly−ash collection in chimneys, ink−jet printing and photostat copying (Xerox) etc. 1.1.3 Conductors and Insulators According to the electrostatic behaviour, materials are divided into two categories : conductors and insulators (dielectrics). Bodies which allow the charges to pass through are called conductors. e.g. metals, human body, Earth etc. Bodies which do not allow the charges to pass through are called insulators. e.g. glass, mica, ebonite, plastic etc. 2 1.1.4 Basic properties of electric charge (i) Quantisation of electric charge The fundamental unit of electric charge (e) is the charge carried by the electron and its unit is coulomb. e has the magnitude 1.6 × 10−19 C. In nature, the electric charge of any system is always an integral multiple of the least amount of charge. It means that the quantity can take only one of the discrete set of values. The charge, q = ne where n is an integer. (ii) Conservation of electric charge Electric charges can neither be created nor destroyed. According to the law of conservation of electric charge, the total charge in an isolated system always remains constant. But the charges can be transferred from one part of the system to another, such that the total charge always remains conserved. For example, Uranium (92U238) can decay by emitting an alpha particle (2He4 nucleus) and transforming to thorium (90Th234). 238 92U −−−−→ 90Th 234 + 4 2He Total charge before decay = +92e, total charge after decay = 90e + 2e. Hence, the total charge is conserved. i.e. it remains constant. (iii) Additive nature of charge The total electric charge of a system is equal to the algebraic sum of electric charges located in the system. For example, if two charged bodies of charges +2q, −5q are brought in contact, the total charge of the system is –3q. 1.1.5 Coulomb’s law The force between two charged bodies was studied by Coulomb in 1785. Coulomb’s law states that the force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between 3 Let q1 and q2 be two point charges placed in air or vacuum at a distance r apart (Fig. 1.3a). Then, according to Coulomb’s law, F α q1q 2 r 2 or F = k q2 q1 them. The direction of forces is along the line joining the two point charges. F F r Fig 1.3a Coulomb forces q1q 2 r2 where k is a constant of proportionality. In air or vacuum, 1 k = 4πε , where εo is the permittivity of free space (i.e., vacuum) and o the value of εo is 8.854 × 10−12 C2 N−1 m−2. 1 F = 4πε o and q1q 2 r2 …(1) 9 2 −2 4πεo = 9 × 10 N m C 1 In the above equation, if q1 = q2 = 1C and r = 1m then, F = (9 × 109) 1 ×1 12 = 9 × 109 N One Coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge, which when placed at a distance of 1 metre in air or vacuum from an equal and similar charge, experiences a repulsive force of 9 × 109 N. If the charges are situated in a medium of permittivity ε, then the magnitude of the force between them will be, Fm = 1 q1q2 4πε r 2 Dividing equation (1) by (2) ε F = = εr Fm εο 4 …(2) ε The ratio ε = εr, is called the relative permittivity or dielectric ο constant of the medium. The value of εr for air or vacuum is 1. ε = εoεr ∴ F Since Fm = ε , the force between two point charges depends on r the nature of the medium in which the two charges are situated. Coulomb’s law – vector form → If F 21 is the force exerted on charge F12 q2 by charge q1 (Fig.1.3b), → qq r 12 F 21 = k 1 2 ^ 2 r q2 + r^ 12 F21 q2 F21 r → If F 12 is the force exerted on q1 due to q2, 2 r21 + F12 where ^ r 12 is the unit vector from q1 to q2. q1q 2 r^ 12 q1 + r12 → F 12 = k q1 Fig 1.3b Coulomb’s law in vector form ^ r 21 where ^ r 21 is the unit vector from q2 to q1. [Both ^ r 21 and ^ r 12 have the same magnitude, and are oppositely directed] q1q 2 → (– ^ r 12) F 12 = k r 2 ∴ 12 or or q1q 2 → F 12 = − k 2 r12 → → F 12 = – F 21 ^ r 12 So, the forces exerted by charges on each other are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. 5 1.1.6 Principle of Superposition The principle of superposition is to calculate the electric force experienced by a charge q1 due to other charges q2, q3 ……. qn. The total force on a given charge is the vector sum of the forces exerted on it due to all other charges. The force on q1 due to q2 1 q1q 2 → ^ r 21 F 12 = 4πε 2 ο r21 Similarly, force on q1 due to q3 1 q1q3 → ^ F 13 = 4πε r 31 2 ο r31 The total force F1 on the charge q1 by all other charges is, → → → → F 1 = F 12 + F 13 + F 14 Therefore, → F1 = 1.2 ......... + → F 1n q1q 3 q1qn ⎤ 1 ⎡ q1q 2 ˆ ⎢ r 2 r21 + r 2 rˆ31 + ....... r 2 rˆn1 ⎥ 4πεο ⎣ 21 n1 31 ⎦ Electric Field Electric field due to a charge is the space around the test charge in which it experiences a force. The presence of an electric field around a charge cannot be detected unless another charge is brought towards it. When a test charge qo is placed near a charge q, which is the source of electric field, an electrostatic force F will act on the test charge. Electric Field Intensity (E) Electric field at a point is measured in terms of electric field intensity. Electric field intensity at a point, in an electric field is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive charge kept at that point. 6 It is a vector quantity. E = . The unit of electric field intensity qo −1 is N C . F The electric field intensity is also referred as electric field strength or simply electric field. So, the force exerted by an electric field on a charge is F = qoE. 1.2.1 Electric field due to a point charge Let q be the point charge placed at O in air (Fig.1.4). A test charge q o is placed at P at a distance r from q. According to Coulomb’s law, the force acting on qo due to q is +q0 +q O r P E Fig 1.4 Electric field due to a point charge 1 q qo F = 4πε 2 o r The electric field at a point P is, by definition, the force per unit test charge. 1 q F E = q = 4πε 2 o o r The direction of E is along the line joining O and P, pointing away from q, if q is positive and towards q, if q is negative. → In vector notation E = 1 q ^ ^ r , where r is a unit vector pointing 4πεo r 2 away from q. 1.2.2 Electric field due to system of charges If there are a number of stationary charges, the net electric field (intensity) at a point is the vector sum of the individual electric fields due to each charge. → E → → → → = E 1 + E 2 + E 3 ...... E n = 4πε o 1 q2 q3 ⎡ q1 ⎤ ⎢ r 2 r1 + r 2 r2 + r 2 r3 + .........⎥ 2 3 ⎣1 ⎦ 7 1.2.3 Electric lines of force The concept of field lines was introduced by Michael Faraday as an aid in visualizing electric and magnetic fields. Electric line of force is an imaginary straight or curved path along which a unit positive charge tends to move in an electric field. The electric field due to simple arrangements of point charges are shown in Fig 1.5. +q (a) Isolated charge -q +q (b) +q +q (c) Unlike charges Like charges Fig1.5 Lines of Forces Properties of lines of forces: (i) Lines of force start from positive charge and terminate at negative charge. (ii) Lines of force never intersect. (iii) The tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of the electric field (E) at that point. (iv) The number of lines per unit area, through a plane at right angles to the lines, is proportional to the magnitude of E. This means that, where the lines of force are close together, E is large and where they are far apart, E is small. (v) 1 Each unit positive charge gives rise to ε lines of force in free o space. Hence number of lines of force originating from a point q charge q is N = ε in free space. o 8 1.2.4 Electric dipole and electric dipole moment Two equal and opposite charges separated by a very small distance constitute an electric dipole. p -q +q 2d Water, ammonia, carbon−dioxide and Fig 1.6 Electric dipole chloroform molecules are some examples of permanent electric dipoles. These molecules behave like electric dipole, because the centres of positive and negative charge do not coincide and are separated by a small distance. Two point charges +q and –q are kept at a distance 2d apart (Fig.1.6). The magnitude of the dipole moment is given by the product of the magnitude of the one of the charges and the distance between them. ∴ Electric dipole moment, p = q2d or 2qd. It is a vector quantity and acts from –q to +q. The unit of dipole moment is C m. 1.2.5 Electric field due to an electric dipole at a point on its axial line. AB is an electric dipole of two point charges –q and +q separated by a small distance 2d (Fig 1.7). P is a point along the axial line of the dipole at a distance r from the midpoint O of the electric dipole. A -q O B +q 2d E2 P E1 x axis r Fig 1.7 Electric field at a point on the axial line The electric field at the point P due to +q placed at B is, q 1 E1 = 4πε 2 (along BP) o (r − d ) 9 The electric field at the point P due to –q placed at A is, q 1 E2 = 4πε 2 (along PA) o (r + d ) E1 and E2 act in opposite directions. Therefore, the magnitude of resultant electric field (E) acts in the direction of the vector with a greater magnitude. The resultant electric field at P is, E = E1 + (−E2) 1 q q ⎡ 1 ⎤ − E = ⎢ 4πε 2 2 ⎥ along BP. 4 πε ( ) ( ) − + r d r d o o ⎣ ⎦ q E = 4πε o 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 − ⎢ ⎥ along BP 2 (r + d )2 ⎦ ⎣ (r − d ) q E = 4πε o ⎡ 4rd ⎤ ⎢ 2 2 2 ⎥ along BP. ⎣ (r − d ) ⎦ If the point P is far away from the dipole, then d <<r ∴ q 4rd q 4d = E = 4πε 4 3 4 πε o r o r 1 2p E = 4πε 3 along BP. o r [∵ Electric dipole moment p = q x 2d] E acts in the direction of dipole moment. 10 1.2.6 Electric field due to an electric dipole at a point on the equatorial line. Consider an electric dipole AB. Let 2d be the dipole distance and p be the dipole moment. P is a point on the equatorial line at a distance r from the midpoint O of the dipole (Fig 1.8a). M E1 E1 E P R E1cos E2 N A -q d E1sin R r O B +q E2cos E2 P E2sin d (a) Electric field at a point on equatorial line Fig 1.8 (b) The components of the electric field Electric field at a point P due to the charge +q of the dipole, 1 q E1 = 4πε 2 along BP. o BP q 1 2 2 2 = 4πε 2 2 along BP (∵ BP = OP + OB ) o (r + d ) Electric field (E2) at a point P due to the charge –q of the dipole 1 q E2 = 4πε 2 along PA o AP 1 q E2 = 4πε 2 2 along PA o (r + d ) The magnitudes of E1 and E2 are equal. Resolving E1 and E2 into their horizontal and vertical components (Fig 1.8b), the vertical components E1 sin θ and E2 sin θ are equal and opposite, therefore they cancel each other. 11 The horizontal components E1 cos θ and E2 cos θ will get added along PR. Resultant electric field at the point P due to the dipole is E = E1 cos θ + E2 cos θ (along PR) = 2 E1cos θ (∵ E1 = E2) E But E 1 q × 2 cos θ = 4πε 2 + ( r d2 ) o cos θ = d r 2 + d2 q q 2d 1 2d 1 × = 4πε 2 2 2 2 1/2 = 4πε 2 2 3/2 o (r + d ) (r + d ) o (r + d ) p 1 = 4πε 2 2 3/2 o (r + d ) (∵ p = q2d) For a dipole, d is very small when compared to r ∴ 1 p E = 4πε 3 o r The direction of E is along PR, parallel to the axis of the dipole and directed opposite to the direction of dipole moment. 1.2.7 Electric dipole in a uniform electric field Consider a dipole AB of dipole moment p placed at an angle θ in an uniform electric field E (Fig.1.9). The charge +q experiences a force qE in the direction of the field. The charge –q experiences an equal force in the opposite direction. Thus the net force on the dipole is zero. The two equal and unlike B +q F=qE 2d θ E p F=-qE A -q C Fig 1.9 Dipole in a uniform field 12 parallel forces are not passing through the same point, resulting in a torque on the dipole, which tends to set the dipole in the direction of the electric field. The magnitude of torque is, τ = One of the forces x perpendicular distance between the forces = F x 2d sin θ = qE x 2d sin θ = pE sin θ → → → In vector notation, τ = p × E (∵ q × 2d = P) Note : If the dipole is placed in a non−uniform electric field at an angle θ, in addition to a torque, it also experiences a force. 1.2.8 Electric potential energy of an electric dipole in an electric field. E 2d B F=qE +q p A -q F=-qE Electric potential energy of an electric dipole in an electrostatic field is the work done in rotating the dipole to the desired position in the field. When an electric dipole of dipole moment p is at an angle θ with the electric field E, the torque on the dipole is Fig 1.10 Electric potential energy of dipole τ = pE sin θ Work done in rotating the dipole through dθ, dw = τ.dθ = pE sinθ.dθ The total work done in rotating the dipole through an angle θ is W = ∫dw W = pE ∫sinθ.dθ = –pE cos θ This work done is the potential energy (U) of the dipole. ∴ U = – pE cos θ 13 When the dipole is aligned parallel to the field, θ = 0o ∴U = –pE This shows that the dipole has a minimum potential energy when it is aligned with the field. A dipole in the electric field experiences a → → → torque ( τ = p × E) which tends to align the dipole in the field direction, dissipating its potential energy in the form of heat to the surroundings. Microwave oven It is used to cook the food in a short time. When the oven is operated, the microwaves are generated, which in turn produce a non− uniform oscillating electric field. The water molecules in the food which are the electric dipoles are excited by an oscillating torque. Hence few bonds in the water molecules are broken, and heat energy is produced. This is used to cook food. 1.3 Electric potential +q Let a charge +q be placed at a E B O A point O (Fig 1.11). A and B are two x dx points, in the electric field. When a unit Fig1.11 Electric potential positive charge is moved from A to B against the electric force, work is done. This work is the potential difference between these two points. i.e., dV = WA → B. The potential difference between two points in an electric field is defined as the amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to the other against the electric force. The unit of potential difference is volt. The potential difference between two points is 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done in moving 1 Coulomb of charge from one point to another against the electric force. The electric potential in an electric field at a point is defined as the amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to that point against the electric forces. Relation between electric field and potential Let the small distance between A and B be dx. Work done in moving a unit positive charge from A to B is dV = E.dx. 14 The work has to be done against the force of repulsion in moving a unit positive charge towards the charge +q. Hence, dV = −E.dx E = −dV dx The change of potential with distance is known as potential gradient, hence the electric field is equal to the negative gradient of potential. The negative sign indicates that the potential decreases in the direction of electric field. The unit of electric intensity can also be expressed as Vm−1. 1.3.1 Electric potential at a point due to a point charge Let +q be an isolated dx +q p E point charge situated in air at O B A r O. P is a point at a distance r from +q. Consider two points Fig 1.12 Electric potential due to a point charge A and B at distances x and x + dx from the point O (Fig.1.12). The potential difference between A and B is, dV = −E dx The force experienced by a unit positive charge placed at A is E = 1 q . 4πεo x2 ∴ 1 q dV = − 4 πε 2 . dx o x The negative sign indicates that the work is done against the electric force. The electric potential at the point P due to the charge +q is the total work done in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to that point. V = − ∫ 4πε x r ∞ q o 2 q . dx = 4 π ε r o 15 1.3.2 Electric potential at a point due to an electric dipole Two charges –q at A and +q at B separated by a small distance 2d constitute an electric dipole and its dipole moment is p (Fig 1.13). Let P be the point at a distance r from the midpoint of the dipole O and θ be the angle between PO and the axis of the dipole OB. Let r1 and r2 be the distances of the point P from +q and –q charges respectively. P r2 r 180- A -q d O r1 p d B +q Fig 1.13 Potential due to a dipole 1 q Potential at P due to charge (+q) = 4πε r o 1 Potential at P due to charge (−q) = ⎛ q ⎞ ⎜− ⎟ 4πε o ⎝ r2 ⎠ 1 1 q 1 q Total potential at P due to dipole is, V = 4πε r − 4πε r o 1 o 2 V = ⎛1 1⎞ ⎜ − ⎟ 4πεo ⎝ r1 r2 ⎠ q ...(1) Applying cosine law, r12 = r2 + d2 – 2rd cos θ ⎛ cos θ d 2 ⎞ + ⎟ r12 = r2 ⎜1 − 2d r ⎝ r2 ⎠ Since d is very much smaller than r, ∴ 2d ⎞2 r1 = r ⎛⎜1 − cos θ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠ r 1 16 d2 r2 can be neglected. or − 1/ 2 1 1⎛ 2d ⎞ = ⎜1 − cos θ ⎟ r1 r ⎝ ⎠ r Using the Binomial theorem and neglecting higher powers, ∴ 1 1⎛ d = ⎜1 + cos θ ⎞⎟ r1 r ⎝ ⎠ r …(2) Similarly, r22 = r2 + d2 – 2rd cos (180 – θ) r22 = r2 + d2 + 2rd cos θ. 2d ⎛ ⎞ cos θ ⎟ = r ⎜1 + ⎝ ⎠ r 1/2 r2 or −1/2 1 1⎛ 2d ⎞ = ⎜1 + cos θ ⎟ r2 r ⎝ ⎠ r ( ∴ or d2 r2 is negligible) Using the Binomial theorem and neglecting higher powers, 1 1⎛ d ⎞ = ⎜1 − cos θ ⎟ r2 r ⎝ r ⎠ ...(3) Substituting equation (2) and (3) in equation (1) and simplifying V ∴ q 1⎛ d d ⎞ = 4πε r ⎜1 + r cos θ − 1 + r cos θ ⎟ ⎠ o ⎝ V = q 2d cosθ 4πεo . r 2 = 1 p . cosθ 4πεo r2 …(4) Special cases : 1. When the point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on the side of +q, then θ = 0 ∴ V = 2. 4πεo r 2 When the point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on the side of –q, then θ = 180 ∴ V = − 3. p p 4πεo r 2 When the point P lies on the equatorial line of the dipole, then, θ = 90o, ∴ V = 0 17 1.3.3 Electric potential energy The electric potential energy of two point charges is equal to the work done to assemble the charges or workdone in bringing each charge or work done in bringing a charge from infinite distance. q1 q2 A B r Fig 1.14a Electric potential energy Let us consider a point charge q1, placed at A (Fig 1.14a]. The potential at a point B at a distance r from the charge q1 is q1 V = 4πε r o Another point charge q2 is brought from infinity to the point B. Now the work done on the charge q2 is stored as electrostatic potential energy (U) in the system of charges q1 and q2. ∴ work done, w = Vq2 q1q 2 Potential energy (U) = 4 π ε r o Keeping q2 at B, if the charge q1 is q 3 imagined to be brought from infinity to the point A, the same amount of work is done. r23 q2 r13 r12 Also, if both the charges q1 and q2 are brought from infinity, to points A and B q1 respectively, separated by a distance r, then potential energy of the system is the same as the Fig 1.14b Potential energy of system of previous cases. charges For a system containing more than two charges (Fig 1.14b), the potential energy (U) is given by U = ⎡ q1q 2 q1q 3 q 2q 3 ⎤ + + ⎢ r13 r23 ⎥⎦ 4πεo ⎣ r12 1 1.3.4 Equipotential Surface If all the points of a surface are at the same electric potential, then the surface is called an equipotential surface. (i) In case of an isolated point charge, all points equidistant from the charge are at same potential. Thus, equipotential surfaces in this 18 B E A +q (a) Equipotential surface (spherical) E Fig 1.15 (b) For a uniform field (plane) case will be a series of concentric spheres with the point charge as their centre (Fig 1.15a). The potential, will however be different for different spheres. If the charge is to be moved between any two points on an equipotential surface through any path, the work done is zero. This is because the potential difference between two points A and B is defined W AB q . If VA = VB then WAB = 0. Hence the electric field lines must be normal to an equipotential surface. as VB – VA = (ii) In case of uniform field, equipotential surfaces are the parallel planes with their surfaces perpendicular to the lines of force as shown in Fig 1.15b. 1.4 Gauss’s law and its applications S E Electric flux Consider a closed surface S in a non−uniform electric field (Fig 1.16). ds ds normal Consider a very small area ds on this surface. The direction of ds is drawn normal to the surface outward. The Fig1.16 Electric flux electric field over ds is supposed to be a → → constant E . E and ds make an angle θ with each other. The electric flux is defined as the total number of electric lines of force, crossing through the given area. The electric flux dφ through the 19 area ds is, dφ = E . ds = E ds cos θ The total flux through the closed surface S is obtained by integrating the above equation over the surface. φ = ∫ dφ = ∫ → E . ds The circle on the integral indicates that, the integration is to be taken over the closed surface. The electric flux is a scalar quantity. Its unit is N m2 C−1 1.4.1 Gauss’s law The law relates the flux through any closed surface and the net charge enclosed within the surface. The law states that the total flux 1 of the electric field E over any closed surface is equal to ε times the o net charge enclosed by the surface. q φ= ε o This closed imaginary surface is called Gaussian surface. Gauss’s law tells us that the flux of E through a closed surface S depends only on the value of net charge inside the surface and not on the location of the charges. Charges outside the surface will not contribute to flux. 1.4.2 Applications of Gauss’s Law i) Field due to an infinite straight charged wire long 2 r ds + + + + + + + + + + + + Consider an uniformly charged wire of infinite length having a constant ds r linear charge density λ (charge per unit E P l length). Let P be a point at a distance r from the wire (Fig. 1.17) and E be the electric field at the point P. A cylinder of length l, radius r, closed at each end by plane caps normal to the axis is chosen as Gaussian surface. Consider a very Fig 1.17 Infinitely long small area ds on the Gaussian surface. straight charged wire 20 E By symmetry, the magnitude of the electric field will be the same at all points on the curved surface of the cylinder and directed radially outward. E and ds are along the same direction. The electric flux (φ) through curved surface = φ = ∫ [∵ θ = 0;cos θ = 1] E ds ∫ E ds cos θ = E (2πrl) (∵ The surface area of the curved part is 2π rl) Since E and ds are right angles to each other, the electric flux through the plane caps = 0 ∴ Total flux through the Gaussian surface, φ = E. (2πrl) ∴ By Gauss’s law, The net charge enclosed by Gaussian surface is, q = λl λl E (2πrl) = ε o λ or E = 2πε r o The direction of electric field E is radially outward, if line charge is positive and inward, if the line charge is negative. 1.4.3 Electric field due to an infinite charged plane sheet Consider an infinite plane sheet of charge with surface charge density σ. Let P be a point at a distance r from the sheet (Fig. 1.18) and E be the electric field at P. Consider a Gaussian surface in the form of cylinder of cross− sectional area A and length 2r perpendicular to the sheet of charge. E ds P′ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ds A + + + + P + + + + r Fig 1.18 Infinite plane sheet 21 E By symmetry, the electric field is at right angles to the end caps and away from the plane. Its magnitude is the same at P and at the other cap at P′. ∫ ∫ Therefore, the total flux through the closed surface is given by φ = = ⎡ E.ds ⎤ + ⎡ E.ds ⎤ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦P ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦P 1 (∵ θ = 0,cos θ = 1) EA + EA = 2EA If σ is the charge per unit area in the plane sheet, then the net positive charge q within the Gaussian surface is, q = σA Using Gauss’s law, σA 2EA = ε o σ ∴ E = 2ε o 1.4.4 Electric field due to two parallel charged sheets Consider two plane parallel infinite sheets with equal and opposite charge densities +σ and –σ as shown in Fig 1.19. The magnitude of electric field on either side of a plane sheet of charge is E = σ/2εo and acts perpendicular to the sheet, directed outward (if the charge is positive) or inward (if the charge is negative). + + + + + + + + + + + E1(+) P1 E2(-) - E1(+) P2 E2(-) Fig 1.19 Field due to two (i) When the point P1 is in between parallel sheets the sheets, the field due to two sheets will be equal in magnitude and in the same direction. The resultant field at P1 is, σ σ σ E = E1 + E2 = 2ε + 2ε = ε (towards the right) o o o 22 (ii) At a point P2 outside the sheets, the electric field will be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. The resultant field at P2 is, E = E1 – E 2 = σ σ – 2εo 2εo = 0. 1.4.5 Electric field due to uniformly charged spherical shell Case (i) At a point outside the shell. E Consider a charged shell of radius R (Fig 1.20a). Let P be a point outside the shell, at a distance r from the centre O. Let us construct a Gaussian surface with r as radius. The E electric field E is normal to the surface. ∫s E . ds = ∫s r O E Gaussian Surface The flux crossing the Gaussian sphere normally in an outward direction is, φ = P R E E ds = E (4π r 2 ) Fig1.20a. Field at a point outside the shell (since angle between E and ds is zero) By Gauss’s law, q E . (4πr2) = ε o 1 q E = 4πε 2 o r It can be seen from the equation that, the electric field at a point outside the shell will be the same as if the total charge on the shell is concentrated at its centre. or Case (ii) At a point on the surface. The electric field E for the points on the surface of charged spherical shell is, 1 q E = 4πε 2 (∵ r = R) o R 23 Case (iii) At a point inside the shell. Consider a point P′ inside the shell at a distance r′ from the centre of the shell. Let us construct a Gaussian surface with radius r′. R O The total flux crossing the Gaussian sphere normally in an outward direction is φ = ∫s E . ds = ∫s Eds = E × (4π r ′2 ) r 1 P/ Gaussian Surface Fig 1.20b Field at a point inside the shell since there is no charge enclosed by the gaussian surface, according to Gauss’s Law q ∴ E = 0 E × 4πr′ 2 = ε = 0 o (i.e) the field due to a uniformly charged thin shell is zero at all points inside the shell. 1.4.6 Electrostatic shielding It is the process of isolating a certain region of space from external field. It is based on the fact that electric field inside a conductor is zero. During a thunder accompanied by lightning, it is safer to sit inside a bus than in open ground or under a tree. The metal body of the bus provides electrostatic shielding, where the electric field is zero. During lightning the electric discharge passes through the body of the bus. 1.5 Electrostatic induction It is possible to obtain charges without any contact with another charge. They are known as induced charges and the phenomenon of producing induced charges is known as electrostatic induction. It is used in electrostatic machines like Van de Graaff generator and capacitors. Fig 1.21 shows the steps involved in charging a metal sphere by induction. 24 (a) There is an uncharged metallic sphere on an insulating stand. (b) When a negatively charged plastic rod is brought close to the sphere, the free electrons move away due to repulsion and start pilling up at the farther end. The near end becomes positively charged due to deficit of electrons. This process of charge distribution stops when the net force on the free electron inside the metal is zero (this process happens very fast). (c) When the sphere is grounded, the negative charge flows to the ground. The positive charge at the near end remains held due to attractive forces. (a) -- - - -- - - -- - - + + + - - + + + (b) (c) + + + (d) ++ + + + ++ (e) Fig 1.21 Electrostatic Induction (d) When the sphere is removed from the ground, the positive charge continues to be held at the near end. (e) When the plastic rod is removed, the positive charge spreads uniformly over the sphere. 1.5.1 Capacitance of a conductor When a charge q is given to an isolated conductor, its potential will change. The change in potential depends on the size and shape of the conductor. The potential of a conductor changes by V, due to the charge q given to the conductor. q α V or q = CV i.e. C = q/V Here C is called as capacitance of the conductor. The capacitance of a conductor is defined as the ratio of the charge given to the conductor to the potential developed in the conductor. 25 The unit of capacitance is farad. A conductor has a capacitance of one farad, if a charge of 1 coulomb given to it, rises its potential by 1 volt. The practical units of capacitance are µF and pF. Principle of a capacitor Consider an insulated conductor (Plate A) with a positive charge ‘q’ having potential V (Fig 1.22a). The capacitance of A is C = q/V. When another insulated metal plate B is brought near A, negative charges are induced on the side of B near A. An equal amount of positive charge is induced on the other side of B (Fig 1.22b). The negative charge in B decreases the potential of A. The positive charge in B increases the potential of A. But the negative charge on B is nearer to A than the positive charge on B. So the net effect is that, the potential of A decreases. Thus the capacitance of A is increased. If the plate B is earthed, positive charges get neutralized (Fig 1.22c). Then the potential of A decreases further. Thus the capacitance of A is considerably increased. The capacitance depends on the geometry of the conductors and nature of the medium. A capacitor is a device for storing electric charges. A A + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + (a) B A + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + (b) B (c) Fig 1.22 Principle of capacitor 26 1.5.2 Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor The parallel plate capacitor +q X consists of two parallel metal plates X + + + + + + and Y each of area A, separated by a d distance d, having a surface charge density σ (fig. 1.23). The medium -q between the plates is air. A charge Y +q is given to the plate X. It induces Fig 1.23 Parallel plate a charge –q on the upper surface of capacitor earthed plate Y. When the plates are very close to each other, the field is confined to the region between them. The electric lines of force starting from plate X and ending at the plate Y are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plates. By the application of Gauss’s law, electric field at a point between the two plates is, σ E = ε o Potential difference between the plates X and Y is ∫ 0 V = d −E dr = ∫−ε 0 d σ dr = o σd εo The capacitance (C) of the parallel plate capacitor σA εo A q q = σd/ε = [since, σ = ] d A V o εo A ∴ C = d The capacitance is directly proportional to the area (A) of the plates and inversely proportional to their distance of separation (d). C = 1.5.3 Dielectrics and polarisation Dielectrics A dielectric is an insulating material in which all the electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus of the atom. There are no free electrons to carry current. Ebonite, mica and oil are few examples of dielectrics. The electrons are not free to move under the influence of an external field. 27 Polarisation A nonpolar molecule is one Electron in which the cloud centre of gravity -q -q +q +q of the positive Electron cloud charges (proE tons) coincide Fig 1.24 Induced dipole with the centre of gravity of the negative charges (electrons). Example: O2, N2, H2. The nonpolar molecules do not have a permanent dipole moment. If a non polar dielectric is placed in an electric field, the centre of charges get displaced. The molecules are then said to be polarised and are called induced dipoles. They acquire induced dipole moment p in the direction of electric field (Fig 1.24). A polar molecule is one in which the centre of gravity of the positive charges is separated from the centre of gravity of the negative charges by a finite distance. Examples : N2O, H2O, HCl, NH3. They have a permanent dipole moment. In the absence of an external field, the dipole moments of polar molecules orient themselves in random directions. Hence no net dipole moment is observed in the dielectric. When an electric field is applied, the dipoles orient themselves in the direction of electric field. Hence a net dipole moment is produced (Fig 1.25). + - + + + - (a) No field (b) In electric field Fig1.25 Polar molecules 28 + - + - + - - - + - + + - + - + - + - + E The alignment of the dipole moments of the permanent or induced dipoles in the direction of applied electric field is called polarisation or electric polarisation. The magnitude of the induced dipole moment p is directly proportional to the external electric field E. ∴ p α E or p = α E, where α is the constant of proportionality and is called molecular polarisability. 1.5.4 Polarisation of dielectric material E0 +qi + - Ei + + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + - -qi + - E + + - + - + - + - + - Consider a parallel plate capacitor with +q and –q charges. Let E0 be the electric field between the plates in air. If a dielectric slab is introduced in the space between them, the dielectric slab gets polarised. Suppose +qi and –qi be the induced surface charges on the face of dielectric opposite to the plates of capacitor (Fig 1.26). These induced charges produce their own field Ei which opposes the electric field Eo. So, the resultant field, E < Eo. But the direction of E is in the direction of Eo. P Fig1.26 Polarisation of dielectric material ∴ E = Eo + (–Ei) (∵ Ei is opposite to the direction of Eo) 1.5.5 Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric medium. Consider a parallel plate capacitor having two conducting plates X and Y each of area A, separated by a distance d apart. X is given a positive charge so that the surface charge density on it is σ and Y is earthed. Let a dielectric slab of thick-ness t and relative permittivity εr be introduced between the plates (Fig.1.27). 29 Thickness slab = t of dielectric + X Air Thickness of air gap = (d−t) d Electric field at any point in the air between the plates, Dielectric σ E = ε o t Air Y t<d Electric field at any point, in Fig 1.27 Dielectric in capacitor σ the dielectric slab E′ = ε ε r o The total potential difference between the plates, is the work done in crossing unit positive charge from one plate to another in the field E over a distance (d−t) and in the field E′ over a distance t, then V = = = E (d−t) + E′ t σ σt (d − t ) + εo εo εr σ εo t ⎤ ⎡ ⎢(d − t ) + ε ⎥ ⎣ r ⎦ The charge on the plate X, q = σA Hence the capacitance of the capacitor is, C = εo A q σA = = t t ⎤ V σ ⎡ (d − t ) + ⎥ (d − t ) + ⎢ εr εr ⎦ εo ⎣ Effect of dielectric In capacitors, the region between the two plates is filled with dielectric like mica or oil. εo A The capacitance of the air filled capacitor, C = d εr ε o A The capacitance of the dielectric filled capacitor, C′ = d ∴ C′ = εr or C′ = εrC C 30 since, εr > 1 for any dielectric medium other than air, the capacitance increases, when dielectric is placed. 1.5.6 Applications of capacitors. (i) They are used in the ignition system of automobile engines to eliminate sparking. (ii) They are used to reduce voltage fluctuations in power supplies and to increase the efficiency of power transmission. (iii) Capacitors are used to generate electromagnetic oscillations and in tuning the radio circuits. 1.5.7 Capacitors in series and parallel (i) Capacitors in series Consider three capacitors of capacitance C1, C2 and C3 connected in series (Fig 1.28). Let V be the potential difference applied across the series combination. Each capacitor carries the same amount of charge q. Let V1, V2, V3 be the potential difference across the capacitors C1, C2, C3 respectively. Thus V = V1 + V2 + V3 The potential difference each capacitor is, V1 = V = across c1 + + + + q q q ;V2 = ;V3 = C1 C2 C3 1 1 ⎤ ⎡1 q q q + + + + =q⎢ ⎥ C C C C1 C2 C3 2 3⎦ ⎣ 1 v1 c2 - c3 - + + + + v2 - + + + + v3 V + - If CS be the effective capacitance Fig 1.28 Capacitors in series of the series combination, it should acquire a charge q when a voltage V is applied across it. i.e. q V = C S q q q q = + + Cs C1 C2 C3 ∴ 1 1 1 1 = + + Cs C1 C2 C3 31 when a number of capacitors are connected in series, the reciprocal of the effective capacitance is equal to the sum of reciprocal of the capacitance of the individual capacitors. (ii) Capacitors in parallel Consider three capacitors of capacitances C1, C2 and C3 connected in parallel (Fig.1.29). Let this parallel combination be connected to a potential difference V. The potential difference across each capacitor is the same. The charges on the three capacitors are, q1 = C1V, q2 = C2 V, q3 = C3V. c1 The total charge in the system of capacitors is c2 q = q1 + q2 + q3 q = C1V + C2V + C3V But q = Cp.V where Cp is the effective capacitance of the system ∴ ∴ CpV = V (C1 + C2 + C3) CP = C1 + C2 + C 3 c3 V Hence the effective capacitance of the + capacitors connected in parallel is the sum Fig 1.29 Capacitors of the capacitances of the individual in parallel capacitors. 1.5.8 Energy stored in a capacitor The capacitor is a charge storage device. Work has to be done to store the charges in a capacitor. This work done is stored as electrostatic potential energy in the capacitor. Let q be the charge and V be the potential difference between the plates of the capacitor. If dq is the additional charge given to the plate, then work done is, dw = Vdq q⎞ q ⎛ ⎜∵V = ⎟ dq dw = C C⎠ ⎝ Total work done to charge a capacitor is ∫ w = dw = ∫ q 0 1 q2 q dq = 2 C C 32 This work done is stored as electrostatic potential energy (U) in the capacitor. U= 1 q2 1 = CV 2 2 C 2 (∵ q = CV) This energy is recovered if the capacitor is allowed to discharge. 1.5.9 Distribution of charges on a conductor and action of points Let us consider two conducting spheres A and B of radii r1 and r2 respectively connected to each other by a conducting wire (Fig 1.30). Let r1 be greater than r2. A charge given to the system is distributed as q1 and q2 on the surface of the spheres A and B. Let σ1, σ2 be the charge densities on the sphere A and B. A B r1 r2 q2 q1 Fig 1.30 Distribution of charges The potential at A, q1 V1 = 4πε r o1 The potential at B, q2 V2 = 4πε r o 2 Since they are connected, their potentials are equal ⎡∵ q1 = 4π r12σ1 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢and ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 2 ⎣⎢q 2 = 4π r2 σ 2 ⎦⎥ q2 q1 = 4πεo r1 4πεo r2 σ1r1 = σ2r2 i.e., σr is a constant. From the above equation it is seen that, smaller the radius, larger is the charge density. In case of conductor, shaped as in Fig.1.31 the distribution is not uniform. The 33 A + + + + + + + ++ + + +C + + + + + + + + + Fig 1.31 Action of point charges accumulate to a maximum at the pointed end where the curvature is maximum or the radius is minimum. It is found experimentally that a charged conductor with sharp points on its surface, loses its charge rapidly. The reason is that the air molecules which come in contact with the sharp points become ionized. The positive ions are repelled and the negative ions are attracted by the sharp points and the charge in them is therefore reduced. Thus, the leakage of electric charges from the sharp points on the charged conductor is known as action of points or corona discharge. This principle is made use of in the electrostatic machines for collecting charges and in lightning arresters (conductors). 1.6 Lightning conductor This is a simple device used to protect tall buildings from the lightning. It consists of a long thick copper rod passing through the building to ground. The lower end of the rod is connected to a copper plate buried deeply into the ground. A metal plate with number of spikes is connected to the top end of the copper rod and kept at the top of the building. When a negatively charged cloud passes over the building, positive charge will be induced on the pointed conductor. The positively charged sharp points will ionize the air in the vicinity. This will partly neutralize the negative charge of the cloud, thereby lowering the potential of the cloud. The negative charges that are attracted to the conductor travels down to the earth. Thereby preventing the lightning stroke from the damage of the building. Van de Graaff Generator In 1929, Robert J. Van de Graaff designed an electrostatic machine which produces large electrostatic potential difference of the order of 107 V. The working of Van de Graaff generator is based on the principle of electrostatic induction and action of points. A hollow metallic sphere A is mounted on insulating pillars as 34 + + + + A B + E + + + + + + + + + + + shown in the Fig.1.32. A pulley B is mounted at the centre of the sphere and another pulley C is mounted near the bottom. A belt made of silk moves over the pulleys. The pulley C is driven continuously by an electric motor. Two comb−shaped conductors D and E having number of needles, are mounted near the pulleys. The comb D is maintained at a positive potential of the order of 104 volt by a power supply. The upper comb E is connected to the inner side of the hollow metal sphere. Belt + D C - Insulating Pillar Fig 1.32 Van de Graaff Generator Because of the high electric field near the comb D, the air gets ionised due to action of points, the negative charges in air move towards the needles and positive charges are repelled on towards the belt. These positive charges stick to the belt, moves up and reaches near the comb E. As a result of electrostatic induction, the comb E acquires negative charge and the sphere acquires positive charge. The acquired positive charge is distributed on the outer surface of the sphere. The high electric field at the comb E ionises the air. Hence, negative charges are repelled to the belt, neutralises the positive charge on the belt before the belt passes over the pulley. Hence the descending belt will be left uncharged. Thus the machine, continuously transfers the positive charge to the sphere. As a result, the potential of the sphere keeps increasing till it attains a limiting value (maximum). After this stage no more charge 35 can be placed on the sphere, it starts leaking to the surrounding due to ionisation of the air. The leakage of charge from the sphere can be reduced by enclosing it in a gas filled steel chamber at a very high pressure. The high voltage produced in this generator can be used to accelerate positive ions (protons, deuterons) for the purpose of nuclear disintegration. Solved Problems 1.1 Three small identical balls have charges –3 × 10−12C, 8 × 10−12C and 4 × 10−12C respectively. They are brought in contact and then separated. Calculate (i) charge on each ball (ii) number of electrons in excess or deficit on each ball after contact. Data : q1 = −3 × 10−12C, q2 = 8 × 10−12 C, q3 = 4 × 10−12 C Solution : (i) The charge on each ball q= q1 + q 2 + q 3 ⎛ −3 + 8 + 4 ⎞ −12 =⎜ ⎟ × 10 3 3 ⎝ ⎠ = 3 × 10−12 C (ii) Since the charge is positive, there is a shortage of electrons on each ball. n= q 3 × 10−12 = = 1.875 × 107 e 1.6 × 10 −19 ∴ number of electrons = 1.875 × 107. 1.2 Two insulated charged spheres of charges 6.5 × 10−7C each are separated by a distance of 0.5m. Calculate the electrostatic force between them. Also calculate the force (i) when the charges are doubled and the distance of separation is halved. (ii) when the charges are placed in a dielectric medium water (εr = 80) Data : q1 = q2 = 6.5 × 10−7C, r = 0.5 m 1 Solution : F = 4πε o q1q 2 r2 36 9 × 10 9 × (6.5 × 10 −7 )2 (0.5)2 = = 1.52 × 10−2 N. (i) If the charge is doubled and separation between them is halved then, 4πε o 1 F1 = (ii) ( r 2) 2q1 2q 2 2 F1 = 16 times of F. F1 = 0.24 N F2 = ε r = 16 × 1.52 × 10−2 When placed in water of εr = 80 F2 F = 1.52 × 10 −2 80 = 1.9 × 10−4 N 1.3. Two small equal and unlike charges 2 ×10−8C are placed at A and B at a distance of 6 cm. Calculate the force on the charge 1 × 10−8C placed at P, where P is 4cm on the perpendicular bisector of AB. Data q2 = −2 × 10−8 C q1 = +2 ×10−8C, : q3 = 1 ×10−8 C at P XP = 4 cm or 0.04 m, AB = 6 cm or 0.06 m F Solution : q3= +1 x 10-8C P R F 5cm 5cm 4cm -8 q1= +2 x 10 C -8 X A 3cm B 3cm q2= -2 x 10 C From ∆ APX, AP = 42 + 32 = 5 cm or 5 ×10−2 m. A repels the charge at P with a force F (along AP) 37 q1q 3 r2 1 F = 4πε o = 9 × 109 × 2 × 10 −8 × 1 × 10 −8 (5 × 10 −2 )2 = 7.2 × 10−4 N along AP. B attracts the charge at P with same F (along PB), because BP = AP = 5 cm. To find R, we resolve the force into two components R ∴R 1.4 = F cos θ + F cos θ = 2F cos θ = 2 × 7.2 × 10−4 × = 8.64 × 10−4 N BX 3 ⎤ ⎡ ⎢⎣∵ cos θ = PB = 5 ⎥⎦ 3 5 Compare the magnitude of the electrostatic and gravitational force between an electron and a proton at a distance r apart in hydrogen atom. (Given : me = 9.11 × 10−31 kg ; mP = 1.67 × 10−27 kg ; G = 6.67 × 10−11 Nm2 kg−2; e = 1.6 × 10−19 C) Solution : The gravitational attraction between electron and proton is Fg = G me m p r2 Let r be the average distance between electron and proton in hydrogen atom. The electrostatic force between the two charges. Fe = 4πε o 1 ∴ q 1q 2 r2 Fe q1q 2 1 e2 1 = = Fg 4πε o Gme m P 4πε o Gme m P 9 × 109 × (1.6 × 10−19 ) 6.67 × 10−11 × 9.11 × 10−31 × 1.67 × 10−27 2 = Fe Fg = 2.27 × 1039 This shows that the electrostatic force is 2.27 × 1039 times stronger than gravitational force. 38 1.5 Two point charges +9e and +1e are kept at a distance of 16 cm from each other. At what point between these charges, should a third charge q to be placed so that it remains in equilibrium? Data : r = 16 cm or 0.16 m; q1 = 9e and q2 = e Solution : Let a third charge q be kept at a distance x from + r 9e and (r – x) from + e ∴ or ∴ ∴ +e + q +9e + q 1q 2 F = 4πε r 2 o 1 (r-x) x q e 1 9e × q 1 = = 4πε o 4πε o (r − x )2 x2 x2 =9 (r − x )2 x =3 r −x x = 3r – 3x 4x = 3r = 3 × 16 = 48 cm 48 =12 cm or 0.12 m 4 ∴ The third charge should be placed at a distance of 0.12 m from charge 9e. 1.6 x= Two charges 4 × 10−7 C and –8 ×10−7C are placed at the two corners A and B of an equilateral triangle ABP of side 20 cm. Find the resultant intensity at P. Data : q2 = −8 ×10−7 C; q1 = 4 × 10−7 C; Solution : r = 20 cm = 0.2 m E1 P E E2 -7 x C 10 60º +4 A -7 X 20cm 39 -8 x 10 C B Electric field E1 along AP E1 = 4πε o 1 q1 9 × 109 × 4 × 10 −7 = = 9 × 104 N C−1 r2 (0.2)2 Electric field E2 along PB. q2 9 × 10 9 × 8 × 10 −7 = = 18 × 104N C-1 2 r 0.04 E2 = 4πε o 1 ∴ E = E12 + E22 + 2E1E2 cos120o ( 4 2 2 = 9 × 10 2 + 1 + 2 × 2 × 1 − 1 2 = 9 3 × 104 = 15.6 × 104 N C −1 1.7 ) Calculate (i) the potential at a point due a charge of 4 × 10−7C located at 0.09m away (ii) work done in bringing a charge of 2 × 10−9 C from infinity to the point. Data : q1 = 4 × 10−7C, q2 = 2 × 10−9 C, r = 0.09 m Solution : (i) The potential due to the charge q1 at a point is q1 V = 4πε r o 9 × 109 × 4 × 10−7 = = 4 × 104 V 0.09 (ii) Work done in bringing a charge q2 from infinity to the point is 1 W = q2 V = 2 × 10−9 × 4 × 104 W = 8 × 10−5 J 1.8 A sample of HCl gas is placed in an electric field of 2.5 × 104 N C−1 . The dipole moment of each HCl molecule is 3.4 × 10−30 C m. Find the maximum torque that can act on a molecule. Data : E = 2.5 × 104 N C−1, p = 3.4 × 10−30 C m. Solution : Torque acting on the molecule τ = pE sin θ for maximum torque, θ = 90o = 3.4 × 10−30 × 2.5 × 104 Maximum Torque acting on the molecule is = 8.5 × 10−26 N m. 40 1.9 d q1 Calculate the electric potential at +12nc a point P, located at the centre of the square of point charges d shown in the figure. P Data : q1 = + 12 n C; d r q2 = −24 n C; q3 = +31n C; q4 = +17n C; q2 -24nc +31nc q3 d=1.3m +17nc q4 d = 1.3 m Solution : Potential at a point P is 1 ⎡ q1 q 2 q 3 q 4 ⎤ + + V = 4πε ⎢ + ⎣r r r r ⎥⎦ o d The distance r = Total charge = = ∴ q = V = V = 2 1.3 = 2 = 0.919 m q1 + q2 + q3 + q4 (12 – 24 + 31 + 17) × 10−9 36 × 10−9 9 × 109 × 36 × 10−9 0.919 352.6 V 1.10 Three charges – 2 × 10−9C, +3 × 10−9C, –4 × 10−9C are placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle ABC of side 20 cm. Calculate the work done in shifting the charges A, B and C to A1, B1 and C1 respectively which are the mid points of the A -9 -2 x 10 C sides of the triangle. Data : q1 = −2 × 10−9C; q2 = +3 × 10−9C; / / A -9 C q3 = − 4 × 10−9C; C 10 AB = BC = CA = 20cm = 0.20 m +3 x -9 B 41 / B -4 x 10 C C Solution : The potential energy of the system of charges, 1 ⎡ q1q 2 q 2q 3 q 3 q1 ⎤ + + U = 4πε ⎢ r r ⎥⎦ o ⎣ r Work done in displacing the charges from A, B and C to A1, B1 and C1 respectively W = Uf – Ui Ui and Uf are the initial and final potential energy of the system. 9 × 109 Ui = 0.20 [−6 × 10−18 – 12 × 10−18 + 8 × 10−18] = − 4.5 × 10−7 J 9 × 109 [−6 × 10−18 – 12 × 10−18 + 8 × 10−18] Uf = 0.10 = −9 × 10−7J ∴ work done = −9 × 10−7 – (−4.5 × 10−7) W = − 4.5 × 10–7J 1.11 An infinite line charge produces a field of 9 × 104 N C−1 at a distance of 2 cm. Calculate the linear charge density. Data : E = 9 × 104 N C−1, r = 2 cm = 2 × 10–2 m λ Solution : E = 2πε r o λ = E × 2πεor = 9 × 104 × 1 × 2 ×10−2 18 × 109 λ = 10−7 C m−1 1 ⎛ ⎞ ⎜∵ 2πε o = ⎟ 18 × 109 ⎠ ⎝ 1.12 A point charge causes an electric flux of –6 × 103 Nm2 C−1 to pass through a spherical Gaussian surface of 10 cm radius centred on the charge. (i) If the radius of the Gaussian surface is doubled, how much flux will pass through the surface? (ii) What is the value of charge? Data : φ = −6 × 103 N m2 C−1; 42 r = 10 cm = 10 × 10−2 m Solution : (i) If the radius of the Gaussian surface is doubled, the electric flux through the new surface will be the same, as it depends only on the net charge enclosed within and it is independent of the radius. ∴ φ = −6 × 103 N m2 C−1 (ii) ∴ φ = ε or q = −(8.85 × 10−12 × 6 × 103) o q q = − 5.31 × 10−8 C 1.13 A parallel plate capacitor has plates of area 200 cm2 and separation between the plates 1 mm. Calculate (i) the potential difference between the plates if 1n C charge is given to the capacitor (ii) with the same charge (1n C) if the plate separation is increased to 2 mm, what is the new potential difference and (iii) electric field between the plates. Data: d = 1 mm = 1 × 10−3m; q = 1 nC = 1 × 10−9 C ; A = 200 cm2 or 200 × 10−4 m2 ; Solution : The capacitance of the capacitor C = εo A d = 8.85 × 10 −12 × 200 × 10 −4 1 × 10 −3 C = 0.177 × 10−9 F = 0.177 nF (i) The potential difference between the plates V= q 1 × 10 −9 = = 5.65 V C 0.177 × 10 −9 (ii) If the plate separation is increased from 1 mm to 2 mm, the capacitance is decreased by 2, the potential difference increases by the factor 2 ∴ New potential difference is 5.65 × 2 = 11.3 V (iii) Electric field is, E 1 × 10 −9 σ q = ε = A .ε = 8.85 × 10 −12 × 200 × 10 −4 o o = 5650 N C−1 43 1.14 A parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates has a capacitance of 8 pF. What will be the capacitance, if the distance between the plates be reduced to half and the space between them is filled with a substance of dielectric constant 6. : Co = 8 pF , εr = 6, distance d becomes, d/2 with dielectric Data Solution : Co = Aεo = 8pF d when the distance is reduced to half and dielectric medium fills the gap, the new capacitance will be C = ε r Aε o d /2 = 2ε r A ε o d = 2εr Co C = 2 × 6 × 8 = 96 pF 1.15 Calculate the effective capacitance of the combination shown in figure. Data : C1 = 10µF ; 5µF ; C3 = 4µF C1 10 F C3 4 F C2 = C2 5 F Solution : (i) C1 and C2 are connected in series, the effective capacitance of the capacitor of the series combination is 1 1 1 = + CS C1 C2 = ∴ CS = 1 1 + 10 5 10 × 5 10 µF = 10 + 5 3 (ii) This CS is connected to C3 in parallel. The effective capacitance of the capacitor of the parallel combination is Cp = Cs + C3 44 ⎛ 10 ⎞ 22 µF + 4⎟ = = ⎜ ⎝ 3 ⎠ 3 Cp = 7.33 µF 1.16 The plates of a parallel plate capacitor have an area of 90 cm2 each and are separated by 2.5 mm. The capacitor is charged by connecting it to a 400 V supply. How much electrostatic energy is stored by the capacitor? Data : A = 90 cm2 = 90 × 10–4 m2 ; d = 2.5 mm = 2.5 × 10–3 m; V = 400 V Solution : Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor C= εo A d = 8.85 × 10 −12 × 90 × 10 −4 2.5 × 10 −3 = 3.186 × 10−11 F Energy of the capacitor = ( = 1 2 1 2 ) CV2 × 3.186 × 10−11 × (400)2 Energy = 2.55 x 10−6 J 45 Self evaluation (The questions and problems given in this self evaluation are only samples. In the same way any question and problem could be framed from the text matter. Students must be prepared to answer any question and problem from the text matter, not only from the self evaluation.) 1.1 A glass rod rubbed with silk acquires a charge of +8 × 10−12C. The number of electrons it has gained or lost (a) 5 × 10−7 (gained) (c) 2 × 10−8 (lost) 1.2 1.3 1.4 (b) 5 × 107 (lost) (d) –8 × 10−12 (lost) The electrostatic force between two point charges kept at a distance d apart, in a medium εr = 6, is 0.3 N. The force between them at the same separation in vacuum is (a) 20 N (b) 0.5 N (c) 1.8 N (d) 2 N (a) 50 cm (b) 4 cm (c) 4 m (d) 1.5 m Electic field intensity is 400 V m−1 at a distance of 2 m from a point charge. It will be 100 V m−1 at a distance? Two point charges +4q and +q are placed 30 cm apart. At what point on the line joining them the electric field is zero? (a) 15 cm from the charge q (b) 7.5 cm from the charge q (c) 20 cm from the charge 4q (d) 5 cm from the charge q 1.5 A dipole is placed in a uniform electric field with its axis parallel to the field. It experiences (a) only a net force (b) only a torque (c) both a net force and torque (d) neither a net force nor a torque 1.6 If a point lies at a distance x from the midpoint of the dipole, the electric potential at this point is proportional to (a) 1 x2 (b) 1 x3 (c) 1 x4 (d) 1 x 3/2 46 1.7 1.8 Four charges +q, +q, −q and –q respectively are placed at the corners A, B, C and D of a square of side a. The electric potential at the centre O of the square is (a) q 4πε o a (b) (c) 4q 4πε o a (d) zero 1 1 Electric potential energy (U) of two point charges is q1q 2 (a) 4πε r 2 o 1.9 2q 4πε o a 1 q 1q 2 (b) 4πε r o (c) pE cos θ (d) pE sin θ (a) zero (b) finite positive (c) finite negative (d) infinite The work done in moving 500 µC charge between two points on equipotential surface is 1.10 Which of the following quantities is scalar? (a) dipole moment (b) electric force (c) electric field (d) electric potential 1.11 The unit of permittivity is (a) C2 N−1 m−2 (c) H m−1 (b) N m2 C−2 (d) N C−2 m−2 1.12 The number of electric lines of force originating from a charge of 1 C is (a) 1.129 × 1011 (b) 1.6 × 10−19 (c) 6.25 × 1018 (d) 8.85 × 1012 1.13 The electric field outside the plates of two oppositely charged plane sheets of charge density σ is (a) (c) +σ 2ε o σ εo (b) −σ 2ε o (d) zero 47 1.14 The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor increases from 5 µf to 60 µf when a dielectric is filled between the plates. The dielectric constant of the dielectric is (a) 65 (b) 55 (c) 12 (d) 10 1.15 A hollow metal ball carrying an electric charge produces no electric field at points (a) outside the sphere (b) on its surface (c) inside the sphere (d) at a distance more than twice 1.16 State Coulomb’s law in electrostatics and represent it in vector form. 1.17 What is permittivity and relative permittivity? How are they related? 1.18 Explain the principle of superposition. 1.19 Define electric field at a point. Give its unit and obtain an expression for the electric field at a point due to a point charge. 1.20 Write the properties of lines of forces. 1.21 What is an electric dipole? Define electric dipole moment? 1.22 Derive an expression for the torque acting on the electric dipole when placed in a uniform field. 1.23 What does an electric dipole experience when kept in a uniform electric field and non−uniform electric field? 1.24 Derive an expression for electric field due to an electric dipole (a) at a point on its axial line (b) at a point along the equatorial line. 1.25 Define electric potential at a point. Is it a scalar or a vector quantity? Obtain an expression for electric potential due to a point charge. 1.26 Distinguish between electric potential and potential difference. 1.27 What is an equipotential surface? 1.28 What is electrostatic potential energy of a system of two point charges? Deduce an expression for it. 1.29 Derive an expression for electric potential due to an electric dipole. 1.30 Define electric flux. Give its unit. 48 1.31 State Gauss’s law. Applying this, calculate electric field due to (i) an infinitely long straight charge with uniform charge density (ii) an infinite plane sheet of charge of q. 1.32 What is a capacitor? Define its capacitance. 1.33 Explain the principle of capacitor. Deduce an expression for the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor. 1.34 What is dielectric ? Explain the effect of introducing a dielectric slab between the plates of parallel plate capacitor. 1.35 A parallel plate capacitor is connected to a battery. If the dielectric slab of thickness equal to half the plate separation is inserted between the plates what happens to (i) capacitance of the capacitor (ii) electric field between the plates (iii) potential difference between the plates. 1.36 Deduce an expression for the equivalent capacitance of capacitors connected in series and parallel. 1.37 Prove that the energy stored in a parallel plate capacitor is q2 . 2C 1.38 What is meant by dielectric polarisation? 1.39 State the principle and explain the construction and working of Van de Graaff generator. 1.40 Why is it safer to be inside a car than standing under a tree during lightning? Problems : 1.41 The sum of two point charges is 6 µ C. They attract each other with a force of 0.9 N, when kept 40 cm apart in vacuum. Calculate the charges. 1.42 Two small charged spheres repel each other with a force of 2 × 10−3 N. The charge on one sphere is twice that on the other. When one of the charges is moved 10 cm away from the other, the force is 5 × 10−4 N. Calculate the charges and the initial distance between them. 1.43 Four charges +q, +2q, +q and –q are placed at the corners of a square. Calculate the electric field at the intersection of the diagonals of the square of side10 cm if q = 5/3 × 10−9C. 49 1.44 Two charges 10 × 10−9 C and 20 × 10−9C are placed at a distance of 0.3 m apart. Find the potential and intensity at a point mid−way between them. 1.45 An electric dipole of charges 2 × 10−10C and –2 × 10−10C separated by a distance 5 mm, is placed at an angle of 60o to a uniform field of 10Vm−1. Find the (i) magnitude and direction of the force acting on each charge. (ii) Torque exerted by the field 1.46 An electric dipole of charges 2 × 10−6 C, −2 × 10−6 C are separated by a distance 1 cm. Calculate the electric field due to dipole at a point on its. (i) axial line 1 m from its centre (ii) equatorial line 1 m from its centre. 1.47 Two charges +q and –3q are separated by a distance of 1 m. At what point in between the charges on its axis is the potential zero? 1.48 Three charges +1µ C, +3µ C and –5µ C are kept at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of sides 60 cm. Find the electrostatic potential energy of the system of charges. 1.49 Two positive charges of 12 µC and 8 µC respectively are 10 cm apart. Find the work done in bringing them 4 cm closer, so that, they are 6 cm apart. 1.50 Find the electric flux through each face of a hollow cube of side 10 cm, if a charge of 8.85 µC is placed at the centre. 1.51 A spherical conductor of radius 0.12 m has a charge of 1.6 × 10−7C distributed uniformly on its surface. What is the electric field (i) inside the sphere (ii) on the sphere (iii) at a point 0.18 m from the centre of the sphere? 1.52 The area of each plate of a parallel plate capacitor is 4 × 10−2 sq m. If the thickness of the dielectric medium between the plates is 10−3 m and the relative permittivity of the dielectric is 7. Find the capacitance of the capacitor. 1.53 Two capacitors of unknown capacitances are connected in series and parallel. If the net capacitances in the two combinations are 6µF and 25µF respectively, find their capacitances. 1.54 Two capacitances 0.5 µF and 0.75 µF are connected in parallel and the combination to a 110 V battery. Calculate the charge from the source and charge on each capacitor. 50 C1 1.55 Three capacitors are connected in parallel to a 100 V battery as shown in figure. What is the total energy stored in the combination of capacitor? C2 C3 30 F 20 F 10 F 100V 1.56 A parallel plate capacitor is maintained at some potential difference. A 3 mm thick slab is introduced between the plates. To maintain the plates at the same potential difference, the distance between the plates is increased by 2.4 mm. Find the dielectric constant of the slab. 1.57 A dielectric of dielectric constant 3 fills three fourth of the space between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor. What percentage of the energy is stored in the dielectric? 2 F C1 1.58 Find the charges on the capacitor D shown in figure and the potential difference across them. C2 A B 2 F 1 F C3 120V 1.59 Three capacitors each of capacitance 9 pF are connected in series (i) What is the total capacitance of the combination? (ii) What is the potential difference across each capacitor, if the combination is connected to 120 V supply? 51 Answers 1.1 (b) 1.2 (c) 1.3 (c) 1.4 (c) 1.5 (d) 1.6 (a) 1.7 (d) 1.8 (b) 1.9 (a) 1.10 (d) 1.11 (a) 1.12 (a) 1.13 (d) 1.14 (c) 1.15 (c) 1.35 1.41 (i) increases (ii) remains the same (iii) remains the same q1 = 8 × 10−6C , q2 = –2 × 10−6 C 1.42 q1 = 33.33 × 10−9C, q2 = 66.66 ×10−9C, x = 0.1 m 1.43 0.9 × 104Vm–1 1.44 V = 1800 V, E = 4000 Vm−1 1.45 2 × 10−9N, along the field, τ = 0.866 × 10−11 Nm 1.46 360 N/C, 180 N C–1 1.47 x = 0.25 m from +q 1.48 –0.255 J 1.49 5.70 J 1.50 1.51 1.52 1.53 1.67 × 105 Nm2C−1 zero, 105 N C–1, 4.44 × 104 N C−1 2.478 × 10−9F C1 = 15 µF, C2 = 10µF 1.54 q = 137.5 µC, q1 = 55 µC, q2 = 82.5 µC 1.55 0.3 J 1.56 εr = 5 1.57 50% 1.58 q1 = 144 × 10−6C, q2 = 96 × 10−6C, q3 = 48 × 10−6C V1 = 72 V, V2 = 48 V 1.59 3 pF, each one is 40 V 52 2. Current Electricity The branch of Physics which deals with the study of motion of electric charges is called current electricity. In an uncharged metallic conductor at rest, some (not all) electrons are continually moving randomly through the conductor because they are very loosely attached to the nuclei. The thermodynamic internal energy of the material is sufficient to liberate the outer electrons from individual atoms, enabling the electrons to travel through the material. But the net flow of charge at any point is zero. Hence, there is zero current. These are termed as free electrons. The external energy necessary to drive the free electrons in a definite direction is called electromotive force (emf). The emf is not a force, but it is the work done in moving a unit charge from one end to the other. The flow of free electrons in a conductor constitutes electric current. 2.1 Electric current The current is defined as the rate of flow of charges across any cross sectional area of a conductor. If a net charge q passes through any cross section of a conductor in time t, then the current I = q / t, where q is in coulomb and t is in second. The current I is expressed in ampere. If the rate of flow of charge is not uniform, the current varies with time and the instantaneous value of current i is given by, dq i = dt Current is a scalar quantity. The direction of conventional current is taken as the direction of flow of positive charges or opposite to the direction of flow of electrons. i J E 2.1.1 Drift velocity and mobility Consider a conductor XY connected to a battery (Fig 2.1). A steady electric field E is established in the conductor in the direction X to Y. In the absence of an electric field, the free electrons in the conductor move randomly in all possible directions. 53 X vd Y Fig 2.1 Current carrying conductor They do not produce current. But, as soon as an electric field is applied, the free electrons at the end Y experience a force F = eE in a direction opposite to the electric field. The electrons are accelerated and in the process they collide with each other and with the positive ions in the conductor. Thus due to collisions, a backward force acts on the electrons and they are slowly drifted with a constant average drift velocity vd in a direction opposite to electric field. Drift velocity is defined as the velocity with which free electrons get drifted towards the positive terminal, when an electric field is applied. If τ is the average time between two successive collisions and the acceleration experienced by the electron be a, then the drift velocity is given by, v d = aτ The force experienced by the electron of mass m is F = ma eE Hence a = m eE ∴vd = τ = µE m eτ where µ = is the mobility and is defined as the drift velocity m acquired per unit electric field. It takes the unit m2V–1s–1. The drift velocity of electrons is proportional to the electric field intensity. It is very small and is of the order of 0.1 cm s–1. 2.1.2 Current density Current density at a point is defined as the quantity of charge passing per unit time through unit area, taken perpendicular to the direction of flow of charge at that point. The current density J for a current I flowing across a conductor having an area of cross section A is (q /t ) I = J = A A Current density is a vector quantity. It is expressed in A m–2 * In this text book, the infinitesimally small current and instantaneous currents are represented by the notation i and all other currents are represented by the notation I. 54 2.1.3 Relation between current and drift velocity Consider a conductor XY of length L and area of cross section A (Fig 2.1). An electric field E is applied between its ends. Let n be the number of free electrons per unit volume. The free electrons move towards the left with a constant drift velocity vd. The number of conduction electrons in the conductor = nAL The charge of an electron = e The total charge passing through the conductor q = (nAL) e L The time in which the charges pass through the conductor, t = v d The current flowing through the conductor, I = I = nAevd (nAL )e q = (L /v ) t d ...(1) The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the drift velocity. From equation (1), I = nevd A J = nevd I ⎡ ⎤ ⎢⎣∵ J = A ,current density ⎥⎦ 2.1.4 Ohm’s law George Simon Ohm established the relationship between potential difference and current, which is known as Ohm’s law. The current flowing through a conductor is, I = nAevd eE . τ m But vd = ∴ I = nAe I = nAe 2 τV mL eE τ m V⎤ ⎡ ⎢⎣∵ E = L ⎥⎦ where V is the potential difference. The quantity mL is a constant nAe 2τ for a given conductor, called electrical resistance (R). ∴ I α V 55 The law states that, at a constant temperature, the steady current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between the two ends of the conductor. (i.e) I α V or I = ∴ V = IR or R = 1 V R Y V I Resistance of a conductor is defined as the ratio of potential difference across the I conductor to the current flowing through it. The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω) The reciprocal of resistance conductance. Its unit is mho (Ω–1). is 0 V X Fig 2.2 V−I graph of an Since, potential difference V is ohmic conductor. proportional to the current I, the graph (Fig 2.2) between V and I is a straight line for a conductor. Ohm’s law holds good only when a steady current flows through a conductor. 2.1.5 Electrical Resistivity and Conductivity The resistance of a conductor R is directly proportional to the length of the conductor l and is inversely proportional to its area of cross section A. R α l A or R = ρl A ρ is called specific resistance or electrical resistivity of the material of the conductor. If l = l m, A = l m2, then ρ = R The electrical resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance offered to current flow by a conductor of unit length having unit area of cross section. The unit of ρ is ohm−m (Ω m). It is a constant for a particular material. The reciprocal conductivity, σ = ρ of electrical resistivity, is 1 The unit of conductivity is mho m-1 (Ω–1 m–1) 56 called electrical 2.1.6 Classification of materials in terms of resistivity The resistivity of a material is the characteristic of that particular material. The materials can be broadly classified into conductors and insulators. The metals and alloys which have low resistivity of the order of 10−6 – 10−8 Ω m are good conductors of electricity. They carry current without appreciable loss of energy. Example : silver, aluminium, copper, iron, tungsten, nichrome, manganin, constantan. The resistivity of metals increase with increase in temperature. Insulators are substances which have very high resistivity of the order of 108 – 1014 Ω m. They offer very high resistance to the flow of current and are termed non−conductors. Example : glass, mica, amber, quartz, wood, teflon, bakelite. In between these two classes of materials lie the semiconductors (Table 2.1). They are partially conducting. The resistivity of semiconductor is 10−2 – 104 Ω m. Example : germanium, silicon. Table 2.1 Electrical resistivities at room temperature (NOT FOR EXAMINATION) Classification conductors Semiconductors Insulators Material silver copper aluminium iron germanium silicon glass wood quartz rubber ρ (Ω Ω m) 1.6 × 10−8 1.7 × 10−8 2.7 × 10−8 10 × 10−8 0.46 2300 1010 – 1014 108 – 1011 1013 1013 – 1016 2.2 Superconductivity Ordinary conductors of electricity become better conductors at lower temperatures. The ability of certain metals, their compounds and alloys to conduct electricity with zero resistance at very low temperatures is called superconductivity. The materials which exhibit this property are called superconductors. The phenomenon of superconductivity was first observed by Kammerlingh Onnes in 1911. He found that mercury suddenly showed 57 zero resistance at 4.2 K (Fig 2.3). The first theoretical explanation of superconductivity was given by Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer in 1957 and it is called the BCS theory. The temperature at which electrical R ( ) resistivity of the material suddenly drops to zero and the material changes from 0 4.2 K normal conductor to a superconductor is T (K) called the transition temperature or critical Fig 2.3 Superconductivity temperature TC. At the transition of mercury temperature the following changes are observed : (i) The electrical resistivity drops to zero. (ii) The conductivity becomes infinity (iii) The magnetic flux lines are excluded from the material. Applications of superconductors (i) Superconductors form the basis of energy saving power systems, namely the superconducting generators, which are smaller in size and weight, in comparison with conventional generators. (ii) Superconducting magnets have been used to levitate trains above its rails. They can be driven at high speed with minimal expenditure of energy. (iii) Superconducting magnetic propulsion systems may be used to launch satellites into orbits directly from the earth without the use of rockets. (iv) High efficiency ore–separating machines may be built using superconducting magnets which can be used to separate tumor cells from healthy cells by high gradient magnetic separation method. (v) Since the current in a superconducting wire can flow without any change in magnitude, it can be used for transmission lines. (vi) Superconductors can be used as memory or storage elements in computers. 58 2.3 Carbon resistors The wire wound resistors are expensive and huge in size. Hence, carbon resistors are used. Carbon resistor consists of a ceramic core, on which a thin layer of crystalline Table 2.2 Colour code for carbon is deposited. These carbon resistors resistors are cheaper, stable and Colour Number small in size. The resistance of a Black 0 carbon resistor is indicated by the colour code drawn on it (Table Brown 1 2.2). A three colour code carbon Red 2 resistor is discussed here. The Orange 3 silver or gold ring at one end Yellow 4 corresponds to the tolerance. It is Green 5 a tolerable range ( + ) of the resistance. The tolerance of silver, Blue 6 gold, red and brown rings is 10%, Violet 7 5%, 2% and 1% respectively. If Grey 8 there is no coloured ring at this White 9 end, the tolerance is 20%. The first two rings at the other end of tolerance ring are significant figures of resistance in ohm. The third ring indicates the powers of 10 to be multiplied or number of zeroes following the significant figure. Example : Violet Orange Silver Yellow 4 7 000 + 10% Fig 2.4 Carbon resistor colour code. The first yellow ring in Fig 2.4 corresponds to 4. The next violet ring corresponds to 7. The third orange ring corresponds to 103. The silver ring represents 10% tolerance. The total resistance is 47 × 103 + 10% i.e. 47 k Ω, 10%. Fig 2.5 shows 1 k Ω, 5% carbon resistor. Black Presently four colour code carbon resistors are also used. For certain critical applications 1% and 2% tolerance resistors are used. 59 Brown Red 1 0 00 Gold ±5 % Fig 2.5 Carbon resistor 2.4 Combination of resistors In simple circuits with resistors, Ohm’s law can be applied to find the effective resistance. The resistors can be connected in series and parallel. R 2.4.1 Resistors in series Let us consider the I resistors of resistances R1, R2, R3 and R4 connected in series as shown in Fig 2.6. R2 R1 V1 R3 V2 V3 R4 V4 Fig 2.6 Resistors in series When resistors are connected in series, the current flowing through each resistor is the same. If the potential difference applied between the ends of the combination of resistors is V, then the potential difference across each resistor R1, R2, R3 and R4 is V1, V2, V3 and V4 respectively. The net potential difference V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 By Ohm’s law V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3, V4 = IR4 and V = IRs where RS is the equivalent or effective resistance of the series combination. Hence, IRS = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4 or RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 Thus, the equivalent resistance of a number of resistors in series connection is equal to the sum of the resistance of individual resistors. 2.4.2 Resistors in parallel Consider four resistors of resistances R1, R2, R3 and R4 are connected in parallel as shown in Fig 2.7. A source of emf V is connected to the parallel combination. When resistors are in parallel, the potential difference (V) across each resistor is the same. A current I entering the combination gets divided into I1, I2, I3 and I4 through R1, R2, R3 and R4 respectively, such that I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4. 60 V I1 R1 R2 I2 A R3 I I3 R4 I4 R Fig 2.7 Resistors in parallel B By Ohm’s law V V V V V I1 = R , I2 = R , I3 = R , I4 = R and I = R P 1 2 3 4 where RP is the equivalent or effective resistance of the parallel combination. ∴ V V V V V = + + + RP R1 R2 R3 R 4 1 1 1 1 1 = + + + R P R1 R 2 R3 R 4 Thus, when a number of resistors are connected in parallel, the sum of the reciprocal of the resistance of the individual resistors is equal to the reciprocal of the effective resistance of the combination. 2.5 Temperature dependence of resistance The resistivity of substances varies with temperature. For conductors the resistance increases with increase in temperature. If Ro is the resistance of a conductor at 0o C and Rt is the resistance of same conductor at to C, then Rt = Ro (1 + αt) where α is called the temperature coefficient of resistance. Rt − Ro α = Rt o The temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the ratio of increase in resistance per degree rise in temperature to its resistance at 0o C. Its unit is per oC. R( ) R0 0ºC T (C) Fig 2.8 Variation of resistance with temperature The variation of resistance with temperature is shown in Fig 2.8. Metals have positive temperature coefficient of resistance, i.e., their resistance increases with increase in temperature. Insulators and semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance, i.e., their resistance decreases with increase in temperature. A material with a negative temperature coefficient is called a thermistor. The temperature coefficient is low for alloys. 61 2.6 Internal resistance of a cell The electric current in an external circuit flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of the cell, through different circuit elements. In order to maintain continuity, the current has to flow through the electrolyte of the cell, from its negative terminal to positive terminal. During this process of flow of current inside the cell, a resistance is offered to current flow by the electrolyte of the cell. This is termed as the internal resistance of the cell. A freshly prepared cell has low internal resistance and this increases with ageing. Determination of internal resistance of a cell using voltmeter + V The circuit connections are made as shown in Fig 2.9. With key K open, the emf of cell E is E found by connecting a high resistance voltmeter across it. I Since the high resistance R voltmeter draws only a very feeble K current for deflection, the circuit Fig 2.9 Internal resistance of a may be considered as an open cell using voltmeter. circuit. Hence the voltmeter reading gives the emf of the cell. A small value of resistance R is included in the external circuit and key K is closed. The potential difference across R is equal to the potential difference across cell (V). The potential drop across R, V = IR ...(1) Due to internal resistance r of the cell, the voltmeter reads a value V, less than the emf of cell. Then V = E – Ir or Ir = E−V ...(2) Dividing equation (2) by equation (1) Ir E − V = IR V or ⎛ E −V r = ⎜ ⎝ V ⎞R ⎟ ⎠ Since E, V and R are known, the internal resistance r of the cell can be determined. 62 2.7 Kirchoff’s law Ohm’s law is applicable only for simple circuits. For complicated circuits, Kirchoff’s laws can be used to find current or voltage. There are two generalised laws : (i) Kirchoff’s current law (ii) Kirchoff’s voltage law Kirchoff’s first law (current law) 1 Kirchoff’s current law states that the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at any junction in a circuit is zero. 5 I5 2 I1 I2 The convention is that, the current I4 O I3 flowing towards a junction is positive and the current flowing away from the junction 3 4 is negative. Let 1,2,3,4 and 5 be the conductors meeting at a junction O in an Fig 2.10 Kirchoff’s electrical circuit (Fig 2.10). Let I1, I2, I3, I4 current law and I5 be the currents passing through the conductors respectively. According to Kirchoff’s first law. I1 + (−I2) + (−I3) + I4 + I5 = 0 or I1 + I4 + I5 = I2 + I3. The sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction. This law is a consequence of conservation of charges. Kirchoff’s second law (voltage law) Kirchoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of the products of resistance and current in each part of any closed circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the emf’s in that closed circuit. This law is a consequence of conservation of energy. In applying Kirchoff’s laws to electrical networks, the direction of current flow may be assumed either clockwise or anticlockwise. If the assumed direction of current is not the actual direction, then on solving the problems, the current will be found to have negative sign. If the result is positive, then the assumed direction is the same as actual direction. It should be noted that, once the particular direction has been assumed, the same should be used throughout the problem. However, in the application of Kirchoff’s second law, we follow that the current in clockwise direction is taken as positive and the current in anticlockwise direction is taken as negative. 63 Let us consider the electric circuit given in Fig 2.11a. Considering ABCDEFA, I4R6 the closed I1 A B R2 C I2 loop R4 R3 R1 I1R2 + I3R4 + I3r3 + I3R5 + I1 r1 E1 + I1r1 + I1R1 = E1 + E3 r2 E2 F Both cells E1 and E3 send currents in clockwise direction. I3 R6 r3 E3 I4 E R5 I3 D Fig 2.11a Kirchoff’s laws For the closed loop ABEFA I1R2 + I2R3 + I2r2 + I4R6 + I1r1 + I1R1 = E1 – E2 Negative sIgn in E2 indicates that it sends current in the anticlockwise direction. As an illustration of application of Kirchoff’s second law, let us calculate the current in the following networks. Illustration I Applying first law to the Junction B, (FIg.2.11b) ∴ I1 – I2 – I3 = 0 I3 = I 1 – I 2 I1 A ...(1) 60 132 132 I3 + 20I1 = 200 ...(2) 20 Substituting equation (1) in equation (2) 200V F 152I1 – 132I2 = 200 ...(3) 100V I1 E I2 D Fig 2.11b Kirchoff’s laws For the closed loop BCDEB, 60I2 – 132I3 = 100 substituting for I3, ∴ C I3 For the closed loop ABEFA, 132 (I1 – I2) + 20I1 = 200 I2 B 60I2 – 132 (I1 – I2) = 100 – 132I1 + 192I2 = 100 ...(4) Solving equations (3) and (4), we obtain Il = 4.39 A and I2 = 3.54 A 64 Illustration 2 Taking the current in the clockwise direction along ABCDA as positive (FIg 2.11c) 10 I + 0.5 I + 5 I + 0.5 I + 8 Ι + 0.5 I + 5 I + 0.5 Ι + 10 I = 50 – 70 – 30 + 40 I ( 10 + 0.5 + 5 + 0.5 + 8 + 0.5 + 5 + 0.5 + 10) = −10 40 I = −10 −10 I = = –0.25 A 40 ∴ 10 I A 50V 5 70V B 0.5 8 The negative sign indicates that the current flows in the anticlockwise direction. 10 40V 2.7.1 Wheatstone’s bridge 0.5 5 30V D C 0.5 0.5 An important application Fig 2.11c Kirchoff’s laws of Kirchoff’s law is the Wheatstone’s bridge (FIg 2.12). Wheatstone’s network consists of resistances P, Q, R and S connected to form B I3 a closed path. A cell of emf E is connected Q P between points A and C. The current I from IG the cell is divided into I1, I2, I3 and I4 across I1 G C the four branches. The current through the A I 2 galvanometer is Ig. The resistance of galvanometer is G. S R I4 D Applying junction B, Kirchoff’s I1 – Ig – I3 = 0 I E Fig 2.12 Wheatstone’s bridge Applying junction D Kirchoff’s I2 + Ig – I4 = 0 current current ...(2) ...(3) Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law to closed path ABCDA I1P + I3Q – I4S – I2R = 0 65 to law to ...(1) Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law to closed path ABDA I1 P + IgG – I2 R = 0 law ...(4) When the galvanometer shows zero deflection, the points B and D are at same potential and Ig = 0. Substituting Ig = 0 in equation (1), (2) and (3) I1 = I3 ...(5) I2 = I4 ...(6) I1P = I2R ...(7) Substituting the values of (5) and (6) in equation (4) I1P + I1Q – I2S – I2R = 0 I1 (P + Q) = I2 (R+S) ...(8) Dividing (8) by (7) ∴ I1(P + Q ) I 2 (R + S ) = I1P I 2R P +Q R +S = P R 1+ ∴ Q S =1+ P R Q S = P R or P R = Q S This is the condition for bridge balance. If P, Q and R are known, the resistance S can be calculated. 2.7.2 Metre bridge P Q Metre bridge B is one form of G1 G2 Wheatstone’s G HR bridge. It consists J of thick strips of A C l1 l2 copper, of negligible resistance, fixed to ( ) a wooden board. K Bt There are two gaps Fig 2.13 Metre bridge G1 and G2 between these strips. A uniform manganin wire AC of length one metre whose temperature coefficient is low, is stretched along a metre scale and its ends are soldered to two copper strips. An unknown resistance P is connected in the gap G1 and a standard resistance Q is connected in 66 the gap G2 (Fig 2.13). A metal jockey J is connected to B through a galvanometer (G) and a high resistance (HR) and it can make contact at any point on the wire AC. Across the two ends of the wire, a Leclanche cell and a key are connected. Adjust the position of metal jockey on metre bridge wire so that the galvanometer shows zero deflection. Let the point be J. The portions AJ and JC of the wire now replace the resistances R and S of Wheatstone’s bridge. Then P R r .AJ = = Q S r .JC where r is the resistance per unit length of the wire. P AJ l1 = = Q JC l 2 where AJ = l1 and JC = l2 l1 ∴ P = Ql 2 Though the connections between the resistances are made by thick copper strips of negligible resistance, and the wire AC is also ∴ l1 soldered to such strips a small error will occur in the value of l due 2 to the end resistance. This error can be eliminated, if another set of readings are taken with P and Q interchanged and the average value of P is found, provided the balance point J is near the mid point of the wire AC. 2.7.3 Determination of specific resistance The specific resistance of the material of a wire is determined by knowing the resistance (P), radius (r) and length (L) of the wire using the expression ρ = P πr 2 L 2.7.4 Determination of temperature coefficient of resistance If R1 and R2 are the resistances of a given coil of wire at the temperatures t1 and t2, then the temperature coefficient of resistance of the material of the coil is determined using the relation, R 2 − R1 α = R t −R t 1 2 2 1 67 2.8 Potentiometer The Potentiometer is A an instrument used for the measurement of potential difference (Fig 2.14). It consists of a ten metre long uniform wire of B manganin or constantan Fig 2.14 Potentiometer stretched in ten segments, each of one metre length. The segments are stretched parallel to each other on a horizontal wooden board. The ends of the wire are fixed to copper strips with binding screws. A metre scale is fixed on the board, parallel to the wire. Electrical contact with wires is established by pressing the jockey J. 2.8.1 Principle of potentiometer ( ) A battery Bt is K Bt connected between the I ends A and B of a potentioJ A B meter wire through a key K. A steady current I G HR flows through the E potentiometer wire (Fig Fig 2.15 Principle of potentiometer 2.15). This forms the primary circuit. A primary cell is connected in series with the positive terminal A of the potentiometer, a galvanometer, high resistance and jockey. This forms the secondary circuit. If the potential difference between A and J is equal to the emf of the cell, no current flows through the galvanometer. It shows zero deflection. AJ is called the balancing length. If the balancing length is l, the potential difference across AJ = Irl where r is the resistance per unit length of the potentiometer wire and I the current in the primary circuit. ∴ E = Irl, since I and r are constants, E α l Hence emf of the cell is directly proportional to its balancing length. This is the principle of a potentiometer. 68 2.8.2 Comparison of emfs of two given cells using potentiometer The potentiometer wire AB is connected in series ( ) Rh with a battery (Bt), Key (K), K Bt I rheostat (Rh) as shown in Fig J B 2.16. This forms the primary A E1 circuit. The end A of D1 C1 potentiometer is connected to D C G HR the terminal C of a DPDT C2 D2 switch (six way key−double pole double throw). The E2 terminal D is connected to Fig 2.16 comparison of emf of two cells the jockey (J) through a galvanometer (G) and high resistance (HR). The cell of emf E1 is connected between terminals C1 and D1 and the cell of emf E2 is connected between C2 and D2 of the DPDT switch. Let I be the current flowing through the primary circuit and r be the resistance of the potentiometer wire per metre length. The DPDT switch is pressed towards C1, D1 so that cell E1 is included in the secondary circuit. The jockey is moved on the wire and adjusted for zero deflection in galvanometer. The balancing length is l1. The potential difference across the balancing length l1 = Irll. Then, by the principle of potentiometer, E1 = Irl l ...(1) The DPDT switch is pressed towards E2. The balancing length l2 for zero deflection in galvanometer is determined. The potential difference across the balancing length is l2 = Irl2, then E2 = Irl 2 ...(2) Dividing (1) and (2) we get E1 l1 = E2 l2 If emf of one cell (E1) is known, the emf of the other cell (E2) can be calculated using the relation. E2 = E1 l2 l1 69 2.8.3 Comparison of emf and potential difference 1. The difference of potentials between the two terminals of a cell in an open circuit is called the electromotive force (emf) of a cell. The difference in potentials between any two points in a closed circuit is called potential difference. 2. The emf is independent of external resistance of the circuit, whereas potential difference is proportional to the resistance between any two points. 2.9 Electric energy and electric power. If I is the current flowing through a conductor of resistance R in time t, then the quantity of charge flowing is, q = It. If the charge q, flows between two points having a potential difference V, then the work done in moving the charge is = V. q = V It. Then, electric power is defined as the rate of doing electric work. ∴ Power = Work done VIt = = VI time t Electric power is the product of potential difference and current strength. Since V = IR, Power = I2R Electric energy is defined as the capacity to do work. Its unit is joule. In practice, the electrical energy is measured by watt hour (Wh) or kilowatt hour (kWh). 1 kWh is known as one unit of electric energy. (1 kWh = 1000 Wh = 1000 × 3600 J = 36 × 105 J) 2.9.1 Wattmeter A wattmeter is an instrument used to measure electrical power consumed i.e energy absorbed in unit time by a circuit. The wattmeter consists of a movable coil arranged between a pair of fixed coils in the form of a solenoid. A pointer is attached to the movable coil. The free end of the pointer moves over a circular scale. When current flows through the coils, the deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the power. 2.10 Chemical effect of current The passage of an electric current through a liquid causes chemical changes and this process is called electrolysis. The conduction 70 + is possible, only in liquids wherein charged ions can be dissociated in opposite directions (Fig 2.17). Such liquids are called electrolytes. The plates through which current enters and leaves an electrolyte are known as + Cathode electrodes. The electrode towards Anode + which positive ions travel is called the cathode and the other, Fig 2.17 Conduction in liquids towards which negative ions travel is called anode. The positive ions are called cations and are mostly formed from metals or hydrogen. The negative ions are called anions. 2.10.1 Faraday’s laws of electrolysis The factors affecting the quantities of matter liberated during the process of electrolysis were investigated by Faraday. First Law : The mass of a substance liberated at an electrode is directly proportional to the charge passing through the electrolyte. If an electric current I is passed through an electrolyte for a time t, the amount of charge (q) passed is I t. According to the law, mass of substance liberated (m) is m α q or m = zIt where Z is a constant for the substance being liberated called as electrochemical equivalent. Its unit is kg C–1. The electrochemical equivalent of a substance is defined as the mass of substance liberated in electrolysis when one coulomb charge is passed through the electrolyte. Second Law : The mass of a substance liberated at an electrode by a given amount of charge is proportional to the *chemical equivalent of the substance. If E is the chemical equivalent of a substance, from the second law m αE *Chemical equivalent = Relative atomic mass mass of the atom = 1/12 of the mass C12 atom x valency Valency 71 2.10.2 Verification of Faraday’s laws of electrolysis First Law : A battery, a rheostat, a key and an ammeter are connected in series to an electrolytic cell (Fig 2.18). The cathode is cleaned, dried, weighed and then inserted in the cell. A current I1 is passed for a time A t. The current is measured by the ammeter. The cathode is taken out, washed, dried and Bt Cathode weighed again. Hence the mass Anode m1 of the substance deposited is obtained. The cathode is reinserted Rh in the cell and a different Fig 2.18 Verification of Faraday’s current I2 is passed for the first law same time t. The mass m2 of the deposit is obtained. It is found that m1 I1 = m2 I 2 ∴ m αI ...(1) The experiment is repeated for same current I but for different times t1 and t2. If the masses of the deposits are m3 and m4 respectively, it is found that m3 t1 = m4 t2 ∴ m α t ...(2) From relations (1) and (2) m α It or m α q Thus, the first law is verified. Second Law : Two electrolytic cells containing different electrolytes, CuSO4 solution and AgNO3 solution are connected in series with a battery, a rheostat and an ammeter (Fig 2.19). Copper electrodes are inserted in CuSO4 and silver electrodes are inserted in AgNO3. The cathodes are cleaned, dried, weighed and then inserted in the respective cells. The current is passed for some time. Then the cathodes are taken out, washed, dried and weighed. Hence the masses of copper and silver deposited are found as m1 and m2. 72 It is found that + + m1 E1 = m2 E 2 , where E1 and E2 are the chemical equivalents of copper and silver respectively. m α E Thus, the law is verified. Bt A AgNO3 CuSO4 second 2.11 Electric cells Rh Fig 2.19 The starting point Verification of Faraday’s second law to the development of electric cells is the classic experiment by Luige Galvani and his wife Lucia on a dissected frog hung from iron railings with brass hooks. It was observed that, whenever the leg of the frog touched the iron railings, it jumped and this led to the introduction of animal electricity. Later, Italian scientist and genius professor Alessandro Volta came up with an electrochemical battery. The battery Volta named after him consisted of a pile of copper and zinc discs placed alternately separated by paper and introduced in salt solution. When the end plates were connected to an electric bell, it continued to ring, opening a new world of electrochemical cells. His experiment established that, a cell could be made by using two dissimilar metals and a salt solution which reacts with atleast one of the metals as electrolyte. 2.11.1 Voltaic cell The simple cell or voltaic cell consists of two electrodes, one of copper and the other of zinc dipped in a solution of dilute sulphuric acid in a glass vessel (Fig 2.20). On connecting the two electrodes externally, with a piece of wire, current flows + Cu Glass Vessel Zn + + Fig 2.20 Voltaic cell 73 Dilute H2SO4 from copper to zinc outside the cell and from zinc to copper inside it. The copper electrode is the positive pole or copper rod of the cell and zinc is the negative pole or zinc rod of the cell. The electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid. The action of the cell is explained in terms of the motion of the charged ions. At the zinc rod, the zinc atoms get ionized and pass into solution as Zn++ ions. This leaves the zinc rod with two electrons more, making it negative. At the same time, two hydrogen ions (2H+) are discharged at the copper rod, by taking these two electrons. This makes the copper rod positive. As long as excess electrons are available on the zinc electrode, this process goes on and a current flows continuously in external circuit. This simple cell is thus seen as a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Due to opposite charges on the two plates, a potential difference is set up between copper and zinc, copper being at a higher potential than zinc. The difference of potential between the two electrodes is 1.08V. 2.11.2 Primary Cell The cells from which the electric energy is derived by irreversible chemical actions are called primary cells. The primary cell is capable of giving an emf, when its constituents, two electrodes and a suitable electrolyte, are assembled together. The three main primary cells, namely Daniel Cell and Leclanche cell are discussed here. These cells cannot be recharged electrically. 2.11.3 Daniel cell + Daniel cell is a primary cell which cannot supply steady current for a long time. It consists of a copper vessel containing a strong solution of copper sulphate (Fig 2.21). A zinc rod is dipped in dilute sulphuric acid contained in a porous pot. The porous pot is placed inside the copper sulphate solution. Zinc Rod dilute H2SO4 Porous Pot CuSO4 Solution Copper Vessel Fig 2.21 Daniel cell The zinc rod reacting with dilute sulphuric acid produces Zn++ ions and 2 electrons. 74 Zn++ ions pass through the pores of the porous pot and reacts with copper sulphate solution, producing Cu++ ions. The Cu++ ions deposit on the copper vessel. When Daniel cell is connected in a circuit, the two electrons on the zinc rod pass through the external circuit and reach the copper vessel thus neutralizing the copper ions. This constitutes an electric current from copper to zinc. Daniel cell produces an emf of 1.08 volt. 2.11.4 Leclanche cell A Leclanche cell consists of a carbon electrode packed in a porous pot containing manganese dioxide and charcoal powder (Fig 2.22). The porous pot is immersed in a saturated solution of ammonium chloride (electrolyte) contained in an outer glass vessel. A zinc rod is immersed in electrolytic solution. Carbon Rod Mixture of MnO2 and Charcoal Porous Pot Zinc Rod Ammonium Chloride Solution Glass Vessel Fig 2.22 Leclanche cell At the zinc rod, due to oxidation reaction Zn atom is converted into Zn++ ions and 2 electrons. Zn++ ions reacting with ammonium chloride produces zinc chloride and ammonia gas. i.e Zn++ + 2 NH4Cl → 2NH3 + ZnCl2 + 2 H+ + 2e– The ammonia gas escapes. The hydrogen ions diffuse through the pores of the porous pot and react with manganese dioxide. In this process the positive charge of hydrogen ion is transferred to carbon rod. When zinc rod and carbon rod are connected externally, the two electrons from the zinc rod move towards carbon and neutralizes the positive charge. Thus current flows from carbon to zinc. Leclanche cell is useful for supplying intermittent current. The emf of the cell is about 1.5 V, and it can supply a current of 0.25 A. 75 2.11.5 Secondary Cells The advantage of secondary cells is that they are rechargeable. The chemical reactions that take place in secondary cells are reversible. The active materials that are used up when the cell delivers current can be reproduced by passing current through the cell in opposite direction. The chemical process of obtaining current from a secondary cell is called discharge. The process of reproducing active materials is called charging. The most common secondary cells are lead acid accumulator and alkali accumulator. 2.11.6 Lead – Acid accumulator + The lead acid Pb accumulator consists PbO2 of a container made up of hard rubber or glass H2SO4 or celluloid. The Glass / Rubber container container contains dilute sulphuric acid Fig 2.23 Lead - Acid accumulator which acts as the electrolyte. Spongy lead (Pb) acts as the negative electrode and lead oxide (PbO2) acts as the positive electrode (Fig 2.23). The electrodes are separated by suitable insulating materials and assembled in a way to give low internal resistance. When the cell is connected in a circuit, due to the oxidation reaction that takes place at the negative electrode, spongy lead reacting with dilute sulphuric acid produces lead sulphate and two electrons. The electrons flow in the external circuit from negative electrode to positive electrode where the reduction action takes place. At the positive electrode, lead oxide on reaction with sulphuric acid produces lead sulphate and the two electrons are neutralized in this process. This makes the conventional current to flow from positive electrode to negative electrode in the external circuit. The emf of a freshly charged cell is 2.2 Volt and the specific gravity of the electrolyte is 1.28. The cell has low internal resistance and hence can deliver high current. As the cell is discharged by drawing current from it, the emf falls to about 2 volts. In the process of charging, the chemical reactions are reversed. 76 2.11.7 Applications of secondary cells The secondary cells are rechargeable. They have very low internal resistance. Hence they can deliver a high current if required. They can be recharged a very large number of times without any deterioration in properties. These cells are huge in size. They are used in all automobiles like cars, two wheelers, trucks etc. The state of charging these cells is, simply monitoring the specific gravity of the electrolyte. It should lie between 1.28 to 1.12 during charging and discharging respectively. Solved problems 2.1 If 6.25 × 1018 electrons flow through a given cross section in unit time, find the current. (Given : Charge of an electron is 1.6 × 10–19 C) Data : n = 6.25 × 1018 ; e = 1.6 × 10−19 C ; t = 1 s ; I = ? Solution : I = 2.2 q ne 6.25 × 1018 × 1.6 × 10−19 = = = 1 A t t 1 A copper wire of 10−6 m2 area of cross section, carries a current of 2 A. If the number of electrons per cubic metre is 8 × 1028, calculate the current density and average drift velocity. (Given e = 1.6 × 10−19C) Data : A = 10−6 m2 ; Current flowing 1028 I = 2 A ; n = 8 × e = 1.6 × 10−19 C ; J = ? ; vd =? Solution : Current density, J = I 2 = = 2 × 106A/m2 A 10 −6 J = n e vd or vd = 2.3 J 2 × 106 = = 15.6 × 10−5 m s–1 ne 8 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10−19 An incandescent lamp is operated at 240 V and the current is 0.5 A. What is the resistance of the lamp ? Data : V = 240 V ; I = 0.5 A ; R = ? 77 Solution : From Ohm’s law V = IR 2.4 or R = V 240 = = 480 Ω I 0.5 The resistance of a copper wire of length 5m is 0.5 Ω. If the diameter of the wire is 0.05 cm, determine its specific resistance. Data : l = 5m ; R = 0.5 Ω ; d = 0.05 cm = 5 × 10−4 m r = 2.5 × 10−4m ; ρ = ? Solution : R = ρl A or ρ = ; RA l A = πr2 = 3.14 × (2.5 × 10−4)2 = 1.9625 × 10−7 m2 ρ= 0.5 × 1.9625 × 10−7 5 ρ = 1.9625 × 10−8 Ω m 2.5 The resistance of a nichrome wire at 0o C is 10 Ω. If its temperature coefficient of resistance is 0.004/oC, find its resistance at boiling point of water. Comment on the result. Data : At 0oC, Ro = 10 Ω ; α = 0.004/oC ; t = 1000C ; At toC, Rt = ? Solution : Rt = Ro (1+ α t) = 10 (1 + (0.004 × 100)) Rt = 14 Ω As temperature increases the resistance of wire also increases. 2.6 Two wires of same material and length have resistances 5 Ω and 10 Ω respectively. Find the ratio of radii of the two wires. Data : Resistance of first wire R1 = 5 Ω ; Radius of first wire = r1 Resistance of second wire R2 = 10 Ω Radius of second wire = r2 Length of the wires = l Specific resistance of the material of the wires = ρ 78 Solution : R = ρl A ; A = πr 2 ρl ρl 2 ; R2 = π r1 π r22 ∴ R1 = R 2 r12 = or R1 r22 R2 r1 10 2 = = = 5 1 r2 R1 r1 : r2 = 2 :1 2.7 If a copper wire is stretched to make it 0.1% longer, what is the percentage change in resistance? Data : Initial length of copper wire l1 = l Final length of copper wire after stretching l2 = l + 0.1% of l = l + 0.1 l 100 = l (1 + 0.001) l2 = 1.001 l During stretching, if length increases, area of cross section decreases. Initial volume = A1l1 = A1l Final volume = A2l2 = 1.001 A2l Resistance of wire before stretching = R1. Resistance after stretching Solution : Equating the volumes A1l = 1.001 A2l (or) R = R1 = ρl A ρl1 A1 A1 = 1.001A2 ρl 2 and R2 = A 2 79 = R2 R1 = ρl ρ1.001l R2 = A2 1.001A2 and R2 2 R1 = (1.001) =1.002 Change in resistance = (1.002 – 1) = 0.002 Change in resistance in percentage = 0.002 × 100 = 0.2% 2.8 The resistance of a field coil measures 50 Ω at 20oC and 65 Ω at 70oC. Find the temperature coefficient of resistance. Data : At R20 = 50 Ω ; 70oC, R70 = 65 Ω ; α = ? Solution : Rt = Ro (1 + α t) R20 = Ro (1 + α 20) 50 = Ro (1 + α 20) ...(1) 65 = Ro (1 + α 70 ] ...(2) R70 = Ro (1+ α 70) Dividing (2) by (1) 65 1 + 70α = 50 1 + 20α 65 + 1300 α = 50 + 3500 α 2200 α = 15 α = 0.0068 / oC 2.9 An iron box of 400 W power is used daily for 30 minutes. If the cost per unit is 75 paise, find the weekly expense on using the iron box. Data : Power of an iron box P = 400 W rate / unit = 75 p consumption time t = 30 minutes / day cost / week = ? Solution : Energy consumed in 30 minutes = Power × time in hours = 400 × ½ = 200 W h 80 Energy consumed in one week = 200 × 7 = 1400 Wh = 1.4 unit Cost / week = Total units consumed × rate/ unit = 1.4 × 0.75 = Rs.1.05 2.10 Three resistors are connected in series with 10 V supply as shown in the figure. Find the voltage drop across each resistor. R1 5 R2 3 V1 V2 R3 2 V3 I 10V Data : R1 = 5Ω, R2 = 3Ω, R3 = 2Ω ; V = 10 volt Effective resistance of series combination, Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 = 10Ω 10 V Solution : Current in circuit I = R = 10 = 1A s Voltage drop across R1, V1 = IR1 = 1 × 5 = 5V Voltage drop across R2, V2 = IR2 = 1 × 3 = 3V Voltage drop across R3, V3 = IR3 = 1 × 2 = 2V 2.11 Find the current flowing across three resistors 3Ω, 5Ω and 2Ω connected in parallel to a 15 V supply. Also find the effective resistance and total current drawn from the supply. Data : R1 = 3Ω, R2 = 5Ω, R3 = 2Ω ; Supply voltage V = 15 volt Solution : Effective resistance of parallel combination 3 I1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = + + = + + R P R1 R2 R 3 3 5 2 R1 5 I2 R2 Rp = 0.9677 Ω 2 I3 V 15 = = 5A Current through R1, I 1 = R1 3 I R3 15V 81 Current through R2, I 2 = V 15 = = 3A R2 5 V 15 Current through R3, I 3 = R = 2 = 7.5A 3 15 V Total current I = R = 0.9677 = 15.5 A P 2.12 In the given network, calculate the effective resistance between points A and B (i) 10 5 10 5 5 10 A B 5 10 5 10 10 5 Solution : The network has three identical units. The simplified form of one unit is given below : 5 10 R1 = 15 10 5 R2 = 15 The equivalent resistance of one unit is 1 1 1 1 1 = + = + RP R1 R2 15 15 or RP = 7.5 Ω Each unit has a resistance of 7.5 Ω. The total network reduces 7.5 7.5 7.5 to B A R/ R/ R/ The combined resistance between points A and B is R = R′ + R′ + R′ (∵ Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 ) R = 7.5 + 7.5 + 7.5 = 22.5 Ω 2.13 A 10 Ω resistance is connected in series with a cell of emf 10V. A voltmeter is connected in parallel to a cell, and it reads. 9.9 V. Find internal resistance of the cell. Data : R = 10 Ω ; E = 10 V ; 82 V = 9.9 V ; r = ? ⎛ E −V ⎞ R ⎟ ⎝ V ⎠ 10V Solution : r = ⎜ 10 R ⎛ 10 − 9.9 ⎞ ⎟ × 10 ⎝ 9.9 ⎠ = ⎜ V 9.9V I = 0.101 Ω Self evaluation (The questions and problems given in this self evaluation are only samples. In the same way any question and problem could be framed from the text matter. Students must be prepared to answer any question and problem from the text matter, not only from the self evaluation.) 2.1 A charge of 60 C passes through an electric lamp in 2 minutes. Then the current in the lamp is (a) 30 A 2.2 (c) 0.5 A (d) 5 A The material through which electric charge can flow easily is (a) quartz 2.3 (b) 1 A (b) mica (c) germanium (d) copper The current flowing in a conductor is proportional to (a) drift velocity (b) 1/ area of cross section (c) 1/no of electrons (d) square of area of cross section. 2.4 A toaster operating at 240V has a resistance of 120Ω. The power is (a) 400 W 2.5 (b) 2 W (c) 480 W (d) 240 W If the length of a copper wire has a certain resistance R, then on doubling the length its specific resistance (a) will be doubled (b) will become 1/4th (c) will become 4 times (d) will remain the same. 2.6 (a) 2 Ω (c) 1 Ω 2.7 In the case of insulators, as the temperature decreases, resistivity When two 2Ω resistances are in parallel, the effective resistance is (b) 4 Ω (a) decreases (b) increases 83 (d) 0.5 Ω 2.8 2.9 (c) remains constant (d) becomes zero (a) 1.4 Ω (c) 4 Ω If the resistance of a coil is 2 Ω at 0oc and α = 0.004 /oC, then its resistance at 100o C is (b) 0 Ω (d) 2.8 Ω According to Faraday’s law of electrolysis, when a current is passed, the mass of ions deposited at the cathode is independent of (a) current (b) charge (c) time (d) resistance 2.10 When n resistors of equal resistances (R) are connected in series, the effective resistance is (a) n/R (b) R/n (c) 1/nR (d) nR 2.11 Why is copper wire not suitable for a potentiometer? 2.12 Explain the flow of charges in a metallic conductor. 2.13 Distinguish between drift velocity and mobility. Establish a relation between drift velocity and current. 2.14 State Ohm’s law. 2.15 Define resistivity of a material. How are materials classified based on resistivity? 2.16 Write a short note on superconductivity. List some applications of superconductors. 2.17 The colours of a carbon resistor is orange, orange, orange. What is the value of resistor? 2.18 Explain the effective resistance of a series network and parallel network. 2.19 Discuss the variation of resistance with temperature with an expression and a graph. 2.20 Explain the determination of the internal resistance of a cell using voltmeter. 2.21 State and explain Kirchoff’s laws for electrical networks. 2.22 Describe an experiment to find unknown resistance temperature coefficient of resistance using metre bridge? and 2.23 Define the term specific resistance. How will you find this using a metre bridge? 84 2.24 Explain the principle of a potentiometer. How can emf of two cells be compared using potentiometer? 2.25 Distinguish between electric power and electric energy 2.26 State and Explain Faraday’s laws of electrolysis. How are the laws verified experimentally? 2.27 Explain the reactions at the electrodes of (i) Daniel cell (ii) Leclanche cell 2.28 Explain the action of the following secondary cell. (i) lead acid accumulator 2.29 Why automobile batteries have low internal resistance? Problems 2.30 What is the drift velocity of an electron in a copper conductor having area 10 × 10−6m2, carrying a current of 2 A. Assume that there are 10 × 1028 electrons / m3. 2.31 How much time 1020 electrons will take to flow through a point, so that the current is 200 mA? (e = 1.6 × 10−19 C) 2.32 A manganin wire of length 2m has a diameter of 0.4 mm with a resistance of 70 Ω. Find the resistivity of the material. 2.33 The effective resistances are 10Ω, 2.4Ω when two resistors are connected in series and parallel. What are the resistances of individual resistors? 2.34 In the given circuit, what is the total resistance and current supplied by the battery. 2 6V 3 3 3 2.35 Find the effective resistance between A and B in the given circuit 2 2 2 A B 1 1 85 2.36 Find the voltage drop across 18 Ω resistor in the given circuit 12 18 6 30V 6 2.37 Calculate the current I1, I2 and I3 in the given electric circuit. I1 3V 1 I2 2V 2 I3 10 2.38 The resistance of a platinum wire at 00 C is 4 Ω. What will be the resistance of the wire at 100oC if the temperature coefficient of resistance of platinum is 0.0038 /0 C. 2.39 A cell has a potential difference of 6 V in an open circuit, but it falls to 4 V when a current of 2 A is drawn from it. Find the internal resistance of the cell. 2.40 In a Wheatstone’s bridge, if the galvanometer shows zero deflection, find the unknown resistance. Given P = 1000Ω Q = 10000 Ω and R = 20 Ω 2.41 An electric iron of resistance 80 Ω is operated at 200 V for two hours. Find the electrical energy consumed. 2.42 In a house, electric kettle of 1500 W is used everyday for 45 minutes, to boil water. Find the amount payable per month (30 days) for usage of this, if cost per unit is Rs. 3.25 2.43 A 1.5 V carbon – zinc dry cell is connected across a load of 1000 Ω. Calculate the current and power supplied to it. 2.44 In a metre bridge, the balancing length for a 10 Ω resistance in left gap is 51.8 cm. Find the unknown resistance and specific resistance of a wire of length 108 cm and radius 0.2 mm. 86 2.45 Find the electric current flowing through the given circuit connected to a supply of 3 V. A 5 R2 5 R1 3V R3 B 5 C 4V 2.46 In the given circuit, find the current through each branch of the circuit and the potential drop across the 10 Ω resistor. 2 D C I1 B I2 4 5V (I1 +I2 ) I2 I1 E 10 F A Answers 2.1 (c) 2.2 (d) 2.3 (a) 2.4 (c) 2.5 (d) 2.6 (c) 2.7 (b) 2.8 (d) 2.9 (d) 2.10 (d) 2.17 33 k Ω 2.31 80s 2.33 2.30 2.32 6 Ω and 4Ω 2.35 3.33 Ω 2.37 0.5 A, –0.25 A, 0.25 A 2.39 1 Ω 2.41 1.25 × 10−5 m s–1 4.396 µ Ω m 2.34 3 Ω and 2A 2.36 24 V 2.38 5.52 Ω 2.40 200 Ω 1 kWh 2.42 Rs. 110 2.43 1.5 mA; 2.25 mW 2.44 1.082 × 10–6 Ω m 2.45 0.9 A 2.46 0.088A, 0.294A, 3.82 V 87 3. Effects of electric current The ideas of electric current, electromotive force having been already discussed in the preceding chapter, we shall discuss in this chapter the physical consequences of electric current. Living in an electrical and interestingly in an electronic age, we are familiar with many practical applications of electric current, such as bulbs, electroplating, electric fans, electric motors etc. In a source of emf, a part of the energy may go into useful work like in an electric motor. The remaining part of the energy is dissipated in the form of heat in the resistors. This is the heating effect of current. Just as current produces thermal energy, thermal energy may also be suitably used to produce an emf. This is thermoelectric effect. This effect is not only a cause but also a consequence of current. A steady electric current produces a magnetic field in surrounding space. This important physical consequence of current is magnetic effect of electric current. 3.1 Heating effect : Joule’s law In a conductor, the free electrons are always at random motion making collisions with ions or atoms of the conductor. When a voltage V is applied between the ends of the conductor, resulting in the flow of current I, the free electrons are accelerated. Hence the electrons gain energy at the rate of VI per second. The lattice ions or atoms receive this energy VI from the colliding electrons in random bursts. This increase in energy is nothing but the thermal energy of the lattice. Thus for a steady current I, the amount of heat produced in time t is H = VIt ...(1) For a resistance R, H = I2Rt ...(2) and 2 V t ...(3) R The above relations were experimentally verified by Joule and are known as Joule’s law of heating. By equation (2) Joule’s law implies H = 88 that the heat produced is (i) directly proportional to the square of the current for a given R (ii) directly proportional to resistance R for a given I and (iii) directly proportional to the time of passage of current. Also by equation (3), the heat produced is inversely proportional to resistance R for a given V. 3.1.1 Verification of Joule’s law Joule’s law is verified using Joule’s calorimeter. It consists of a resistance coil R enclosed inside a copper calorimeter (Fig 3.1). The ends of the coil are connected to two terminals, fixed to the lid of the calorimeter. A stirrer and a thermometer T are inserted through two holes in the lid. Two thirds of the volume of the calorimeter is filled with water. The calorimeter is enclosed in a wooden box to minimise loss of heat. K + A + Bt + Rh V T R A battery (Bt), a key (K), a Fig 3.1 Joule’s calorimeter rheostat (Rh) and an ammeter (A) are connected in series with the calorimeter. A voltmeter (V) is connected across the ends of the coil R. (i) Law of current The initial temperature of water is measured as θ1. Let W be the heat capacity of the calorimeter and contents. Now a current of I1 is passed for a time of t (about 20 minutes). The final temperature (θ2) (after applying necessary correction) is noted. The quantity of heat gained by calorimeter and the contents is calculated as H1 = W (θ2−θ1). Water is then cooled to θ1. The experiment is repeated by passing currents I2, I3 .. etc., through the same coil for the same interval of time t and the corresponding quantities of heat H2, H3 etc. are calculated. It is found that H1 I12 = H2 I22 = H3 I32 89 i.e H I2 = a constant i.e H α I2 i.e. Hence, law of current is verified. (ii) Law of resistance The same amount of current I is passed for the same time t through different coils of resistances R1, R2, R3 etc. The corresponding quantities of heat gained H1, H2, H3 etc. are calculated. It is found that, H1 R1 = H2 H3 = R3 R2 H = constant R i.e H α R. Hence, law of resistance is verified. (iii) Law of time The same amount of current I is passed through the same resistance R for different intervals of time t1, t2, t3 etc. The corresponding quantities of heat gained H1, H2, H3 etc. are calculated. It is found that H1 H2 H3 = = t1 t2 t3 H = constant t i.e H α t. Hence, law of time is verified. 3.1.2 Some applications of Joule heating (i) Electric heating device Electric iron, electric heater, electric toaster are some of the appliances that work on the principle of heating effect of current. In these appliances, Nichrome which is an alloy of nickel and chromium is used as the heating element for the following reasons. (1) It has high specific resistance (2) It has high melting point (3) It is not easily oxidized 90 (ii) Fuse wire Fuse wire is an alloy of lead 37% and tin 63%. It is connected in series in an electric circuit. It has high resistance and low melting point. When large current flows through a circuit due to short circuiting, the fuse wire melts due to heating and hence the circuit becomes open. Therefore, the electric appliances are saved from damage. (iii) Electric bulb Since the resistance of the filament in the bulb is high, the quantity of heat produced is also high. Therefore, the filament is heated to incandescence and emits light. Tungsten with a high melting point (3380oC) is used as the filament. The filament is usually enclosed in a glass bulb containing some inert gas at low pressure. Electric arc and electric welding also work on the principle of heating effect of current. In some cases such as transformers and dynamos, Joule heating effect is undesirable. These devices are designed in such a way as to reduce the loss of energy due to heating. 3.1.3 Seebeck effect In 1821, German Physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that in a circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals like iron and copper, an emf is developed when the junctions are maintained at different temperatures. Two dissimilar metals connected to form two junctions is called thermocouple. The emf developed in the circuit is thermo electric emf. The current through the circuit is called thermoelectric current. This G Cu G Cu Fe Fe ºC 1 2 Hot Junction ºC 2 ºC ºC 1 Hot Junction Cold Junction Cold Junction (a) (b) Fig 3.2 Seebeck effect 91 effect is called thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect. If the hot and cold junctions are interchanged, the direction of current also reverses. Hence Seebeck effect is reversible. In a Cu-Fe thermocouple (Fig 3.2a), the direction of the current is from copper to iron at the hot junction (Fig 3.2b). The magnitude and sign of thermo emf depends on the materials of the two conductors and the temperatures of the hot and cold junctions. Seebeck after studying the thermoelectric properties of different pairs of metals, arranged them in a series called thermoelectric series. The direction of the current at the hot junction is from the metal occurring earlier in the series to the one occurring later in the series. The magnitude of thermoemf is larger for metals appearing farther apart in the series. The thermo-electric series of metals is : Bi, Ni, Pd, Pt, Cu, Mn, Hg, Pb, Sn, Au, Ag, Zn, Cd, Fe, Sb. The position of the metal in the series depends upon the temperature. The thermoemf of any thermocouple has the temperature dependence given by the relation, V = α θ + ½ β θ2, where θ is the temperature difference between the junctions and α and β are constants depending on the nature of the materials. 3.1.4 Neutral and Inversion temperature The graph showing the variation of thermoemf with temperature of the hot junction, taking the temperature of the cold Thermo junction (θC) as origin is shown in emf (mv) Fig 3.3. For small difference in temperature between the junctions, the graph is a straight line. For large difference in C n i temperature, the graph is a Temperature of hot junction parabola. Fig 3.3 Graph showing the variation of thermo emf with temperature Keeping the temperature of the cold junction constant, the temperature of the hot junction is gradually increased. The thermo emf rises to a maximum at a 92 temperature (θn) called neutral temperature and then gradually decreases and eventually becomes zero at a particular temperature (θi) called temperature of inversion. Beyond the temperature of inversion, the thermoemf changes sign and then increases. For a given thermocouple, the neutral temperature is a constant, but the temperature of inversion depends upon the temperature of cold junction. These temperatures are related by the expression θc + θ i 2 = θn 3.1.5 Peltier effect In 1834, a French scientist Peltier discovered that when electric current is passed through a circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals, heat is evolved at one junction and absorbed at the other junction. This is called Peltier effect. Peltier effect is the converse of Seebeck effect. Cu Cu 1 Cooled 1 Heated 2 Heated Fe 2 Cooled Fe (a) (b) Fig 3.4 Peltier effect In a Cu-Fe thermocouple, at the junction 1 (Fig 3.4a) where the current flows from Cu to Fe, heat is absorbed (so, it gets cooled) and at the junction 2 where the current flows from Fe to Cu heat is liberated (so, it gets heated). When the direction of the current is reversed (Fig 3.4b) junction 1 gets heated and the junction 2 gets cooled. Hence Peltier effect is reversible. Peltier Co-efficient (π) The amount of heat energy absorbed or evolved at one of the junctions of a thermocouple when one ampere current flows for one second (one coulomb) is called Peltier coefficient. It is denoted by π. Its unit is volt. If H is the quantity of heat absorbed or evolved at one junction then H = π It The Peltier coefficient at a junction is the Peltier emf at that junction. The Peltier coefficient depends on the pair of metals in contact and the temperature of the junction. 93 3.1.6 `Thomson effect Thomson suggested that when a current flows through unequally heated conductors, heat energy is absorbed or evolved throughout the body of the metal. Heat evolved Heat evolved C A M C N B A (a) Positive effect M N B (b) Negative effect Fig. 3.5 Thomson effect Consider a copper bar AB heated in the middle at the point C and current flowing as shown in Fig. 3.5a. When no current is flowing, the point M and N equidistant from C are at the same temperature. When current is passed from A to B. N shows higher temperature compared to M. Similarly, B will show higher temperature as compared to A. It means from A to C heat is absorbed and from C to B heat is evolved. This is known as positive Thomson effect. Similar effect is observed in the case of Sb, Ag, Zn, Cd, etc. When the current is passed from B to A, M will show higher temperature as compared to N. In the case of Iron (fig. 3.5b), when it is heated at the point C and current is flowing from A to B, M shows higher temperature as compared to N. It means from A to C, heat is evolved and from C to B heat is absorbed. This is negative Thomson effect. Similar effect is observed in the case of Pt, Bi, Co, Ni, Hg, etc. If we take a bar of lead and heat it at the middle point C, the point M and N equidistant from C show the same temperature when current is flowing from A to B or from B to A. Therefore, in the case of lead, Thomson effect is nil. Due to this reason, lead is used as one of the metals to form a thermo couple with other metals for the purpose of drawing thermo electric diagrams. 94 Thomson coefficient (σ) The amount of heat energy absorbed or evolved when one ampere current flows for one second (one coulomb) in a metal between two points which differ in temperature by 1oC is called Thomson coefficient. It is denoted by σ. Its unit is volt per oC. 3.1.7 Thermopile Thermopile is a device used to detect thermal radiation. It works on the principle of Seebeck effect. Bi A 5 Sheildi 4 Incident radiation 3 G 2 1 B Sb Fig 3.6 Thermopile Since a single thermocouple gives a very small emf, a large number of thermocouples are connected in series. The ends are connected to a galvanometer G (Fig. 3.6). One set of junctions (1,3,5) is blackened to absorb completely the thermal radiation falling on it. The other set of junctions (2,4) called cold junction is shielded from the radiation. When thermal radiation falls on one set of junctions (1, 3, 5) a difference in temperature between the junctions is created and a large thermo emf is produced. The deflection in the galvanometer is proportional to the intensity of radiation. 3.2 Magnetic effect of current In 1820, Danish Physicist, Hans Christian Oersted observed that current through a wire caused a deflection in a nearby magnetic needle. This indicates that magnetic field is associated with a current carrying conductor. 95 3.2.1 Magnetic field around a straight conductor carrying current A smooth cardboard with iron filings spread over it, is fixed in a horizontal plane with the help of a clamp. A straight wire passes through a hole made at the centre of the cardboard (Fig 3.7). I A current is passed through the wire by connecting its ends to a battery. When the cardboard is gently tapped, it is found that the iron filings arrange themselves along concentric circles. This clearly shows that magnetic field is developed around a current carrying conductor. Fig 3.7 Magnetic field around a To find the direction of the magnetic field, let straight conductor us imagine, a straight wire passes through the carrying current plane of the paper and perpendicular to it. When a compass needle is placed, it comes to rest in such a way that its axis is always tangential to a circular field around the conductor. When the current is inwards (Fig 3.8a) the direction of the magnetic field around the conductor looks clockwise. N S S N S N N S (a ) Current inwards Fig 3.8 (b) Current Outwards When the direction of the current is reversed, that it is outwards, (Fig 3.8b) the direction of the magnetic pole of the compass needle also changes showing the reversal of the direction of the magnetic field. Now, it is anticlockwise around the conductor. This proves that the direction of the magnetic field also depends on the direction of the current in the conductor. This is given by Maxwell’s rule. Maxwells’s right hand cork screw rule If a right handed cork screw is rotated to advance along the direction of the current through a conductor, then the direction of rotation of the screw gives the direction of the magnetic lines of force around the conductor. 96 3.2.2 Magnetic field due to a circular loop carrying current A cardboard is fixed in a horizontal plane. A circular loop of wire passes through two holes in the cardboard as shown in Fig 3.9. Iron filings are sprinkled over the cardboard. Current is passed through Fig 3.9 Magnetic field due to a circular loop the loop and the carrying current card board is gently tapped. It is observed that the iron filings arrange themselves along the resultant magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force are almost circular around the wire where it passes through the cardboard. At the centre of the loop, the line of force is almost straight and perpendicular to the plane of the circular loop. Biot – Savart Law Biot and Savart conducted many experiments to determine the factors on which the magnetic field due to current in a conductor depends. The results of the experiments are summarized as Biot-Savart law. Let us consider a conductor XY carrying a current I (Fig 3.10). AB = dl is a small element of the conductor. P is a point at a distance r from the mid point O of AB. According to Biot and Savart, the magnetic induction dB at P due to the element of length dl is 97 n of dl Y dl A B di re ct io 3.3 O r I P X Fig 3.10 Biot - Savart Law (i) directly proportional to the current (I) (ii) directly proportional to the length of the element (dl ) (iii) directly proportional to the sine of the angle between dl and the line joining element dl and the point P (sin θ) (iv) inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the point from the element ( ∴ 1 ) r2 dB α I dl sin θ r2 I dl sin θ dB = K , K is the constant of proportionality r2 µ where µ is the permeability of the medium. 4π µ I dl sin θ dB = 4π r2 µ = µr µo where µr is the relative permeability of the medium and is the permeability of free space. µo = 4π × 10–7 henry/metre. For air = 1. µo I . dl sin θ So, in air medium dB = . r2 4π The constant K = µ0 µr In vector form, dB = µo Idl × r 4π r 3 or dB = µo Idl × r 4π r2 The direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane containing current element Idl and r (i.e plane of the paper) and acts inwards. The unit of magnetic induction is tesla (or) weber m-2. 3.3.1 Magnetic induction due to infinitely long straight conductor carrying current XY is an infinitely long straight conductor carrying a current I (Fig 3.11). P is a point at a distance a from the conductor. AB is a small element of length dl. θ is the angle between the current element I dl and the line joining the element dl and the point P. According to BiotSavart law, the magnetic induction at the point P due to the current element Idl is dB = µo 4π Idl .sin θ r2 ...(1) 98 AC is drawn perpendicular to BP from A. OPA = φ, APB = dφ In ∆ ABC, sin θ = ∴ AC = dl sin θ B AC AC = dl AB A r ...(2) ...(3) From equations (2) and (3), rdφ=dl sinθ ...(4) substituting equation (4) in equation (1) µo I rdφ µ o I dφ dB = = ...(5) r 4π 4π r2 ∴ C dl From ∆ APC, AC = rdφ In ∆ OPA, cos φ = Y d 2 a O P 1 I a r a r = cos φ ...(6) substituting equation (6) in equation (5) X Fig 3.11 Straight conductor µo I cos φ dφ 4π a The total magnetic induction at P due to the conductor XY is dB = ∫ −φ φ2 B = ∫φ φ2 dB = −1 µo I cos φ dφ 4π a µo I [sin φ1 + sin φ2] 4π a For infinitely long conductor, φ1 = φ2 = 90o 1 B = µo I 2π a If the conductor is placed in a medium of permeability µ, ∴ B = µI 2π a 3.3.2 Magnetic induction along the axis of a circular coil carrying current B = Let us consider a circular coil of radius ‘a’ with a current I as shown in Fig 3.12. P is a point along the axis of the coil at a distance x from the centre O of the coil. 99 AB is an infinitesimally small element of length dl. C is the mid point of AB and CP = r According to Biot – Savart law, the magnetic induction at P due to the element dl is A dl dB Cos B R C r a I N P O x dB Sin M A/ B/ dB Cos Fig. 3.12 Circular coil µo I dl sin θ , where θ is the angle between Idl and r 4π r2 Here, θ = 90o µo I dl ∴ dB = 4π r2 The direction of dB is perpendicular to the current element Idl and CP. It is therefore along PR perpendicular to CP. dB = Considering the diametrically opposite element A′B′, the magnitude of dB at P due to this element is the same as that for AB but its direction is along PM. Let the angle between the axis of the coil and the line joining the element (dl) and the point (P) be α. dB is resolved into two components :- dB sin α along OP and dB cos α perpendicular to OP. dB cos α components due to two opposite elements cancel each other whereas dB sin α components get added up. So, the total magnetic induction at P due to the entire coil is µo Idl a µo Ia B = ∫ dB sin α = ∫ = dl 4π r2 r 4π r3 ∫ µ o Ia = 2πa 4π r 3 µ o Ia 2 = (∵ r2 = a2 + x2) 3 2(a 2 +x 2 )2 If the coil contains n turns, the magnetic induction is µo nIa 2 3 B = 2(a 2 +x 2 )2 At the centre of the coil, x = 0 µ o nI B = 2a 100 3.3.3 Tangent galvanometer Tangent galvanometer is a device used for measuring current. It works on the principle of tangent law. A magnetic needle suspended at a point where there are two crossed fields at right angles to each other will come to rest in the direction of the resultant of the two fields. Construction It consists of a circular coil of wire wound over a non magnetic frame of brass or wood. The vertical frame is mounted on a horizontal circular turn table provided Fig 3.13 Tangent galvanometer with three levelling screws. The (This diagram need not be drawn in vertical frame can be rotated the examination) about its vertical diameter. There is a small upright projection at the centre of the turn table on which a compass box is supported. The compass box consists of a small pivoted magnet to which a thin long aluminium pointer is fixed at right angles. The aluminium pointer can move over a circular scale graduated in degrees. The scale consists of four quadrants. The compass box is supported such that the centre of the pivoted magnetic needle coincides with the centre of the coil. Since the magnetic field at the centre of the coil is uniform over a very small area, a small magnetic needle is used so that it remains in an uniform field even in deflected position. Usually the coil consists of three sections of 2,5 and 50 turns, which are of different thickness, used for measuring currents of different strength. Theory When the plane of the coil is placed parallel to the horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic induction (Bh) and a current is passed 101 Bh through the coil, there will be two magnetic fields acting perpendicular to each other : (1) the magnetic induction (B) due to the current in the coil acting normal to the plane of the coil and (2) the horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic induction (Bh) (Fig 3.14). Due to these two crossed fields, the pivoted magnetic needle is deflected through an angle θ. According to tangent Law, B = Bh tan θ N B S Fig 3.14 Tangent law ...(1) If a current I passes through the coil of n turns and of radius a, the magnetic induction at the centre of the coil is µ o nI ...(2) 2a Substituting equation (2) in equation (1) B = µ o nI = Bh tan θ 2a 2aBh ∴ I = µ n tan θ o I = K tan θ ...(3) 2aBh where K = µ n is called the reduction factor of the tangent o galvanometer. It is a constant at a place. Using this equation, current in the circuit can be determined. of Since the tangent galvanometer is most sensitive at a deflection the deflection has to be adjusted to be between 300 and 600. 450, 3.4 Ampere’s Circuital Law Biot – Savart law expressed in an alternative way is called Ampere’s circuital law. The magnetic induction due to an infinitely long straight current carrying conductor is µo I 2π a B (2πa) = µoI B (2πa) is the product of the magnetic field and the circumference of the circle of radius ‘a’ on which the magnetic field is constant. If L B = 102 is the perimeter of the closed curve and Io is the net current enclosed by the closed curve, then the above equation may be expressed as, BL = µoIo ....(1) In a more generalized way, Ampere’s circuital law is written as →→ ....(2) ∫ B. dl = µoIo The line integral does not depend on the shape of the path or the position of the wire within the magnetic field. If the current in the wire is in the opposite direction, the integral would have the opposite sign. If the closed path does not encircle the wire (if a wire lies outside the path), the line integral of the field of that wire is zero. Although derived for the case of a number of long straight parallel conductors, the law is true for conductors and paths of any shape. Ampere’s circuital law is hence defined using equation (1) as follows : →→ The line integral ∫ B. dl for a closed curve is equal to µo times the net current Io through the area bounded by the curve. 3.4.1 Solenoid A long closely wound helical P coil is called a solenoid. Fig 3.15 shows a section of stretched out solenoid. The magnetic field due to the solenoid is the vector sum of the magnetic fields due to current through individual turns of the solenoid. The magnetic fields associated with each single turn are Fig 3.15 Magnetic field due to a current carrying solenoid. almost concentric circles and hence tend to cancel between the turns. At the interior mid point, the field is strong and along the axis of the solenoid (i.e) the field is parallel to the axis. For a point such as P, the field due to the upper part of the solenoid turns tend to cancel the field due to the lower part of the solenoid turns, acting in opposite directions. Hence the field outside the solenoid is nearly zero. The direction of the magnetic field due to circular closed loops (solenoid) is given by right hand palm-rule. 103 Right hand palm rule The coil is held in the right hand so that the fingers point in the direction of the current in the windings. The extended thumb, points in the direction of the magnetic field. 3.4.2 Magnetic induction due to a long solenoid carrying current. Let us consider an infinitely long solenoid having n turns per unit length carrying a current of I. For such an ideal solenoid (whose length is very large Fig 3.16 Right compared to its radius), the magnetic field at points hand palm rule outside the solenoid is zero. A long solenoid appears like a long cylindrical metal sheet (Fig 3.17). The upper view of dots a b l is like a uniform current sheet coming out of the plane of the paper. The lower Fig 3.17 Magnetic field due row of crosses is like a to a long solenoid. uniform current sheet going into the plane of the paper. To find the magnetic induction (B) at a point inside the solenoid, let us →→ consider a rectangular Amperean loop abcd. The line integral ∫ B. dl d c for the loop abcd is the sum of four integrals. ∴ ∫ →→ B. dl = ∫ b a →→ B. dl + ∫ c →→ B. dl + b ∫ d c →→ B. dl + ∫ a →→ B. dl d If l is the length of the loop, the first integral on the right side → is Bl. The second and fourth integrals are equal to zero because B is → at right angles for every element dl along the path. The third integral is zero since the magnetic field at points outside the solenoid is zero. →→ ∴ ...(1) ∫ B. dl = Bl Since the path of integration includes nl turns, the net current enclosed by the closed loop is 104 Io = Inl ...(2) Ampere’s circuital law for a closed loop is →→ ...(3) ∫ B. dl = µoIo Substituting equations (1) and (2) in equation (3) Bl = µo Inl ∴ B = µonI ...(4) The solenoid is commonly used to obtain uniform magnetic field. By inserting a soft iron core inside the solenoid, a large magnetic field is produced B = µnI = µo µrnI ...(5) when a current carrying solenoid is freely suspended, it comes to rest like a suspended bar magnet pointing along north-south. The magnetic polarity of the current carrying solenoid is given by End rule. End rule When looked from one end, if the S N N S current through the (a) (b) Fig 3.18 End rule solenoid is along clockwise direction Fig 3.18a, the nearer end corresponds to south pole and the other end is north pole. When looked from one end, if the current through the solenoid is along anti-clock wise direction, the nearer end corresponds to north pole and the other end is south pole (Fig 3.18b) 3.5 Magnetic Lorentz force Z Z v v B B θ +q O θ v sin θ -q O Y F F X v sin θ X (a) Fig 3.19 Lorentz force 105 (b) Y Let us consider a uniform magnetic field of induction B acting along the Z-axis. A particle of charge + q moves with a velocity v in YZ plane making an angle θ with the direction of the field (Fig 3.19a). Under the influence of the field, the particle experiences a force F. H.A.Lorentz formulated the special features of the force F (Magnetic lorentz force) as under : (i) the force F on the charge is zero, if the charge is at rest. (i.e) the moving charges alone are affected by the magnetic field. (ii) the force is zero, if the direction of motion of the charge is either parallel or anti-parallel to the field and the force is maximum, when the charge moves perpendicular to the field. (iii) the force is proportional to the magnitude of the charge (q) (iv) the force is proportional to the magnetic induction (B) (v) the force is proportional to the speed of the charge (v) (vi) the direction of the force is oppositely directed for charges of opposite sign (Fig 3.19b). All these results are combined in a single expression as → → → F = q ( v × B) The magnitude of the force is F = Bqv sin θ Since the force always acts perpendicular to the direction of motion of the charge, the force does not do any work. In the presence of an electric field E and magnetic field B, the total force on a moving charged particle is → → → → F = q [( v × B) + E] 3.5.1 Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field. Let us consider a uniform magnetic field of induction B acting along the Z-axis. A particle of charge q and mass m moves in XY plane. At a point P, the velocity of the particle is v. (Fig 3.20) → → → The magnetic lorentz force on the particle is F = q ( v × B). Hence → → → F acts along PO perpendicular to the plane containing v and B. Since the force acts perpendicular to its velocity, the force does not do any work. So, the magnitude of the velocity remains constant and only 106 its direction changes. The force F acting towards the point O acts as the centripetal force and makes the particle to move along a circular path. At points Q and R, the particle experiences force along QO and RO respectively. → → Since v and B are at right angles to each other Z B R Q F B Y P This magnetic lorentz force provides the necessary centripetal force. mv 2 r mv r = Bq Bqv v F O F X F = Bqv sin 900 = Bqv B v B v Fig 3.20 Motion of a charged particle = ...(1) It is evident from this equation, that the radius of the circular path is proportional to (i) mass of the particle and (ii) velocity of the particle From equation (1), ω = Bq v = r m Bq ...(2) m This equation gives the angular frequency of the particle inside the magnetic field. Period of rotation of the particle, 2π ω 2π m T = Bq T = ...(3) From equations (2) and (3), it is evident that the angular frequency and period of rotation of the particle in the magnetic field do not depend upon (i) the velocity of the particle and (ii) radius of the circular path. 107 3.5.2 Cyclotron Cyclotron is a device used to accelerate charged particles to high energies. It was devised by Lawrence. Principle Cyclotron works on the principle that a charged particle moving normal to a magnetic field experiences magnetic lorentz force due to which the particle moves in a circular path. Construction D.P T S D1 D2 S It consists of a hollow metal cylinder divided into two sections D1 and D2 called Dees, enclosed in an evacuated chamber (Fig 3.21). The Dees are kept separated and a source of ions is placed at the centre in the gap between the Dees. They are placed between the pole pieces of a strong electromagnet. The magnetic field acts perpendicular to the plane of the Dees. The Dees are connected to a high frequency oscillator. Fig 3.21 Cyclotron Working When a positive ion of charge q and mass m is emitted from the source, it is accelerated towards the Dee having a negative potential at that instant of time. Due to the normal magnetic field, the ion experiences magnetic lorentz force and moves in a circular path. By the time the ion arrives at the gap between the Dees, the polarity of the Dees gets reversed. Hence the particle is once again accelerated and moves into the other Dee with a greater velocity along a circle of greater radius. Thus the particle moves in a spiral path of increasing radius and when it comes near the edge, it is taken out with the help of a deflector plate (D.P). The particle with high energy is now allowed to hit the target T. When the particle moves along a circle of radius r with a velocity v, the magnetic Lorentz force provides the necessary centripetal force. 108 Bqv = ∴ mv 2 r Bq v = = constant r m ...(1) The time taken to describe a semi-circle t = πr v Substituting equation (1) in (2), πm t = Bq …(2) …(3) It is clear from equation (3) that the time taken by the ion to describe a semi-circle is independent of (i) the radius (r) of the path and (ii) the velocity (v) of the particle Hence, period of rotation T = 2t ∴ T = 2π m Bq = constant ...(4) So, in a uniform magnetic field, the ion traverses all the circles in exactly the same time. The frequency of rotation of the particle, υ = Bq 1 = 2π m T …(5) If the high frequency oscillator is adjusted to produce oscillations of frequency as given in equation (5), resonance occurs. Cyclotron α - particles. is used to accelerate protons, deutrons and Limitations (i) Maintaining a uniform magnetic field over a large area of the Dees is difficult. (ii) At high velocities, relativistic variation of mass of the particle upsets the resonance condition. (iii) At high frequencies, relativistic variation of mass of the electron is appreciable and hence electrons cannot be accelerated by cyclotron. 109 3.6 Force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field. Let us consider a conductor PQ of length l and area of cross section A. The conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic field of induction B making an angle θ with the field [Fig 3.22]. A current I flows along PQ. Hence, the electrons are drifted along QP with drift velocity vd. If n is the number of free electrons per unit volume in the conductor, then the current is B I Q vd l Y P I = nAvde Multiplying both sides by the length l of the conductor, ∴ Z Il = nAvdel. Therefore the current element, → → Il = –nAvdel Fig 3.22 Force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field ...(1) The negative sign in the equation indicates that the direction of current is opposite to the direction of drift velocity of the electrons. Since the electrons move under the influence of magnetic field, the magnetic lorentz force on a moving electron. → → → f = –e (vd × B) …(2) The negative sign indicates that the charge of the electron is negative. The number of free electrons in the conductor N = nAl ...(3) The magnetic lorentz force on all the moving free electrons → → F = Nf Substituting equations (2) and (3) in the above equation → → → F = nAl { –e (vd × B) } → → → F = –nAl e vd × B ...(4) 110 Substituting equation (1) in equation (4) → → → F = Il × B This total force on all the moving free electrons is the force on the current carrying conductor placed in the magnetic field. Magnitude of the force The magnitude of the force is F = BIl sin θ (i) If the conductor is placed along the direction of the magnetic field, θ = 0o, Therefore force F = 0. (ii) If the conductor is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field, θ = 90o, F = BIl. Therefore the conductor experiences maximum force. Direction of force The direction of the force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field is given by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule. The forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the left hand are stretched in mutually perpendicular directions. If the forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic field, the middle finger points in the direction of the current, then the thumb points in the direction of the force on the conductor. 3.6.1 Force between two long parallel current-carrying conductors AB and CD are two straight very long parallel conductors placed I1 in air at a distance a. They carry currents I1 and I2 respectively. (Fig 3.23). The magnetic induction due to current I1 in AB at a distance B2 outwards a is B D I2 B1 inwards F F µo I1 B1 = ...(1) 2π a This magnetic field acts C A perpendicular to the plane of the Fig. 3.23 Force between two paper and inwards. The conductor long parallel current-carrying conductors CD with current I2 is situated in this magnetic field. Hence, force on a segment of length l of CD due to magnetic field B1 is a 111 F = B1I2l substituting equation (1) µ o I1I2l ...(2) 2π a By Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, F acts towards left. Similarly, the magnetic induction due to current I2 flowing in CD at a distance a is F = µo I2 ...(3) 2π a This magnetic field acts perpendicular to the plane of the paper and outwards. The conductor AB with current I1, is situated in this field. Hence force on a segment of length l of AB due to magnetic field B2 is F = B2I1l substituting equation (3) µ o I1I2l ∴ F = …(4) 2π a By Fleming’s left hand rule, this force acts towards right. These two forces given in equations (2) and (4) attract each other. Hence, two parallel wires carrying currents in the same direction attract each other and if they carry currents in the opposite direction, repel each other. B2 = Definition of ampere The force between two parallel wires carrying currents on a segment of length l is µ o I1I2 l 2π a ∴ Force per unit length of the conductor is µ o I1I2 F = l 2π a If I1 = I2 = 1A, a = 1m F = µo F = 2π l 4π × 10-7 1 × 1 = = 2 × 10-7 Nm-1 2π 1 The above conditions lead the following definition of ampere. Ampere is defined as that constant current which when flowing through two parallel infinitely long straight conductors of negligible cross section and placed in air or vacuum at a distance of one metre apart, experience a force of 2 × 10-7 newton per unit length of the conductor. 112 3.7 Torque experienced by a current loop in a uniform magnetic field Let us consider a rectangular loop PQRS of length l and breadth b (Fig 3.24). It carries a current of I along PQRS. The loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field of induction B. Let θ be the angle between the normal to the plane of the loop and the direction of the magnetic field. S F2 F4 B P n B F4 S I B B R F3 B Q n P n N F3 F1 Fig 3.24 Torque on a current loop placed in a magnetic field Fig 3.25 Torque → → Force on the arm QR, F1 = I(QR) × B → Since the angle between I(QR) and B is (90o – θ), Magnitude of the force F1 = BIb sin (90o – θ) F1 = BIb cos θ → → Force on the arm SP, F2 = I(SP) × B → Since the angle between I(SP) and B is (90o + θ), ie. Magnitude of the force F2 = BIb cos θ The forces F1 and F2 are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and have the same line of action. Hence their resultant effect on the loop is zero. → → Force on the arm PQ, F3 = I(PQ) × B → Since the angle between I(PQ) and B is 90o, 113 Magnitude of the force F3 = BIl sin 90o = BIl F3 acts perpendicular to the plane of the paper and outwards. → → Force on the arm RS, F4 = I(RS) × B → Since the angle between I(RS) and B is 90o, Magnitude of the force F4 = BIl sin 90o = BIl F4 acts perpendicular to the plane of the paper and inwards. The forces F3 and F4 are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and have different lines of action. So, they constitute a couple. Hence, Torque = BIl × PN = BIl × PS × sin θ (Fig 3.25) = BIl × b sin θ = BIA sin θ If the coil contains n turns, τ = nBIA sin θ So, the torque is maximum when the coil is parallel to the magnetic field and zero when the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field. 3.7.1 Moving coil galvanometer Moving coil galvanometer is a device used for measuring the current in a circuit. Principle Moving coil galvanometer works on the principle that a current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque. Construction It consists of a rectangular coil of a large number of turns of thin insulated copper wire wound over a light metallic frame (Fig 3.26). The coil is suspended between the pole pieces of a horse-shoe magnet by a fine phosphor – bronze strip from a movable torsion head. The lower end of the coil is connected to a hair spring (HS) of phosphor bronze having only a few turns. The other end of the spring is connected to a binding screw. A soft iron cylinder is placed symmetrically inside the coil. The hemispherical magnetic poles produce a radial magnetic field in which the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field in all its positions (Fig 3.27). 114 A small plane mirror (m) attached to the suspension wire is used along with a lamp and scale arrangement to measure the deflection of the coil. T m T2 T1 P S Q R N S N S s Fig 3.26 Moving coil galvanometer Fig 3.27 Radial magnetic field Theory Let PQRS be a single turn of the coil (Fig 3.28). A current I flows through the coil. In a radial magnetic field, the plane of the coil is always parallel to the magnetic field. Hence the sides QR and SP are always parallel to the field. So, they do not experience any force. The sides PQ and RS are always perpendicular to the field. PQ = RS = l, length of the coil and PS = QR = b, breadth of the coil Force on PQ, F = BI (PQ) = BIl. According to Fleming’s left hand rule, this force is normal to the plane of the coil and acts outwards. P S F I F B B P b F F R Q Torque on the coil Fig 3.28 Fig 3.29 115 S Force on RS, F = BI (RS) = BIl. This force is normal to the plane of the coil and acts inwards. These two equal, oppositely directed parallel forces having different lines of action constitute a couple and deflect the coil. If there are n turns in the coil, moment of the deflecting couple = n BIl × b (Fig 3.29) = nBIA When the coil deflects, the suspension wire is twisted. On account of elasticity, a restoring couple is set up in the wire. This couple is proportional to the twist. If θ is the angular twist, then, moment of the restoring couple = Cθ where C is the restoring couple per unit twist At equilibrium, deflecting couple = restoring couple nBIA = Cθ ∴ I = C θ nBA I = K θ where K = C is the galvanometer constant. nBA i.e I α θ. Since the deflection is directly proportional to the current flowing through the coil, the scale is linear and is calibrated to give directly the value of the current. 3.7.2 Pointer type moving coil galvanometer The suspended coil galvanometers are very sensitive. They can measure current of the order of 10-8 ampere. Hence these galvanometers have to be carefully handled. So, in the laboratory, for experiments like Wheatstone’s bridge, where sensitivity is not required, pointer type galvanometers are used. In this type of galvanometer, the coil is pivoted on ball bearings. A lighter aluminium pointer attached to the coil moves over a scale when current is passed. The restoring couple is provided by a spring. 3.7.3 Current sensitivity of a galvanometer. The current sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced when unit current passes through the 116 galvanometer. A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if it produces large deflection for a small current. In a galvanometer, I = ∴ C θ nBA θ nBA …(1) I C The current sensitivity of a galvanometer can be increased by Current sensitivity = (i) increasing the number of turns (ii) increasing the magnetic induction (iii) increasing the area of the coil (iv) decreasing the couple per unit twist of the suspension wire. This explains why phosphor-bronze wire is used as the suspension wire which has small couple per unit twist. 3.7.4 Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer The voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection per unit voltage. ∴ θ nBA θ = = IG CG V where G is the galvanometer resistance. Voltage sensitivity ...(2) An interesting point to note is that, increasing the current sensitivity does not necessarily, increase the voltage sensitivity. When the number of turns (n) is doubled, current sensitivity is also doubled (equation 1). But increasing the number of turns correspondingly increases the resistance (G). Hence voltage sensitivity remains unchanged. 3.7.5 Conversion of galvanometer into an ammeter A galvanometer is a device used to detect the flow of current in an electrical circuit. Eventhough the deflection is directly proportional to the current, the galvanometer scale is not marked in ampere. Being a very sensitive instrument, a large current cannot be passed through the galvanometer, as it may damage the coil. However, a galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance in parallel with it. As a result, when large current flows in a circuit, only a small fraction of the current passes through the galvanometer and the remaining larger portion of the current passes through the low 117 Ig I resistance. The low resistance connected in parallel with the galvanometer is called shunt resistance. The scale is marked in ampere. I G I-Ig S The value of shunt resistance depends on the fraction of the total current Ammeter required to be passed through Fig 3.30 Conversion of galvanometer the galvanometer. Let Ig be the into an ammeter maximum current that can be passed through the galvanometer. The current Ig will give full scale deflection in the galvanometer. Galvanometer resistance = G Shunt resistance = S Current in the circuit = I ∴ Current through the shunt resistance = Is = (I–Ig) Since the galvanometer and shunt resistance are parallel, potential is common. ∴ Ig . G = (I- Ig)S Ig ...(1) S = G I-I g The shunt resistance is very small because Ig is only a fraction of I. The effective resistance of the ammeter Ra is (G in parallel with S) ∴ 1 1 1 Ra = G + S GS Ra = G + S Ra is very low and this explains why an ammeter should be connected in series. When connected in series, the ammeter does not appreciably change the resistance and current in the circuit. Hence an ideal ammeter is one which has zero resistance. 118 3.7.6 Conversion of galvanometer into a voltmeter Voltmeter is an instrument used to measure potential difference between the two ends of a current carrying conductor. R G Ig A galvanometer can be Voltmeter converted into a voltmeter by Fig 3.31 Conversion of connecting a high resistance in galvanometer into voltmeter series with it. The scale is calibrated in volt. The value of the resistance connected in series decides the range of the voltmeter. Galvanometer resistance = G The current required to produce full scale deflection in the galvanometer = Ig Range of voltmeter = V Resistance to be connected in series = R Since R is connected in series with the galvanometer, the current through the galvanometer, V Ig = R + G V ∴ R = I – G g From the equation the resistance to be connected in series with the galvanometer is calculated. The effective resistance of the voltmeter is Rv = G + R Rv is very large, and hence a voltmeter is connected in parallel in a circuit as it draws the least current from the circuit. In other words, the resistance of the voltmeter should be very large compared to the resistance across which the voltmeter is connected to measure the potential difference. Otherwise, the voltmeter will draw a large current from the circuit and hence the current through the remaining part of the circuit decreases. In such a case the potential difference measured by the voltmeter is very much less than the actual potential difference. The error is eliminated only when the voltmeter has a high resistance. An ideal voltmeter is one which has infinite resistance. 119 3.8 Current loop as a magnetic dipole Ampere found that the distribution of magnetic lines of force around a finite current carrying solenoid is similar to that produced by a bar magnet. This is evident from the fact that a compass needle when moved around these two bodies show similar deflections. After noting the close resemblance between these two, Ampere demonstrated that a simple current loop behaves like a bar magnet and put forward that all the magnetic phenomena is due to circulating electric current. This is Ampere’s hypothesis. The magnetic induction at a point along the axis of a circular coil carrying current is µo nIa 2 3 B = 2 (a 2 +x 2 )2 The direction of this magnetic field is along the axis and is given by right hand rule. For points which are far away from the centre of the coil, x>>a, a2 is small and it is neglected. Hence for such points, µo nIa 2 2x 3 If we consider a circular loop, n = 1, its area A = πa2 B = ∴ B = µ o IA 2π x 3 ...(1) The magnetic induction at a point along the axial line of a short bar magnet is B = µo 2M . 3 4π x B = µo M . 3 2π x ...(2) Comparing equations (1) and (2), we find that M = IA ...(3) Hence a current loop is equivalent to a magnetic dipole of moment M = IA The magnetic moment of a current loop is defined as the product of the current and the loop area. Its direction is perpendicular to the plane of the loop. 120 3.9 The magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron According to Neil Bohr’s atom model, the negatively charged electron is revolving around a positively charged nucleus in a circular orbit of radius r. The revolving electron in a closed path constitutes an electric current. The motion of the electron in anticlockwise direction produces conventional current in clockwise direction. Current, i = e where T is the period of revolution of the electron. T If v is the orbital velocity of the electron, then 2π r v T = ∴ i = ev 2π r Due to the orbital motion of the electron, there will be orbital magnetic moment µl µl = i A, where A is the area of the orbit ev . πr2 2π r evr µl = 2 If m is the mass of the electron µl = µl e (mvr) 2m mvr is the angular momentum (l) of the electron about the central nucleus. µl l µl = = = e l 2m … (1) e is called gyromagnetic ratio and is a constant. Its value 2m is 8.8 × 1010 C kg-1. Bohr hypothesised that the angular momentum has only discrete set of values given by the equation. l = nh 2π ...(2) where n is a natural number and h is the Planck’s constant = 6.626 × 10–34 Js. substituting equation (2) in equation (1) 121 µl = e nh neh . = 2m 2π 4πm The minimum value of magnetic moment is (µl)min = The value of eh , n = 1 4πm eh is called Bohr magneton 4πm By substituting the values of e, h and m, the value of Bohr magneton is found to be 9.27 × 10–24 Am2 In addition to the magnetic moment due to its orbital motion, the electron possesses magnetic moment due to its spin. Hence the resultant magnetic moment of an electron is the vector sum of its orbital magnetic moment and its spin magnetic moment. Solved problems 3.1 In a Joule’s calorimeter experiment, the temperature of a given quantity of water increases by 5oC when current passes through the resistance coil for 30 minutes and the potential difference across the coil is 6 volt. Find the rise in temperature of water, if the current passes for 20 minutes and the potential difference across the coil is 9 volt. Data : Solution : V1 = 6V, t1 = 30 × 60 s, θ2 – θ1 = dθ = 50C V2 = 9V, t2 = 20 × 60 s, dθ′ = ? V12 t = w dθ R 1 V 22 t = w dθ′ R 2 V22 t 2 dθ ′ = dθ V12 t1 ∴ dθ ′ = V 22 t 2 ⋅ ⋅ dθ V 12 t 1 (9)2 20×60 × ×5 30×60 (6)2 ∴ dθ′ = 7.5oC. = 122 3.2 Calculate the resistance of the filament of a 100 W, electric bulb. 220 V Data : P = 100 W, V = 220 V, R = ? V2 R (220)2 V2 ∴ R = = = 484 Ω 100 P A water heater is marked 1500 W, 220 V. If the voltage drops to 180 V, calculate the power consumed by the heater. Solution : P = 3.3 Data : P1 = 1500 W, V1 = 220 V, V2 = 180 V, P2 = ? V12 R Solution : (i) P1 = ∴ R = P 1 V12 (220)2 = 32.26Ω 1500 = ∴ P2 = Aliter (180)2 V22 = 32.26 R ∴ P2 = 1004 Watt ∴ V2 V12 , P2 = 2 R R P1 V12 = 2 P2 V2 ∴ P2 = P 1 × P1 = V22 (180)2 = 1500 × (220)2 V12 ∴ P2 = 1004 Watt. 3.4 A long straight wire carrying current produces a magnetic induction of 4 × 10-6T at a point, 15 cm from the wire. Calculate the current through the wire. Data : B = 4 × 10-6T, a=15 x 10-2m, I=? Solution : B = ∴I = µo I 2π a B × 2π a µo ∴ I = 3A = 4 × 10 −6 × 2π × 15 × 10 −2 4π × 10 −7 123 3.5 A circular coil of 200 turns and of radius 20 cm carries a current of 5A. Calculate the magnetic induction at a point along its axis, at a distance three times the radius of the coil from its centre. Data : n = 200; a = 20cm = 2 × 10-1m; I = 5A; x = 3a; B = ? Solution : B = B = B = µo nIa 2 2(a 2 + x 2 )3 /2 µo nIa 2 2(a + 9a ) 2 2 3 /2 µo nI 10 a × 200 = = µonIa 2 2 3 /2 2(10a ) = µo nI a × 20 10 4π × 10−7 × 200 × 5 × 10 2 × 10−1 × 200 B = 9.9 x 10-5 T 3.6 A current of 4A flows through 5 turn coil of a tangent galvanometer having a diameter of 30 cm. If the horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic induction is 4 × 10-5 T, find the deflection produced in the coil Data : n = 5; I = 4A; d = 3 × 10–1 m; Bh = 4 × 10–5 T; a = 1.5 × 10–1 m; θ = ? 2aBh tan θ µon µ nI ∴ tan θ = o = Solution : I = 2aB h tan θ = 2.093 4π × 10−7 × 5 × 4 2 × 1.5 × 10−1 × 4 × 10−5 ∴ θ = 64o 28′ 3.7 In a tangent galvanometer, a current of 1A produces a deflection of 300. Find the current required to produce a deflection of 600. Data : I1 = 1A; θ1 = 300; Solution : I1 = k tan θ1 ; ∴ I 2 tan θ 2 = I1 tan θ1 I2 = I1 θ2 = 600; I2 = k tan θ2 I2 = ? tan60o 1× 3 = = 3 3 = 3A × tan30o ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎜ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎝ I2 = 3A 124 3.8 A solenoid is 2m long and 3 cm in diameter. It has 5 layers of windings of 1000 turns each and carries a current of 5A. Find the magnetic induction at its centre along its axis. Data : l = 2m, N = 5 × 1000 turns, I = 5A, B = ? Solution : B = µo nI = µo B = N .I l 4π × 10 − 7 × 5000 × 5 2 B = 1.57 x 10-2 T 3.9 An α-particle moves with a speed of 5 × 105 ms-1 at an angle of 30o with respect to a magnetic field of induction 10-4 T. Find the force on the particle. [ α particle has a +ve charge of 2e] Data : B = 10-4 T, q = 2e, v = 5 × 105 ms-1, θ = 300, F = ? Solution F = Bqv sin θ = B(2e) v sin 30o =10-4 × 2 × 1.6 × 10-19 × 5 × 105 × F 1 2 = 8 × 10-18N 3.10 A stream of deutrons is projected with a velocity of 104 ms-1 in XY – plane. A uniform magnetic field of induction 10-3 T acts along the Z-axis. Find the radius of the circular path of the particle. (Mass of deuteron is 3.32 × 10-27 kg and charge of deuteron is 1.6 x 10-19C) Data : v = 104 ms–1, B = 10–3T, m = 3.32 × 10–27 kg e = 1.6 x 10-19C, r = ? Solution : Bev = ∴ r= mv2 r mv 3.32 × 10−27 × 104 = = 2.08 × 10–1 Be 10−3 × 1.6 × 10−19 r = 0.208m 125 3.11 A uniform magnetic field of induction 0.5 T acts perpendicular to the plane of the Dees of a cyclotron. Calculate the frequency of the oscillator to accelerate protons. (mass of proton = 1.67 × 10-27 kg) Data : B = 0.5 T, mp = 1.67 × 10-27 kg, q= 1.6 × 10-19C, ν = ? Solution: ν = 2π m p Bq = 0.5 × 1.6 × 10−19 = 0.763 × 107= 7.63 × 106 Hz 2 × 3.14 × 1.67 × 10−27 ∴ ν = 7.63 MHz 3.12 A conductor of length 50 cm carrying a current of 5A is placed perpendicular to a magnetic field of induction 2 × 10-3 T. Find the force on the conductor. Data : l = 50 cm = 5×10-1m, I= 5A, B = 2×10-3T; θ = 90o, F = ? Solution: F = BIl sinθ = 2 × 10-3 × 5 × 5 × 10-1 × sin 900 ∴ F = 5 × 10-3 N 3.13 Two parallel wires each of length 5m are placed at a distance of 10 cm apart in air. They carry equal currents along the same direction and experience a mutually attractive force of 3.6 × 10-4 N. Find the current through the conductors. Data : I1 = I2= I, l = 5m, a =10-1 m, F = 3.6×10-4N, I = ? Solution: F = F = ∴I2 = ∴ I µo I1I 2l 2π a 2 × 10−7 I 2l a F .a 3.6 × 10−4 × 10−1 = 36 −7 = 2 × 10 l 2 × 10−7 × 5 = 6A 126 3.14 A, B and C are three parallel conductors each of length 10 m, carrying currents as shown in the figure. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the conductor B. Solution : Between the wires A and B, force of attraction exists. F1 acts towards left F1 = 4A 5A 3A 10 cm 10 cm 2 × 10 I1I 2l 2×10 ×3×4×10 = a 10−1 −7 F2 F1 −7 A F1 = 24 × 10-5 N B C Between the wires B and C, force of attraction exists F2 acts towards right F2 = 2 × 10−7 I1I 2l 2×10−7 ×4×5×10 = a 10−1 F2 = 40 × 10-5 N F2 – F1 = 16 × 10-5 N The wire B is attracted towards C with a net force of 16 × 10-5 N. 3.15 A rectangular coil of area 20 cm × 10 cm with 100 turns of wire is suspended in a radial magnetic field of induction 5 × 10-3 T. If the galvanometer shows an angular deflection of 150 for a current of 1mA, find the torsional constant of the suspension wire. Data : n = 100, A = 20 cm × 10 cm = 2 × 10-1 × 10-1 m2 B = 5 × 10-3 T, θ = 150, I = 1mA = 10-3A, C = ? Solution : θ = 150 = π 180 × 15 = π 12 rad nBIA = Cθ ∴ C = 102 × 5 × 10-3 × 10-3 × 2 × 10-1 × 10-1 nBIA = ⎛ π ⎞ θ ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 12 ⎠ C = 3.82 × 10-5 N m rad-1 127 3.16 A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 20 Ω produces full scale deflection for a current of 50 mA. How you will convert the galvanometer into (i) an ammeter of range 20 A and (ii) a voltmeter of range 120 V. Data : G = 20 Ω ; Ig = 50 x 10-3 A ; I = 20 A, S = ? V = 120 V, R = ? Ig 1 20 × 50 × 10-3 Solution : (i) S = G . I-I = = -3 20 0.05 g 20 - 50 × 10 S = 0.05 Ω A shunt of 0.05 Ω should be connected in parallel V (ii) R = Ig – G = 120 – 20 = 2400-20 = 2380 Ω 50 × 10-3 R = 2380 Ω A resistance of 2380 Ω should be connected in series with the galvanometer. 3.17 The deflection in a galvanometer falls from 50 divisions to 10 divisions when 12 Ω resistance is connected across the galvanometer. Calculate the galvanometer resistance. Data : θ1 = 50 divs, θg = 10 divs, S = 12Ω G = ? Solution : I α θ1 Ig α θg In a parallel circuit potential is common. ∴ G. Ig = S (I-Ig) ∴ G = S (I - Ig ) Ig ∴ G = 48 Ω = 12 (50 - 10) 10 3.18 In a hydrogen atom electron moves in an orbit of radius 0.5 Å making 1016 revolutions per second. Determine the magnetic moment associated with orbital motion of the electron. 128 Data : r = 0.5 Å = 0.5x10-10 m, n = 1016 s-1 Solution : Orbital magnetic moment µl = i.A ...(1) i = e = e.n T ...(2) A = πr2 ...(3) substituting equation (2), (3) in (1) µl = e.n. πr2 = 1.6 × 10-19 × 1016 × 3.14 (0.5 × 10-10)2 ∴ = 1.256 × 10-23 µl = 1.256 × 10-23 Am2 Self evaluation (The questions and problems given in this self evaluation are only samples. In the same way any question and problem could be framed from the text matter. Students must be prepared to answer any question and problem from the text matter, not only from the self evaluation.) 3.1 Joule’s law of heating is I2 (a) H = t R (c) H = VIt (b) H = V2 Rt (d) H = IR2t 3.2 Nichrome wire is used as the heating element because it has (a) low specific resistance (b) low melting point (c) high specific resistance (d) high conductivity 3.3 Peltier coefficient at a junction of a thermocouple depends on (a) the current in the thermocouple (b) the time for which current flows (c ) the temperature of the junction (d) the charge that passes through the thermocouple 3.4 In a thermocouple, the temperature of the cold junction is 20oC, the neutral temperature is 270oC. The temperature of inversion is (a) 520oC (b) 540oC o (c) 500 C (d) 510oC 129 3.5 Which of the following equations represents Biot-savart law? µo Idl sin θ → (b) dB = 4π r 4π r2 µo Idl × r µo Idl × r → → (c) dB = (d) dB = 2 4π 4π r r3 Magnetic induction due to an infinitely long straight conductor placed in a medium of permeability µ is µo I µo I (b) (a) 4π a 2π a µI µI (c) (d) 4π a 2π a In a tangent galvanometer, for a constant current, the deflection is 30o. The plane of the coil is rotated through 900. Now, for the same current, the deflection will be (a) dB = 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 µo Idl 2 (a) 300 (b) 600 (c) 900 (d) 00 The period of revolution of a charged particle inside a cyclotron does not depend on (a) the magnetic induction (b) the charge of the particle (c) the velocity of the particle (d) the mass of the particle The torque on a rectangular coil placed in a uniform magnetic field is large, when (a) the number of turns is large (b) the number of turns is less (c) the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the field (d) the area of the coil is small 3.10 Phosphor – bronze wire is used for suspension in a moving coil galvanometer, because it has (a) high conductivity (b) high resistivity (c) large couple per unit twist (d) small couple per unit twist 3.11 Of the following devices, which has small resistance? (a) moving coil galvanometer (b) ammeter of range 0 – 1A (c) ammeter of range 0–10 A (d) voltmeter 130 3.12 A galvanometer of resistance G Ω is shunted with S Ω .The effective resistance of the combination is Ra. Then, which of the following statements is true? (a) G is less than S (b) S is less than Ra but greater than G. (c) Ra is less than both G and S (d) S is less than both G and Ra 3.13 An ideal voltmeter has (a) zero resistance (b) finite resistance less than G but greater than Zero (c) resistance greater than G but less than infinity (d) infinite resistance 3.14 State Joule’s law 3.15 Explain Joule’s calorimeter experiment to verify Joule’s laws of heating. 3.16 Define Peltier coefficient 3.17 Define Thomson coefficient 3.18 State Biot – Savart law 3.19 Obtain an expression for the magnetic induction at a point due to an infinitely long straight conductor carrying current. 3.20 Deduce the relation for the magnetic induction at a point along the axis of a circular coil carrying current. 3.21 Explain in detail the principle, construction and theory of a tangent galvanometer. 3.22 What is Ampere’s circuital law? 3.23 Applying Amperes circuital law, find the magnetic induction due to a straight solenoid. 3.24 Define ampere 3.25 Deduce an expression for the force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field. 3.26 Explain in detail the principle, construction and the theory of moving coil galvanometer. 131 3.27 Explain how you will convert a galvanometer into (i) an ammeter and (ii) a voltmeter. Problems 3.28 In a thermocouple, the temperature of the cold junction is – 20oC and the temperature of inversion is 600oC. If the temperature of the cold junction is 20oC, find the temperature of inversion. 3.29 Find the magnetic induction at a point, 10 cm from a long straight wire carrying a current of 10A 3.30 A circular coil of radius 20 cm has 100 turns wire and it carries a current of 5A. Find the magnetic induction at a point along its axis at a distance of 20 cm from the centre of the coil. 3.31 Three tangent galvanometers have turns ratio of 2:3:5. When connected in series in a circuit, they show deflections of 30o, 45o and 60o respectively. Find the ratio of their radii. 3.32 A straight wire of length one metre and of resistance 2 Ω is connected across a battery of emf 12V. The wire is placed normal to a magnetic field of induction 5 × 10-3 T. Find the force on the wire. 3.33 A circular coil of 50 turns and radius 25 cm carries a current of 6A. It is suspended in a uniform magnetic field of induction 10-3 T. The normal to the plane of the coil makes an angle of 600 with the field. Calculate the torque of the coil. 3.34 A uniform magnetic field 0.5 T is applied normal to the plane of the Dees of a Cyclotron. Calculate the period of the alternating potential to be applied to the Dees to accelerate deutrons (mass of deuteron = 3.3 × 10-27 kg and its charge = 1.6 × 10-19C). 3.35 A rectangular coil of 500 turns and of area 6 × suspended inside a radial magnetic field of induction suspension wire of torsional constant 5 × 10-10 Nm calculate the current required to produce a deflection 10-4 m2 is 10-4 T by a per degree. of 10o. 3.36 Two straight infinitely long parallel wires carrying equal currents and placed at a distance of 20 cm apart in air experience a mutally attractive force of 4.9 × 10-5 N per unit length of the wire. Calculate the current. 3.37 A long solenoid of length 3m has 4000 turns. Find the current through the solenoid if the magnetic field produced at the centre of the solenoid along its axis is 8 × 10-3 T. 132 3.38 A galvanometer has a resistance of 100 Ω. A shunt resistance 1 Ω is connected across it. What part of the total current flows through the galvanometer? 3.39 A galvanometer has a resistance of 40 Ω. It shows full scale deflection for a current of 2 mA. How you will convert the galvanometer into a voltmeter of range 0 to 20V? 3.40 A galvanometer with 50 divisions on the scale requires a current sensitivity of 0.1 m A/division. The resistance of the galvanometer is 40 Ω. If a shunt resistance 0.1 Ω is connected across it, find the maximum value of the current that can be measured using this ammeter. Answers 3.1 (c) 3.2 (c) 3.3 (c) 3.4 (a) 3.5 3.6 (d) 3.7 (d) 3.8 (c) 3.9 (a) 3.10 (d) 3.12 (c) 3.13 (d) 3.11 (c) o 3.28 560 C 3.30 5.55 × 10 3.32 3 × 10 3.34 2.6 × 10 3.36 -5 3.29 2 × 10 3.31 6 : 3 √3 : 5 3.33 5.1 × 10 3.35 0.166 m A 7 A 3.37 4.77 A 3.38 1/101 3.39 9960 Ω in series 3.40 2 A -2 -4 N -7 s T 133 T -2 Nm (d) 4. Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current In the year 1820, Hans Christian Oersted demonstrated that a current carrying conductor is associated with a magnetic field. Thereafter, attempts were made by many to verify the reverse effect of producing an induced emf by the effect of magnetic field. 4.1 Electromagnetic induction Michael Faraday demonstrated the reverse effect of Oersted experiment. He explained the possibility of producing emf across the ends of a conductor when the magnetic flux linked with the conductor changes. This was termed as electromagnetic induction. The discovery of this phenomenon brought about a revolution in the field of power generation. ^ n 4.1.1 Magnetic flux The magnetic flux (φ) linked with a surface held in a magnetic field (B) is defined as the number of magnetic lines of force crossing a closed area (A) (Fig 4.1). If θ is the angle between the direction of the field and normal to the area, then φ = B . A A B Fig 4.1 Magnetic flux φ = BA cos θ 4.1.2 Induced emf and current – Electromagnetic induction. Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit an emf is produced. This emf is known as the induced emf and the current that flows in the closed circuit is called induced current. The phenomenon of producing an induced emf due to the changes in the magnetic flux associated with a closed circuit is known as electromagnetic induction. 134 Faraday discovered the electromagnetic induction by conducting several experiments. Fig 4.2 consists of a cylindrical coil C made up of several turns of insulated copper wire connected in series to a sensitive galvanometer G. A strong bar magnet NS with its north pole pointing towards the coil is moved up and down. The following inferences were made by Faraday. G C N S Fig 4.2 Electromagnetic Induction (i) Whenever there is a relative motion between the coil and the magnet, the galvanometer shows deflection indicating the flow of induced current. (ii) The deflection is momentary. It lasts so long as there is relative motion between the coil and the magnet. (iii) The direction of the flow of current changes if the magnet is moved towards and withdrawn from it. (iv) The deflection is more when the magnet is moved faster, and less when the magnet is moved slowly. (v) However, on reversing the magnet (i.e) south pole pointing towards the coil, same results are obtained, but current flows in the opposite direction. CC 1 1 CC 2 2 Faraday demonstrated the electromagnetic induction by another experiment also. G K () Bt Rh Fig 4.3 shows two coils C1 and C2 placed close to each other. The coil C1 is connected to a battery Bt through a key K and a rheostat. Coil C2 is connected to a sensitive galvanometer G and kept close to C1. When the key K is pressed, the galvanometer connected with the coil C2 shows a Fig 4.3 Electromagnetic Induction 135 sudden momentary deflection. This indicates that a current is induced in coil C2. This is because when the current in C1 increases from zero to a certain steady value, the magnetic flux linked with the coil C1 increases. Hence, the magnetic flux linked with the coil C2 also increases. This causes the deflection in the galvanometer. On releasing K, the galvanometer shows deflection in the opposite direction. This indicates that a current is again induced in the coil C2. This is because when the current in C1 decreases from maximum to zero value, the magnetic flux linked with the coil C1 decreases. Hence, the magnetic flux linked with the coil C2 also decreases. This causes the deflection in the galvanometer in the opposite direction. 4.1.3 Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction Based on his studies on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, Faraday proposed the following two laws. First law Whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an emf is induced in the circuit. The induced emf lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux continues. Second law The magnitude of emf induced in a closed circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit. Let φ1 be the magnetic flux linked with the coil initially and φ2 be the magnetic flux linked with the coil after a time t. Then Rate of change of magnetic flux = φ2 − φ1 t According to Faraday’s second law, the magnitude of induced φ2 − φ1 . If dφ is the change in magnetic flux in a time dt, emf is, e α t dφ then the above equation can be written as e α dt 4.1.4 Lenz’s law The Russian scientist H.F. Lenz in 1835 discovered a simple law giving the direction of the induced current produced in a circuit. Lenz’s law states that the induced current produced in a circuit always flows in such a direction that it opposes the change or cause that produces it. 136 If the coil has N number of turns and φ is the magnetic flux linked with each turn of the coil then, the total magnetic flux linked with the coil at any time is Nφ N (φ2 − φ1 ) d Ndφ (Nφ) e = – = – t dt dt Lenz’s law - a consequence of conservation of energy ∴ e = – Copper coils are wound on a cylindrical cardboard and the two ends of the coil are connected to a sensitive galvanometer. A magnet is moved towards the coil (Fig 4.4). The upper face of the coil acquires north polarity. S N Consequently work has to be done to move the magnet further against the force of repulsion. When we withdraw the magnet away from the coil, its upper face acquires south polarity. Now the G workdone is against the force of attraction. When the magnet is moved, the number of magnetic lines of force linking the coil changes, which causes an induced current to flow through the coil. The Fig 4.4 Lenz’s law direction of the induced current, according to Lenz’s law is always to oppose the motion of the magnet. The workdone in moving the magnet is converted into electrical energy. This energy is dissipated as heat energy in the coil. If on the contrary, the direction of the current were to help the motion of the magnet, it would start moving faster increasing the change of magnetic flux linking the coil. This results in the increase of induced current. Hence kinetic energy and electrical energy would be produced without any external work being done, but this is impossible. Therefore, the induced current always flows in such a direction to oppose the cause. Thus it is proved that Lenz’s law is the consequence of conservation of energy. 4.1.5 Fleming’s right hand rule The forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the right hand are held in the three mutually perpendicular directions. If the forefinger points along the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb is along the direction of motion of the conductor, then the middle finger points in the direction of the induced current. This rule is also called generator rule. 137 4.2. Self Induction The property of a coil which enables to produce an opposing induced emf in it when the current in the coil changes is called self induction. K A coil is connected in series with a ( ) Bt battery and a key (K) (Fig. 4.5). On Fig 4.5 Self Induction pressing the key, the current through the coil increases to a maximum value and correspondingly the magnetic flux linked with the coil also increases. An induced current flows through the coil which according to Lenz’s law opposes the further growth of current in the coil. On releasing the key, the current through the coil decreases to a zero value and the magnetic flux linked with the coil also decreases. According to Lenz’s law, the induced current will oppose the decay of current in the coil. 4.2.1 Coefficient of self induction When a current I flows through a coil, the magnetic flux (φ) linked with the coil is proportional to the current. φ α I or φ = LI where L is a constant of proportionality and is called coefficient of self induction or self inductance. If I = 1A, φ = L × 1, then L = φ Therefore, coefficient of self induction of a coil is numerically equal to the magnetic flux linked with a coil when unit current flows through it. According to laws of electromagnetic induction. e = – If dφ d = − (LI ) or dt dt dI = 1 A s–1, then dt e = – L L = −e dI dt The coefficient of self induction of a coil is numerically equal to the opposing emf induced in the coil when the rate of change of current through the coil is unity. The unit of self inductance is henry (H). One henry is defined as the self-inductance of a coil in which a change in current of one ampere per second produces an opposing emf of one volt. 138 4.2.2 Self inductance of a long solenoid Let us consider a solenoid of N turns with length l and area of cross section A. It carries a current I. If B is the magnetic field at any point inside the solenoid, then Magnetic flux per turn = B × area of each turn But, B = µoNI l Magnetic flux per turn = µo NIA l Hence, the total magnetic flux (φ) linked with the solenoid is given by the product of flux through each turn and the total number of turns. φ= i.e φ= µ o NIA l × N µo N2IA ...(1) l If L is the coefficient of self induction of the solenoid, then φ = LI ...(2) From equations (1) and (2) LI = ∴ L = µo N2IA l µο Ν 2 Α l If the core is filled with a magnetic material of permeability µ, then, L = µΝ 2 Α l 4.2.3 Energy associated with an inductor Whenever current flows through a coil, the self−inductance opposes the growth of the current. Hence, some work has to be done by external agencies in establishing the current. If e is the induced emf then, 139 e = – L dI dt The small amount of work dw done in a time interval dt is dw = e.I dt = −L dI I.dt dt The total work done when the current increases from 0 to maximum value (Io) is w = ∫ dw = ∫ −L I dI Io 0 This work done is stored as magnetic potential energy in the coil. ∴ Energy stored in the coil = −L ∫ IdI = – Io 1 L Io2 2 0 Negative sign is consequence of Lenz’s Law. Hence, quantitatively, the energy stored in an inductor is 1 L Io2 2 4.2.4 Mutual induction Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a coil, there is also a change of flux linked with the neighbouring coil, producing an induced emf in the second coil. This phenomenon of producing an induced emf in a coil due to the change in current in the other coil is known as mutual induction. G S P Cell current + P and S are two coils placed close to ( ) K each other (Fig. 4.6). P is connected to a Fig 4.6 Mutual induction battery through a key K. S is connected to a galvanometer G. On pressing K, current in P starts increasing from zero to a maximum value. As the flow of current increases, the magnetic flux linked with P increases. Therefore, magnetic flux linked with S also increases producing an induced emf in S. Now, the galvanometer shows the deflection. According to Lenz’s law the induced current in S would oppose the increase in current in P by flowing in 140 a direction opposite to the current in P, thus delaying the growth of current to the maximum value. When the key ‘K’ is released, current starts decreasing from maximum to zero value, consequently magnetic flux linked with P decreases. Therefore magnetic flux linked with S also decreases and hence, an emf is induced in S. According to Lenz’s law, the induced current in S flows in such a direction so as to oppose the decrease in current in P thus prolonging the decay of current. 4.2.5 Coefficient of mutual induction IP is the current in coil P and φs is the magnetic flux linked with coil S due to the current in coil P. ∴ φs α IP or φs = M IP where M is a constant of proportionality and is called the coefficient of mutual induction or mutual inductance between the two coils. IfIP = 1A, then, M = φs Thus, coefficient of mutual induction of two coils is numerically equal to the magnetic flux linked with one coil when unit current flows through the neighbouring coil. If es is the induced emf in the coil (S) at any instant of time, then from the laws of electromagnetic induction, dφs = dt es dI ⎛ ∴ M = –⎜ P ⎝ dt es = − If − ⎞ ⎟ ⎠ dI P = 1 A s–1, dt d (MIP) = − M dt dI P dt then, M = −es Thus, the coefficient of mutual induction of two coils is numerically equal to the emf induced in one coil when the rate of change of current through the other coil is unity. The unit of coefficient of mutual induction is henry. One henry is defined as the coefficient of mutual induction between a pair of coils when a change of current of one ampere per second in one coil produces an induced emf of one volt in the other coil. The coefficient of mutual induction between a pair of coils depends on the following factors 141 (i) Size and shape of the coils, number of turns and permeability of material on which the coils are wound. (ii) proximity of the coils Two coils P and S have their axes perpendicular to each other (Fig. 4.7a). When a current is passed through coil P, the magnetic flux linked with S is small and hence, the coefficient of mutual induction between the two coils is small. The two coils are placed in such a way that they have a common axis (Fig. 4.7b). When current is passed through the coil P the magnetic flux linked with coil S is large and hence, the coefficient of mutual induction between the two coils is large. P P P S S S (a) (b) (c) Fig 4.7 Mutual induction If the two coils are wound on a soft iron core (Fig 4.7c) the mutual induction is very large. 4.2.6 Mutual induction of two long solenoids. S1 and S2 are two long solenoids each of length l. The solenoid S2 is wound closely over the solenoid S1 (Fig 4.8). N1 and N2 are the number of turns in the solenoids S1 and S2 respectively. Both the solenoids are considered to have the same area of cross section A as they are closely S1 wound together. I1 is the current flowing S2 through the solenoid S1. The magnetic Fig 4.8 Mutual induction field B1 produced at any point inside the between two long solenoids solenoid S1 due to the current I1 is B1 = µo N I I1 ...(1) l The magnetic flux linked with each turn of S2 is equal to B1A. 142 Total magnetic flux linked with solenoid S2 having N2 turns is φ2 = B1AN2 Substituting for B1 from equation (1) φ2 φ2 But ⎛ N ⎞ = ⎜ µ o 1 I 1 ⎟ A N2 l ⎝ ⎠ µo N 1N 2 AI 1 = l φ2 = MI1 ...(2) ...(3) where M is the coefficient of mutual induction between S1 and S2. 4.3 From equations (2) and (3) µo N 1N 2 AI 1 MI1 = l µ o N 1N 2 A M = l If the core is filled with a magnetic material of permeability µ, µ N1N 2 A M = l Methods of producing induced emf We know that the induced emf is given by the expression dφ d =− (NBA cos θ) dt dt Hence, the induced emf can be produced by changing e = – (i) the magnetic induction (B) (ii) area enclosed by the coil (A) and (iii) the orientation of the coil (θ) with respect to the magnetic field. 4.3.1 Emf induced by changing the magnetic induction. The magnetic induction can be changed by moving a magnet either towards or away from a coil and thus an induced emf is produced in the coil. The magnetic induction can also be changed in one coil by changing the current in the neighbouring coil thus producing an induced emf. ∴ ⎛ dB ⎞ ⎟ e = – NA cos θ ⎜ ⎝ dt ⎠ 143 4.3.2 Emf induced by changing the area enclosed by the coil PQRS is a conductor bent in the shape as shown in the Fig 4.9. L1M1 is a sliding conductor of length l resting on the arms PQ and RS. A uniform magnetic field ‘B’ acts perpendicular to the plane of the conductor. The closed area of the conductor is L1QRM1. When L1M1 is moved through a B distance dx in time dt, the new area is L1 L2 Q L2QRM2. Due to the P change in area l L2L1M1M2, there is a change in the flux S linked with the R M1 M2 dx conductor. Therefore, an induced emf is Fig 4.9 Emf induced by changing the area produced. Change in area dA = Area L2L1M1M2 ∴ dA = l dx Change in the magnetic flux, dφ = B.dA = Bl dx But e = – ∴ e = – dφ dt Bldx = – Bl v dt where v is the velocity with which the sliding conductor is moved. 4.3.3 Emf induced by changing the orientation of the coil PQRS is a rectangular coil of N turns and area A placed in a uniform magnetic field B (Fig 4.10). The coil is rotated with an angular velocity ω in the clockwise direction about an axis perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. Suppose, initially the coil is in vertical position, so that the angle between normal to the plane of the coil and magnetic field is zero. After a time t, let θ (=ωt) be the angle through which the coil is rotated. If φ is the flux linked with the coil at this instant, then φ = NBA cos θ 144 The induced emf is, dφ d = −NBA cos (ωt) e=– dt dt Q Hence, the induced emf can be represented as e = Eo sin ωt The induced emf e varies sinusoidally with time t and the frequency Q P N Q Q R Q R ∴ e = NBAω sin ωt ...(1) The maximum value of the induced emf is, Eo = NABω R R R P S S e O S P P P S S S +E0 _ 2 3 __ 2 2 ωt -E0 Fig 4.10 Induced emf by changing the orientation of the coil ω ⎞ ⎛ being ν cycles per second ⎜ν = ⎟. 2π ⎠ ⎝ (i) When ωt = 0, the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the field B and hence e = 0. (ii) When ωt = π/2, the plane of the coil is parallel to B and hence e = Eo (iii) When ωt = π, the plane of the coil is at right angle to B and hence e = 0. (iv) When ωt = 3π/2, the plane of the coil is again parallel to B and the induced emf is e = −Eo. (v) When ωt = 2π, the plane of the coil is again perpendicular to B and hence e = 0. If the ends of the coil are connected to an external circuit through a resistance R, current flows through the circuit, which is also sinusoidal in nature. 4.4 AC generator (Dynamo) – Single phase The ac generator is a device used for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. The generator was originally designed by a Yugoslav scientist Nikola Tesla. Principle It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction, 145 according to which an emf is induced in a coil when it is rotated in a uniform magnetic field. Essential parts of an AC generator (i) Armature Armature is a rectangular coil consisting of a large number of loops or turns of insulated copper wire wound over a laminated soft iron core or ring. The soft iron core not only increases the magnetic flux but also serves as a support for the coil (ii) Field magnets The necessary magnetic field is provided by permanent magnets in the case of low power dynamos. For high power dynamos, field is provided by electro magnet. Armature rotates between the magnetic poles such that the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the magnetic field. (iii) Slip rings The ends of the armature coil are connected to two hollow metallic rings R1 and R2 called slip rings. These rings are fixed to a shaft, to which the armature is also fixed. When the shaft rotates, the slip rings along with the armature also rotate. (iv) Brushes B1 and B2 are two flexible metallic plates or carbon brushes. They provide contact with the slip rings by keeping themselves pressed against the ring. They are used to pass on the current from the armature to the external power line through the slip rings. Working Whenever, there is a change in orientation of the coil, the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes, producing an induced emf in the coil. The direction of the induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule. Suppose the armature ABCD is initially in the vertical position. It is rotated in the anticlockwise direction. The side AB of the coil moves downwards and the side DC moves 146 B N S A To Power Line C D B1 B2 R1 R2 Fig 4.11 AC dynamo upwards (Fig. 4.11). Then according to Flemings right hand rule the current induced in arm AB flows from B to A and in CD it flows from D to C. Thus the current flows along DCBA in the coil. In the external circuit the current flows from B1 to B2. t sinω e=E 0 On further rotation, the arm AB of the coil moves e upwards and DC moves 7__ 3 __ downwards. Now the current in 2 3 2 4 2 ωt the coil flows along ABCD. In 5__ _ 2 2 the external circuit the current flows from B2 to B1. As the rotation of the coil continues, the induced current in the Fig 4.12 emf varies sinusoidally external circuit keeps changing its direction for every half a rotation of the coil. Hence the induced current is alternating in nature (Fig 4.12). As the armature completes ν rotations in one second, alternating current of frequency ν cycles per second is produced. The induced emf at any instant is given by e= Eo sin ωt The peak value of the emf, Eo = NBAω where N is the number of turns of the coil, A is the area enclosed by the coil, B is the magnetic field and ω is the angular velocity of the coil 4.4.1 AC generator (Alternator) – Three phase A single phase a.c. generator or alternator has only one armature winding. If a number of armature windings are used in the alternator it is known as polyphase alternator. It produces voltage waves equal to the number of windings or phases. Thus a polyphase system consists of a numerous windings which are placed on the same axis but displaced from one another by equal angle which depends on the number of phases. Three phase alternators are widely preferred for transmitting large amount of power with less cost and high efficiency. 147 Generation of three phase emf N In a three – phase a.c. generator three coils are fastened rigidly together and displaced from each other by 120o. It is made to rotate about a fixed axis in a uniform magnetic field. Each coil is provided B with a separate set of slip rings and brushes. An emf is induced in each of the coils with a phase difference of 120o. Three coils a1 a2, b1 b2 and c1 c2 are mounted on the same axis but displaced from each other by 120o, and the coils rotate in the emf Ea1a2 Eb b 1 2 c2 b2 a1 a2 b1 A c1 S Fig 4.13a Section of 3 phase ac generator anticlockwise direction in a magnetic field (Fig 4.13a). Ec1c2 When the coil a1a2 is in position AB, emf 2 3 induced in this coil is zero and starts increasing in 120 120 120 the positive direction. At Fig 4.13b Three phase emf the same instant the coil b1b2 is 120o behind coil a1 a2, so that emf induced in this coil is approaching its maximum negative value and the coil c1 c2 is 240o behind the coil a1 Ec1c2 a2, so the emf induced in this coil has passed its positive maximum value and is decreasing. Thus the emfs induced in all the three coils are equal in magnitude and 240º of same frequency. The emfs induced in the 120º three coils are ; Ea1a2 Eb b = Eo sin ωt e a1 a2 Fig 4.13c Angular displacement between e = Eo sin (ωt – 2π/3) b1 b2 the armature e = Eo sin (ωt – 4π/3) c1 c2 The emfs induced and phase difference in the three coils a1 a2, b1 b2 and c1 c2 are shown in Fig 4.13b & Fig 4.13c. O o o o 1 148 2 4.5 Eddy currents Foucault in the year 1895 observed that when a mass of metal moves in a magnetic field or when the magnetic field through a stationary mass of metal is altered, induced current is produced in the metal. This induced current flows in the metal in the form of closed loops resembling ‘eddies’ or whirl pool. Hence this current is called eddy current. The direction of the eddy current is given by Lenz’s law. When a conductor in the form of a disc or a metallic plate as shown in Fig 4.14, swings between the poles of a magnet, eddy S N currents are set up inside the plate. This current acts in a Fig 4.14 Eddy current direction so as to oppose the motion of the conductor with a strong retarding force, that the conductor almost comes to rest. If the metallic plate with holes drilled in it is made to swing inside the magnetic field, the effect of eddy current is greatly reduced consequently the plate swings freely inside the field. Eddy current can be minimised by using thin laminated sheets instead of solid metal. Applications of Eddy current (i) Dead beat galvanometer When current is passed through a galvanometer, the coil oscillates about its mean position before it comes to rest. To bring the coil to rest immediately, the coil is wound on a metallic frame. Now, when the coil oscillates, eddy currents are set up in the metallic frame, which opposes further oscillations of the coil. This inturn enables the coil to attain its equilibrium position almost instantly. Since the oscillations of the coil die out instantaneously, the galvanometer is called dead beat galvanometer. (ii) Induction furnace In an induction furnace, high temperature is produced by generating eddy currents. The material to be melted is placed in a varying magnetic field of high frequency. Hence a strong eddy current is developed inside the metal. Due to the heating effect of the current, the metal melts. 149 (iii) Induction motors Eddy currents are produced in a metallic cylinder called rotor, when it is placed in a rotating magnetic field. The eddy current initially tries to decrease the relative motion between the cylinder and the rotating magnetic field. As the magnetic field continues to rotate, the metallic cylinder is set into rotation. These motors are used in fans. (iv) Electro magnetic brakes A metallic drum is coupled to the wheels of a train. The drum rotates along with the wheel when the train is in motion.When the brake is applied, a strong magnetic field is developed and hence, eddy currents are produced in the drum which oppose the motion of the drum. Hence, the train comes to rest. (v) Speedometer In a speedometer, a magnet rotates according to the speed of the vehicle. The magnet rotates inside an aluminium cylinder (drum) which is held in position with the help of hair springs. Eddy currents are produced in the drum due to the rotation of the magnet and it opposes the motion of the rotating magnet. The drum inturn experiences a torque and gets deflected through a certain angle depending on the speed of the vehicle. A pointer attached to the drum moves over a calibrated scale which indicates the speed of the vehicle. 4.6 Transformer Transformer is an electrical device used for converting low alternating voltage into high alternating voltage and vice versa. It transfers electric power from one circuit to another. The transformer is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. φ Primary Winding Laminated Steel Core Secondary Winding Fig 4.15 Transformer A transformer consists of primary and secondary coils insulated from each other, wound on a soft iron core (Fig 4.15). To minimise eddy 150 currents a laminated iron core is used. The a.c. input is applied across the primary coil. The continuously varying current in the primary coil produces a varying magnetic flux in the primary coil, which in turn produces a varying magnetic flux in the secondary. Hence, an induced emf is produced across the secondary. Let EP and ES be the induced emf in the primary and secondary coils and NP and NS be the number of turns in the primary and secondary coils respectively. Since same flux links with the primary and secondary, the emf induced per turn of the two coils must be the same (i.e) or E P Es = NP Ns Es N s = EP N p …(1) For an ideal transformer, input power = output power Ep Ip = Es Is where Ip and Is are currents in the primary and secondary coils. Es I P (i.e.) E = I P s ...(2) From equations (1) and (2) Es N s I P = = EP N p I S = k where k is called transformer ratio. (for step up transformer k > 1 and for step down transformer k < 1) In a step up transformer Es > Ep implying that Is < Ip. Thus a step up transformer increases the voltage by decreasing the current, which is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. Similarly a step down transformer decreases the voltage by increasing the current. Efficiency of a transformer Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power. 151 η = Es I s output power = EP I P input power The efficiency η = 1 (ie. 100%), only for an ideal transformer where there is no power loss. But practically there are numerous factors leading to energy loss in a transformer and hence the efficiency is always less than one. Energy losses in a transformer (1) Hysteresis loss The repeated magnetisation and demagnetisation of the iron core caused by the alternating input current, produces loss in energy called hysterisis loss. This loss can be minimised by using a core with a material having the least hysterisis loss. Alloys like mumetal and silicon steel are used to reduce hysterisis loss. (2) Copper loss The current flowing through the primary and secondary windings lead to Joule heating effect. Hence some energy is lost in the form of heat. Thick wires with considerably low resistance are used to minimise this loss. (3) Eddy current loss (Iron loss) The varying magnetic flux produces eddy current in the core. This leads to the wastage of energy in the form of heat. This loss is minimised by using a laminated core made of stelloy, an alloy of steel. (4) Flux loss The flux produced in the primary coil is not completely linked with the secondary coil due to leakage. This results in the loss of energy. This loss can be minimised by using a shell type core. In addition to the above losses, due to the vibration of the core, sound is produced, which causes a loss in the energy. 4.6.1 Long distance power transmission The electric power generated in a power station situated in a remote place is transmitted to different regions for domestic and industrial use. For long distance transmission, power lines are made of 152 conducting material like aluminium. There is always some power loss associated with these lines. Line wire Generating Station Step-down Transformer Step-up Transformer Fig 4.16 Distance transmission of power City Sub-Station If I is the current through the wire and R the resistance, a considerable amount of electric power I2R is dissipated as heat. Hence, the power at the receiving end will be much lesser than the actual power generated. However, by transmitting the electrical energy at a higher voltage, the power loss can be controlled as is evident from the following two cases. Case (i) A power of 11,000 W is transmitted at 220 V. Power P = VI 11, 000 P = = 50A ∴ I = 220 V If R is the resistance of line wires, Power loss = I2R = 502R = 2500(R) watts Case (ii) 11,000 W power is transmitted at 22,000 V 11,000 P = 0.5 A ∴ I = = 22,000 V Power loss = I2R = (0.5)2 R = 0.25(R) watts Hence it is evident that if power is trasmitted at a higher voltage the loss of energy in the form of heat can be considerably reduced. For transmitting electric power at 11,000 W at 220 V the current capacity of line wires has to be 50 A and if transmission is done at 22,000 V, it is only 0.5 A. Thus, for carrying larger current (50A) thick wires have to be used. This increases the cost of transmission. To support these thick wires, stronger poles have to be erected which further adds on to the cost. On the other hand if transmission is done at high voltages, the wires required are of lower current carrying capacity. So thicker wires can be replaced by thin wires, thus reducing the cost of transmission considerably. 153 For example, 400MW power produced at 15,000 V in the power station at Neyveli, is stepped up by a step-up transformer to 230,000 V before transmission. The power is then transmitted through the transmission lines which forms a part of the grid. The grid connects different parts of the country. Outside the city, the power is stepped down to 110,000 V by a step-down transformer. Again the power is stepped down to 11,000 V by a transformer. Before distribution to the user, the power is stepped down to 230 V or 440 V depending upon the need of the user. 4.7 Alternating current As we have seen earlier a rotating coil in a magnetic field, induces an alternating emf and hence an alternating current. Since the emf induced in the coil varies in magnitude and direction periodically, it is called an alternating emf. The significance of an alternating emf is that it can be changed to lower or higher voltages conveniently and efficiently using a transformer. Also the frequency of the induced emf can be altered by changing the speed of the coil. This enables us to utilize the whole range of electromagnetic spectrum for one purpose or the other. For example domestic power in India is supplied at a frequency of 50 Hz. For transmission of audio and video signals, the required frequency range of radio waves is between 100 KHz and 100 MHz. Thus owing to its wide applicability most of the countries in the world use alternating current. 4.7.1 Measurement of AC Since alternating current varies continuously with time, its average value over one complete cycle is zero. Hence its effect is measured by rms value of a.c. RMS value of a.c. The rms value of alternating current is defined as that value of the steady current, which when passed through a resistor for a given time, will generate the same amount of heat as generated by an alternating current when passed through the same resistor for the same time. The rms value is also called effective value of an a.c. and is denoted by Irms or Ieff. when an alter-nating current i=Io sin ωt flows through a resistor of 154 resistance R, the amount of heat produced in the resistor in a small time dt is I02 +I0 Irms dH = i2 R dt 0 The total amount of heat produced in the resistance in one complete cycle is 2 H = ∫ i R dt = ∫ (I T O t -I0 Fig 4.17 Variation I, I 2 and Irms with time T 2 o sin 2 ω t ) R dt O T ⎤ I o 2R ⎡ T ⎛ 1 − cos 2ω t ) ⎞ − dt cos 2ω t .dt ⎥ dt ⎟ = 2 ⎢∫ ∫ ∫O ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ 0 ⎣O ⎦ T = Io 2R I o 2R = 2 I o 2R sin 2ω t ⎤ ⎡ ⎢⎣t − 2ω ⎥⎦ = 2 0 T sin 4π ⎤ ⎡ ⎢⎣T − 2ω ⎥⎦ { ∵T = 2π ω } I o 2RT H = 2 But this heat is also equal to the heat produced by rms value of AC in the same resistor (R) and in the same time (T), (i.e) H = I2rms RT ∴ I o 2RT 2 I2rms RT = Irms = Io 2 = 0.707 I0 Similarly, it can be calculated that Erms = Eo 2 . Thus, the rms value of an a.c is 0.707 times the peak value of the a.c. In other words it is 70.7 % of the peak value. 155 4.7.2 AC Circuit with resistor Let an alternating source of emf be connected across a resistor of resistance R. The instantaneous value of the applied emf is e = Eo sin ωt ...(1) e R e,i i O 2 e=E0 sin t (a) i eR (c) (b) Fig 4.18 a.c. circuit with a resistor If i is the current through the circuit at the instant t, the potential drop across R is, e = i R Potential drop must be equal to the applied emf. Hence, iR = Eo sin ωt i = Eo sin ωt ; R i = Io sin ωt ...(2) E0 , is the peak value of a.c in the circuit. Equation R (2) gives the instantaneous value of current in the circuit containing R. From the expressions of voltage and current given by equations (1) and (2) it is evident that in a resistive circuit, the applied voltage and current are in phase with each other (Fig 4.18b). where Io = Fig 4.18c is the phasor diagram representing the phase relationship between the current and the voltage. 4.7.3 AC Circuit with an inductor Let an alternating source of emf be applied to a pure inductor of inductance L. The inductor has a negligible resistance and is wound on a laminated iron core. Due to an alternating emf that is applied to the inductive coil, a self induced emf is generated which opposes the applied voltage. (eg) Choke coil. 156 The instantaneous value of applied emf is given by e = Eo sin ωt ...(1) Induced emf e′ = −L . di dt where L is the self inductance of the coil. In an ideal inductor circuit induced emf is equal and opposite to the applied voltage. Therefore e = −e′ di ⎞ ⎛ Eo sin ωt = − ⎜ −L ⎟ dt ⎠ ⎝ di ∴ Eo sin ωt =L dt Eo di = sin ωt dt L Integrating both the sides e=E0 sin t (a) e I e,i i O 2 t = = Eo L Eo L i = (b) Fig 4.19 Pure inductive circuit ∫ sin ω t dt E o cos ω t ⎡ cos ω t ⎤ ⎢⎣ − ω ⎥⎦ =– ωL ωL Eo sin (ωt – i = Io . sin (ωt – π 2 π 2 ) ) ...(2) . Here, ωL is the resistance offered by the coil. It ωL is called inductive reactance. Its unit is ohm . where Io = Eo From equations (1) and (2) it is clear that in an a.c. circuit containing a pure inductor the current i lags behind the voltage e by the phase angle of π/2. Conversely the voltage across L leads the current by the phase angle of π/2. This fact is presented graphically in Fig 4.19b. Fig 4.19c represents the phasor diagram of a.c. circuit containing only L. 157 eL Fig 4.19c si Phasor diagram Inductive reactance XL = ωL = 2π ν L, where ν is the frequency of the a.c. supply For d.c. ν = 0; ∴ XL = 0 Thus a pure inductor offers zero resistance to d.c. But in an a.c. circuit the reactance of the coil increases with increase in frequency. 4.7.4 AC Circuit with a capacitor An alternating source of emf is connected across a capacitor of capacitance C (Fig 4.20a). It is charged first in one direction and then in the other direction. Y e e,i i C i O X 90º e=E0 sin t ec Y/ (a) (b) (c) Fig 4.20 Capacitive circuit The instantaneous value of the applied emf is given by e = Eo sin ωt ...(1) At any instant the potential difference across the capacitor will be equal to the applied emf ∴ e = q/C, where q is the charge in the capacitor But i = i = dq d = (Ce) dt dt d (C Eo sin ωt) = ω CEo. cos ωt dt Eo π⎞ ⎛ i = (1/ωC ) sin ⎜⎝ ωt + 2 ⎟⎠ π⎞ ⎛ i = Io sin ⎜ ω t + ⎟ 2⎠ ⎝ ...(2) 158 where Io = Eo (1/ωC ) = XC is the resistance offered by the capacitor. It is called ωC capacitive reactance. Its unit is ohm . 1 From equations (1) and (2), it follows that in an a.c. circuit with a capacitor, the current leads the voltage by a phase angle of π/2. In otherwords the emf lags behind the current by a phase angle of π/2. This is represented graphically in Fig 4.20b. Fig 4.20c represents the phasor diagram of a.c. circuit containing only C. ν = 0 1 1 = ωC 2π ν C ∴ XC = ∴ XC = ∞ where ν is the frequency of the a.c. supply. In a d.c. circuit Thus a capacitor offers infinite resistance to d.c. For an a.c. the capacitive reactance varies inversely as the frequency of a.c. and also inversely as the capacitance of the capacitor. 4.7.5 Resistor, inductor and capacitor in series Let an alternating source of emf e be connected to a series combination of a resistor of resistance R, inductor of inductance L and a capacitor of capacitance C (Fig 4.21a). VL R L C VL VC VL-VC VR I B 90º O 90º e=E0 sin t Fig 4.21a RLC sereis circuit VC φ VR V A I 4.21b voltage phasor diagram Let the current flowing through the circuit be I. The voltage drop across the resistor is, VR = I R (This is in phase with I) 159 The voltage across the inductor coil is VL = I XL (VL leads I by π/2) The voltage across the capacitor is, VC = IXC (VC lags behind I by π/2) The voltages across the different components are represented in the voltage phasor diagram (Fig. 4.21b). VL and VC are 180o out of phase with each other and the resultant of VL and VC is (VL – VC), assuming the circuit to be predominantly inductive. The applied voltage ‘V’ equals the vector sum of VR, VL and VC. OB2 = OA2 + AB2 ; V2 = VR 2 + (VL – V = VR + (VL − VC ) V = (IR )2 − (IX L − IXC )2 2 XL VC)2 XL-XC 2 O = I R 2 + (X L − XC )2 Z φ R XL-XC A XC V = Z = R 2 + (X L − X C )2 I The expression B Fig 4.22 Impedance diagram R 2 + (X L − X C )2 is the net effective opposition offered by the combination of resistor, inductor and capacitor known as the impedance of the circuit and is represented by Z. Its unit is ohm. The values are represented in the impedance diagram (Fig 4.22). Phase angle φ between the voltage and current is given by tan φ = tan φ = ∴ VL −VC I XL − I XC = VR IR X L − X C net reactance = R resistance ⎛ X L − XC ⎞ ⎟ φ = tan–1 ⎜⎝ R ⎠ ∴ Io sin (ωt + φ) is the instantaneous current flowing in the circuit. 160 Series resonance or voltage resonance in RLC circuit The value of current at any instant in a series RLC circuit is given by I = V = Z V R + (X L − X C ) 2 2 = V R 2 + (ω L − ωC 1 )2 At a particular value of the angular frequency, the inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance will be equal to each other (i.e.) ωL = , so that the impedance becomes minimum and it is ωC given by Z = R 1 i.e. I is in phase with V The particular frequency νo at which the impedance of the circuit becomes minimum and therefore the current becomes maximum is called Resonant frequency of the circuit. Such a circuit which admits maximum current is called series resonant circuit or acceptor circuit. Thus the maximum current through the circuit at resonance is Io = V R Maximum current flows through the circuit, since the impedance of the circuit is merely equal to the ohmic resistance of the circuit. i.e Z = R ωL = 1 ωC ω = 2π νo = νo = 1 LC 1 2π LC Acceptor circuit The series resonant circuit is often called an ‘acceptor’ circuit. By offering minimum impedance to current at the resonant frequency it is able to select or accept most readily this particular frequency among many frequencies. In radio receivers the resonant frequency of the circuit is tuned 161 to the frequency of the signal desired to be detected. This is usually done by varying the capacitance of a capacitor. Q-factor The selectivity or sharpness of a resonant circuit is measured by the quality factor or Q factor. In other words it refers to the sharpness of tuning at resonance. The Q factor of a series resonant circuit is defined as the ratio of the voltage across a coil or capacitor to the applied voltage. Q = voltage across L or C applied voltage ...(1) Voltage across L = I ωoL …(2) where ωo is the angular frequency of the a.c. at resonance. The applied voltage at resonance is the potential drop across R, because the potential drop across L is equal to the drop across C and they are 180o out of phase. Therefore they cancel out and only potential drop across R will exist. Applied Voltage = IR ...(3) Substituting equations (2) and (3) in equation (1) Q = I ωo L ωoL = IR R 1 L = R LC R Q is just a number having values between 10 to 100 for normal frequencies. Circuit with high Q values would respond to a very narrow frequency range and vice versa. Thus a circuit with a high Q value is sharply tuned while one with a low Q has a flat resonance. Q-factor can be increased by having a coil of large inductance but of small ohmic resistance. 1 L C ⎧ ⎨∵ ωo = ⎩ 1 ⎫ ⎬ LC ⎭ Q-infinite R-zero Current I Q = Q-high (R-low) Q-low (R-high) 0 Frequency Fig 4.23 variation of current with frequency 162 Current frequency curve is quite flat for large values of resistance and becomes more sharp as the value of resistance decreases. The curve shown in Fig 4.23 is also called the frequency response curve. 4.7.6 Power in an ac circuit In an a.c circuit the current and emf vary continuously with time. Therefore power at a given instant of time is calculated and then its mean is taken over a complete cycle. Thus, we define instantaneous power of an a.c. circuit as the product of the instantaneous emf and the instantaneous current flowing through it. The instantaneous value of emf and current is given by e = Eo sin ωt i = Io sin (ωt + φ) where φ is the phase difference between the emf and current in an a.c circuit ∫ ie The average power consumed over one complete cycle is T 0 Pav = dt ∫ dt = T ∫ [I T o 0 sin(ωt + φ )Eo sin ω t ] dt . T 0 On simplification, we obtain Pav = .cos φ = Erms I rms cos φ 2 2 = apparent power × power factor Pav = Pav Eo I o cos φ 2 Eo . Io where Apparent power = Erms Irms and power factor = cos φ The average power of an ac circuit is also called the true power of the circuit. Choke coil A choke coil is an inductance coil of very small resistance used for controlling current in an a.c. circuit. If a resistance is used to control current, there is wastage of power due to Joule heating effect in the resistance. On the other hand there is no dissipation of power when a current flows through a pure inductor. 163 Construction It consists of a large number of turns of insulated copper wire wound over a soft iron core. A laminated core is used to minimise eddy current loss (Fig. 4.24). Fig 4.24 Choke coil Working The inductive reactance offered by the coil is given by XL = ωL π In the case of an ideal inductor the current lags behind the emf by a phase angle . 2 ∴ The average power consumed by the choke coil over a complete cycle is Pav = Erms Irms cos π/2 = 0 However in practice, a choke coil of inductance L possesses a small resistance r. Hence it may be treated as a series combination of an inductor and small resistance r. In that case the average power consumed by the choke coil over a complete cycle is Pav = E rms Irms cos φ r Pav = Erms Irms r + ω 2 L2 2 ...(1) r is the power factor. From equation (1) the r + ω 2 L2 value of average power dissipated works out to be much smaller than the power loss I2R in a resistance R. where 2 Fig.4.24a A.F Choke Fig.4.24b R.F. Choke Chokes used in low frequency a.c. circuit have an iron core so that the inductance may be high. These chokes are known as audio – frequency (A.F) chokes. For radio frequencies, air chokes are used since a low inductance is sufficient. These are called radio frequency (R. F) or high frequency (H.F) chokes and are used in wireless receiver circuits (Fig. 4.24a and Fig. 4.24b). Choke coils can be commonly seen in fluorescent tubes which work on alternating currents. 164 Solved problems 4.1 Magnetic field through a coil having 200 turns and cross sectional area 0.04 m2 changes from 0.1 wb m−2 to 0.04 wb m−2 in 0.02 s Find the induced emf. Data : N = 200, A = 0.04 m2, B1 = 0.1 wb m−2, B2 = 0.04 wb m−2, t = 0.02 s, e = ? Solution : e = − dφ d = − (φ ) dt dt (B 2 − B1 ) d dB (NBA) = − NA . = − NA. dt dt dt (0.04 − 0.1) e = − 200 × 4 × 10−2 0.02 e = 24 V e = − 4.2 An aircraft having a wingspan of 20.48 m flies due north at a speed of 40 ms−1. If the vertical component of earth’s magnetic field at the place is 2 × 10−5 T, Calculate the emf induced between the ends of the wings. Data : l = 20.48 m; v = 40 ms−1; B = 2 × 10−5T; e = ? Solution : e e 4.3 = − Bl v = − 2 × 10−5 × 20.48 × 40 = − 0.0164 volt A solenoid of length 1 m and 0.05 m diameter has 500 turns. If a current of 2A passes through the coil, calculate (i) the coefficient of self induction of the coil and (ii) the magnetic flux linked with a the coil. Data : l = 1 m; d = 0.05 m; (i) L = ? (ii) φ = ? Solution : (i) L = µo N 2 A = r = 0.025 m; N = 500 ; I = 2A ; µo N 2π r 2 l l 4π × 10−7 × (5 × 102 )2 × 3.14(0.025)2 = = 0.616 × 10−3 1 ∴ L = 0.616 mH (ii) Magnetic flux φ = LI = 0.616 × 10−3 × 2 = 1.232 × 10−3 φ = 1.232 milli weber 165 4.4 Calculate the mutual inductance between two coils when a current of 4 A changing to 8 A in 0.5 s in one coil, induces an emf of 50 mV in the other coil. Data : I1 = 4A; I2 = 8A; dt = 0.5s; e = 50 mV = 50 × 10−3V, M = ? Solution : e = − M . ∴ M = − ∴ 4.5 dI dt 50 × 10−3 e e = − 8−4 = − 6.25 × 10−3 =− ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ dI ⎞ ⎛ I 2 − I1 ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 0.5 ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ M = 6.25 mH An a.c. generator consists of a coil of 10,000 turns and of area 100 cm2. The coil rotates at an angular speed of 140 rpm in a uniform magnetic field of 3.6 × 10−2 T. Find the maximum value of the emf induced. Data : N = 10,000 ν = 140 rpm = A = 102 cm2 = 10–2 m2, 140 rps, 60 B = 3.6 × 10−2T Eo = ? Solution : Eo = NABω = NAB 2πν = 104 × 10−2 × 3.6 × 10−2 × 2 π × 7 3 Eo = 52.75 V 4.6 Write the equation of a 25 cycle current sine wave having rms value of 30 A. Data : ν = 25 Hz, Solution : i = Io sin ωt = Irms 4.7 Irms = 30 A 2 sin 2πνt 2 sin2π × 25 t i = 30 i = 42.42 sin 157 t A capacitor of capacitance 2 µF is in an a.c. circuit of frequency 1000 Hz. If the rms value of the applied emf is 10 V, find the effective current flowing in the circuit. 166 Data : C = 2µF, ν = 1000 Hz, Eeff = 10V 1 1 = C ω C × 2π v Solution : Xc = Xc = 2 × 10 −6 Irms = E eff XC 1 × 2π × 103 = = 79.6 Ω 10 7 9 .6 ∴ Irms = 0.126 A 4.8 A coil is connected across 250 V, 50 Hz power supply and it draws a current of 2.5 A and consumes power of 400 W. Find the self inductance and power factor. Data : Erms = 250 V. ν = 50 Hz; Irms = 2.5A; P = 400 W; L = ?, cos φ = ? Solution : Power P = Erms Irms cos φ ∴cos φ P = E rms I rms 400 250 × 2.5 = 0.64 = cos φ Erms 250 = Impedance Z = I 2.5 = 100 Ω rms From the phasor diagram sin φ = XL Z ∴ XL = Z . sin φ = Z (1 − cos2 φ ) ∴ XL = 76.8 Ω ∴ L = = 100 √[1 – (0.64)2] But XL = L ω = L 2 πν ∴ XL 76.8 = 2π v 2π × 50 L = 0.244 H 167 4.9 A bulb connected to 50 V, DC consumes 20 w power. Then the bulb is connected to a capacitor in an a.c. power supply of 250 V, 50 Hz. Find the value of the capacitor required so that the bulb draws the same amount of current. Data : P = 20 W; V = 50 V; ν = 50 Hz; C= ? Solution : P = VI P 20 = ∴ I = = 0.4 A V 50 50 V ∴ Resistance, R = = = 125 Ω 0.4 I V 250 = = 625Ω The impedence, Z = I 0.4 ⎛ 1 ⎞ R2 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ωc ⎠ ∴ Z = Z 2 = R2 + C = = ⎛ 1 ⎞ R2 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 2πνC ⎠ 2 2 = φ Z XL R 1 4π ν C 1 2 2 2 2πν Z 2 − R 2 1 2π × 50 (625) − (125) 2 2 = C = 5.198 µF 1 2π × 50 × 612.37 4.10 An AC voltage represented by e = 310 sin 314 t is connected in series to a 24 Ω resistor, 0.1 H inductor and a 25 µF capacitor. Find the value of the peak voltage, rms voltage, frequency, reactance of the circuit, impedance of the circuit and phase angle of the current. Data : R = 24 Ω, L = 0.1 H, C = 25 × 10−6F Solution : e = 310 sin 314 t and e = Eo sin ωt ... (1) ... (2) comparing equations (1) & (2) Eo = 310 V Erms = Eo 2 = 310 2 = 219.2 V 168 ωt = 314 t 2πν = 314 ν = 314 = 50 Hz 2 × 3.14 Reactance = XL – XC = L ω – = 0.1 × 2 π × 50 – 1 1 = L.2πv − Cω C .2π v 1 25 × 10−6 × 2π × 50 = 31.4 – 127.4 = −96 Ω ∴ XL – XC = −96 Ω XC – XL = 96 Ω Z = = = R 2 + ( XC − X L ) 2 242 + 962 576 + 9216 = 98.9 Ω tan φ = XC − X L R ⎛ 127.4 − 31.4 ⎞ = ⎜ ⎟ 24 ⎝ ⎠ tan φ φ = 96 = 4 24 = 76o Predominance of capacitive reactance signify that current leads the emf by 76o 169 Self evaluation (The questions and problems given in this self evaluation are only samples. In the same way any question and problem could be framed from the text matter. Students must be prepared to answer any question and problem from the text matter, not only from the self evaluation.) 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Electromagnetic induction is not used in (a) transformer (b) room heater (c) AC generator (d) choke coil A coil of area of cross section 0.5 m2 with 10 turns is in a plane which is pendendicular to an uniform magnetic field of 0.2 Wb/m2. The flux though the coil is (a) 100 Wb (b) 10 Wb (c) 1 Wb (d) zero Lenz’s law is in accordance with the law of (a) conservation of charges (b) conservation of flux (c) conservation of momentum (d) conservation of energy (a) zero (b) infinity (c) very large (d) very small The self−inductance of a straight conductor is The unit henry can also be written as (a) Vs A−1 (b) Wb A−1 (c) Ω s 4.6 4.7 4.8 (d) all An emf of 12 V is induced when the current in the coil changes at the rate of 40 A S–1. The coefficient of self induction of the coil is (a) 0.3 H (b) 0.003 H (c) 30 H (d) 4.8 H A DC of 5A produces the same heating effect as an AC of (a) 50 A rms current (b) 5 A peak current (c) 5A rms current (d) none of these Transformer works on (a) AC only (b) DC only (c) both AC and DC (d) AC more effectively than DC 170 4.9 The part of the AC generator that passes the current from the coil to the external circuit is (a) field magnet (b) split rings (c) slip rings (d) brushes (a) π/2 (b) π/4 4.10 In an AC circuit the applied emf e = Eo sin (ωt + π/2) leads the current I = Io sin (ωt – π/2) by (c) π (d) 0 4.11 Which of the following cannot be stepped up in a transformer? (a) input current (b) input voltage (c) input power (d) all 4.12 The power loss is less in transmission lines when (a) voltage is less but current is more (b) both voltage and current are more (c) voltage is more but current is less (d) both voltage and current are less 4.13 Which of the following devices does not allow d.c. to pass through? (a) resistor (b) capacitor (c) inductor (d) all the above 4.14 In an ac circuit (a) the average value of current is zero. (b) the average value of square of current is zero. (c) the average power dissipation is zero. (d) the rms current is 2 time of peak current. 4.15 What is electromagnetic induction? 4.16 State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. 4.17 Define self−inductance. Give its unit 4.18 Define the unit of self−inductance. 4.19 Define coefficient of mutual induction. 4.20 Give the practical application of self−induction. 4.21 State Fleming’s right hand rule. 171 4.22 Define rms value of a.c. 4.23 State the methods of producing induced emf. 4.24 What is a poly phase AC generator? 4.25 What is inductive reactance? 4.26 Define alternating current and give its expression. 4.27 What is capacitive reactance? 4.28 Mention the difference between a step up and step down transformer. 4.29 What is resonant frequency in LCR circuit? 4.30 Define power factor. 4.31 Why a d.c ammeter cannot read a.c? 4.32 Obtain an expression for the rms value of a.c. 4.33 Define quality factor. 4.34 A capacitor blocks d.c but allows a.c. Explain. 4.35 What happens to the value of current in RLC series circuit, if frequency of the source is increased? 4.36 State Lenz’s law and illustrate through an experiment. Explain how it is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. 4.37 Differentiate between self−inductance and mutual inductance. 4.38 Obtain an expression for the self−inductance of a long solenoid. 4.39 Explain the mutual induction between two long solenoids. Obtain an expression for the mutual inductance. 4.40 Explain how an emf can be induced by changing the area enclosed by the coil. 4.41 Discuss with theory the method of inducing emf in a coil by changing its orientation with respect to the direction of the magnetic field. 4.42 What are eddy currents? Give their applications. How are they minimised? 4.43 Explain how power can be transmitted efficiently to long distance. 4.44 Obtain an expression for the current flowing in a circuit containing resistance only to which alternating emf is applied. Find the phase relationship between voltage and current. 172 4.45 Obtain an expression for the current in an ac circuit containing a pure inductance. Find the phase relationship between voltage and current. 4.46 Obtain an expression for the current flowing in the circuit containing capacitance only to which an alternating emf is applied. Find the phase relationship between the current and voltage. 4.47 Derive an expression for the average power in an ac circuit. 4.48 Describe the principle, construction and working of a choke coil. 4.49 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a.c. over dc. 4.50 Describe the principle, construction and working of a single – phase a.c generator. 4.51 Describe the principle, construction and working of three−phase a.c generator. 4.52 Explain the principle of transformer. Discuss its construction and working. 4.53 A source of altemating emf is connected to a series combination of a resistor R an inductor L and a capacitor C. Obtain with the help of a vector diagram and impedance diagram, an expression for (i) the effective voltage (ii) the impedance (iii) the phase relationship between the current and the voltage. Problems 4.54 A coil of 100 turns and resistance 100 Ω is connected in series with a galvanometer of resistance 100 Ω and the coil is placed in a magnetic field. If the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes from 10–3 Wb to 2 × 10–4 Wb in a time of 0.1 s, calculate the induced emf and current. 4.55 Two rails of a railway track insulated from each other and the ground are connected to a millivoltmeter. The train runs at a speed of 180 Km/hr. Vertical component of earth’s magnetic field is 0.2 × 10−4 Wb/m2 and the rails are separated by 1m. Find the reading of the voltmeter. 4.56 Air core solenoid having a diameter of 4 cm and length 60 cm is wound with 4000 turns. If a current of 5A flows in the solenoid, calculate the energy stored in the solenoid. 173 4.57 An iron cylinder 5cm in diameter and 100cm long is wound with 3000 turns in a single layer. The second layer of 100 turns of much finer wire is wound over the first layer near its centre. Calculate the mutual inductance between the coils (relative permeability of the core = 500). 4.58 A student connects a long air core coil of manganin wire to a 100V DC source and records a current of 1.5A. When the same coil is connected across 100V, 50 Hz a.c. source, the current reduces to 1 A. Calculate the value of reactance and inductance of the coil. 4.59 An emf e = 100 sin 200 πt is connected to a circuit containing a capacitance of 0.1µF and resistance of 500 Ω in series. Find the power factor of the circuit. 4.60 The primary of a transformer has 400 turns while the secondary has 2000 turns. If the power output from the secondary at 1100 V is 12.1 KW, calculate the primary voltage. If the resistance of primary is 0.2 Ω and that of secondary is 2 Ω and the efficiency of the transformer is 90% calculate (i) heat loss in the primary coil (ii) heat loss in the secondary coil 4.61 A resistance 5 µF are e = 311 sin voltage (iii) impedance. of 50 Ω, an inductance of 0.5 H and a capacitance of connected in series with an a.c. supply of (314t). Find (i) frequency of a.c. supply (ii) maximum inductive reactance (iv) capacitive reactance (v) 4.62 A radio can tune over the frequency range of a portion of broadcast band (800 KHz to 1200 KHz). If its LC circuit has an effective inductance of 200 µ H, what must be the range of its variable capacitance? 4.63 A transformer has an efficiency of 80%. It is connected to a power input of at 4 KW and 100 V. If the secondary voltage is 240 V. Calculate the primary and secondary currents. 4.64 An electric lamp which works at 80 volt and 10 A D.C. is connected to 100 V, 50 Hz alternating current. Calculate the inductance of the choke required so that the bulb draws the same current of 10 A. 174 Answers 4.1 (b) 4.2 (c) 4.3 (d) 4.4 (a) 4.5 4.6 (a) 4.7 (c) 4.8 (a) 4.9 (d) 4.10 (c) 4.11 (c) 4.12(c) 4.13 (b) 4.14 (a) 4.54 0.8 V and 4 mA 4.55 1 mV 4.56 0.52575 joule 4.57 0.37 H 4.58 74.54 Ω and 0.237 H 4.60 220V, (i) 747 W 4.61 (i) 50 Hz (d) 4.59 0.0314 (ii) 242 W (ii) 311 V (iii) 157 Ω (iv) 636.9 Ω (v) 482.5 Ω 4.62 87.9 pF to 198 pF 4.63 40 A, 13.3 A 4.64 0.019 H 175 Nobel Laurate in Physics Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman KL., MA., Ph.D., D.Sc., L.L.D., F.R.S. 176 Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman was born at Thiruchirapalli in Tamilnadu on 7th November, 1888. His father Mr.R.Chandrasekara I yer was a teacher. Venkata Raman had his school education at Vizagapatnam, as his father worked as a lecturer in Physics at that place. He completed his B.A., degree with distinction in Presidency College, Chennai in 1904. Venkata Raman continued his post-graduation in the same college and passed the M.A., degree examination in January 1907 securing a first class and obtaining record marks in his subjects. Raman appeared for the finance examination in February 1907 and again secured the first place. He began his life as an Assistant Accountant General in Calcutta in June 1907. Eventhough, Raman worked as an officer in finance department, he spent the morning and evening hours, out of office hours in Physics laboratories. He converted a part of his house as a laboratory and worked with improvised apparatus. Raman left Government Service in July 1917 and joined as a Professor of Physics in the University of Calcutta. The British Government knighted him in 1929 as “Sir,” but he did not like the use of “Sir” before his name. The discovery of the Raman effect was not an accident, but was the result of prolonged and patient research extending over a period of nearly seven years. These researches began in the summer of 1921. When, during the voyage made on the occasion of his first visit to Europe, Raman’s attention was attracted to the beautiful blue colour exhibited by the water of the deep sea. On his return to I ndia, he started a series of experimental and theoretical studies on scattering of light by the molecules of transparent media such as air, water or ice and quartz. The experiment of Professor Raman revealed that the scattered light is different from the incident light. This led to the discovery of a new effect. For his investigation on the scattering of light and the discovery of the effect known after him, Raman effect, Nobel Prize was awarded to Raman on 10th December, 1930. Sir. C.V. Raman joined the I ndian I nstitute of Science and Technology, Bangalore as its first I ndian director in 1933. He established a research laboratory known as Raman I nstitute in 1943. He continued his research, until death put a full stop to his activities at the age of 82. 177 5. Electromagnetic Waves and Wave optics The phenomenon of Faraday’s electromagnetic induction concludes that a changing magnetic field at a point with time produces an electric field at that point. Maxwell in 1865, pointed out that there is a symmetry in nature (i.e) changing electric field with time at a point produces a magnetic field at that point. It means that a change in one field with time (either electric or magnetic) produces another field. This idea led Maxwell to conclude that the variation in electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other, produces electromagnetic disturbances in space. These disturbances have the properties of a wave and propagate through space without any material medium. These waves are called electromagnetic waves. 5.1.1 Electromagnetic waves According to Maxwell, an accelerated charge is a source of electromagnetic radiation. In an electromagnetic wave, electric and magnetic field vectors are at right angles to each Y other and both are at B B E right angles to the E direction of propagation. They possess the wave X character and propagate through free space E E without any material Z B B medium. These waves are Fig 5.1 Electromagnetic waves. transverse in nature. → Fig 5.1 shows the variation of electric field E along Y direction and → magnetic field B along Z direction and wave propagation in + X direction. 178 5.1.2 Characteristics of electromagnetic waves (i) Electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerated charges. → → (ii) They do not require any material medium for propagation. (iii) In an electromagnetic wave, the electric (E) and magnetic (B) field vectors are at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation. Hence electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature. → → (iv) Variation of maxima and minima in both E and B occur simultaneously. (v) They travel in vacuum or free space with a velocity 1 . 3 × 108 m s−1 given by the relation C = µ ε (µo – permeability of free space and εo - permittivity of free o o space) (vi) The energy in an electromagnetic wave is equally divided between electric and magnetic field vectors. (vii) The electromagnetic waves being chargeless, are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields. 5.1.3 Hertz experiment The existence of electromagnetic waves was confirmed experimentally by Hertz in 1888. This experiment is based on the fact that an oscillating electric charge radiates electromagnetic waves. The energy of these waves is due to the kinetic energy of the oscillating charge. The experimental arrangement is as shown in Fig 5.2. It consists of two metal plates A and B placed at a distance of 60 cm from each other. The metal plates are A connected to two polished metal spheres S1 and S2 by means of To Induction thick copper wires. Using an S Coil induction coil a high potential S difference is applied across the Detector small gap between the spheres. B 1 2 Due to high potential Fig 5.2 Hertz experiment difference across S1 and S2, the air in the small gap between the spheres gets ionized and provides a path for the discharge of the plates. A spark is produced between 179 S1 and S2 and electromagnetic waves of high frequency are radiated. Hertz was able to produce electromagnetic waves of frequency about 5 × 107 Hz. Here the plates A and B act as a capacitor having small capacitance value C and the connecting wires provide low inductance L. The high frequency oscillation of charges between the 1 plates is given by ν = 2π LC 5.1.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum After the demonstration of electromagnetic waves by Hertz, electromagnetic waves in different regions of wavelength were produced by different ways of excitation. Wavelength Frequency (Hz) Gamma rays 22 º 1A X-rays 1 nm Ultraviolet 1 m Visible light Infrared 1 cm Microwaves 1m TV. FM Radio waves 1 km Standard broadcast Long waves Fig 5.3 Electromagnetic spectrum 180 10 1021 20 10 1019 18 10 17 10 1016 15 10 14 10 1013 12 10 1011 1010 9 10 108 7 10 6 10 105 4 10 3 10 The orderly distribution of electromagnetic waves according to their wavelength or frequency is called the electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic spectrum covers a wide range of wavelengths (or) frequencies. The whole electromagnetic spectrum has been classified into different parts and sub parts, in order of increasing wavelength and type of excitation. All electromagnetic waves travel with the velocity of light. The physical properties of electromagnetic waves are determined by their wavelength and not by their method of excitation. The overlapping in certain parts of the spectrum shows that the particular wave can be produced by different methods. Table 5.1 shows various regions of electromagnetic spectrum with source, wavelength and frequency ranges of different electromagnetic waves. Table 5.1 (NOT FOR EXAMINATION) Sl.No. Name 1. γ – rays 2. x − rays 3. Ultra−violet (UV) 4. Visible light 5. Infra−red (IR) 6. Microwaves 7. Radio frequency waves Source Radioactive nuclei, nuclear reactions High energy electrons suddenly stopped by a metal target Atoms and molecules in an electrical discharge incandescent solids Fluorescent lamps molecules of hot bodies Electronic device (Vacuum tube) charges accelerated through conducting wires Wavelength Frequency range (m) range (Hz) 10−14 − 10−10 3 × 1022 – 3x 1018 1 × 10−10–3 × 10−8 3 × 1018 – 1 × 1016 6 x 10−10–4 × 10−7 5 x 1017 – 8 × 1014 4 x 10−7 – 8 x 10−7 8 x 1014 – 4 x 1014 8 x 10−7 – 3x 10−5 4 x 1014 – 1 × 1013 10−3 – 0.3 3 x 1011 – 1 x 109 10−104 3 x 107 – 3 x 104 181 5.1.5 Uses of electromagnetic spectrum The following are some of the uses of electromagnetic waves. 1. Radio waves : These waves are used in radio and television communication systems. AM band is from 530 kHz to 1710 kHz. Higher frequencies upto 54 MHz are used for short waves bands. Television waves range from 54 MHz to 890 MHz. FM band is from 88 MHz to 108 MHz. Cellular phones use radio waves in ultra high frequency (UHF) band. 2. Microwaves : Due to their short wavelengths, they are used in radar communication system. Microwave ovens are an interesting domestic application of these waves. 3. Infra red waves : (i) Infrared lamps are used in physiotherapy. (ii) Infrared photographs are used in weather forecasting. (iii) As infrared radiations are not absorbed by air, thick fog, mist etc, they are used to take photograph of long distance objects. (iv) Infra red absorption spectrum is used to study the molecular structure. 4. Visible light : Visible light emitted or reflected from objects around us provides information about the world. The wavelength range of visible light is 4000 Å to 8000 Å. 5. Ultra− violet radiations (i) They are used to destroy the bacteria and for sterilizing surgical instruments. (ii) These radiations are used in detection of forged documents, finger prints in forensic laboratories. (iii) They are used to preserve the food items. (iv) They help to find the structure of atoms. 6. X rays : (i) X rays are used as a diagonistic tool in medicine. (ii) It is used to study the crystal structure in solids. 7. γ− γ−rays : Study of γ rays gives useful information about the nuclear structure and it is used for treatment of cancer. 182 5.2 Types of spectra When white light falls on a prism, placed in a spectrometer, the waves of different wavelengths are deviated to different directions by the prism. The image obtained in the field of view of the telescope consists of a number of coloured images of the slit. Such an image is called a spectrum. If the slit is illuminated with light from sodium vapour lamp, two images of the slit are obtained in the yellow region of the spectrum. These images are the emission lines of sodium having wave lengths 5896Ao and 5890Ao. This is known as spectrum of sodium. The spectra obtained from different bodies can be classified into two types (i) emission spectra and (ii) absorption spectra. (i) Emission spectra When the light emitted directly from a source is examined with a spectrometer, the emission spectrum is obtained. Every source has its own characteristic emission spectrum. The emission spectrum is of three types. 1. Continuous spectrum 2. Line spectrum and 3. Band spectrum 1. Continuous spectrum It consists of unbroken luminous bands of all wavelengths containing all the colours from violet to red. These spectra depend only on the temperature of the source and is independent of the characteristic of the source. Incandescent solids, liquids, Carbon arc, electric filament lamps etc, give continuous spectra. 2. Line spectrum Line spectra are sharp lines of definite wavelengths. It is the characteristic of the emitting substance. It is used to identify the gas. Atoms in the gaseous state, i.e. free excited atoms H H H H emit line spectrum. The Fig 5.4 Line spectrum of hydrogen substance in atomic state such as sodium in sodium vapour lamp, mercury in mercury vapour lamp and gases in discharge tube give line spectra (Fig. 5.4). 183 3. Band Spectrum It consists of a number of bright bands with a sharp edge at one end but fading out at the other end. Band spectra are obtained from molecules. It is the characteristic of the molecule. Calcium or Barium salts in a bunsen flame and gases like carbon−di−oxide, ammonia and nitrogen in molecular state in the discharge tube give band spectra. When the bands are examined with high resolving power spectrometer, each band is found to be made of a large number of fine lines, very close to each other at the sharp edge but spaced out at the other end. Using band spectra the molecular structure of the substance can be studied. (ii) Absorption Spectra When the light emitted from a source is made to pass through an absorbing material and then examined with a spectrometer, the obtained spectrum is called absorption spectrum. It is the characteristic of the absorbing substance. Absorption spectra is also of three types 1. continuous absorption spectrum 2. line absorption spectrum and 3. band absorption spectrum 1. Continuous absorption spectrum A pure green glass plate when placed in the path of white light, absorbs everything except green and gives continuous absorption spectrum. 2. Line absorption spectrum º 5896 A º 5890 A º 5896 A º 5890 A Fig 5.5 Emission and absorption spectrum of sodium When light from the carbon arc is made to pass through sodium vapour and then examined by a spectrometer, a continuous spectrum of carbon arc with two dark lines in the yellow region is obtained as shown in Fig.5.5. 3. Band absorption spectrum If white light is allowed to pass through iodine vapour or dilute solution of blood or chlorophyll or through certain solutions of organic 184 and inorganic compounds, dark bands on continuous bright background are obtained. The band absorption spectra are used for making dyes. 5.2.1 Fraunhofer lines If the solar spectrum is closely examined, it is found that it consists of large number of dark lines. These dark lines in the solar spectrum are called Fraunhofer lines. Solar spectrum is an example of line absorption spectrum. The central core of the sun is called photosphere which is at a very high temperature of the order of 14 million kelvin. It emits continuous spectrum. The sun’s outer layer is called chromosphere. This is at a comparatively lower temperature at about 6000 K. It contains various elements in gaseous state. When light from the central core of the sun passes through sun’s atmosphere, certain wavelengths are absorbed by the elements present in the chromosphere and the spectrum is marked by dark lines. By comparing the absorption spectra of various substances with the Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum, the elements present in the sun’s atmosphere have been identified. 5.2.2 Fluorescence When an atomic or molecular system is excited into higher energy state by absorption of energy, it returns back to lower energy state in a time less than 10−5 second and the system is found to glow brightly by emitting radiation of longer wavelength. When ultra violet light is incident on certain substances, they emit visible light. It may be noted that fluorescence exists as long as the fluorescing substance remain exposed to incident ultraviolet light and re-emission of light stops as soon as incident light is cut off. 5.2.3 Phosphorescence There are some substances in which the molecules are excited by the absorption of incident ultraviolet light, and they do not return immediately to their original state. The emission of light continues even after the exciting radiation is removed. This type of delayed fluorescence is called phosphorescence. 185 5.3 Theories of light Any theory regarding propagation of light must explain the properties of light. Since, light is a form of energy, it is transferred from one place to another. Light does not require a material medium for its propagation. In general, there are two possible modes of propagation of energy from one place to another (i) by stream of material particles moving with a finite velocity (ii) by wave motion, wherein the matter through which the wave propagates does not move along the direction of the wave. The various theories of light put forward by famous physicists are given below. 5.3.1 Corpuscular theory According to Newton, a source of light or a luminous body continuously emits tiny, massless (negligibly small mass) and perfectly elastic particles called corpuscles. They travel in straight lines in a homogeneous medium in all directions with the speed of light. The corpuscles are so small that a luminous body does not suffer any appreciable loss of mass even if it emits light for a long time. Light energy is the kinetic energy of the corpuscles. The sense of vision is produced, when the corpuscles impinge on the retina of the eye. The sensation of different colours was due to different sizes of the corpuscles. On account of high speed, they are unaffected by the force of gravity and their path is a straight line. When the corpuscles approach a surface between two media, they are either attracted or repelled. Reflection of the particles is due to repulsion and refraction is due to attraction. According to this theory, the velocity of light in the denser medium is greater than the velocity of light in rarer medium. But the experimental results of Foucault and Michelson showed that velocity of light in a denser medium is lesser than that in a rarer medium. Further, this theory could not explain the phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarisation. 5.3.2 Wave theory According to Huygens, light is propagated in the form of waves, through a continuous medium. Huygens assumed the existence of an invisible, elastic medium called ether, which pervades all space. The 186 disturbance from the source is propagated in the form of waves through space and the energy is distributed equally in all directions. Huygens assumed these waves to be longitudinal. Initially rectilinear propagation of light could not be explained. But the difficulty was overcome when Fresnel and Young suggested that light waves are transverse. The wave theory could satisfactorily explain all the basic properties, which were earlier proved by corpuscular theory and in addition, it explains the phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarisation. According to Huygens, the velocity of light in a denser medium is lesser than that in a rarer medium. This is in accordance with the experimental result of Foucault. 5.3.3 Electromagnetic theory Maxwell showed that light was an electromagnetic wave, conveying electromagnetic energy and not mechanical energy as believed by Huygens, Fresnel and others. He showed that the variation of electric and magnetic intensities had precisely the same characteristics as a transverse wave motion. He also showed that no medium was necessary for the propagation of electromagnetic waves. 5.3.4 Quantum theory The electromagnetic theory, however failed to account for the phenomenon of photo electric effect. In 1900, Planck had suggested that energy was emitted and absorbed, not continuously but in multiples of discrete pockets of energy called Quantum which could not be subdivided into smaller parts. In 1905, Einstein extended this idea and suggested that light waves consist of small pockets of energy called Fig 5.6 Wave and Quantum nature 187 photons. The energy associated with each photon is E = h ν , where h is Planck’s constant (h = 6.626 × 10–34 J s) and ν is the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation. It is now established that photon seems to have a dual character. It behaves as particles in the region of higher energy and as waves in the region of lower energy (Fig. 5.6). 5.4 Scattering of light Lord Rayleigh was the first to deal with scattering of light by air molecules. The scattering of sunlight by the molecules of the gases in Earth’s atmosphere is called Rayleigh scattering. The basic process in scattering is absorption of light by the molecules followed by its re-radiation in different directions. The strength of scattering depends on the wavelength of the light and also the size of the particle which cause scattering. The amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength. This is known as Rayleigh scattering law. Hence, the shorter wavelengths are scattered much more than the longer wavelengths. The blue appearance of sky is due to scattering of sunlight by the atmosphere. According to Rayleigh’s scattering law, blue light is scattered to a greater extent than red light. This scattered radiation causes the sky to appear blue. At sunrise and sunset the rays from the sun have to travel a larger part of the atmosphere than at noon. Therefore most of the blue light is scattered away and only the red light which is least scattered reaches the observer. Hence, sun appears reddish at sunrise and sunset. 5.4.1 Tyndal scattering When light passes through a colloidal solution its path is visible inside the solution. This is because, the light is scattered by the particles of solution. The scattering of light by the colloidal particles is called Tyndal scattering. 5.4.2 Raman effect In 1928, Sir C.V. Raman discovered experimentally, that the monochromatic light is scattered when it is allowed to pass through a substance. The scattered light contains some additional frequencies 188 other than that of incident frequency. This is known as Raman effect. The lines whose frequencies have been modified in Raman effect are called Raman lines. The lines having frequencies lower than the incident frequency are called Stoke’s lines and the lines having frequencies higher than the incident frequency are called Anti−stokes lines. This series of lines in the scattering of light by the atoms and molecules is known as Raman Spectrum. The Raman effect can be easily understood, by considering the scattering of photon of the incident light with the atoms or molecules. Let the incident light consist of photons of energy hνo. 1. If a photon strikes an atom or a molecule in a liquid, part of the energy of the incident photon may be used to excite the atom of the liquid and the rest is scattered. The spectral line will have lower frequency and it is called stokes line. 2. If a photon strikes an atom or a molecule in a liquid, which is in an excited state, the scattered photon gains energy. The spectral line will have higher frequency and it is called Anti−stoke’s line. 3. In some cases, when a light photon strikes atoms or molecules, photons may be scattered elastically. Then the photons neither gain nor Virtual level Virtual level Virtual level hνo hνo Rayleigh line hνAS hνS ν 3 2 1 0 ν 3 2 1 0 hνo Stokes line ν 3 2 1 0 hνo Anti -stokes line (ν = 0, 1, 2 .... are the vibration levels of the ground electronic state.) Fig 5.7 Raman Spectrum 189 lose energy. The spectral line will have unmodified frequency. If νo is the frequency of incident radiation and νs the frequency of scattered radiation of a given molecular sample, then Raman Shift or Raman frequency ∆ν is given by the relation ∆ν = νο − νs. The Raman shift does not depend upon the frequency of the incident light but it is the characteristic of the substance producing Raman effect. For Stoke’s lines, ∆ν is positive and for Anti–stoke’s lines ∆ν is negative. The intensity of Stoke’s line is always greater than the corresponding Anti−stoke’s Line. The different processes giving rise to Rayleigh, Stoke’s and Anti-stokes lines are shown in Fig 5.7. When a system interacts with a radiation of frequency νo, it may make an upward transition to a virtual state. A virtual state is not one of the stationary states of the molecule. Most of the molecules of the system return back to the original state from the virtual state which corresponds to Rayleigh scattering. A small fraction may return to states of higher and lower energy giving rise to Stoke’s line and Antistoke’s line respectively. 5.4.3 Applications of Raman Spectrum (i) It is widely used in almost all branches of science. (ii) Raman Spectra of different substances enable to classify them according to their molecular structure. (iii) In industry, Raman Spectroscopy is being applied to study the properties of materials. (iv) It is used to analyse the chemical constitution. 5.5 Wave front When a stone is dropped in a still water, waves spread out along the surface of water in all directions with same velocity. Every particle on the surface vibrates. At any instant, a photograph of the surface of water would show circular rings on which the disturbance is maximum (Fig. 5.8). It is clear that all the particles on such a Fig 5.8 Water waves circle are vibrating in phase, because these particles are at the same distance from the source. Such a surface which envelopes the particles that are in the same state of vibration is 190 known as a wave front. The wave front at any instant is defined as the locus of all the particles of the medium which are in the same state of vibration. A point source of light at a finite distance in an isotropic medium* emits a spherical wave front (Fig 5.9a). A point source of light in an isotropic medium at infinite distance will give rise to plane wavefront (Fig. 5.9b). A linear source of light such as a slit illuminated by a lamp, will give rise to cylindrical wavefront (Fig 5.9c). Source Rays Source (a) (b) Fig 5.9 Wavefront (c) 5.5.1 Huygen’s principle Huygen’s principle helps us to locate the new position and shape of the wavefront at any instant, knowing its position and shape at any previous instant. In other words, it describes the progress of a wave front in a medium. Huygen’s principle states that, (i) every point on a given wave front may be considered as a source of secondary wavelets which spread out with the speed of light in that medium and (ii) the new wavefront is the forward envelope of the secondary wavelets at that instant. Huygen’s construction for a spherical and plane wavefront is shown in Fig. 5.10a. Let AB represent a given wavefront at a time t = 0. According to Huygen’s principle, every point on AB acts as a source of secondary wavelets which travel with the speed of light c. To find the position of the wave front after a time t, circles are drawn with points P, Q, R ... etc as centres on AB and radii equal to ct. These are the traces of secondary wavelets. The arc A1B1 drawn as a forward envelope of the small circles is the new wavefront at that instant. If the source of light is at a large distance, we obtain a plane wave front A1 B1 as shown in Fig 5.10b. * Isotropic medium is the medium in which the light travels with same speed in all directions. 191 A A1 A A1 P P Q Q R R B B1 B (a) B1 (b) Fig 5.10 Huygen’s principle 5.5.2 Reflection of a plane wave front at a plane surface Let XY be a plane reflecting surface and AB be a plane wavefront incident on the surface at A. PA and QBC are perpendiculars drawn to AB at A and B respectively. Hence they represent incident rays. AN is the normal drawn to the surface. The wave front and the surface are perpendicular to the plane of the paper (Fig. 5.11). According to Huygen’s principle each point on the wavefront acts as the source of secondary wavelet. By the time, the secondary wavelets from B travel a distance BC, the secondary wavelets from A on the reflecting surface would travel the same distance BC after reflection. Taking A as centre and BC as radius an arc is drawn. From C a tangent CD is drawn to this arc. This tangent CD not only envelopes the wavelets from C and A but also the wavelets from all the points between C and A. Therefore CD is the reflected plane wavefront and AD is the reflected ray. Laws of reflection (i) (ii) The incident wavefront AB, the reflected wavefront CD and the reflecting surface XY all lie in the same plane. Angle of incidence i = ∠ PAN = 900 − ∠ NAB = ∠ BAC Angle of reflection r = ∠ NAD = 900 − ∠ DAC = ∠ DCA In right angled triangles ABC and ADC 192 ∠B = BC = ∴ 0 ∠ D = 90 AD and AC is common The two triangles are congruent ∠ BAC = ∠ DCA i.e. i = r Thus the angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection. Q N M B P i D i E r r Y C A Fig 5.11 Reflection of a plane wavefront at a plane surface. X 5.5.3 Refraction of a plane wavefront at a plane surface Let XY be a plane refracting surface separating two media 1 and 2 of refractive indices µ1 and µ2 (Fig 5.12). The velocities of light in these two media are respectively c1 and c2. Consider a plane wave front AB incident on the refracting surface at A. PA and QBC are perpendiculars drawn to AB at A and B respectively. Hence they represent incident rays. NAN1 is the normal drawn to the surface. The wave front and the surface are perpendicular to the plane of the paper. According to Huygen’s principle each point on the wave front act as the source of secondary wavelet. By the time, the secondary wavelets from B, reaches C, the secondary wavelets from the point A would travel a distance AD = C2t, where t is the time taken by the wavelets to travel the distance BC. C2 ∴ BC = C1t and AD = C2t = BC . Taking A as centre and C1 193 Q N 1 P C1 B i i X C r A r D Y 2 C2 N1 Fig 5.12 Refraction of a plane wavefront at the plane surface. C2 BC as radius an arc is drawn in the second medium. From C a C1 tangent CD is drawn to this arc. This tangent CD not only envelopes the wavelets from C and A but also the wavelets from all the points between C and A. Therefore CD is the refracted plane wavefront and AD is the refracted ray. Laws of refraction (i) The incident wave front AB, the refracted wave front CD and the refracting surface XY all lie in the same plane. (ii) Angle of incidence i = ∠ PAN = 900 − ∠ NAB = ∠ BAC Angle of refraction r = ∠ N1AD = 900 − ∠ DAC = ∠ ACD sin i BC / AC BC = = = sin r AD / AC AD C BC = 1 = a constant = 1µ2 C2 C2 BC . C1 µ is called the refractive index of second medium with respect 1 2 to first medium. This is Snell’s law of refraction. If 1µ2 > 1, the first medium is rarer and the second medium is C1 denser. Then C > 1. This means that the velocity of light in rarer 2 medium is greater than that in a denser medium. This conclusion from wave theory is in agreement with the result of Foucault’s experiment. It is clear from above discussions that the refractive index of a medium µm is given by µm = Ca velocity of light in vacuum = velocity of light in the medium Cm The frequency of a wave does not change when a wave is reflected or refracted from a surface, but wavelength changes on refraction. Ca νλa λa i.e. µm = C = νλ = λ m m m ∴ λm λa = µ m where λa and λm are the wavelengths in air and medium respectively. 194 5.5.4 Total internal reflection by wave theory Let XY be a plane surface which separates a rarer medium (air) and a denser medium. Let the velocity of the wavefront in these media be Ca and Cm respectively. A plane wavefront AB passes from denser medium to rarer medium. It is incident on the surface with angle of incidence i. Let r be the angle of refraction. sin i (BC / AC ) BC c m t c m = = = = sin r ( AD / AC ) AD c a t ca RARER D r X r C i A i B r =90º Y X A i=C i D C A YX B C i>C B Y D DENSER (a) (b) (c) Fig 5.13 Total internal reflection cm Since < 1 , i is less than r. This means that the refracted ca wavefront is deflected away from the surface XY. In right angled triangle ADC, there are three possibilities (i) AD < AC (ii) AD = AC and (iii) AD > AC (i) AD < AC : For small values of i, BC will be small and so AD > BC but less than AC (Fig. 5.13a) sin r = i.e AD , which is less than unity AC r < 900 For each value of i, for which r < 900, a refracted wavefront is possible (ii) AD = AC : As i increases r also increases. When AD = AC, sin r = 1 (or) r = 900. i.e a refracted wavefront is just possible (Fig. 5.13b). Now the refracted ray grazes the surface of separation of the two media. The angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction is 900 is called the critical angle C. 195 (iii) AD > AC : When AD > AC, sin r > 1. This is not possible (Fig 5.13c). Therefore no refracted wave front is possible, when the angle of incidence increases beyond the critical angle. The incident wavefront is totally reflected into the denser medium itself. This is called total internal reflection. Hence for total internal reflection to take place (i) light must travel from a denser medium to a rarer medium and (ii) the angle of incidence inside the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle. i.e i > C. 5.6 Superposition principle When two or more waves simultaneously pass through the same medium, each wave acts on every particle of the medium, as if the other waves are not present. The resultant displacement of any particle is the vector addition of the displacements due to the individual waves. Y Y2 Y1 Y2 Y Y1 Fig 5.14 Superposition principle → → This is known as principle of superposition. If Y1 and Y2 represent the individual displacement then the resultant displacement is given by → → → Y = Y1 + Y2 5.6.1 Coherent sources Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of the same wave length and start with same phase or have a constant phase difference. Two independent monochromatic sources, emit waves of same wave length. But the waves are not in phase. So they are not coherent. This is because, atoms cannot emit light waves in same phase and these sources are said to be incoherent sources. 5.6.2 Phase difference and path difference A wave of length λ corresponds to a phase of 2π. A distance of δ 2π corresponds to a phase of φ = × δ λ 196 5.6.3 Interference of light Two slits A and B illuminated by a single monochromatic source S act as A coherent sources. The waves from S these two coherent sources travel B in the same medium and superpose at various points as shown in Fig. 5.15. The crest of the wavetrains are shown by Fig 5.15 Interference phenomenon thick continuous lines and troughs are shown by broken lines. At points where the crest of one wave meets the crest of the other wave or the trough of one wave meets the trough of the other wave, the waves are in phase, the displacement is maximum and these points appear bright. These points are marked by crosses (x). This type of interference is said to be constructive interference. At points where the crest of one wave meets the trough of the other wave, the waves are in opposite phase, the displacement is minimum and these points appear dark. These points are marked by circles (O). This type of interference is said to be destructive interference. Therefore, on a screen XY the intensity of light will be alternatively maximum and minimum i.e. bright and dark bands which are referred as interference fringes. The redistribution of intensity of light on account of the superposition of two waves is called interference. The intensity of light (I) at a point due to a wave of amplitude (a) is given by I ∝ a2. If a1 and a2 are the amplitude of the two interfering waves, then I1 ∝ a12 and I2 ∝ a22 ∴ I1 a12 = I 2 a22 ∴ Imax (a1 + a2 )2 = Imin (a1 − a2 )2 For constructive interference, Imax ∝ (a1 + a2)2 and for destructive interference, Imin ∝ (a1 – a2)2 197 5.6.4 Condition for sustained interference The interference pattern in which the positions of maximum and minimum intensity of light remain fixed with time, is called sustained or permanent interference pattern. The conditions for the formation of sustained interference may be stated as : (i) The two sources should be coherent (ii) Two sources should be very narrow (iii) The sources should lie very close to each other to form distinct and broad fringes. 5.6.5 Young’s double slit experiment Y The phenomenon of interference was first observed and demonstrated by Thomas Young in 1801. The experimental set up is shown in Fig 5.16. A P S B Light from a narrow slit S, illuminated by a monochromatic source, is allowed to fall on two X narrow slits A and B placed very close Fig 5.16 Young’s double slit to each other. The width of each slit is experiment about 0.03 mm and they are about 0.3 mm apart. Since A and B are equidistant from S, light waves from S reach A and B in phase. So A and B act as coherent sources. According to Huygen’s principle, wavelets from A and B spread out and overlapping takes place to the right side of AB. When a screen XY is placed at a distance of about 1 metre from the slits, equally spaced alternate bright and dark fringes appear on the screen. These are called interference fringes or bands. Using an eyepiece the fringes can be seen directly. At P on the screen, waves from A and B travel equal distances and arrive in phase. These two waves constructively interfere and bright fringe is observed at P. This is called central bright fringe. When one of the slits is covered, the fringes disappear and there is uniform illumination on the screen. This shows clearly that the bands are due to interference. 198 5.6.6 Expression for bandwidth Let d be the distance between two coherent sources A and B of wavelength λ. A screen XY is placed parallel to AB at a distance D from the coherent sources. C is the mid point of AB. O is a point on the screen equidistant from A and B. P is a point at a distance x from O, as shown in Fig 5.17. Waves from A and B meet at P in phase or out of phase depending upon the path difference between two waves. X P Dark fringe x A d C B Central bright fringe O M Bright fringe D Y Fig 5.17 Interference band width Draw AM perpendicular to BP The path difference δ = BP – AP AP = MP ∴ δ = BP – AP = BP – MP = BM In right angled ∆ ABM, BM = d sin θ If θ is small, sin θ = θ ∴ The path difference δ = θ.d In right angled triangle COP, tan θ = For small values of θ, tan θ = θ ∴ The path difference δ = OP x = CO D xd D Bright fringes By the principle of interference, condition for constructive interference is the path difference = nλ 199 ∴ xd D where n ∴ = nλ = 0,1,2 … indicate the order of bright fringes. = x D nλ d This equation gives the distance of the nth bright fringe from the point O. Dark fringes By the principle of interference, condition for destructive λ interference is the path difference = (2n−1) 2 where n = ∴ = 1,2,3 … indicate the order of the dark fringes. D λ (2n − 1) d 2 This equation gives the distance of the nth dark fringe from the point O. Thus, on the screen alternate dark and bright bands are seen on either side of the central bright band. x Band width (β ) The distance between any two consecutive bright or dark bands is called bandwidth. The distance between (n+1)th and nth order consecutive bright fringes from O is given by D D D (n + 1)λ − n λ = λ d d d D λ Bandwitdth, β = d Similarly, it can be proved that the distance between two x(n+1) – xn = Dλ . Since bright and dark d fringes are of same width, they are equi−spaced on either side of central maximum. consecutive dark bands is also equal to Condition for obtaining clear and broad interference bands (i) The screen should be as far away from the source as possible. (ii) The wavelength of light used must be larger. (iii) The two coherent sources must be as close as possible. 200 5.6.7 Colours of thin films Everyone is familiar with the brilliant colours exhibited by a thin oil film spread on the surface of water and also by a soap bubble. These colours are due to interference between light waves reflected from the top and the bottom surfaces of thin films. When white light is incident on a thin film, the film appears coloured and the colour depends upon the thickness of the film and also the angle of incidence of the light. Interference in thin films Consider a transparent thin film of uniform thickness t and its refractive index µ bounded by two plane surfaces K and K′ (Fig 5.18). A ray of monochromatic light AB incident on the surface K of the film is partly reflected along BC and partly refracted into the film along BD. At the point D on the surface K′, the ray of light is partly reflected along DE and partly transmitted out of the film along DG. The reflected light then emerges into air along EF which is parallel to BC. The ray EH after refraction at H, finally emerges along HJ. BC and EF are reflected rays parallel to each other and DG and HJ are transmitted rays parallel to each other. Rays BC and EF interfere and similarly the rays DG and HJ interfere. C F i K EM is drawn normal to BC from E. Now the path difference between the waves BC and EF L i E B r t Interference due to the reflected beam δ = (BD+DE)in M A r K′ H D J N G Fig 5.18 Interference in thin films – (BM)in We know, that a distance in air is numerically equal to µ times the distance in medium film air δ = µ (BD + DE) – BM 201 From the figure, it is clear that BD = DE ∴ δ = (2µ . BD) – BM sin i ⎤ ⎡ ⎢⎣∵ µ = sin r ⎥⎦ In the ∆ BME, sin i = BM BE BM = BE sin i = BE . µ sin r BM = µ . BE sin r 1 BE BL = 2 In the ∆ BDL, sin r = BD BD BE = 2 (BD) sin r ∴ ∴ δ BM = µ(2BD) sin2r δ = 2µBD – 2µBD sin2r = 2µBD cos2r DL t = BD BD = 2µt cos r In the ∆ BDL, cos r = ∴ δ A ray of light travelling in air and getting reflected at the surface of a denser medium, undergoes an automatic phase change of π (or) an additional path difference of λ/2. Since the reflection at B is at the surface of a denser medium, there is an additional path difference λ 2 . The effective path difference in this case, δ = 2µt cos r + λ 2 (i) For the constructive interference, path difference δ = nλ, where n = 0,1,2,3 and the film appears bright 2µt cos r + ∴ 2µt cos r λ 2 = nλ = (2n–1) λ 2 (ii) For the destructive interference, path difference δ = (2n+1) λ 2 where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 … and the film appers dark. 2µt cos r + λ 2 = (2n+1) 202 λ 2 ∴ 2µt cos r = nλ If light is incident normally i = 0 and hence r = 0. Therefore the condition for bright fringe is 2µt = (2n–1) λ 2 and for dark fringe is 2µt = nλ. Interference due to the transmitted light The path difference between the transmitted rays DG and HJ is, in a similar way, δ = 2µt cos r. In this case there is no additional path difference introduced because both reflections at the point D and E take place backed by rarer medium Hence, condition for brightness is 2 µt cos r = nλ and condition for darkness is 2µt cos r = (2n – 1) λ 2 5.6.8 Newton’s rings An important application of interference in thin films is the formation of Newton’s rings. When a plano convex lens of long focal length is placed over an optically plane glass plate, a thin air film with varying thickness is enclosed between them. The thickness of the air film is zero at the point of contact and gradually increases outwards from the point of contact. When the air film is illuminated by monochromatic light normally, alternate bright and dark concentric circular rings are formed with dark spot at the centre. These rings are known as Newton’s rings. When viewed with white light, the fringes are coloured (shown in the wrapper of the text book). Experiment Fig 5.19 shows an experimental arrangement for producing and observing Newton’s rings. A monochromatic source of light S is kept at the focus of a condensing lens L1. The parallel beam of light emerging from L1 falls on the glass plate G kept at 45o. The glass plate reflects a part of the incident light vertically downwards, normally on the thin air film, enclosed by the plano convex lens L and plane glass plate P. The reflected beam from the air film is viewed with a microscope. Alternate bright and dark circular rings with dark spot as centre is seen. 203 M L1 45º S G Air film L O P Fig 5.19 Newton’s rings Theory The formation of Newton’s rings can be explained on the basis of interference between waves which are partially reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the air film. If t is the thickness of the air film at a point on the film, the refracted wavelet from the lens has to travel a distance t into the film and after reflection from the top surface of the glass plate, has to travel the same distance back to reach the point again. Thus, it travels a total path 2t. One of the two reflections takes place at the surface of the denser medium and hence it introduces an additional phase change of π or an equivalent path difference λ 2 between two wavelets. ∴ The condition for brightness is, Path difference, δ = 2t + ∴ λ 2 = nλ 2t = (2n–1) λ 2 where n = 1, 2, 3 … and λ is the wavelength of light used. 204 The condition for darkness is, path difference ∴ where δ = 2t + λ 2 = (2n+1) λ 2 2t = nλ n = 0, 1, 2, 3 .... The thickness of the air film at the point of contact of lens L with glass plate P is zero. Hence, there is no path difference between the interfering waves. So, it should appear bright. But the wave reflected from the denser glass plate has suffered a phase change of π while the wave reflected at the spherical surface of the lens has not suffered any phase change. Hence the point O appears dark. Around the point of contact alternate bright and dark rings are formed. 5.6.9 Expression for the radius of the nth dark ring Let us consider the vertical section SOP of the plano convex lens through its centre of curvature C, as shown in Fig 5.20. Let R be the radius of curvature of the plano convex lens and O be the point of contact of the lens with the plane surface. Let t be the thickness of the air film at S and P. Draw ST and PQ perpendiculars to the plane surface of the glass plate. Then ST = AO = PQ = t Let rn be the radius of the nth dark ring which passes through the points S and P. Then SA = AP = rn If ON is the vertical diameter of the circle, then by the law of segments SA. AP = OA. AN rn2 = t(2R–t) rn2 = 2 Rt (neglecting t2 comparing with 2R) r2 2t = n R According to the condition for darkness 2t ∴ C S = nλ A P t rn 2 = nλ R rn2 = nRλ or N rn = T nR λ O Q Fig 5.20 Radius of Newton’s rings 205 Since R and λ are constants, we find that the radius of the dark ring is directly proportional to square root of its order. i.e. r1 ∝ 2, r3 ∝ 1, r2 ∝ 3, and so on. It is clear that the rings get closer as n increases. 5.6.10 Applications of Newtons rings (i) Using the method of Newton’s rings, the wavelength of a given monochromatic source of light can be determined. The radius of nth dark ring and (n+m)th dark ring are given by rn2 = nRλ r2n+m = (n+m) Rλ and rn+m2 – rn2 = mRλ rn +m 2 − rn 2 mR Knowing rn+m, rn and R, the wavelength can be calculated. (ii) Using Newton’s rings, the refractive index of a liquid can calculated. Let λa and λm represent the wavelength of light in air and in medium (liquid). If rn is the radius of the nth dark ring in air and if r′ n is the radius of the nth dark ring in liquid, then rn 2 = nR λa nR λa λ 2 [∵ µ = a ] r′ = nR λ = ∴ λ = n ∴ µ m µ = rn r λm 2 1 2 n 5.7 Diffraction Sound is propagated in the form of waves. Sound produced in an adjoining room reaches us after bending round the edges of the walls. Similarly, waves on the surface of water also bend round the edges of an obstacle and spread into the region behind it. This bending of waves around the edges of an obstacle is called diffraction. Diffraction is a characteristic property of waves. The waves are diffracted, only when the size of the obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of the wave. Fresnel showed that the amount of bending produced at an obstacle depends upon the wavelength of the incident wave. Since the sound waves have a greater wavelength, the diffraction effects are pronounced. As the wavelength of light is very small, compared to that of sound wave and even tiny obstacles have large size, compared to the wavelength of light waves, diffraction effects of light are very small. 206 In practice, diffraction of light can be observed by looking at a source of white light through a fine piece of cloth. A series of coloured images are observed. 5.7.1 Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction Diffraction phenomenon can be classified under two groups (i) Fresnel diffraction and (ii) Fraunhofer diffraction. In the Fresnel diffraction, the source and the screen are at finite distances from the obstacle producing diffraction. In such a case the wave front undergoing diffraction is either spherical or cylindrical. In the Fraunhofer diffraction, the source and the screen are at infinite distances from the obstacle producing diffraction. Hence in this case the wavefront undergoing diffraction is plane. The diffracted rays which are parallel to one another are brought to focus with the help of a convex lens. Fraunhofer pattern is easier to observe practically by a spectrometer. 5.7.2 Diffraction grating An arrangement consisting of a large number of equidistant parallel narrow slits of equal width separated by equal opaque portions is known as a diffraction grating. The plane transmission grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which opaque rulings are made with a fine diamond pointer. The modern commercial form of grating contains about 6000 lines per centimetre. The rulings act as obstacles having a definite width ‘b’ and the transparent space between the rulings act as slit of width ‘a’. The combined width of a ruling and a slit is called grating element (e). Points on successive slits separated by a distance equal to the grating element are called corresponding points. Theory MN represents the section of a plane transmission grating. AB, CD, EF … are the successive slits of equal width a and BC, DE … be the rulings of equal width b (Fig. 5.21). Let e = a + b. Let a plane wave front of monochromatic light of wave length λ be incident normally on the grating. According to Huygen’s principle, the points in the slit AB, CD … etc act as a source of secondary wavelets which spread in all directions on the other side of the grating. 207 P2 M A a P1 B b C G D O E F P1 P2 N Fig 5.21 Diffraction grating Let us consider the secondary diffracted wavelets, which makes an angle θ with the normal to the grating. The path difference between the wavelets from one pair of corresponding points A and C is CG = (a + b) sin θ. It will be seen that the path difference between waves from any pair of corresponding points is also (a + b) sin θ The point P1 will be bright, when (a + b) sin θ = m λ where m = 0, 1, 2, 3 In the undiffracted position θ = 0 and hence sin θ = 0. (a + b) sin θ = 0, satisfies the condition for brightness for m = 0. Hence the wavelets proceeding in the direction of the incident rays will produce maximum intensity at the centre O of the screen. This is called zero order maximum or central maximum. If (a + b) sin θ1 = λ, the diffracted wavelets inclined at an angle θ1 to the incident direction, reinforce and the first order maximum is obtained. Similarly, for second order maximum, (a + b) sin θ2 = 2λ On either side of central maxima different orders of secondary maxima are formed at the point P1, P2. In general, (a + b) sin θ = m λ is the condition for maximum intensity, where m is an integer, the order of the maximum intensity. sin θ = mλ a +b or sin θ = Nmλ 208 where N = 1 , gives the number of grating element or number a +b of lines per unit width of the grating. When white light is used, the diffraction pattern consists of a white central maximum and on both sides continuous coloured images are formed. In the undiffracted position, θ = 0 and hence sin θ = 0. Therefore sin θ = Nmλ is satisfied for m= 0 for all values of λ. Hence, at O all the wavelengths reinforce each other producing maximum intensity for all wave lengths. Hence an undispersed white image is obtained. As θ increases, (a + b) sin θ first passes through λ values for all 2 colours from violet to red and hence darkness results. As θ further increases, (a + b) sin θ passes through λ values of all colours resulting in the formation of bright images producing a spectrum from violet to red. These spectra are formed on either side of white, the central maximum. 5.7.3 Experiment to determine the wavelength of monochromatic light using a plane transmission grating. S The wavelength of a spectral line can be very accurately determined with the help of a diffraction grating and spectrometer. Initially all the preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The slit of collimator is illuminated by a monochromatic light, whose wavelength is to be determined. The telescope is brought in line with collimator to view the direct image. The given plane transmission grating is then mounted on the prism table with its plane is perpendicular to the incident beam of light coming from the collimator. The telescope is slowly turned to one side until the first order diffraction image coincides with the vertical cross wire of the eye piece. The reading of the position of the telescope is noted (Fig. 5.22). 209 C 2 2 1 T 1 Direct ray T Fig 5.22 Diffraction of monochromatic light Similarly the first order diffraction image on the other side, is made to coincide with the vertical cross wire and corresponding reading is noted. The difference between two positions gives 2θ. Half of its value gives θ, the diffraction angle for first order maximum. The wavelength sin θ . Here N is the number of light is calculated from the equation λ = Nm of rulings per metre in the grating. 5.7.4 Determination of wavelengths of spectral lines of white light Monochromatic light is now replaced by the given source of white light. The source emits radiations of different wavelengths, then the beam gets dispersed by grating and a spectrum of constituent wavelengths is obtained as shown in Fig 5.23. R2 Second Order Grating V2 R1 2 First Order V1 1 1 Zero Order (Central Maximum) 2 V1 R1 First Order V2 R2 Second Order Fig 5.23 Diffraction of white light knowing N, wave length of any line can be calculated from the relation sin θ λ= Nm 5.7.5 Difference between interference and diffraction 1. 2. 3. 4. Interference It is due to the superposition of secondary wavelets from two different wavefronts produced by two coherent sources. Fringes are equally spaced. Bright fringes are of same intensity Comparing with diffraction, it has large number of fringes 210 Diffraction It is due to the superposition of secondary wavelets emitted from various points of the same wave front. Fringes are unequally spaced. Intensity falls rapidly It has less number of fringes. 5.8. Polarisation The phenomena of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction are common to both transverse waves and longitudinal waves. But the transverse nature of light waves is demonstrated only by the phenomenon of polarisation. 5.8.1 Polarisation of transverse waves. Let a rope AB be passed through two parallel vertical slits S1 and S2 placed close to each other. The rope is fixed at the end B. If the free end A of the rope is moved up and down perpendicular to its length, transverse waves are generated with vibrations parallel to the slit. These waves B D pass through both S1 A C and S2 without any change in their amplitude. But if S2 is S1 S2 made horizontal, the (a) two slits are perpendicular to each other. Now, no B D vibrations will pass C through S2 and A amplitude of vibrations will become zero. S1 S2 i.e the portion S2B is without wave motion (b) as shown in fig 5.24. Fig 5.24 Polarisation of transverse waves On the otherhand, if longitudinal waves are generated in the rope by moving the rope along forward and backward, the vibrations will pass through S1 and S2 irrespective of their positions. This implies that the orientation of the slits has no effect on the propagation of the longitudinal waves, but the propagation of the transverse waves, is affected if the slits are not parallel to each other. A similar phenomenon has been observed in light, when light passes through a tourmaline crystal. 211 Source Polarised Light A Polarised Light B (a) Source Polarised Light No Light B A (b) Fig 5.25 Polarisation of transverse waves Light from the source is allowed to fall on a tourmaline crystal which is cut parallel to its optic axis (Fig. 5.25a). The emergent light will be slightly coloured due to natural colour of the crystal. When the crystal A is rotated, there is no change in the intensity of the emergent light. Place another crystal B parallel to A in the path of the light. When both the crystals are rotated together, so that their axes are parallel, the intensity of light coming out of B does not change. When the crystal B alone is rotated, the intensity of the emergent light from B gradually decreases. When the axis of B is at right angles to the axis of A, no light emerges from B (Fig. 5.25b). If the crystal B is further rotated, the intensity of the light coming out of B gradually increases and is maximum again when their axis are parallel. Comparing these observations with the mechanical analogue discussed earlier, it is concluded that the light waves are transverse in nature. Light waves coming out of tourmaline crystal A have their vibrations in only one direction, perpendicular to the direction of 212 propagation. These waves are said to be polarised. Since the vibrations are restricted to only one plane parallel to the axis of the crystal, the light is said to be plane polarised. The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations into a particular plane is known as polarisation. 5.8.2 Plane of vibration and plane of polarisation The plane containing the optic axis in which the vibrations occur is known as plane of vibration. The plane which is at right angles to the plane of vibration and which contains the direction of propagation of the polarised light is known as the plane of polarisation. Plane of polarisation does not contain vibrations in it. P In the Fig 5.26 PQRS represents the plane of vibration and EFGH represents the plane of polarisation. S H E 5.8.3 Representation of light vibrations G F Q R Fig 5.26 Planes of vibration and In an unpolarised polarisation light, the vibrations in all directions may be supposed to be made up of two mutually perpendicular vibrations. These are represented by double arrows and dots (Fig 5.27). The vibrations in the plane of the paper are represented by double Fig 5.27 Light vibrations arrows, while the vibrations perpendicular to the plane of the paper are represented by dots. 5.8.4 Polariser and Analyser A device which produces plane polarised light is called a polariser. A device which is used to examine, whether light is plane polarised or not is an analyser. A polariser can serve as an analyser and vice versa. A ray of light is allowed to pass through an analyser. If the intensity of the emergent light does not vary, when the analyser is rotated, then the incident light is unpolarised; If the intensity of light varies between maximum and zero, when the analyser is rotated 213 through 90o, then the incident light is plane polarised; If the intensity of light varies between maximum and minimum (not zero), when the analyser is rotated through 90o, then the incident light is partially plane polarised. 5.8.5 Polarisation by reflection The simplest method of producing plane polarised light is by reflection. Malus, discovered that when a beam of ordinary light is reflected from the surface of transparent medium like glass or water, it gets polarised. The degree of polarisation varies with angle of incidence. Consider a beam of unpolarised light AB, incident at any angle on the reflecting glass surface XY. Incident beam Reflected beam A ip ip X B r Vibrations in AB which are parallel to the plane of the diagram are shown by arrows. The C vibrations which are perpendicular to the plane of Y the diagram and parallel to the reflecting surface, shown by dots (Fig. 5.28). Refracted beam A part of the light is reflected along BC, and the D rest is refracted along BD. Fig 5.28 Polarisation by reflection On examining the reflected beam with an analyser, it is found that the ray is partially plane polarised. When the light is allowed to be incident at a particular angle, (for glass it is 57.5o) the reflected beam is completely plane polarised. The angle of incidence at which the reflected beam is completely plane polarised is called the polarising angle (ip). 5.8.6 Brewster’s law Sir David Brewster conducted a series of experiments with different reflectors and found a simple relation between the angle of polarisation and the refractive index of the medium. It has been observed experimentally that the reflected and refracted rays are at right angles to 214 each other, when the light is incident at polarising angle. From Fig 5.28, ip +900 + r = 1800 r = 900 – ip sin i p =µ From Snell’s law, sin r where µ is the refractive index of the medium (glass) Substituting for r, we get sin i p sin i p =µ ; =µ cos i p sin(90 − i p ) ∴ tan ip = µ The tangent of the polarising angle is numerically equal to the refractive index of the medium. 5.8.7 Pile of plates The phenomenon of polarisation by reflection is used in the construction of pile of plates. It consists of a number of glass plates placed one over the other as shown in Fig 5.29 in a tube of suitable size. The plates Fig.5.29 Pile of plates are inclined at an angle of 32.5o to the axis of the tube. A beam of monochromatic light is allowed to fall on the pile of plates along the axis of the tube. So, the angle of incidence will be 57.5o which is the polarising angle for glass. The vibrations perpendicular to the plane of incidence are reflected at each surface and those parallel to it are transmitted. The larger the number of surfaces, the greater is the intensity of the reflected plane polarised light. The pile of plates is used as a polariser and an analyser. 5.8.8 Double refraction Bartholinus discovered that when a ray of unpolarised light is incident on a calcite crystal, two refracted rays are produced. This 215 phenomenon is called double refraction (Fig. 5.30a). Hence, two images of a single object are formed. This phenomenon is exhibited by several other crystals like quartz, mica etc. E O (a) E O (b) Fig 5.30 Double refraction When an ink dot on a sheet of paper is viewed through a calcite crystal, two images will be seen (Fig 5.30b). On rotating the crystal, one image remains stationary, while the other rotates around the first. The stationary image is known as the ordinary image (O), produced by the refracted rays which obey the laws of refraction. These rays are known as ordinary rays. The other image is extraordinary image (E), produced by the refracted rays which do not obey the laws of refraction. These rays are known as extraordinary rays. Inside a double refracting crystal the ordinary ray travels with same velocity in all directions and the extra ordinary ray travels with different velocities along different directions. A point source inside a refracting crystal produces spherical wavefront corresponding to ordinary ray and elliptical wavefront corresponding to extraordinary ray. Inside the crystal there is a particular direction in which both the rays travel with same velocity. This direction is called optic axis. The refractive index is same for both rays and there is no double refraction along this direction. 5.8.9 Types of crystals Crystals like calcite, quartz, ice and tourmaline having only one optic axis are called uniaxial crystals. Crystals like mica, topaz, selenite and aragonite having two optic axes are called biaxial crystals. 216 5.8.10 Nicol prism Nicol prism was designed by William Nicol. One of the most common forms of the Nicol prism is made by taking a calcite crystal whose length is three times its breadth. It is cut into two halves along the diagonal so that their face angles are 720 and 1080. And the two halves are joined together by a layer of Canada balsam, a transparent cement as shown in Fig 5.31. For sodium light, the refractive index for ordinary light is 1.658 and for extra−ordinary light is 1.486. The refractive index for Canada balsam is 1.550 for both rays, hence Canada balsam does not polarise light. A monochromatic beam of unpolarised light is incident on the face of the nicol prism. It splits up into two rays as ordinary ray (O) and extraordinary ray (E) inside the nicol prism (i.e) double refraction takes place. The ordinary ray is totally internally reflected at the layer of Canada balsam and is prevented from emerging from the other face. The extraordinary ray alone is transmitted through the crystal which is plane polarised. The nicol prism serves as a polariser and also an analyser. A E 108º 72º O Fig 5.31 Nicol prism B 5.8.11 Polaroids A Polaroid is a material which polarises light. The phenomenon of selective absorption is made use of in the construction of polariods. There are different types of polaroids. A Polaroid consists of micro crystals of herapathite (an iodosulphate of quinine). Each crystal is a doubly refracting medium, which absorbs the ordinary ray and transmits only the extra ordinary ray. The modern polaroid consists of a large number of ultra microscopic crystals of herapathite embedded with their optic axes, parallel, in a matrix of nitro –cellulose. Recently, new types of polariod are prepared in which thin film of polyvinyl alcohol is used. These are colourless crystals which transmit more light, and give better polarisation. 217 5.8.12 Uses of Polaroid 1. Polaroids are used in the laboratory to produce and analyse plane polarised light. 2. Polaroids are widely used as polarising sun glasses. 3. They are used to eliminate the head light glare in motor cars. 4. They are used to improve colour contrasts in old oil paintings. 5. Polaroid films are used to produce three – dimensional moving pictures. 6. They are used as glass windows in trains and aeroplanes to control the intensity of light. In aeroplane one polaroid is fixed outside the window while the other is fitted inside which can be rotated. The intensity of light can be adjusted by rotating the inner polaroid. 7. Aerial pictures may be taken from slightly different angles and when viewed through polaroids give a better perception of depth. 8. In calculators and watches, letters and numbers are formed by liquid crystal display (LCD) through polarisation of light. 9. Polarisation is also used to study size and shape of molecules. 5.8.13 Optical activity When a plane polarised light is made to pass through certain substances, the plane of polarisation of the emergent light is not the same as that of incident light, but it has been rotated through some angle. This phenomenon is known as optical activity. The substances which rotate the plane of polarisation are said to be optically active. Examples : quartz, sugar crystals, turpentine oil, sodium chloride etc. Optically active substances are of two types, (i) Dextro−rotatory (right handed) which rotate the plane of polarisation in the clock wise direction on looking towards the source. (ii) Laevo – rotatory (left handed) which rotate the plane of polarisation in the anti clockwise direction on looking towards the source. Light from a monochromatic source S, is made to pass through a polariser P. The plane polarised light is then made to fall on an analyser A, which is in crossed position with P. No light comes out of A. When a quartz plate is inserted between the polariser and analyser some light emerges out of the analyzer A (Fig. 5.32). The emerging light is cut off again, when the analyzer is rotated through a certain angle. 218 This implies that light emerging from quartz is still plane polarised, but its plane of polarisation has been rotated through certain angle. P A S No light A P S Light Optically active substance Fig 5.32 Optical activity The amount of optical rotation depends on : (i) thickness of crystal (ii) density of the crystal or concentration in the case of solutions. (iii) wavelength of light used (iv) the temperature of the solutions. 5.8.14 Specific rotation The term specific rotation is used to compare the rotational effect of all optically active substances. Specific rotation for a given wavelength of light at a given temperature is defined as the rotation produced by one-decimeter length of the liquid column containing 1 gram of the active material in 1cc of the solution. If θ is the angle of rotation produced by l decimeter length of a solution of concentration C in gram per cc, then the specific rotation S at a given wavelength λ for a given temperature t is given by θ . l .c The instrument used to determine the optical rotation produced by a substance is called polarimeter. S= Sugar is the most common optically active substance and this optical activity is used for the estimation of its strength in a solution by measuring the rotation of plane of polarisation. 219 Solved problems 5.1 In Young’s double slit experiment two coherent sources of intensity ratio of 64 : 1, produce interference fringes. Calculate the ratio of maximium and minimum intensities. Data : I1 : I2 : : 64 : 1 I1 a12 64 = = I 2 a 22 1 Solution : ∴ I max I min = ? a1 8 = ; a2 1 a1 = 8a2 2 (8a2 + a2 )2 I max (a 1 + a2 ) = = I min (a 1 − a2 )2 (8a2 − a2 )2 = (9a 2 )2 2 (7a2 ) = 81 49 Imax : Imin : : 81 : 49 5.2 In Young’s experiment, the width of the fringes obtained with light of wavelength 6000 Å is 2 mm. Calculate the fringe width if the entire apparatus is immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.33. Data : λ = 6000 Å = 6 × 10−7 m; β = 2mm = 2 × 10−3 m µ = 1.33; β′ = ? D λ′ λD β Solution : β′ = d = µd = µ ∴β′ = 5.3 2 × 10−3 = 1.5 x 10-3 m (or) 1.5 mm 1.33 λ⎤ ⎡ ⎢⎣∵ µ = λ ′ ⎥⎦ A soap film of refractive index 1.33, is illuminated by white light incident at an angle 30o. The reflected light is examined by spectroscope in which dark band corresponding to the wavelength 6000Å is found. Calculate the smallest thickness of the film. Data : µ = 1.33; i = 30o; λ = 6000 Å = 6 × 10–7 m n = 1 (Smallest thickness); t = ? 220 µ Solution : µ sini sin r = ∴ cos r = 2 µt cos r = nλ 5.4 = sin i sin r = 0.5 sin 30o = = 0.3759 1.33 1.33 1 − 0.37592 = 0.9267 λ 2µ cos r = 6 × 10 −7 2 × 1.33 × 0.9267 t = t = t = 2.434 × 10–7 m 6 × 10−7 2.465 A plano – convex lens of radius 3 m is placed on an optically flat glass plate and is illuminated by monochromatic light. The radius of the 8th dark ring is 3.6 mm. Calculate the wavelength of light used. Data : R = 3m ; n = 8 ; r8 = 3.6 mm = 3.6 × 10−3 m ; λ = ? Solution : rn = nR λ rn2 = nRλ λ= 5.5 rn 2 (3.6 × 10−3 )2 = = 5400 × 10−10 m (or) 5400 Å 8×3 nR In Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of certain order of dark ring is measured to be double that of second ring. What is the order of the ring? Data : dn = 2d2 ; n = ? Solution : dn2 = 4nRλ d22 = 8Rλ ...(1) ...(2) d 2 n (1) ⇒ n2 = d2 (2) 2 221 ∴ 5.6 4d22 n = d 22 2 n = 8. Two slits 0.3 mm apart are illuminated by light of wavelength 4500 Å. The screen is placed at 1 m distance from the slits. Find the separation between the second bright fringe on both sides of the central maximum. Data : d = 0.3 mm = 0.3 × 10−3 m ; λ = 4500 Å = 4.5 × 10−7 m, D = 1 m ; n = 2 ; 2x = ? Solution : 2x = 2 = D nλ d 2 × 1 × 2 × 4.5 × 10−7 0.3 × 10−3 ∴ 2x = 6 × 10−3 m (or) 6 mm 5.7 A parallel beam of monochromatic light is allowed to incident normally on a plane transmission grating having 5000 lines per centimetre. A second order spectral line is found to be diffracted at an angle 30o. Find the wavelength of the light. Data : N = 5000 lines / cm = 5000 × 102 lines / m m = 2 ; θ = 30o ; λ = ? Solution : sin θ = Nm λ λ = λ = sin θ Nm sin 30o 0.5 = 5 5 × 10 × 2 5 × 105 × 2 λ = 5 × 10−7 m = 5000 Å. 5.8 A 300 mm long tube containing 60 cc of sugar solution produces a rotation of 9o when placed in a polarimeter. If the specific rotation is 60o, calculate the quantity of sugar contained in the solution. 222 Data : l = 300 mm = 30 cm = 3 decimeter θ = 9o ; S = 60o ; v = 60 cc m = ? θ θ Solution : S = l × c = l × (m /v ) m = = θ .v l ×s 9 × 60 3 × 60 m = 3 g Self evaluation (The questions and problems given in this self evaluation are only samples. In the same way any question and problem could be framed from the text matter. Students must be prepared to answer any question and problem from the text matter, not only from the self evaluation.) 5.1 In an electromagnetic wave (a) (b) (c) (d) 5.2 power fields power fields power power is equally transferred along the electric and magnetic is transmitted in a direction perpendicular to both the is transmitted along electric field is transmitted along magnetic field Electromagnetic waves are (a) transverse (b) longitudinal (c) may be longitudinal or transverse (d) neither longitudinal nor transverse 5.3 Refractive index of glass is 1.5. Time taken for light to pass through a glass plate of thickness 10 cm is (a) 2 × 10–8 s (b) 2 × 10–10 s (c) 5 × 10–8 s (d) 5 × 10–10 s 223 5.4 In an electromagnetic wave the phase difference between electric → → field E and magnetic field B is (a) π/4 (c) π 5.5 (b) π/2 (d) zero Atomic spectrum should be (a) pure line spectrum (b) emission band spectrum (c) absorption line spectrum (d) absorption band spectrum. 5.6 When a drop of water is introduced between the glass plate and plano convex lens in Newton’s rings system, the ring system (a) contracts 5.7 (b) expands (c) remains same (d) first expands, then contracts A beam of monochromatic light enters from vacuum into a medium of refractive index µ. The ratio of the wavelengths of the incident and refracted waves is (a) µ : 1 (b) 1 : µ 2 (c) µ : 1 (d) 1 : µ2 5.8 If the wavelength of the light is reduced to one fourth, then the amount of scattering is (a) increased by 16 times (b) decreased by 16 times (c) increased by 256 times (d) decreased by 256 times 5.9 In Newton’s ring experiment the radii of the mth and (m + 4)th dark rings are respectively 5 mm and 7 mm. What is the value of m? (a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) 10 5.10 The path difference between two monochromatic light waves of wavelength 4000 Å is 2 × 10−7 m. The phase difference between them is (b) 2π (a) π π (c) 3 (d) π/2 2 5.11 In Young’s experiment, the third bright band for wavelength of light 6000 Å coincides with the fourth bright band for another source in the same arrangement. The wave length of the another source is (a) 4500 Å (b) 6000 Å (c) 5000 Å (d) 4000 Å 224 5.12 A light of wavelength 6000 Å is incident normally on a grating 0.005 m wide with 2500 lines. Then the maximum order is (a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 4 5.13 A diffraction pattern is obtained using a beam of red light. What happens if the red light is replaced by blue light? (a) bands disappear (b) no change (c) diffraction pattern becomes narrower and crowded together (d) diffraction pattern becomes broader and farther apart 5.14 The refractive index of the medium, for the polarising angle 60o is (a) 1.732 (b) 1.414 (c) 1.5 (d) 1.468 5.15 What are electromagnetic waves? 5.16 Mention the characteristics of electromagnetic waves. 5.17 Give the source and uses of electromagnetic waves. 5.18 Explain emission and absorption spectra. 5.19 What is fluoresence and phosphorescence? 5.20 Distinguish the corpuscle and photon. 5.21 What is Tyndal Scattering? 5.22 How are Stoke’s and Anti-stoke’s line formed? 5.23 Why the sky appears blue in colour? 5.24 Explain the Raman scattering of light. 5.25 Explain Huygen’s principle. 5.26 On the basis of wave theory, explain total internal reflection. 5.27 What is principle of superposition of waves? 5.28 Give the conditions for sustained interference. 5.29 Derive an expression for bandwidth of interference fringes in Young’s double slit experiment. 5.30 Discuss the theory of interference in thin transparent film due to reflected light and obtain condition for the intensity to be maximum and minimum. 225 5.31 What are Newton’s rings? Why the centre of the Newton’s rings is dark? 5.32 Distinguish between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction. 5.33 Discuss the theory of plane transmission grating. 5.34 Describe an experiment to demonstrate transverse nature of light. 5.35 Differentiate between polarised and unpolarised light. 5.36 State and explain Brewster’s law. 5.37 Bring out the difference’s between ordinary and extra ordinary light. 5.38 Write a note on : (a) Nicol prism (b) Polaroid 5.39 What is meant by optical rotation? On what factors does it depend? Problems 5.40 An LC resonant circuit contains a capacitor 400 pF and an inductor 100 µH. It is sent into oscillations coupled to an antenna. Calculate the wavelength of the radiated electromagnetic wave. 5.41 In Young’s double slit experiment, the intensity ratio of two coherent sources are 81 : 1. Calculate the ratio between maximum and minimum intensities. 5.42 A monochromatic light of wavelength 589 nm is incident on a water surface having refractive index 1.33. Find the velocity, frequency and wavelength of light in water. 5.43 In Young’s experiment a light of frequency 6 × 1014 Hz is used. Distance between the centres of adjacent fringes is 0.75 mm. Calculate the distance between the slits, if the screen is 1.5 m away. 5.44 The fringe width obtained in Young’s double slit experiment while using a light of wavelength 5000 Å is 0.6 cm. If the distance between the slit and the screen is halved, find the new fringe width. 5.45 A light of wavelength 6000 Å falls normally on a thin air film, 6 dark fringes are seen between two points. Calculate the thickness of the air film. 5.46 A soap film of refractive index 4/3 and of thickness 1.5 × 10–4 cm is illuminated by white light incident at an angle 60o. The reflected light is examined by a spectroscope in which dark band 226 corresponds to a wavelength of 5000 Å. Calculate the order of the dark band. 5.47 In a Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of the 20th dark ring was found to be 5.82 mm and that of the 10th ring 3.36 mm. If the radius of the plano−convex lens is 1 m. Calculate the wavelength of light used. 5.48 A plane transmission grating has 5000 lines / cm. Calculate the angular separation in second order spectrum of red line 7070 Å and blue line 5000 Å. 5.49 The refractive index of the medium is 3 . Calculate the angle of refraction if the unpolarised light is incident on it at the polarising angle of the medium. 5.50 A 20 cm long tube contains sugar solution of unknown strength. When observed through polarimeter, the plane of polarisation is rotated through 10o. Find the strength of sugar solution in g/cc. Specific rotation of sugar is 60o / decimetre / unit concentration. Answers 5.1 (b) 5.2 (a) 5.3 (d) 5.4 (d) 5.5 (a) 5.6 (a) 5.7 (a) 5.8 (c) 5.9 (d) 5.10 (a) 5.11 (a) 5.12 (a) 5.13 (c) 5.14 (a) 5.40 377 m 5.41 25 : 16 5.42 2.26 × 108 m s–1, 5.09 × 1014 Hz, 4429 Å 5.43 1 mm 5.44 3 mm 5.45 18 × 10–7 m 5.46 6 5.47 5645Å 5.48 15o 5.49 30o 5.50 0.0833 g/cc 227