Astrology and Astronomy

Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) Jyotiḥśāstra (or jyotiṣa, jyautiṣa) is the “science of [celestial] lights.” Like its traditional European counterpart, it encompasses both astronomy and astrology – two terms which were largely interchangeable in Europe until the 17th century, and occasionally beyond that time. Of the two, astronomy is generally seen as subservient to the practical needs of calendar making and astrology, which will be the main focus of this article. hematically, jyotiṣa is traditionally divided into three “branches” (skandha) and six “limbs” (aṅga): (a) the branch of gaṇ ita (calculation), consisting of → mathematics (gaṇita in a restricted sense) and astronomy (gola); (b) the branch of horā (horoscopy or judicial astrology), consisting of genethlialogy or natal astrology (jātaka), interrogations or horary astrology (praśna), and catarchic or electional astrology (muhūrta), to which omens (nimitta) are occasionally added; and (c) the branch of saṃ hitā (“collections”), comprising mundane or natural astrology afecting whole countries or regions as well as weather prognostication and various natural lore and divinatory techniques not necessarily involving the heavenly bodies (see → divination). he fact that other forms of divination are oten subsumed under the heading of jyotiṣa indicates a primacy of astrology over other divinatory arts which is no doubt due at least in part to its more “scientiic” – that is, complex, systematic and objective – character. Horā and saṃ hitā are sometimes grouped together as phalitajyotiṣa (“having results” jyotiṣa, that is, applied jyotiṣa), contrasting with the theoretical gaṇitajyotiṣa. Chronologically, the development of jyotiṣa may be divided into several periods characterized by inluences from outside the Indian subcontinent. Speaking strictly of the astronomical side, D. Pingree (1981) makes use of the following chronology: • Vedic (c. 1000–400 BCE) • Babylonian (c. 400 BCE–200 CE) • Greco-Babylonian (c. 200–400) • Greek (c. 400–1600) • Islamic (c. 1600–1800) he history of astrology in India difers somewhat from this scheme, as will be discussed below. For both aspects of jyotiṣa, a period of modern Euro- pean inluence (c. 1800–present) may further be added (see below). Astronomy and Vedic Ritual A major focus of Vedic religion was the regular performance of sacriices (→ yajña), both daily (nitya) and occasional (naimittika). he times of the latter were oten determined by astronomical factors such as the season, month, and nakṣatra or asterism occupied by the moon; and Jyotiṣa or the accurate knowledge of these factors therefore became an important auxiliary branch of Vedic learning, or Vedāṅga, along with the disciplines of phonetics (śikṣā), metrics (chandas), grammar (vyākaraṇa), etymology (nirukta) and liturgics (kalpa). In a less systematic list, the “knowledge of the stars” (nakṣatravidyā) occurs in as early a text as the Chāndogyopaniṣad (7th–6th century BCE?) along with the four → Vedas and a number of related subjects, including divination or daiva (ChāU. 7.1). he text of the Jyotiṣavedāṅga is extant in two recensions: that of a certain Lagadha, belonging to the Ṛgveda and dated to the 5th or 4th century BCE, and the somewhat later version belonging to the Yajurveda. Both are short works, comprising 36 and 43–45 verses, respectively, and are concerned mainly with the construction of a dependable calendar related to the Vedic rituals. No astrological elements are present in this “Vedic jyotiṣa,” which includes several concepts borrowed from the astronomy of Mesopotamia. By the 5th century, Greek astronomy was wellestablished in India, as is clear from the astronomer Āryabhaṭa’s (b. 476 CE) work, known simply as the Āryabhaṭīya. Unlike most of his contemporaries, Āryabhatạ believed the earth to rotate on its axis, making the daily rotation of the celestial sphere only an apparent one. His astronomical teachings survived mainly in Kerala, where they enjoyed something of a renaissance in the 14th to 16th centuries. In the 6th century, important works on all branches of Jyotiḥśāstra were authored by Varāhamihira, including a summary of the ive established schools (Siddhānta) of astronomy: the Paitāmahasiddhānta, Vasiṣt ̣hasiddhānta, Romakasiddhānta, Pauliśasiddhānta, and Sūryasiddhānta 282 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) (not identical with the later and more well-known work bearing this name). While the names Romaka (“the Roman”) and, possibly, Pauliśa (Paulus?) betray a Western origin, the others suggest a mythologized history, being ascribed to the creator → Brahmā (pitāmaha, lit. the grandfather), the Vedic sage (→ ṛsị ) Vasiṣtḥ a, and the sun god Sūrya (→ navagrahas). In the Siddhāntas, which contain elements of both Greek and Babylonian astronomy, traditional Indian ideas of vast cycles of time were astronomized and combined with Greek theories of a “great year” beginning and ending with a mean planetary conjunction. he various schools difer on the exact length of these cycles and their subdivisions. Features of puranic cosmology (see → Purāṇas) were likewise reinterpreted: the mythical Mount Meru at the centre of the world as the terrestrial north pole, and its surrounding continent Jambūdvīpa as the sphere of the earth. Other topics covered in the Siddhāntas include the calculation of days elapsed from the beginning of the current kalpa or of kaliyuga (→ cosmic cycles), by which mean planetary longitudes are established; spherical trigonometry; the calculation of solar and lunar eclipses; and the precession and trepidation of the equinoxes. True planetary longitudes, necessary for the casting of horoscopes, were computed from the mean values by means of epicyclic theories difering in certain respects from those of Ptolemaic astronomy. Some of the most remarkable accomplishments in Indian astronomy and mathematics belong to South India, particularly to Kerala in the 14th and 15th centuries, where astronomers such as Parameśvara and his pupil Nīlakaṇtḥ a Somayājin achieved an exactness in planetary calculations unparalleled in Europe until the 17th century. Regrettably, their inluence did not extend to northern India. Parameśvara was an advocate of dṛggaṇita (“calculation from observation”), contrasting with vākya, the traditional system of versiied formulae, based on the school of Āryabhatạ . Despite the evident greater utility of dṛggaṇita in calculating observable phenomena such as eclipses, however, the vākya system is still extant today and employed in a number of published religious calendars or pañcāṅga (see below). Astrology he discipline of horā – astrology in the everyday sense of casting and judging horoscopes or astrological charts – entered India from the Greekspeaking world in the early centuries CE. he term “horā” itself is of Greek derivation (ὥρα), as are a large number of technical astrological terms. For many of these terms no indigenous equivalents were ever coined, and the Sanskritized Greek nomenclature is employed by Indian astrologers to the present day. he earliest strata of Indian astrological texts even make frequent use of the Greek names of the planets and zodiacal signs, which in later texts are generally translated. Nevertheless, even the earliest Sanskrit texts also contain uniquely Indian features and display a well-developed acculturation of Hellenistic concepts. Astrological works of later eras do not acknowledge any foreign sources at all, preferring instead to trace the history of astrology – like that of many other Śāstras or disciplines – through a tradition of semi-divine sages (ṛsị s) to an original divine revelation, and providing innovative Sanskrit etymologies for its nonstandard vocabulary. Astrology and Religion he religious sanction of astrology implied in the mythologized accounts of its origins was not always present. Although jyotiṣa in the sense of calendar keeping and its prerequisite knowledge of astronomy was considered an auxiliary branch of Vedic learning (Vedāṅga), the use of astral omens had long been frowned upon in India. Authors of texts on socioreligious law (→ Dharmaśāstra) listed “consulting the stars” among minor, polluting sins such as gambling or sorcery, and excluded “those who live by the stars” from attending certain Vedic sacriices (see → astrologers). Despite its extra-Indian origins, horoscopic astrology eventually attained a far higher religious status than the indigenous and less sophisticated forms of astral divination, and has enjoyed a more widespread and lasting acceptance within Hinduism, and Indian culture generally, than in any other cultural environment. he reason for such acceptance is probably to be found primarily in the pan-Indic doctrine of retributive action or → karman. From the time of its inception, horoscopic astrology has served a twofold purpose, relected in its division into a Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) genethliacal and a catarchic branch. he former attempts to analyze and interpret the qualities inherent in the time and place of a person’s birth, and to determine how those qualities will manifest in the unfolding of the person’s life. his descriptive role of astrology obviously presupposes a certain element of determinism or predictability. In the latter branch, astrologers advise their clients on how to make best use of the qualities of space-time by undertaking or refraining from particular actions. In this prescriptive role, it is equally clear that astrology assumes a certain measure of freedom to act on the part of the individual. Any view of the world which seeks to accommodate astrology would therefore need to strike a balance between free choice and determinism (in Hindu terms, puruṣakāra [“human efort”] and daiva [“fate”]); and the doctrine of karman provides just such a middle ground, stipulating as it does that the moral value of actions performed in previous lifetimes determines the individual’s present circumstances, thereby creating the framework within which new action is performed, and so on ad ininitum. In allowing for the interplay of fate and free will, Hinduism thus ofers an excellent theoretical model for astrology, more consistent with the art as practiced than the theistic systems of the Middle East and Europe, whose attitudes towards astrology have been far more ambivalent. Not surprisingly, the karman model has been invoked by Indian astrological authors for more than 1,700 years. heir view of astrology is typically a noncausal one: the stars reveal good and evil events to come, but do not cause them; the real cause is action performed in previous lives, which matures into events in the current lifetime. Contrary to the assumptions of some scholars, there is no textual evidence to suggest that an “inluence of the stars” was ever proposed by Indian astrologers to explain events independently of karman theory. Even those relatively few passages which hint at some causal power inherent in the planets occur in texts which explicitly uphold teachings of karman. Nevertheless, the nine planets of astrology are conceived of and worshipped as deities (see → navagrahas) with the express intention of mitigating evil astrological indications. Such practices are not unique to astrology: Hindu codes of law frequently prescribe ritual acts of atonement (prāyaścitta) meant to avoid or mitigate any 283 future retribution for sins committed in the present lifetime. Hindu astrologers similarly relate any evil planetary position by karman theory to unknown sins committed in a previous existence and attempt to avert its manifestations by ritual means known as śānti, “paciication” or “propitiation.” he possibility of śānti is oten seen as the practical value of astrology, and some astrological authors use the categories “loosely rooted karman” and “irmly rooted karman” to distinguish between future events which are or are not considered amenable to counteraction by śānti. he practice may consist in the worship of the planetary deities, deities of the greater Hindu pantheon associated with particular planets, or even – through rarely – of the → astrologer himself. Common forms of śānti also include donations of foods, valuables or other objects associated with the alicting planet – typically to Brahmans (Brāhmaṇas), the needy, and/or persons likewise represented by the planet – and fasting on the weekday ruled by the planet see → vratas). Śānti is oten performed during the period or daśā (see below) of an ill-placed planet or some other astrologically inauspicious time, such as the sevenand-a-half-year transit of Saturn known in Sanskrit as sārdhasapta (“seven and a half ”) and in North Indian vernaculars as sāṛhesātī (see → navagrahas). Astrology as a Divinatory System As a system of what has sometimes been called “wisdom divination,” Jyotiṣa occupies an intermediate position between science and religion. On one hand, it involves the systematic and empirical observation of celestial phenomena; on the other, it gives meaning to such observations by relating them to the lives of individuals through an overarching metaphysical structure. Divinatory methods are typically not concerned with the natural causes of the phenomena they interpret, but rather with the interpretation of them as they present themselves to human experience; and the same is true of astrology. Although the astrologer’s “observation” of the heavenly bodies is more oten a matter of calculation from tables than of actual stargazing, astrology is not dependent on any particular astronomical theory, ancient or modern; and a number of such theories have traditionally been used in India, as discussed above. 284 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) While the practices of genethlialogy ( jātaka) and catarchic astrology (muhūrta) go back to the earliest times of Hellenistic horoscopy, the branch of interrogations ( praśna) is likely to have originated in India, from where it later spread through Persia and the Arabic-speaking world to the Latin west. Praśna may be considered a reversal of catarchic astrology: rather than selecting the most favorable time to commence an undertaking, a chart is cast for the time a question is asked in order to determine the likely outcome of a venture. Hindu astrological texts declare that this practice is as valid as that of genethlialogy, as both rest on the foundation of karman. he 17thcentury Praśnamārga says: Because a man comes helplessly into the presence of the astrologer, forcibly compelled by his good or evil fate, therefore a query is equal to a nativity in its results. (PrMā. 1.46) As in most cultures where astrology has been practiced, birth horoscopes in India have long been a privilege of the wealthier classes, although in modern times this situation has changed somewhat (see below). A properly cast birth chart, or at least a knowledge of one’s “birth star” or nakṣatra, may be required in situations such as the arrangement of a marriage or the performance of religious rituals (where name, birth nakṣatra, and family lineage [gotra] serve to identify the sponsor). However, even those who lack a birth chart, or whose time or date of birth is unknown, may consult an astrologer to obtain an answer to a particular question (praśna) or to determine an auspicious time (muhūrta) for an important undertaking such as the commencement of a journey, constructing or moving into a new home, social or religious functions, and so forth. General information on auspicious and inauspicious times (→ auspiciousness) is also oten included in religious calendars (pañcāṅga; see below). Unlike contemporary Western astrologers, who typically focus on psychological counselling, Hindu practitioners are routinely expected by their clients to provide objective information concerning such issues as the time of marriage, number and sex of children, career opportunities and income, or the whereabouts of a missing person or object. Over the centuries a number of regional styles of jyotiṣa have developed in India, favoring difer- ent techniques and using a variety of designs for their horoscopic charts; but in general they agree on basic concepts and procedures (for examples of variant traditions, see below). Fundamental Concepts he fundamental elements of Indian judicial astrology are: the zodiac with its many subdivisions; the division of the sky into twelve places or houses; and the planets with their constantly varying states of being, strength of inluence, and aspects. All of these technical elements have a number of Sanskrit names, only the most common of which will be given in this article. he use of the term “planet” (graha) to include the sun and moon (the luminaries) and the lunar nodes (the “shadowy planets”) has been discussed elsewhere in this work (see → navagrahas). he ive “stellar planets” planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are distinguished from ordinary stars by their motion relative to the ixed constellations. he apparent course of the sun through the constellations during a year (actually caused by the earth’s orbit around the sun) marks the imaginary circle of the ecliptic around the earth. he planets are all seen to move, relative to the stars, within a belt of sky extending some 9° to either side of the ecliptic. his belt is the zodiac or “wheel of stars” (bhacakra). he zodiacal positions of the planets are measured with reference to the ecliptic, which is divided into twelve equal parts of 30° each, known as the zodiacal signs or houses (rāśi, lit. group [of stars]). he nomenclature of the 12 zodiacal signs is essentially the same as in the European astrological tradition. hese names are derived from actual constellations found within the zodiac, although the constellations, unlike the signs, are of unequal extension. While the zodiacal signs of Hindu astrology are therefore not identical with the constellations, they are dependent on and constant in relation to them. By this division of the ecliptic, known as a sidereal or ixed (nirayaṇa) zodiac, Hindu astrology difers from its European counterpart, which since Late Antiquity has allowed the zodiac to drit away from the constellations and become a wholly independent construct deined with reference to the position of the sun at the vernal equinox – the so-called tropical or movable (sāyana) zodiac. Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) 285 Anglo-Latin name Sanskrit name Meaning of Sanskrit Aries Taurus Gemini Cancer Leo Virgo Libra Scorpio Sagittarius Capricorn Aquarius Pisces meṣa vṛṣabha mithuna karkaṭa siṃha kanyā tulā vṛścika dhanus makara kumbha mīna ram bull twins crab lion girl scales scorpion bow sea monster (water) pot ish Table 1: he twelve signs of the zodiac. he Twelve Signs of the Zodiac he sun’s equinoctial position regresses very slowly through the constellations, describing a full circle in some 26,000 years. his motion is known as the precession of the equinox, and the precessional value at any given date – the diference between the two zodiacs – is called the ayanāṃ śa (“degree of motion”). here is considerable disagreement among Hindu astrologers on the exact ayanāṃ śa value, and on the iducial star or stars marking the beginning of Aries, or of any zodiacal sign. he Government of India has adopted the value advocated by the late N.C. Lahiri (citrāpakṣa ayanāṃ śa, 23°09′35″ for 1 January, 1950) for the computation of its oicial almanac. Most other ayanāṃ śas in current use difer from that of N.C. Lahiri by less than 4°. Pisces Jupiter Aries Mars Each planet (excluding the lunar nodes) is considered to rule or own certain signs of the zodiac, Cancer and Leo being assigned to the luminaries and successive pairs of signs to the remaining planets in their order of velocity, as seen from igure 1 drawn in the South Indian style. Planets are believed to inluence each other by occupying the same sign (conjunction, saṃ yoga) or by “beholding” each other (aspect, dṛsṭ ị ). According to the most commonly used deinition, each planet casts a full aspect on the sign opposite itself (the seventh sign, counting inclusively). Jupiter also casts a full aspect on the ith and ninth signs from itself, while other planets do so only by a half aspect. Similarly, Saturn casts a full aspect on the third and tenth signs (otherwise a quarterstrength aspect), and Mars aspects the fourth and Taurus Venus Gemini Mercury Aquarius Saturn Cancer Moon Capricorn Saturn Leo Sun Sagittarius Jupiter Scorpio Mars Libra Venus Fig. 1: he planetary rulers of the zodiac. Virgo Mercury 286 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) eighth signs from itself (otherwise a three-quarter aspect). his aspect system difers from that found in classical Greek sources (see also the discussion of tājika astrology below). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. aśvinī bharaṇī kṛttikā rohiṇī mṛgaśīrṣā ārdrā punarvasu 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. puṣyā āśleṣā maghā pūrvaphalgunī uttaraphalgunī hastā citrā which is then known as the irst “house” or “place” (bhāva, sthāna); the following zodiacal sign is the second house, and so forth up to the twelth house. Alternatively, both the horizon and the meridian 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. svāti viśākhā anurādhā jyeṣth ̣ ā mūlā pūrvāṣāḍhā uttarāṣāḍhā – 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. (abhijit) śravaṇā dhaniṣth ̣ ā śatabhiṣaj pūrvabhadrapadā uttarabhadrapadā revatī Table 2: he nakṣatras. A parallel and indigenous system of dividing the zodiac is that of 27 or 28 asterisms or nakṣatras, roughly corresponding to the daily motion of the moon through the constellations and therefore sometimes known as “lunar mansions.” Originally the names of the nakṣatras referred to observable stars or constellations in the sky, but by the time of the Jyotiṣavedāṅga they had become an equal division of the zodiac into 27 parts of 13°20′ each (the additional nakṣatra abhijit being considered as overlapping the nakṣatras uttarāṣāḍhā and śravaṇā). hough not without importance in natal or horary astrology, the nakṣatras igure most prominently in catarchic astrology (muhūrta). he apparent velocities of the planets as they move through the zodiac difer greatly, from the 27-day cycle of the moon to the 29.5-year cycle of Saturn. Owing to the varying relative positions of the earth and the ive tārāgrahas – planets in the modern astronomical sense – in their respective orbits around the sun, these planets occasionally appear to slow down, come to a halt, and move backwards, against the order of the zodiacal signs. his phenomenon, known as retrogression (vākrya), lasts from a few weeks to several months, ater which the planet stations once more and resumes its direct or forward motion. he luminaries are always in direct motion, the nodes (in their traditionally used mean motion) always retrograde. While the planets continuously move through the zodiac, the rotation of the earth around its axis causes the zodiac itself, along with the planets, apparently to revolve around the point of observation once in 24 hours. he zodiacal point rising in the east at the time for which a horoscopic chart is cast is known as the ascendant (lagna). he same designation may be used for the entire rising sign, may be considered, so that the intersections of the zodiac with the horizon east and west are considered the central points (“cusps,” sphuṭa) of the irst and seventh houses, respectively, and its intersections with the meridian south and north, the cusps of the tenth and fourth houses. he cusps of the remaining houses are found by trisection of the resulting quadrants, each house extending in both directions from its cusp halfway to the adjacent cusps, rather than coinciding with the zodiacal signs. Both the simpler and the more complex method of house division (the latter of which is commonly named ater its 11th-century Indian advocate Śrīpati) appear to have existed in Hellenistic astrology before its introduction into India. Classical works on Hindu astrology rarely address the issue directly, and occasionally a single work will contain passages apparently supporting both systems. he same inconsistency is found in ancient Greek astrological texts. Present-day Hindu astrologers are divided on the matter, the simpler method being more prevalent in South India than in North India, and many astrologers employing both systems side by side. Diagnosis and Prognosis Each of the twelve houses represents certain areas of life, the most notable of which may be discerned from their common appellations. Similarly, each planet by its inherent nature is considered the signiicator (kāraka, lit. causer) of a number of phenomena. A horoscope is judged to determine, irst, the strength and quality of the areas so signiied; and second, the times of their manifestation. he former may be termed a static judgment or diagnosis; the latter, a dynamic judgment or prognosis. Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) House irst second third fourth ith sixth seventh eighth ninth tenth eleventh twelth 287 Sanskrit name Meaning Other major signiications tanu dhana sahaja sukha putra ripu dāra mṛtyu dharma karman lābha vyaya body wealth siblings happiness children enemies wife death virtue action gain loss birth; character; general quality of life. food; learning; speech; household. courage; strength. mother; home; land; house; carriages. intelligence; worship; incantations. illness; debts; wounds. marriage; sexual intercourse; trade. sufering; misfortune. father; teachers; pilgrimage. livelihood; rank; honor; fame. elder siblings; prosperity. imprisonment; exile. Table 3: he twelve houses of the horoscope. Any house may be inluenced by one or more planets in three ways: by position (yoga), aspect (dṛsṭ ị ), and rulership (ādhipatya). hus, the areas of life signiied by the house are thought to relect the beneicial or destructive qualities of any planets occupying it, as well as those of planets ruling or casting their aspects on the zodiacal sign in which the house falls. Such qualities of the planets are partly inherent or essential, partly accidental, in that they are determined by each planet’s current state of being (avasthā) and strength (bala) – two categories sometimes used synonymously – as well as by its rulership of and placement in auspicious or inauspicious houses. By way of illustration, a planet ruling the tenth house and placed in the twelth might be interpreted positively as honors (tenth house) attained in exile (twelth house), if the planet were inherently beneic and in good state; or negatively as loss (twelth house) of livelihood (tenth house), if inherently maleic and in evil state. Planetary strength or weakness and state of being are composed of many factors, the most Sun Moon Mars Mercury Jupiter Venus Saturn prominent of which may be divided into four categories: zodiacal position; house postition; motion and light; and planetary interrelations. Of these, zodiacal position is the most complex. A planet is digniied in its own sign or domicile (svakṣetra) and even more so in its sign of exaltation (ucca), particularly in its degree of highest exaltation (paramocca). Opposite these are its sign of fall (nīca) and degree of deepest fall (paramanīca), where a planet is at its most debilitated. hese concepts derive from Hellenistic astrology. Other classiications of the sign placement for each planet are its place of rejoicing (known in the Indian tradition as mūlatrikoṇa, lit. root-triangle, and constituting part of one of its domiciles or its exaltation) as well as its friendly, neutral and inimical signs, of which more than one version exist. Much importance is also attached to the division of a sign into smaller segments (varga), of which six, seven, ten or sixteen varieties are commonly listed. Each segment is assigned a planetary ruler, and most correspond symbolically to Maleic. he self; kings; the father; gold; glory; ire. Beneic if waxing, maleic if waning. he mind; queens; the mother; silver; water. Maleic. Strength; soldiers; brothers; earth; ighting; weapons; wounds; enemies. Beneic with beneics, maleic with maleics. Speech; scholars; learning; intelligence; arts and crats. Beneic. Wisdom; ofspring; priests; ministers; teachers; dignity; piety; wealth. Beneic. Love; lust; semen; beauty; marriage; wives; enjoyments; carriages. Maleic. Sufering; death; servants; poverty; misfortune; low company; imprisonment. Table 4: Natures and major signiications of the planets. 288 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) one of the zodiacal signs. A planet may thus be simultaneously digniied in some divisions and debilitated in others. A few texts ascribe particular portfolios to the diferent divisions, but these may vary considerably. More oten, the sum total of a planet’s varga placements is used to judge its overall performance, and a special nomenclature is employed to signify how many beneic vargas a planet has attained. In general practice, however, only the ninth-part or navāṃ śa is consistently employed. Pisces Venus 27° Aries Sun 10° is to say with their maximum brightness. he case of the inferior planets (Mercury and Venus), the orbits of which lie between the sun and the earth, is more complex, as they may be combust in either direct or retrograde motion. As mentioned above, planets are considered to inluence each other by conjunction or aspect. Depending on the nature and accidental states of the planets involved, an aspect or conjunction may be considered either helpful or harmful. Among the conjunctions, a particular subset is Taurus Moon 3° Gemini Aquarius Cancer Jupiter 5° Capricorn Mars 28° Leo Sagittarius Scorpio Libra Saturn 20° Virgo Mercury 15° Fig. 2: he exaltations of the planets. Among the 12 houses, the angles (kendra: houses 1, 4, 7, and 10) are positions of strength; succedent houses (paṇaphara: houses 2, 5, 8, and 11) are somewhat weaker; and cadent houses (āpoklima: houses 3, 6, 9, and 12) weakest of all. he most unfortunate places are houses 6, 8, and 12. he trine houses (trikoṇa: houses 5 and 9) are held to be fortunate (śubha) and are routinely grouped along with the kendras – and occasionally the 11th house – as the auspicious places. Of the kendras, the 1st house is held to be the strongest, followed in turn by the 10th, the 7th, and the 4th. he apparent motion and brightness of the ive “stellar planets” depend on their apparent position relative to the sun. In Hindu astrology, brightness and slowness (including retrogression) are generally considered dignities, whereas combustion (conjunction with the sun, rendering a planet invisible) and switness are debilities. For the so-called superior planets (Mars, Jupiter and Saturn), the orbits of which lie outside that of the earth, the two sets of phenomena are necessarily related: their stations and retrogression – that is, their periods of minimum velocity – coincide with their greatest elongation from the sun, which that of planetary combat (grahayuddha), in which one planet is considered defeated by the other. Different deinitions of this condition are found in classical texts, some requiring the warring planets to be conjunct by latitude as well as longitude. Being the victor in planetary combat is a dignity, whereas being defeated is a debility. Having determined the latent tendencies of the horoscope, the astrologer’s next task is to predict their times of manifestation. For this purpose, Hindu astrology relies primarily on time-cycle techniques, symbolically dividing a human life into blocks of time (daśā, lit. condition, also called pāka, “maturation,” or dāya, “allotment”) assigned to the various planets or zodiacal signs. Each such block or main period typically lasts several years and consists of a number of subperiods similarly allotted, each of which may be further subdivided. In the simplest daśā systems, the order and duration of the various periods are ixed and identical for all; others are based on the distribution of planets in the houses of the horoscope, similar to time-cycle techniques found in classical Greek astrology. he daśā systems most in current use, however, are irst found in early medieval Sanskrit texts, and are based on the Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) indigenous nakṣatra division. he most popular is the viṃ śottarī or “[one hundred] and twenty” daśā, based on a cycle of 120 years – the theoretical maximum human lifespan. Other common nakṣatradaśās include the aṣtọ ttarī (“[one hundred] and eight”), kālacakra (“wheel of time”) and yoginī systems; many more are mentioned in texts although rarely used in practice. he basic premise of any daśā system is that a planet or sign should, during its period, manifest whatever it indicates in the natal horoscope, concurrent with the subject’s age and circumstances. Into this method based on the ixed horoscope of the nativity, a lexible element is introduced by the consideration of the celestial positions of the planets – in particular, the ruler of the period in question – at the time of commencement of the period (daśāpraveśa), which may modify the expected results considerably. As a secondary consideration, the continuous movements or transits (gocara, grahacāra) of the planets through the zodiac may be related to positions in the nativity. he most complex method of judging the astrological efects of transits is called aṣtạ kavarga (“groups of eight”), the transit of each planet being considered from the perspective of the ascendant, the planet’s own natal position, and the natal positions of the other six planets (excluding the lunar nodes). he seven planets continuously transiting one or another of the 12 zodiacal signs reckoned from eight diferent points give rise to 672 possible results. At an early stage of its development, however, the method was considerably rationalized by the conversion of particular good or evil predictions into a binary system where a planet transiting a good place scores a point (bindu), while a planet transiting an evil place receives a dash (rekhā). A greater than average number of points falling in any given house of the natal horoscope indicates positive results in the corresponding areas of life. Variant Traditions During the long history of Indian astrology, many regional styles and schools have developed in the subcontinent. Among the most distinctive are Tājikajyotiṣa, based on Perso-Arabic sources; Kerala astrology with its unique praśna techniques; and the traditions of Nāḍi or Bhṛgusaṃ hitā reading. Horoscopic astrology, which was probably discovered in Hellenistic Egypt, eventually spread into Persia as well as India. Ater the advent of 289 Islam in Persia, and an initial period of Muslim resistance against the practice of astrology, the art began to lourish under the Abbasid Caliphate from the 8th century CE, with Greek, Persian, and Indian texts being translated into Arabic. Among the Indian contributions were most likely interrogations (praśna) and military astrology (yātrā), together with speciic techniques such as the use of the navāṃ śa or one-ninth of a zodiacal sign. Some centuries later, this cross-pollinated Perso-Arabic tradition was introduced into India, where it became known as Tājika or “Persian” astrology (from Pahlavi tāzīg, meaning “Arab,” originally derived from Ṭayyiʾ, the name of the Arabic tribe). he earliest known Sanskrit text on Tājikajyotiṣa was probably composed in the 13th century. he system eventually spread over most of India, but was and remains most popular in North India. It has many similarities with medieval European astrology, which is likewise based on Perso-Arabic sources. Tājika difers from standard Indian astrology mainly by its scheme of planetary aspects (dṛsṭ ị ), which are those of classical Greek astrology: the conjunction (exact when two planets occupy the same degree and minute of one zodiacal sign), sextile (exact at a 60° angle), square (90°), trine (120°), and opposition (180°). Sextiles and trines are considered friendly aspects, the others hostile. Great importance is attached to the consideration of whether an aspect is in the process of perfecting (“application” [itthaśāla, from Arab. ʾittiṣāl]) or dissolving (“separation” [īsarāpha, from Arab. ʾinṣirāf ]). Variations on this theme make up the 16 tājikayogas, which form the nucleus of the system. Tājika also employs a partly diferent set of dignities, primarily the pañcavarga (“group of ive”): domicile, exaltation, triplicity (musallaha, from Arab. muthallatha), terms (hadda, from Arab. ḥ add), and decan. hese are again closely modelled on Greek sources, as are the zodiacal points known as “lots” (sahama, from Arab. sahm), derived mathematically from the longitudes of the planets and ascendant and used as a third set of signiicators, along with planets and houses. Although designed as a complete system of astrology, Tājika has long been associated with two branches in particular: interrogations and a form of genethlialogical prognostication known as annual revolutions (varṣaphala, lit. year result), which appears to be of Perso-Arabic invention. In this method, a separate horoscope is cast for each 290 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) time the sun returns to its exact longitude at birth, on or around the subject’s birthday every year (depending on the calendar used). his horoscope is used to determine the outcome of the following year of life – a more manageable unit of time than the daśā periods and subperiods employed in classical Indian astrology. Despite some initial resistance from orthodox quarters, where the system was regarded as impure due to its foreign origins, Tājika soon took root in India, and is still widely practiced by Hindu astrologers, oten alongside the classical system. Contrasting with Tājika, the forms of interrogational astrology practiced in the very south of the subcontinent, particularly Kerala, represent indigenous developments in which the “scientiic” aspect of the art has been played down in favor of the overtly divinatory and religious. he Kerala praśna technique known as aṣtạ maṅgalapraśna or “interrogations [with] eight auspicious [objects]” (oil lamps, a mirror, a gold piece, milk, curds, fruit, a book, and a white cloth) is a heavily ritualized form of astological divination depending as much on nonhoroscopic factors as on the horoscope itself, and which seems to have been fully developed at least by the mid-17th century. Ater ritual worship (→ pūjā) has been ofered to various divinities including the planets and to the auspicious articles used, the astrologer recites certain → mantras while touching 108 consecrated cowrie shells. A prepubescent child is then asked to place the gold piece or coin in one of the squares of a zodiacal diagram previously drawn up; the zodiacal sign represented by this square is treated as an ascendant and used in the astrologer’s interpretation. he cowrie shells are divided into three heaps representing past, present and future, and each heap counted to divine the status of the corresponding period by numerological means, the planets being assigned numbers from one to eight. Betel leaves brought by the client are similarly examined and interpreted within a broad framework of astrological symbolism; and every event or circumstance connected with the consultation is noted and incorporated into the reading. While aṣtạ maṅgalapraśna may be employed to answer many kinds of questions, its elaborate nature and the corresponding cost of performing it means that it is generally resorted to in matters of grave importance. One particular form of the practice is the devapraśna (“interrogation about the gods”), employed when evil signs or calami- ties in a temple lead the worshippers to fear the displeasure, or even the absence, of the deity or deities worshipped. In such a ritual, the planets and the 12 houses of the horoscope take on a more specialized set of meanings adapted to the context. he purpose of a devapraśna is to reveal both the cause of the misfortunes in the temple and the most suitable remedy. Two other forms of astrological divination with strong religious and ritual ailiations are the typologically similar Nāḍi (or Nāḍī) readings prevalent in South India, particularly in Tamilspeaking areas, and Bhṛgusaṃ hitā readings in North India. Common to both is that predictions for a client’s future and answers to his or her questions are supposedly read out from preexistent, physical manuscripts believed to have been authored by ancient sages or divinities long before the birth of either reader or client. Such texts are not considered subject to the symbolic interpretation of the diviner, as is the case in bibliomancy (see → divination). On the contrary, a reading is ideally so speciic as to be applicable to one client only; and many readers claim that their texts supply not only the name of the person consulting the text, but even the names of his or her parents and spouse. While both types of readings are couched in astrological terminology, a client’s Bhṛgusaṃ hitā manuscript is typically identiied on the basis of an actual horoscope, brought by the client or prepared by the reader and cast either for the time of the client’s birth or for the time of consultation. he texts themselves are composed in simple, oten ungrammatical Sanskrit. he same is true of some Nāḍi texts; but more oten, the Nāḍi will be composed in Tamil (generally in an archaic and more literary style than the corresponding Sanskrit texts), and the manuscript to be used for the reading is identiied with the help of the client’s thumb print, followed by a series of yes-or-no questions. he Bhṛgusaṃ hitā is always presented as a dialogue between the sage (ṛsị ) Bhṛgu and his son Śukra (identiied with the planet Venus); in the Tamil Nāḍi texts, the speakers are divinities (typically → Śiva and → Pārvatī), two or more ṛsị s (most oten Agastya, sometimes credited with the invention of the Tamil language; other popular sages include Vasiṣtḥ a, Kauśika, Śuka, and Bhṛgu), or a combination of these. In both North and South India, the readers of Sanskrit texts are generally Brahmans, while the Tamil Nāḍi readers are non-Brahmans. Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) he term “nāḍi” is probably derived from the Tamil root nāṭu-, “to enquire ater,” “examine,” “look at,” and all texts containing the term in its astrological sense, even when composed in Sanskrit, appear to originate in the Dravidian language area. A Tamil Nāḍi reading will normally consist of 12 chapters (kāṇḍa) corresponding to the 12 astrological houses, of which the client may choose to hear as many as he or she likes (each for a separate fee), plus additional chapters dealing with planetary periods and subperiods (daśābhukti), prescriptions of traditional medicine (auṣadha), initiation (dīkṣā) in the use of mantras, and, most importantly, advice on paciication and propitiation of ill-placed planets (śāntiparihāra). Sanskrit Nāḍi texts difer markedly from the Tamil variety, particularly by a unique doctrine of a limited number of ixed life patterns inherent in minute divisions of the zodiac, each of which is termed a nāḍi or simply aṃ śa (“part”). (A similar idea – the Myriogenesis doctrine – is outlined by 4th-century Roman astrologer Firmicus Maternus, but no horoscope interpretations actually purporting to be based on this doctrine have been recorded.) Standard rules of astrological interpretation are superimposed on the fundamental pattern of destiny indicated by the aṃ śa to arrive at particular predictions. here is reason to believe that this astrological tradition, too, has its roots in or around present-day Kerala. he existence of both Nāḍi and Bhṛgusaṃ hitā texts can be attested at least from the 16th or 17th century; some scholars have conjectured that Indian texts of this type may have been referred to by writers in Arabic as early as the 8th or 9th century. Astrology and Modernity he shit in scientiic paradigms which led to the drastic decline of astrology in Europe from the 17th century did not afect India, whose astrological traditions remain vibrantly alive today. From the late 19th century up to the present, however, astrology in India has been repeatedly confronted with Western ideas, and, as a result, has undergone considerable changes. Such modern inluences may be broadly divided into two categories: the anti-astrological, forcing astrologers to defend and redeine the theory and practice of their art; and the pro-astrological, directly afecting the form and, to some extent, the content of astrological teaching. he anti-astrological contingent may be further divided into a religious (that is to 291 say, Christian) and a sceptic or “rationalist” wing, although the two have sometimes joined forces; whereas western pro-astrological inluences have been largely informed by heosophy (→ heosophical Society). Perhaps more important than either of these ideological inluences, however, is the technical development which made possible the printing and distribution of astrological books and magazines in increasing numbers throughout the 20th century. hese include translations of classical Sanskrit works into English and various regional languages as well as modern textbooks intended for self-study. As a result of this new availability of astrological knowledge, originally the initiative of a handful of individuals, a new class of astrologers has emerged. he practice of astrology in India, whether profesionally or as a hobby, is no longer restricted to Sanskrit-literate upper castes or to members of traditional jyotiṣī (astrologer) families, although still limited to those with suicient income and leisure to pursue it. However, despite increased external similarities with astrology as found in contemporary Western culture – including the prevalence of horoscope columns in magazines and newspapers – astrology continues to play a role in Indian society which it has not done in the West since the Renaissance. During the latter half of the 20th century, particularly its last two decades, Indian or Hindu astrology has also achieved a marked presence in Western countries, where readings ofered by both Indians and Westerners are not only based on Indian techniques and couched in Sanskrit terminology, but presuppose a Hindu ontology (including belief in karman, rebirth [→ saṃ sāra], and the Hindu pantheon) and oten culminate in prescriptions of Hindu ritual observances such as the chanting of mantras and performance of pūjā or homa (ire sacriice). Practitioners are oten, though by no means always, ailiated with neoHindu organizations, some of which take an active part in arranging both readings and subsequent ritual remedies at a fee. In an instance of reacculturation, or what A. Bhāratī termed the “pizza efect,” the misnomer “Vedic astrology,” coined by Western practitioners, has gained popularity in India as well. In recent years, astrology in India has become a controversial political and academic issue since the move in 2001 of the University Grants Commission of the Government of India – then led by the nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party – to 292 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) introduce “Vedic astrology” ( jyotirvijñāna) as an academic discipline at Indian universities. Supporters have viewed the decision as preserving an important aspect of the Indian cultural heritage in the face of Western imperialism, while critics have described it as a “giant leap backwards” in terms of scientiic credibility. Calendar Hindu religious calendars are typically soli-lunar, unlike the international civil (Gregorian) calendar, which is based exclusively on the solar year, or the Islamic calendar, which is exclusively lunar. In most Hindu calendars a year consists of 12 synodic months, reckoned either from one new moon to the next (the amānta system, generally prevalent in South India along with some eastern and western states) or from one full moon to the next (the pūrṇimānta system, prevalent in much of North India), giving a year of approximately 354 days. When the discrepancy between this synodic year and the solar year marked by the changing seasons approaches one month, an intercalary month is inserted. In Tamil-speaking areas there is also an alternative system of solar months, deined by the duration of the sun’s stay in one zodiacal sign (just over 30 days) and requiring no intercalation. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. prabhava vibhava śukla pramoda prajāpati aṅgiras śrīmukha bhava yuvan dhātṛ īśvara bahudhānya pramāthin vikrama vṛṣa 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. citrabhānu subhānu tāraṇa pārthiva vyaya sarvajit sarvadhārin virodhin vikṛta khara nandana vijaya jaya manmatha durmukha mic cycles). he computation of the sixty prabhavādi years – so named ater the irst year in the cycle – varies, as some schools advocate a (soli)-lunar year deinition (cāndramāna), others a Jovian one (bārhaspatyamāna), the latter being based on Jupiter’s mean motion through one zodiacal sign. he Jovian calculation, used mostly in North India, is currently 12 years ahead of the soli-lunar calculation prevalent in South India. hus, the year beginning in 2000 CE would be considered a nandana year in some parts of the country but a vikrama year in others. A year is divided into two half years (ayana). During the northern course (uttarāyaṇa) the sun is approaching its northernmost position relative to the equator, or summer solstice in the northern hemisphere; during the southern course (dakṣiṇāyana) it is moving towards its southernmost position, or winter solstice. hese points of maximum declination are oten identiied with the entry of the sun into the signs Cancer and Capricorn, respectively, although in the ixed zodiac used by Indian astrologers this identiication is no longer astronomically correct (see the discussion of the zodiac above). Each ayana is divided into three seasons (ṛtu) of two months each, the uttarāyaṇa being comprised of cool season (śiśira), spring (vasanta) and summer (grīṣma), and the dakṣiṇāyana of rainy season (varṣa), autumn (śarad) and winter (hemanta). 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. hemalamba vilamba vikārin śarvarin plava śubhakṛt śobhakṛt krodhin viśvāvasu parābhava plavaṅga kīlaka saumya sādhāraṇa virodhakṛt 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. paridhāvin pramādin ānanda rākṣasa anala piṅgala kālayukta siddhārtha raudra durmati dundubhi rudhirodgārin raktākṣa krodhana kṣaya Table 5: he sixty Jovian years. Years are identiied by reference to a given era and/or to the so-called Jovian sixty-year cycle. he eras most oten met with are Shaka (78 CE), Vikrama (58 BCE) and Kali (3102 BCE; see → cos- Each synodic month takes its name from the constellation (nakṣatra) in or near which its full moon occurs. (In the pūrṇimānta system this refers to the full moon at the end of the month.) Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) he month is divided into two halves or fortnights (pakṣa, lit. wing): śuklapakṣa or the bright fortnight of the waxing moon, and kṛsṇ ạ pakṣa or the dark fortnight of the waning moon. A pakṣa is further divided into iteen phases or lunar “days” (tithi), deined by the movement of the moon in 12° segments of ecliptical longitude away from or towards the sun. he average duration of a tithi is slightly less than 24 hours, but the actual duration varies with the motion of the two luminaries. he new moon is called amā or amāvāsyā, the full moon pūrṇimā; other tithis within a pakṣa are known by their ordinals (see table 7). Days begin at sunrise and are arranged in a seven-day week in the order familiar from the 293 Western calendar, each day being assigned to one of the seven planets. his order is based on a scheme of planetary rulers of the 24 hours (another meaning of horā, from Greek ὥρα) in a day. Beginning with sunrise on Saturday, the irst hour is ruled by Saturn – the slowest-moving planet – with each successive hour assigned to the other celestial bodies in ascending order of apparent velocity. As this cycle repeats, the irst hour of the next day will be that of the sun, which becomes the ruler of Sunday; this is followed by Monday ruled by the moon, and so forth. For astrological purposes Sunday is considered the irst day of the week, as the sun is irst among the celestial bodies. Full moon in/near Name of month Full moon in/near Name of month citrā viśākhā jyeṣth ̣ ā pūrvāṣāḍhā śravaṇā pūrvabhadrapadā caitra vaiśākha jyaiṣth ̣ a aṣāḍha śrāvaṇa bhādrapada aśvinī kṛttikā mṛgaśīrṣā puṣyā maghā uttaraphalgunī aśvina kārttika mārgaśīrṣa pauṣa māgha phālguna Table 6: he twelve synodic months. kṛsṇ ạ pakṣa (dark fortnight) śuklapakṣa (bright fortnight) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. prathamā or pratipad dvitīyā tṛtīyā caturthī pañcamī ṣaṣtḥ ī saptamī 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. aṣtạ mī navamī daśamī ekādaśī dvādaśī trayodaśī caturdaśī 15. pūrṇimā or paurṇamī (full moon) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. prathamā or pratipad dvitīyā tṛtīyā caturthī pañcamī ṣaṣtḥ ī saptamī 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. aṣtạ mī navamī daśamī ekādaśī dvādaśī trayodaśī caturdaśī 15. amā or amāvāsyā (dark moon) Table 7: he tithis. Weekday Latin name Sanskrit name Ruling planet Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday hursday Friday Saturday dies solis dies lunae dies martis dies mercurii dies jovis dies veneris dies saturni ravivāsara somavāsara maṅgalavāsara budhavāsara guruvāsara śukravāsara śanivāsara Sun Moon Mars Mercury Jupiter Venus Saturn Table 8: he seven weekdays with their planetary rulers. 294 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) Days and nights are variously subdivided, generally using separate calculations for daytime (from sunrise to sunset) and nighttime (from sunset to sunrise). his is true both of the horā (1/12 of a day or night, mostly used for astrological purposes) and of indigenous units of time such as the yāma (1/4 of a day or night) and muhūrta (1/15 of a day or night). Further divisions include the ghaṭī or nāḍī (half a muhūrta), subdivided in its turn into 60 parts (vighaṭī, vināḍī). A Hindu calendar for any given year is generally called a pañcāṅga (lit. ive-limbed), referring to the ive features listed for each day. hese are: the day of the week, or planetary ruler of the day; the tithi or lunar phase; the nakṣatra or constellation occupied by the moon; the yoga; and the karaṇa. All refer to the time of sunrise (generally deined as the rising of the centre of the solar disc) on the day in question. In this context, yoga is the sum of the ecliptical longitudes of the sun and moon, arranged in 27 segments of 13°20′ each, parallel to but not identical with the nakṣatras. If the sum exceeds 360°, that number is subtracted to arrive at the yoga. A karaṇa is half a tithi, designated by one of 11 diferent names according to a rotating scheme. Both yoga and karaṇa designations are divided into auspicious and inauspicious and are considered more or less suitable for diferent undertakings. Apart from these ive ixtures, a pañcāṅga may contain information on the ingress of the sun into a new zodiacal sign (saṃ krānti), lunar or solar eclipses (grahaṇa), particular religious → festivals (utsava) or observances (→ vrata), and astrologically favorable or unfavorable times such as the daily rāhukālam generally avoided in South India. Bibliography Pingree, D., From Astral Omens to Astrology: From Babylon to Bīkāner, SOR 78, Roma, 1997. Pingree, D., Jyotiḥ śāstra: Astral and Mathematical Literature, HIL 6/4, Wiesbaden, 1981. Martin Gansten