i Effects of architectural style preferences and change of construction techniques on the urban environment: Istanbul in Tanzimat Period Cengiz Can, Diana Barillari Abstract Urban architectural environment is a mirror of historical, ideological and technological changes. Traces of some historical events can be observed much easier than the others. Tanzimat (reorganization) Period of Ottoman Empire is of these periods that the transition from traditional architecture to a new architectural concept could be followed up. This study aims to investigate and explain the effects of architectural style preferences and change of construction technologies on the urban environment of Istanbul during Tanzimat Period (1839-1876). While starting a transformation in all levels of the Ottoman society, Tanzimat caused through its architectural expressions a fast change in the outlook of Istanbul. Brick constructions which formed a new type of building in Istanbul with modern dimensions, prismatic masses, and neoclassic styles, changed quickly the city pictured in Melling gravures of the start of the century. The buildings and their architects that played important roles in the transformation of Istanbul’s urban panorama are presented in chronological order together with consistent social and historical events in the article. Keywords: Istanbul, Tanzimat Reforms, systematic transformation, westernization. 1. Introduction Extensive reforms and corresponding practices introduced by new administrations very often bring about changes in the architecture of that particular country and the appearance of its cities. This new appearance may be the result of a premediated program or it may be entirely coincidential. The change may be displayed in architectural forms, stylistic features, construction techniques, materials employed and even in large urban layouts. The Ottoman sultans, particularly in the 16th Century classical period, would find self-expression in the architectural domain by the construction of monumental complexes. Whereas during the westernization period taking Europe as a model, administrators expressed their perseverance of transformation by prefering European architectural style of the period. The view of the Ottoman capital before Tanzimat Reforms is documented by the gravures of Antoigne Ignace Melling who sojourned in Istanbul in late 18th and early 19th Century. Classical urban panorama consisted of low wooden houses and among them high monumental buildings of stone causing a strong contrast 1 (Fig.1.). Fig. 1. View of the Beyoglu from the Bosporus before the Tanzimat era, circa 1800 [1]. Anon. Voyage Pittoresque de Constantinople et des Rives du Bosphore D'apres Les Dessins de M. Melling, Architecte de l'Empereur Selim III, et de la Sultan Hadidge sa Soeur, Paris, Treuttel & Würtz, 1819. 1 Certain innovations introduced during the reign of Mahmud II (1808-1839) prepared the way to the Tanzimat. Examples of cultural change, some of them obligatory, initiated by Mahmud II constituted the first steps in the history of Ottoman reform. The formation of the Nizami Cedid (New Model Army) was followed in 1826 by the abolition of the Janissary Corps, the publication of the first newspaper, the display of the portrait of the Sultan in all government offices, the celebration of the Sultan's birthday, the introduction of a weekly holiday and changes in costume. The development of diplomatic relations with Europe played an important role in the modernization process. The Ottoman economy, though not yet fully prepared for the move, was opened up to the outside world. Diplomats were appointed from among men possessing some knowledge of Europe and familiarity with a foreign language, and the travel notes composed by these ambassadors contained valuable observations on military, financial, administrative, economic and social topics together with relevant suggestions. The innovations introduced in the army were reflected in the construction of large barracks on the outskirts of the city which transformed the traditional urban environment and constituted the first harbingers of the new outlook. Tanzimat (literally meaning reorganization) Period (1839-1876), together with the events that preceded and immediately succeeded it, is a phenomenon that requires careful examination as a most important step in the history of reform in Ottoman/Turkish lands, with the architecture of the period playing an extremely important role in a proper understanding of the period. Effects of ideological preferences and technological changes begun to be systematic at the architectural level starting from Tanzimat Period. The transformation of the urban environment of Ottoman Capital Istanbul will be presented in this article by the comparative interpretation of architectural works with historical and social events. 2. Architecture and Tanzimat The proclamation of the Tanzimat was followed by the implementation of some very radical and progressive reforms. From the architectural and urban point of view, the changes proposed can all be found in the travel notes and reports sent from abroad by ambassadors of a progressive cast of mind. The most concrete of these proposals are to be found in the report written by Resit Pasha while Ambassador in London 2 stressing the necessity for the use of stone or brick as building materials and proposing the invitation of architects from Europe, and in the report prepared by Sadık R ıfat Pasha during his period of office as Ambassador in Vienna comparing the cities of Milan and Istanbul and stressing the importance of encouraging individual capital accumulation and private building construction together with the necessity for the creation of a healthier environment 3. The Tanzimat reform program was fully reflected in the architectural sphere in the important innovations introduced in the plans of contemporary buildings, the construction materials employed and the stylistic approach. The expansion of the bureaucracy necessitated the need for new types of buildings while at the same time Baysun, C., Mustafa Resit Pasa'nın Siyasi Yazıları, Istanbul Universitesi Edebiyat Fakultesi Tarih Dergisi, No. 11-15, 1960, pp. 124-125 (Political Lectures of Mustafa Resit Pasha). 2 3 Seref, A., Tarih Soylesileri Muhasabe-i Tarihiye, 1980, pp. 101-108 (Historical Dialogues). support was given to individual capital accumulation and to private building. A greater use of brick construction was made in building construction in an attempt to protect Istanbul from the fires that had devastated whole districts of wooden buildings, and a marked preference was shown by the progressives intent on opening up the country to the outside world for the Neo-Classical style which at that time constituted a universal type of discourse that was being adopted all over the world. Most of the several building constructed in Tanzimat Period took place in Historical Peninsula and Beyoglu/Pera district in Istanbul and some few examples were located in Bosporus. These buildings are presented in following sections organized depending on the locations. 2.1. Russian Embassy; the role model As far as Istanbul architecture was concerned, the Russian Embassy offered a model for the buildings of the early Tanzimat period, exerting a very great influence and sanctioning, as it were, the new style 4. Tsarist Russia was represented in the Istanbul of the time by two important buildings, Narmanlı Han (office building) at Tunel and the yalı (seaside residence) at Buyukdere. The decision, in spite of the existence of these two buildings, to allocate the sum of a million rubles to the construction of a new and imposing Embassy building in Istanbul arose from the desire to demonstrate the power and prestige in the Ottoman capital of a country that was growing steadily in the military and political spheres and guaranteed the security of the passage through the Black Sea and the Bosporus. This Embassy building, begun in 1838 by the architect Can, C., Rus Elçiligi Binası, Dunden Bugune İstanbul Ansiklopedisi, C.VI, 1994, pp. 368-370 (Russian Embassy Building, Encyclopedia of Istanbul). 4 Gaspare Fossati5, was greatly admired at the time both on account of its position and as a modern building whose broad facade could be seen over a wide area extending from Uskudar to the Golden Horn (Fig. 2.). Armenian painter Mıgırdiç Melkonyan’s Beyoglu silhouette dated to 1840 and exhibited in Besiktas Military Museum documents the transformation just to begin at these years (Fig.3.). The process of construction aroused great interest in the high Ottoman dignitaries, who would often visit the building site to get a closer view of the work in progress. The imposing Russian building was very frequently cited as an example of progress in the Ottoman Empire and became a model for the initiators of the Tanzimat reforms. Fig.2. Russian Embassy, sketch of the Bosporus façade, Gaspare Fossati, Bellinzona Cantonale Archives, Fondi Fossati, no: II/78. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Fig.3. View of the Beyoglu from the Bosporus after the construction of Russian Embassy, 1844, detail from the painting of Ottoman-Armenian painter Mıgırdiç Melkonyan, Istanbul Besiktas Military Museum. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Lacchia, T., I Fossati, Architetti del Sultano di Turchia, Roma, 1943; Can, C., Fossati, Gaspare Trajano, Dunden Bugune İstanbul Ansiklopedisi, C.III, 1994, pp. 326327 (Fossati, Gaspare Trajano, Encyclopedia of Istanbul). 5 The building runs from north to south on a terrace with a high retaining wall on a slope running down to the Bosporus. Most of the construction materials were imported from Italy and a number of Italian artists and craftsmen were employed in the work. The side overlooking the entrance to the Bosporus has a monumental facade of some 100 m and, although located on a smaller site than either the Italian or the French Embassies, the plan achieved its aim in constituting a more striking feature of the urban skyline. The initiative was in the nature of a counter-attack against France and Britain, Russia's rivals for leadership in the 19th century world, and the magnificence of the building and its imposing appearance gave rise to a rumor among the citizens of Istanbul that the Russian Tsar, whose desire for expansion towards the warmer waters was well known, was building himself a new palace in the Ottoman capital. 2.2. Historical Peninsula; first examples from Fossati Brothers Immediately following the proclamation of the Tanzimat, the government embarked upon the construction of a number of brick construction buildings, with Gaspare Fossati, who had designed the Russian Embassy, as the architect most favored for the realization of these projects. His brother architect Giuseppe Fossati came to Istanbul in 1939 where they worked together until their return in 1858 6. The first examples were built, not in Beyoglu, but on the "Historical Peninsula". Although the Sultan had abandoned the peninsula and taken up residence in Dolmabahce Palace, the Sublime Porte, the various ministries and a number of other institutions whose authority and responsibilities had been greatly increased as a result of the new type of administration Can, C., “Fossati, Giuseppe”, Dunden Bugune İstanbul Ansiklopedisi, C.III, 1994, pp.327-328 (Fossati, Giuseppe, Encyclopedia of Istanbul). 6 introduced as a result of the Tanzimat reforms continued to carry on their work in the Historical Peninsula right up to the final collapse of the Empire. The Babı Seraskerat Hospital, which replaced the old palace apartments on the area then used as the Babı Seraskerat on the site of the Old Palace at Beyazıt, was one of the two buildings in which the new construction techniques favored by the Tanzimat authorities were first employed 7. Planned in 1841 as a military hospital with 250 beds, (Fig. 4.) it was later used as a barracks, and, in the period of Istibdat (autocracy), as a military prison. The building, in which political dissenters were confined, became known as the Bekiraga Bolugu after Binbası (Major) Bekir Agha, a commander who had gained notoriety for his use of torture. At the moment it is being used as the Istanbul University Faculty of Political Science. Extensive modifications and additions have, however, robbed it of much of its original character. The building rests on a rectangular base measuring 40 x 98 m at the widest point with progressive facade projections on corners. As the building is situated on sloping ground there are a single storey on the garden side and two storey on the Golden Horn side facing the Bosporus. The building is of brick over a basement. The Babı Seraskerat Hospital was the first building in which the government had employed brick on a modern scale and the construction projects prepared by Gaspare Fossati now preserved in the Bellinzona Archive in Switzerland include the original floor plans, in the corners of which is to be found a calculation of the number of bricks to be employed in the construction. The Babı Seraskerat Hospital is situated at Beyazıt in the "Historical Peninsula" at the point where the land begins to slope down towards the Golden Horn. From this position it Can, C., “Tanzimat and Architecture”, 7 Centuries of Ottoman Architecture A Supranational Heritage, İstanbul, Yapı Endustri Merkezi Puplications, 2000, pp.135-142. 7 dominates the entrance to the Golden Horn and its broad facade of some 100 m forms an important feature of the city skyline. It constitutes, in a sense, a response to the new Russian Embassy building in Beyoglu, the district of Istanbul favored by foreign countries for the location of their embassies. Fig.4. Babı Seraskerat (Military Hospital) section and sketch of the façade, Gaspare Fossati, 1841, Bellinzona Cantonale Archive, Fondi Fossati, no:IX/685. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) The Karakol (Guard House) erected in 1843 at the Limon Iskelesi (port) at Eminonu is another building displaying the experimental use of brick in its construction (Fig.5.). It is a two-storey building in the Neo-Classical style. The building appears in a painting made by its architect Gaspare Fossati showing Eminonu Yeni Cami (New Mosque) and surroundings as a large building by the shore. By its impressive dimensions, its prismatic mass effect and its unusual style the Karakol stands out from the traditional urban panorama crowned by domes and minarets and relatively small-scaled wooden buildings that surrounds them. This was the first building encountered by the new arrivals at the customs gate of the city. However, as there is no trace of the Karakol in photographs of the same district taken some 20-25 years later, it would appear that the building erected by the Tanzimat authorities as an early example of a brick construction building was relatively short-lived, having very probably been demolished as an obstacle in the way of the construction of the new Galata Bridge. Fig.5. Limon Iskelesi Guard House near New Mosque, Gaspare Fossati [9]. The construction of these two experiments in the new building techniques, both of them received with warm approval was followed by the construction of the Darulfunun (university) building, the most pretentious and most controversial building of the Tanzimat period. Its design was again entrusted to Gaspare Fossati and, as a central location was preferred, the old armory building in the vicinity of the Babı Humayun and the adjacent Sultan Palace grounds were suggested as a site. The building was to include lecture halls, laboratories, a library and a museum, but although work was immediately begun on the project it took nearly twenty years to complete. The plan consisted of two large blocks with central courtyards connected by an entrance block forming a spacious courtyard in the front. As in other buildings of the period the outer walls were of brick construction while the floors, staircases and interior decoration were of wood. The plan is quite plain and open. The facade arrangement can be seen in the available pictures. It would appear that as far as the attempt at the foundation of a university was concerned, the most successful aspect was the construction of a largescale building. Complete confusion reigned as to how the university was to be organized. No statute had been drawn up, and neither statesmen nor scholars could be said to have had any clear idea as to the function of a university 8. Even during the ] Ihsanoglu, E., Tanzimat Doneminde İstanbul'da Darulfunun Kurma Tesebbusleri, 150. Yılında Tanzimat, Ankara, 1992, pp. 397-439 (Initiatives to found a university 8 construction stage, the large size of the building prompted requests from various other administrations for the use of a number of the sections. To establish the desired university education, students of a qualified level and the sufficient number of instructors could not be available, and the limited number of lessons was held as conferences open to the public. A regular system of instruction thus proved impossible, and even in the first years the large size of the building led to its use in a number of different functions. In 1864 it was used to house the Ministry of Finance and, later, the Ministries of Justice and Evkaf (foundation). In 1876 the first Mebusan and Ayan Meclisleri (Congress and Senate Assemblies) were housed here, and in 1908, following the proclamation of the Second Constitution, it was once again used for the meetings of the Assembly. It was burned down in 1933. The outer walls, which remained standing for some time, were later demolished. From the time of its very first foundation this bold initiative of the Tanzimat government met with a hostile reception, with the conservatives of the time strongly opposed to the choice of land in the vicinity of a mosque as the site for an institution engaged in the study of the positive sciences. Nevertheless, in spite of the force of their arguments, all fully reported in the contemporary press, the conservatives were unable to make any headway in the face of the resolute stance adopted by the Tanzimat authorities. The Darulfunun building, was constructed, in spite of these ideological arguments, on the site and on the scale originally chosen, emerged as a monument to Tanzimat ideology. Situated between Ayasofya and Sultanahmet Mosque at a point with maximum effect on the Istanbul skyline, the University building between the during Tanzimat era in Istanbul, 150th Anniversary of Tanzimat). Byzantine and Ottoman monuments at the entrance to the Bosporus was, in a sense, a symbol of the Tanzimat reforms that had initiated such a comprehensive transformation in the urban architecture and of the movement of enlightenment and modernization that had begun to appear in the Istanbul of that period (Fig.6). From a different point of view, this pretentious design with its huge prismatic mass can be interpreted as a building which does not fit its surroundings composed of small scaled housings and domed monumental buildings, and exhibits a contrary apparition to the traditional Ottoman urban environment. (Fig.7.). Fig.6. Darulfunun (University), postcard. Fig.7. Darulfunun (University) (Istanbul German Archeological Institute Archives). . The Evrak building (Archives), another of the buildings intended to meet the requirements of the various innovations undertaken within the context of the Tanzimat reforms, was constructed by Gaspare Fossati at about the same time as the Darulfunun (Fig.8). The building still serves as a depot belonging to the Prime Ministerial State Archives. In 1846, in view of the chaotic state in which important documents were left to rot in the vaults surrounding the Defterhane (Registry Office) and Babıali (Sublime Porte), and the total impossibility of tracing any particular document, the need was felt for the construction of a brick construction building that could house a large wellordered library on the European model 9. All important documents were to be numbered and filed in the Archives and there was also to be a special library section containing history and geography books and maps. These archives, later known as Babıali Hazine-i Evrakı (Sublime Porte Treasury Archives) became a model for other Ottoman archives. This is a two storey building on a square base measuring 19 x 23 m. As the other buildings of the time it was of brick construction but in view of its specific function the floors, stairs and doors were of metal as a further precaution against fire. Fig.8. Hazine-I Evrak (State Treasury Archives) sketch of the façade, Gaspare Fossati, 1841, Bellinzona Cantonale Archive, Fondi Fossati, no: II/65. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) These buildings, constructed by the government in the first years of the Tanzimat reform period, served as models for contemporary architecture and were followed by government buildings in the Historical Peninsula and various private and embassy buildings in Beyoglu, as well as a number of palaces and pavilions on the Bosporus, the Aktas, N., Osmanlı Donemi Arsivciligimiz ve Tasnif Çalısmaları, Belgelerle Turk Tarihi Dergisi S. 1, 1985, pp. 67-72 (Studies on organization and classification of Ottoman Period Archives, Journal of Documented Turkish History). 9 most important being Dolmabahçe Palace, the construction of which was begun by Sultan Abdulmecid (Fig.9). Fig.9. Dolmabahce Palace. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) 2.2. Historical Peninsula; other examples When experience showed that the Darulfunun building was too large for the function for which it was originally intended the decision was taken to hand it over to the Ministry of Finance and to construct a new university building. In 1865, the task of designing the Second University building was entrusted to Giovanni Battista Barborini an Italian architect who had settled in Istanbul 10 and the work was completed in 1869 on a site immediately adjacent to the tomb of Mahmut II. (Fig.10.). The building is used at present as the Press Museum and, although the interior layout has been radically altered, the facade arrangement and its mass effect still survive as an example of Tanzimat architecture. Another distinguishing feature of the Second University building is its construction in conjunction with the first road widening scheme in the Ottoman period. Barborini was entrusted with these arrangements, the Çemberlitas area was cleared of a number of old buildings, a certain amount of restoration was carried out and, the complete demolition of the buildings on the Divanyolu was avoided, the Girardelli P., Can, C., Giovanni Battista Barborini A’ Istanbul, Observatoire Urbaine d’Istanbul, N.8, Octobre 1995, pp .2-7. 10 problems being solved by either moving them to a new site or by partly demolishing them and constructing new facades. Fig.10. II.Darulfunun (Second University Building). (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Other examples of the architecture of the period on the Historical Peninsula include the Fuad Pasha Konak and Ministry of War building, which now form part of the University of Istanbul, and the no longer existent Ali Pasha Konak (Fig.11.). Fig.11. Ali Pasha Palace, The Library of Congress, Abdul Hamid II collections, no. 3g11684. Another important building of the Tanzimat period located on the Historical Peninsula is the Iranian Embassy, the only foreign embassy to be found in this part of the city. Located on Babıali Street on a slope running down to the Golden Horn, the building consists of a basement and three stores on a square base measuring approximately 24 x 24 m. In the middle of the 19th century, Iran was examining the steps to be taken towards progress and reform by sending representatives to Russia, a country which was also undertaking reform on the European model, and to the Ottoman Empire, a Muslim country like itself. In Istanbul, Iran's desire for change is clearly manifested in this embassy building, constructed by Giorgio Domenico Stampa, a Levantine citizen of Istanbul 11. 2.3. Beyoglu and Bosporus The new type of building resulting from the comprehensive architectural activity undertaken on the Historical Peninsula in the period following the Tanzimat resulted in a fundamental change in the appearance of the old city within the space of twenty-five years, and the old wooden districts depicted in the Melling gravures were completely transformed. Beyoglu underwent a similar transformation with the modernization of the existing buildings and the construction of new ones. The Tanzimat period saw an increase in the number of foreign embassies, and, with the development of trade and commerce in the second half of the 19th century and the increase in the Levantine population, Beyoglu began to acquire the appearance of a Western city. The new buildings in the Beyoglu district differed from those on the Historical Peninsula in being built by Levantines and foreigners. The British Embassy, designed by Sir Charles Barry and constructed by William James Smith, the Dutch Embassy designed by Giuseppe Fossati, and Naum Theatre (Fig.12.), which was well known also in Europe, by Giuseppe Fossati were buildings constructed during the first years of the Tanzimat era. These were followed by a number of buildings forming the characteristic 11 Can, C., Levantine Architects in Post-Tanzimat Istanbul Architecture, Atti del Convegno: Architettura e Architetti Italiani ad Istanbul tra il XIX e il XX secolo, Istanbul, Istıtuto Italiano di Cultura di Istanbul, 1996, pp. 55-60. architectural features of the district, such as the imposing Palazzo Corpi (Fig.13.), built for the Italian ship-owner Corpi and now used as the United States Consulate, the Beyoglu Municipal Building (Fig.14.) designed by the architect Barborini, various buildings built for the Banker Camondo in almost every part of Beyoglu and Pera by the Levantine architects Stampa and Tedeschi [13] (Fig.15.), and the Italian Hospital designed by architect Stampa (Fig.16.). Fig.12. Naum Theatre, Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati, plan and façade, 1846, Bellinzona Cantonale Archive, Fondi Fossati, no: XI/853. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Fig.13. Palazzo Corpi. (Istanbul German Archeological Institute Archives) Fig.14. Beyoglu Municipal Building. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Fig.15. Camondo Building. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Fig.16. Italian Hospital. (Cengiz Can Photograph collection) Mustafa Resit Pasha's Seaside Palace 12 at Baltalimanı designed by Gaspare Fossati (Fig.17.) was the leading building to start the changes taking place in Bosporus architecture during the Tanzimat period. A most striking example displaying Tanzimat architecture, the Baltalimanı seaside palace, (Fig.18.) was the harbinger of a new era as the first brick construction palace on the Bosphorus. In 1851 Sultan Abdulmecid entrusted the construction of the Tophane Kasrı to the British architect William James Smith, and this was followed by the construction of Dolmabahçe Palace and other palaces and pavilions by architects from the Balyan family. In spite of its fairly modest dimensions the Tophane Kasrı constituted an attempt to repeat as far as possible the architectural discourse of the Baltalimanı Seaside Palace. Can, C., “Mustafa Resit Pasa and the Architect Gaspare Trajano Fossati”, Art Turc/Turkish Art 10. Congrés International d’Art Turc,17-23 September 1995, Genéve, Foundation Max Van Berchem, 1999, pp.207-216. 12 Fig.17. Resit Pasha Seaside Palace, sketch of the façade Gaspare Fossati, Bellinzona Cantonale Archive, Fondi Fossati, no: XI/857. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Fig.18. Resit Pasha Seaside Palace interior. (Istanbul Archeology Museum Archives) 3. Conclusion The Tanzimat was a period of change based on European models and it is only natural that the architectural activity to be observed in the Istanbul of the day was of Western inspiration. The first twenty years of the Tanzimat period were dominated by foreign architects headed by Gaspare Fossati and, increasingly, by Levantine and non-Muslim Ottoman architects. Naturally, the buildings display different features in accordance with their individual functions and situations, the desires of the employers, the attitudes of the architects and the construction materials employed. At the same time, a number of common features are to be found in buildings constructed in different districts for different purposes and by different employers. Brick now began to be produced on a large scale in Istanbul, and the buildings of the Tanzimat period were constructed in a brick construction technique using bricks on a modern scale. The floors, stairs, roofs and interior decoration were of wood while plaster was used on the inner and outer surfaces. The masses were even more prismatic and larger than the previous examples of traditional urban environment. Recesses of various depths were widely employed in the facade arrangements. Symmetrical axial layouts were generally preferred in the facades, with emphasis generally laid on the entrance with designs on the facade axis containing three openings, These triple module arrangements strengthening the axial symmetry were underlined by the larger dimensions of the openings, the slight projection of the triple facade composition or at least the manner in which the three openings on the axis differed in shape from the other openings on the facade. While the facade openings were at first rectangular or surmounted by semicircular arches, shallow arches gradually came into use. Floor moldings and window jambs became indispensable facade elements. Facade decoration became more ornate, with sculptured columns and pre-cast facade elements. The change went in line with the wishes of the Ottoman authorities by whom the Tanzimat ideals were being realized. Although little change was to be observed over a very large section of the city, where the old traditional wooden type of architectural construction continued in use, a new type of building construction emerged in the Tanzimat period which brought about a quite remarkable transformation in the city's appearance in a short time, and Istanbul lived through a visual change in the widest extent throughout its history. Figure Captions Fig. 1. View of the Beyoglu from the Bosporus before the Tanzimat era, circa 1800 [1]. Fig.2. Russian Embassy, sketch of the Bosporus façade, Gaspare Fossati, Bellinzona Cantonale Archives, Fondi Fossati, no: II/78. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Fig.3. View of the Beyoglu from the Bosporus after the construction of Russian Embassy, 1844, detail from the painting of Ottoman-Armenian painter Mıgırdiç Melkonyan, Istanbul Besiktas Military Museum. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Fig.4. Babı Seraskerat (Military Hospital) section and sketch of the façade, Gaspare Fossati, 1841, Bellinzona Cantonale Archive, Fondi Fossati, no:IX/685. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Fig.5. Limon Iskelesi Guard House near New Mosque, Gaspare Fossati. Fig.6. Darulfunun (University), old postcard. Fig.7. Darulfunun (University) (Istanbul German Archeological Institute Archives ). Fig.8. Hazine-I Evrak (State Treasury Archives) sketch of the façade, Gaspare Fossati, 1841, Bellinzona Cantonale Archive, Fondi Fossati, no: II/65. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Fig.9. Dolmabahce Palace. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Fig.10. II.Darulfunun (Second University Building). (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Fig.11. Ali Pasa Palace, The Library of Congress, Abdul Hamid II collections, no. 3g11684. Fig.12. Naum Theatre, Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati, plan and façade, 1846, Bellinzona Cantonale Archive, Fondi Fossati, no: XI/853. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Fig.13. Palazzo Corpi. (Istanbul German Archeological Institute Archives ) Fig.14. Beyoglu Municipal Building. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Fig.15. Camondo Building. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Fig.16. Italian Hospital. (Cengiz Can Photograph collection) Fig.17. Resit Pasha Seaside Palace, sketch of the façade Gaspare Fossati, Bellinzona Cantonale Archive, Fondi Fossati, no: XI/857. (Photograph by Cengiz Can) Fig.18. Resit Pasha Seaside Palace interior. (Istanbul Archeology Museum Archives) i