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Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
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Novel Trends to Revolutionize Preservation and
Packaging of Fruits/ Fruit Products: Microbiological and
Nanotechnological Perspectives
a
Anu Kalia & Vir R. Parshad
a
a
Elect ron Microscopy and Nanoscience Laborat ory, Punj ab Agricult ural Universit y, Ludhiana,
Punj ab, India
Accept ed aut hor version post ed online: 24 Jun 2013. Published online: 18 Aug 2014.
To cite this article: Anu Kalia & Vir R. Parshad (2015) Novel Trends t o Revolut ionize Preservat ion and Packaging of Fruit s/ Fruit
Product s: Microbiological and Nanot echnological Perspect ives, Crit ical Reviews in Food Science and Nut rit ion, 55: 2, 159-182,
DOI: 10. 1080/ 10408398. 2011. 649315
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Novel Trends to Revolutionize
Preservation and Packaging
of Fruits/Fruit Products:
Microbiological and
Nanotechnological Perspectives
ANU KALIA and VIR R. PARSHAD
Electron Microscopy and Nanoscience Laboratory, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
Fruit preservation and packaging have been practiced since ages to maintain the constant supply of seasonal fruits over
lengthened periods round the year. However, health and safety issues have attracted attention in recent decades. The safety
and quality assurance of packaged fruits/fruit products are vital concerns in present day world-wide–integrated food supply
chains. The growing demand of minimally or unprocessed packaged fruits has further aggravated the safety concerns which
fuelled in extensive research with objectives to develop novel techniques of food processing, preservation, and packaging
as well as for rapid, accurate, and early detection of contaminant products/microbes. Nevertheless, fruits and fruit-based
products have yet to observe a panoramic introduction. Tropics and subtropics are the stellar producers of a variety of
fruits; majority if not all is perishable and prone to postharvest decay. This evoked the opportunity to critically review the
global scenario of emerging and novel techniques for fruit preservation and packaging, hence providing insight for their
future implementation. This review would survey key nanotechnology innovations applied in preservation, packaging, safety,
and storage of fruits and fruit-based products. The challenges and pros and cons of wider application of these innovative
techniques, their commercial potential, and consumer acceptability have also been discussed.
Keywords Edible films, fruits, HACCP, lab-on-a-chip, nanoceutical, nanotechnology
INTRODUCTION
Fruits have always been the essential dietary supplement
being the natural sources of different vitamins, minerals, fibers,
and phytochemicals like flavonoids, the health benefits of which
are well established (Table 1). Fruits are known to have a presumed significance of reduction in the risk of certain types
of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and stroke probably due to
increased antioxidant capacity of the plasma by fruit consumption (Hassimotto et al., 2009). The fruit vitamins are usually the
water-soluble vitamins viz. vitamin B complex and C as well as
fat-soluble vitamins A, E, and K. Majority of fruits contain high
amounts of potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, phospho-
Address correspondence to Anu Kalia, Electron Microscopy and
Nanoscience Laboratory, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab 141
004, India. E-mail: kaliaanu@gmail.com; kaliaanu@pau.edu
rus, iron, and zinc apart from special minerals like selenium,
copper, and iodine.
The fruit fibers are of two types viz. soluble and insoluble, with the later type to be largely indigestible portions of
the fruit present in the fruit skin that function as “roughage”
and increases the bulk. Chemically, the fruit fibers are cell wall
components that include cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, pectin,
gums, and mucilages (Ramulu and Rao, 2003). These fibers act
as a sponge due to their high water-holding capacity and are
known to regulate the bowel movements as well as reduce the
blood cholesterol level. The role of fruit fibers and antioxidants
along with oleic acid or monounsaturated fatty acid content in
Mediterranean-style diet is tremendous to reduce inflammation,
and corresponding coronary events in middle-aged adults (Basu
et al., 2006). Moreover, Hermsdorff and coworkers (2010) reported significant reduction in the levels of markers of inflammation like C-reactive protein (CRP) and homocysteine concentrations as well as decrease in the mRNA expression of certain
159
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160
Table 1
Nutritional components and dietary benefits of some fruits
Name of the fruit
Chemical nature
Name of the active
chemical
Mode of action
Acai
Flavonoids, anthocyanins, proteins,
omega-6 and omega-9 fatty acids,
Vitamin B1, B2, B3, Vitamin E,
Vitamin C, and dietary fiber
Cyanadin-3-glucoside,
Oleic acid and linolenic
acids
Antioxidants
Apple
Flavonoids, polyphenols, Vitamin C, Quercetin, catechin,
phloridzin, and
galacturonic acid, malic acid,
chlorogenic acid, pectin
tartaric acid, and insoluble/soluble
fiber
Antioxidants
Berries
Flavonoids
Quercetin
Antioxidants
Blue berries
Flavonoids, anthocyanin, Vitamin C
Anthocyanidins,
Antioxidant
Citrus fruits
Flavonoids, flavonol glycosides,
kaempferol-related compounds,
Vitamin C, Folate, and citric acid
Tangeretin, rutin, nobiletin,
Naringenin
Antioxidants Antibiotic
Grapes (Vitis
venifera)
Flavonoids, polyphenol, and saponins Resveratrol, Pterostilbene
Grapefruit
dietary carotenoids or Vitamin A,
Vitamin B1, B5 and B6, Vitamin
C, dietary fiber, and Folate
Lycopene
Antioxidant
Pears
Vitamin C and K, malic and citric
acid
Organic acid
Antioxidants
Anti-initiating,
anti-promoting
Benefits imparted
Anti-aging properties, strong heart health
benefits including protective effect on the
heart and cardiovascular system, role in
lowering cholesterol levels in blood, may
regenerate skin and stabilize muscle
contraction
Improves heart health, provides protection
against cancer and asthma, removes toxic
substances from the body, helps prevent
spoilage of protein matter in the intestine,
helps prevent liver disturbances, improve
digestion, lower cholesterol, reduce skin
diseases, strengthening of the blood.
Reduction in several types of cancer
Enhances visual acuity, protection against
macular degeneration, cardioprotective,
promotes gastrointestinal health, protects
against colon and ovarian cancer,
Protection against Rheumatoid Arthritis,
Limonins support optimal health, help fight
cancers of the mouth, skin, lung, breast,
stomach and colon, protective against the
contraction of cholera
Reduction in prostrate and colon cancer,
reduced severity of inflammatory
conditions, such as asthma, osteoarthritis,
and rheumatoid arthritis
Lowers cholesterol, support heart health and
protect from heart diseases, keep the
flexibility of heart muscles, lower risk of
Alzheimer’s disease, enhanced drug
bioavailability
Protection from free radicals, promotes
cardiovascular and colon health, protection
against macular degeneration and post
menopausal breast cancer
Reference/Source
www.xyngularian.com/uploads/
Xyngularwhitepaper.pdf
http://www.natural-weight-lossprograms.com/monavie.htm
Lichtenthaler et al. (2005)
Boyer and Liu (2004), Liu et al.
(2005)
www.mass.gov/agr/massgrown/
annotated bibliography.pdf
Andres-Lacueva et al. (2005), Gates
et al. (2007)
Lam et al. (2010)
Rodrigues et al. (2000);
Gharagozoloo and Ghaderi (2001);
Gao et al. (2006); Manners (2007)
Eng et al. (2003); Donnelly et al.
(2004); Turner et al. (2006)
Dahan and Altman (2004);
Hassimotto et al. (2005); Dai et al.
(2006); Gorinstein et al. (2006)
http://www.whfoods.com
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MICROBIOLOGICAL AND NANOTECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Figure 1
161
Overview of nanotechnology applications in fruit processing, packaging, and pathogen detection.
WBC proinflammatory markers in healthy young adults due to
consumption of high fruit- and vegetable-rich diet.
Fruit flavonoids are a group of phytochemicals that have
enormous pharmacological and medicinal importance. The particular mention is for the citrus fruits that are rich in flavonoids
like tangeretin, rutin, nobiletin, etc., which help in alleviating
several types of skin, mouth, lungs, stomach, and colon cancers. Consumption of fruits rich in beta-carotene and vitamins
C and E results in significant reduction in oral and pharyngeal, esophageal, and breast cancer risks. The polyphenols and
flavonoids in fruits work as signal molecules and alter the gut
microecology directly by effectively inhibiting the adherence
of pathogenic microbes to gut surface as well as indirectly by
increasing the number of beneficial gut micorflora through enhanced adherence of probiotic microbes on gut surface (Parker
et al., 2008).
The consumption and importance of fruits is getting emphasized in today’s balanced diet schedules though the actual
working principles and mechanisms behind the positive impacts
of consumption of fruits or fruits products have to be deciphered
at the molecular (genomic, proteomic, and metabolomic) scale.
Since the inception of techniques for determining the mechanisms or principles behind the processes is related to food preservation and safety, the present century has witnessed extensive
applications of several novel tools like advanced fluorescence-,
electron-, scanning probe microscopes, and ultrasensitive sensors/probes to determine microbiological and nutritive status of
preserved or processed foods. Microbiologically, fruit surfaces
and few tissues harbor certain resident microflora which exhibit
alteration in diversity profiles according to the age of a particular
fruit as well as different types of microbes may be acquired from
the tools and techniques employed during processing, preservation, and storage of the fruits/fruit products till its consumption
by the consumer. The revised and novel fruit packaging methods have lengthened the shelf-life and availability of seasonal
fruits/products. The fruit safety issues are being catered by the
development of highly specific sensors for rapid identification of
known as well as emerging pathogens contaminating or spoiling
the preserved or processed fruits even in very low concentrations
not in range that could be detected by conventional techniques.
This review aims at providing an overview of the modified or
novel trends in deciphering the biotic and intrinsic factors for
intricate fruit-microbe cross-talks and interactions, identification of postharvest storage, packaging, preservation, and safety
techniques, and commercial status of novel products (Fig. 1).
The usefulness of any new approach in fruit preservation and
packaging has been considered in its ability to retain the original
physical, biochemical, and organoleptic properties of different
fruits and to provide the physiological and health benefits of
fruit consumption.
FRUIT MICROBIOLOGY
Microbiologically, fruits are not sterile and there are
plenty of preservation and safety issues regarding the microbiology of fruits (Kalia and Gupta, 2006). Studying the
number, diversity, as well as spatial distribution of normal/
contaminating/pathogenic microbes present on the surface, in
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162
A. KALIA AND V. R. PARSHAD
fissures/internal tissues of fruits is useful for maintenance of
fruit quality, shelf-life, as well as safety. There are several microbiological benefits of consumption of fruits and fruit products.
Nyanga et al. (2007) studies show that ripe, unripe, and even
dried unprocessed fruits contain enormous microbial diversity
which varies according to the condition of the fruit.
The natural microflora of fruits, lactic acid bacteria, streptococci, certain yeasts, and yeast-like fungi is known to maintain
the fruit quality (Rezende et al., 2009). The presence of beneficial microbes further enhances the positive benefits imparted
by consumption of fruits which is evidently observed in case of
consumption of fermented fruit beverages. The benefits could
also be enhanced by combining probiotics with fruit and vegetables like immobilization of Lactobacillus on apple/quince
pieces (Kourkoutas et al., 2005) and vacuum impregnation of
probiotic cultures of Lactobacillus/Saccharomyces in commercial fruit juices (Betoret et al., 2003). Fruit juices possess antimicrobial compounds that can curb the growth of several human
gut pathogenic microbes viz. L. monocytogenes, Salmonella enteritidis, and Escherichia coli O157:H7 at low temperature by
causing significant damage in cell cytoplasm as revealed by
transmission electron microscope studies (Raybaudi-Massilia
et al., 2009).
Microbial processing of fruits using microbes particularly
fermentation, the study of novel antimicrobial/microbiostatic
packaging systems, tracking/tracing the level of microbial contaminants in the fresh/processed produce, and the positive impacts on the human gut microflora on the consumption of fruits
are most important study areas for fruit microbiology.
Nanomicrobiology
It is a conjugate burgeoning discipline encompassing the application of tools and techniques of nanotechnology to study
microbes, their interactions, and applications (Dufrene, 2004b;
Alsteens et al., 2009). Fruit microbiology could be converged
to incorporate novel nanoscience/nanotechnology tools and
techniques for fashioning fruit nanomicrobiology involving
nanoscale studies of the individual components of fruit(s), fruit
microbes (be it normal or contaminating microflora), and their
interactions with the fruit surfaces; novel methods of decreasing
the contaminating microbial load in processed products like fruit
juices using nanoparticles or nanofilters, development of innovative, interactive functional fruit-based products using nanotextured nutraceuticals, i.e., nanoceuticals, smart/intelligent packaging of the minimally processed fruits/processed fruit juices or
fruit-based beverages, sensing and tracing the early signs of fruit
spoilage using nanobiosensors, and on product nanobarcoding
using quantum dots or other functionalized nanoparticles.
Nanotechnology Tools to Decipher Fruit–Microbe
Interactions
Nanotechnology has revolutionized and definitely would alter our basic understanding of the mechanisms or materials
and processes or products and hence the differences at macro-,
micro-, and nanoscopic levels in the present and coming
decades. The two sister disciplines of nanoscience and nanotechnology have gathered several advanced tools, techniques,
and products that are instrumental in embracing, correlating,
as well as interpreting diverse information. Among these, the
electron and scanning probe microscopes are the foremost tools
for high-resolution imaging to unravel petite information at the
nanoscale, i.e., nanobioimaging, which could be used to comprehend the behavior of certain microbes toward abiotic and
biotic factors premiere in upscaling and enhancing the performance of microbial cell factories for production of particular
product (like fermentation for production of alcohol, organic
acids, antibiotics, vitamins, essential protein products) as well
as to decipher the interaction and preference of a pathogenic
microbe toward a specific surface (cell–cell communication and
interactomics).
With the invention of electron microscopes (EM) by Knoll
and Ruska in early 1930s, the basic tools of high-resolution
imaging were put forth to the cytologists aiming at explorations
at the ultrastructural levels within a cell. The true real-time
nanoscale resolutions for imaging microbial cell surfaces were
possible only after the invention of atomic force microscope
(AFM) by Binnig, Gerber and Quate in 1986 (Binnig et al.,
1986). This is a virtual imaging tool which lacks lens system
and basically produces image by physically raster scanning of
the surfaces at nanoscale in real-time by a micorcantilever probe
fabricated from monocrystal of silicon or silicon nitride without
involving strenuous sample processing (Dufrene, 2002, 2004a;
Muller and Dufrene, 2008). The AFM belongs to a large family of scanning probe microscopes (SPM) and several advancements in the original AFM have enhanced the number of variants
(magnetic force microscope, dynamic force microscope, lateral
force microscope, and many more) as well as the type of information that could be obtained at nanoscale be it nanometer
range of features in x-, y-, or z-scales, nN range of forces (van der
Waal, magnetic), and nA/nV of current/voltage on the surface
of a biological sample. The physical scanning feature of AFM
has led to the development of this as a tool for manipulation of
biological matter/surfaces at the subnanometer scales and for
deciphering the physicochemical properties (like friction, stickiness, viscoelasticity, weak surface forces, and chemical groups)
of the surfaces (Yang et al., 2007). It is also useful in exploring mechanisms of specific interaction preferences among the
microbe-host modules [molecular recognition, receptor–ligand
interactions (Puntheeranurak et al., 2006; Li et al., 2007), protein
folding, and self-assembly dynamics (Eibl and Moy, 2005)], and
in highly sensitive detection of bioanalytes (at pico to femtomolar concentrations) real-time in physiologically active microbial
cells (Dufrene, 2008). The mechanism of antagonism could be
deciphered at the molecular and even nanoscale level by using
the antibody labeled transmission electron microscopy, marker
sandwiched fluorescence or confocal laser scanning microscopy,
and dynamic force microscopy using tapping mode. These techniques would also be able to fish out prime interaction molecules
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MICROBIOLOGICAL AND NANOTECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
(glycoproteins and receptor-ligands) as well as their location
on the surfaces of the antagonistic microbes. The information
yielded by various SPMs is particularly very useful in defining
the mechanisms of interaction of the pathogenic microbes (fruit
spoilage microbes, fruit contaminating opportunistic microbes,
and human pathogenic microbes) which could be implemented
in developing novel control and eradication protocols regarding
the product quality and safety issues pertaining to fruit postharvest handling, preservation, and processing industries.
The structural and material properties of fruits greatly affect the fruit quality including the microscopic histological and
cellular features as well as nanoscopic middle lamella and plasmodesmata spatial distributions (though fruit structure is difficult to investigate owing to uneven spatial distribution of distinct
structural features). This calls for the application of predictive
multiscale models which can predict and relate the material
properties and structural micro or nanoscale geometry of a fruit
to its macroscopic properties and quality. Though this technique of microscale modeling is at infancy and not very useful
for the whole fruits as there exists arbitrariness in the geometry
of biological microstructures but it would definitely be useful for the engineered products derived from fruits (Mebatsion
et al., 2008). The same predictive mathematical models can be
used to predict the number of pathogenic microbes like bacteria
(Valdramidis et al., 2006), yeast (Tchango et al., 1997; Wang
et al., 2004), fungi (Gibson and Hocking, 1997), and viruses
(Deboosere et al., 2010) on the fruit surface for estimating the
consequences of food handling and processing operations on
growth, survival, and inactivation of microbes such as the foodborne pathogens (McMeekin et al., 2008). This would be a
proactive technique among Hazard and Critical Control Points
(HACCP) protocols that would help in describing the microbial behavior in order to prevent food spoilage and food-borne
illnesses.
The internal structure and material properties of the
fruits could be easily deciphered by high-resolution imaging tools like environmental scanning EM, high resolutiontransmission EM, confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM),
and AFM. These versatile techniques can be used to
study the structure and molecular bonding of the individual
molecules/macromolecules, like plant storage polysaccharide
(starch), plant cell wall polysaccharide (cellulose), fungal cell
wall polysaccharide (chitin), middle lamella material (pectin),
DNA, and proteins at the nanoscale which definitely would have
strong positive impact and applications in predicting models that
can be applied to improve shelf-life and quality of fruits (Yang
et al., 2007).
MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF POSTHARVEST
DECAY OF FRUITS
The microbiology of the fruit is an essential element for minimizing the postharvest losses of the fresh fruits. Deciphering
the predominant microbial diversity transits or shifts would be
163
instrumental in identification of the proficient pathogen of a
particular fruit under a specific set of abiotic conditions prevailing during the processing and storage of the fresh fruit.
Better economic returns by fruit growers and retailers can only
be harnessed if the enormous postharvest losses could be decreased or curbed during handling and supply chain of fruits.
Molds or fungi are the major causative agents of postharvest
fruit decay of stored fruits and thus have to be eradicated using
synthetic fungicides which are either sprayed or topically applied (dipping treatment) to stored fruits (Sharma et al., 2009).
The cost of pesticide treatment, evolution of resistant pathogenic
strain/species, and concerns for pesticide residues on or in fruit
tissues emphasize the need for alternative techniques that are
environmentally benign as well as show effectiveness at par to
the commercially available fungicidal formulations. Use of biological control agents is one such alternative technique to reduce
postharvest losses (Mari et al., 2007).
Though fruits are equipped with special cuticular outer
surface composed of lipid-wax cutin to physically ward off
pathogens from entering the inner tissues but still the fruit
pathogens tend to encroach deeper in the physical protective
barriers by producing certain extracellular adhesives to cling on
the cutin layer followed by its dissolution to infect the internal
tissues. The interaction properties of pathogen like adhesiveness and removal from the fruit surfaces are largely affected by
variation in the type of cutin fatty acids/waxes or even epicuticular wax quantity as this leads to alteration in the physical
and chemical properties of the surface (Pierzynowska-Korniak
et al., 2002). Even the alteration in thickness of the cutin coating
significantly affects the surface toughness (Spotts et al., 2009).
The other protective barrier on the fruit surface is in form
of native microflora (microbiological) comprising wild yeasts
and certain bacteria which ward off in general all types of the
bacterial and fungal pathogens as can be observed in yeast consortia treated fruits (Fig. 2). Several native microbes have been
reported to act as potential postharvest microbial control agents
by either decreasing or even eliminating the postharvest decay
of fruits. A study conducted by Ukuku et al. (2004) indicated
the positive role of native microflora to avoid contamination
and growth of L. monocytogenes in fresh cut melons. Similar
study by Teixido et al. (1998) showed that the presence of yeast
culture Candida sake significantly reduced the populations of
Cladosporium and Penicillium during long time cold storage
and ambient shelf-life storage conditions. Likewise Xu et al.
(2008) have demonstrated the biocontrol potential of a variety
of yeasts genera namely Pichia membranaefaciens, Candida
guilliermondii, Cryptococcus laurentii, and Rhodotorula glutinis against fungal pathogen Monilinia fructicola that causes
peach fruit decay. These yeasts control the levels of protein carbonylation and mitigate Monilinia-induced oxidative damage to
curb decay in peach fruits.
Native yeasts are the most striking agents possessing biological control potential by virtue of an array of antagonistic mechanisms. The mechanism of antagonism may differ depending
upon the extent of participation or interaction by the antagnostic
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164
A. KALIA AND V. R. PARSHAD
Figure 2
Schematic diagram of the yeast consortia treatment for postharvest decay control of fruits (Adapted from Sharma et al., 2009).
chemical or feature. It could be either “active” in terms of secretion of antimicrobial compounds like antibiotics, cell wall
degrading enzymes, and induction of host resistance to curb the
growth of other microbial pathogens or “passive” in terms of
competition for space and nutrition with pathogens (Janisiewicz
and Korsten 2002; Chan and Tian 2005; Sharma et al., 2009).
Further, the active and passive mechanisms may be categorized
as physical [competition for space and nutrients (Janisiewicz
et al., 2000)], chemical [production of cell–wall degrading hydrolytic enzymes (Olofse et al., 2009)], biochemical [resistance
to oxidative stress (Castoria et al., 2003) and induction of an
antioxidant defense response (Xu and Tian, 2008)], antimicrobial [direct interactions with the pathogen (Chan and Tian,
2005)], and physiological [induction of host resistance (Zhao
et al., 2008)]. Several novel mechanisms have been reported
by researchers that either inhibit the pathogen spore germination and vegetative growth or directly kill the vegetative cells
by producing active antimicrobial diffusible compounds. A report by Sipiczki (2006) demonstrates the antagnostic activity of
red-maroon pigment-producing Metschnikowia strains against
filamentous fungi, yeasts, and bacteria which has been hypothesized to be based on inhibition of growth of sensitive microorganisms by depletion of free iron in the medium due to iron
binding pigment formation by the yeast strain other than the
siderphore.
Though the postharvest fruit biocontrol tools and technologies have advanced yet, the true commercial successes of a
potential biocontrol agent are yet to happen. Majority of microbial antagonists have protective activity in small (3–5 mm
deep) puncture wounds, however, the commercial success of a
biocontrol agent resides in curative activity in a wide range of
wounds like bruises, scrapes, broken stems, or broken epidermal hairs in several different commodities for pathogens with
different etiologies (Drobya et al., 2009). Largely, the paucity
of information on the diversity of the native fruit protective surface microflora of most of the fruits (grapes and apples being
most elaborately studied till date) is responsible for screening
out a multiple pathogen infection-controlling agent for different
types of fruit surfaces. Now that some information is available on the microbiological barrier from different fruit surfaces
(Janisiewicz et al., 2010), it is now possible to identify microbial culture(s) possessing multiple antagnostic properties.
Nantawanit et al. (2010) have reported the biocontrol of chili
anthracnose (Colletotrichum capsici) by inoculation of Pichia
guilliermondii that initiates a spectrum of antimicrobial activities by itself or in the chili fruit such as enhanced phenylalanine
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MICROBIOLOGICAL AND NANOTECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
ammonia-lyase, chitinase, and β-1,3-glucanase activities and
the accumulation of capsidiol phytoalexin to combat the infection. A larger spectrum of pathogen control can be envisaged by
combining the traditional physical and chemical methods with
the novel biological control agents. Zhang et al., (2009) have
observed reduction in the disease incidence and lesion diameter
of blue mold (Penicillium expansum) decay of pears by combined application of chemical methyl jasmonate (200 µM) and
yeast culture Rhodotorula glutinis (1×108 CFU mL−1) after incubation for seven days at 20◦ C. Similar use of calcium chloride
along with yeast Candida membranifaciens has been reported
to efficiently decrease the lesion formation by mold Penicillium
expansum in apples (Gholamnejad et al., 2010). Janisiewicz and
Conway (2010) have recently reviewed the combined use of
physical, chemical, and biological control agents for controlling postharvest decay of fruits.
NOVEL FRUIT PRESERVATION AND PROCESSING
TECHNIQUES
As fruits are seasonal perishable commodities, processing
and preservation of fruits are age-old practice. Microbial quality
of fruits or fruit products has to be maintained at various levels of processing and packaging. Though production practices
have a tremendous effect on the quality of fruits at harvest, on
postharvest quality, and on shelf-life but their preservation and
processing is carried out to decrease or eradicate the contaminating microbial load. The common techniques of physical-,
chemical-, and radiation-processing and preservation can be integrated and improvised for increasing the quality and benefits
imparted by the product. The application of a combination of
preservative factors has given rise to a new concept in food
processing and preservation termed as “Hurdle Technology”
(Lee 2004) and could exhibit effective control of a spectrum of
pathogenic microbes (Mahapatra et al., 2005). The commencing
sections discuss about the recent studies and innovations leading to development of novel techniques and also improvements
in the existing techniques based on scientific and technological
advances in microbiology and nanotechnology.
Radiation Preservation
Radiation preservation of whole fruits and fruit juices is nonthermal processing technique to effectively inactivate foodborne
pathogens on whole-fruit surface and fruit juices. In particular,
UV ionizing radiation is most widely utilized for disinfection
of fruit/liquid fruit products (Farkas and Mohacsi-Farkas 2011).
Shama and Alderson (2005) have provided a novel method of
UV hormesis, i.e., application of low doses of UV to induce
stress responses like production of antifungal compounds and
delayed ripening in fruits or fresh produce. The short UV exposure of fruits causes reduction in the disease incidence and
extends the shelf-life. A radiation disinfestation of fruits using
165
radiation dose up to 2 kGy has been most extensively utilized
in Ukraine (Fan, 2005). However, the nonionizing radiations
like radiowaves have also been used to enhance pathogen eradication. Ukuku and Geveke (2010) have utilized combination
of Radio Frequency Electric Fields (RFEF) and UV-light treatments to inactivate bacteria in liquid foods and reported better
performance of RFEF treatment in terms of causing more injury
to the bacterial cells leading to more leakage of intracellular
nucleic acid and proteins into a suspension that absorb UV light
(so termed as UV-substances) than cells treated with UV-light
alone.
Modified Atmosphere Packaging and Its Variants
There are a number of new strategies available for the preservation and processing of fruits, among which conjugate techniques involving application of more than two conventional
strategies are the foremost. Conventionally, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is most commonly used for fresh-cut
fruits like pomegranate arils, apple, kiwifruit, honeydew, and
pineapple (Jayas and Jeyamkondan, 2002; Soliva-Fortuny and
Martin-Belloso, 2003; Ayhan and Esturk, 2009). Timon (2005)
has reported better product quality and enhanced shelf-life of
fresh-cut fruits by using approximately 3 to 5% O2 and 5 to
10% CO2 within the package which slows down the deterioration of product. Now-a-days, MAP technique has been used in
combination with physical, chemical, or radiation techniques.
The texture and quality of fresh fruits packaged by using MAP
technique could be enhanced by treating the fresh fruits with
essential oils having antimicrobial properties. A study on the
fresh sweet cherry fruits revealed that treatment with antifungal essential oils like eugenol, thymol, or menthol imparts certain positive benefits on several quality parameters. The treated
fruits exhibited reduced weight loss, enhanced delaying in color
changes, and maintenance of fruit firmness compared to control
fruits which may be attributed to the reduction in the action of
cell wall degrading enzymes in the treated fruits (Serranoa et al.,
2005). Apart from essential oils, aromatic compounds [e.g., hexanal, 2-(E)-hexenal, and hexyl acetate] hold a good promise for
their use as shelf-life enhancers to impart better safety due to antimicrobial action toward the gram-negative bacteria (Lanciotti
et al., 2004).
Bacteriocin-Based Biopreservation
“Bacteriocins,” peptides having antimicrobial activity of bacterial origin, are best-suited candidates for food biopreservation
as their use would help in retaining the organoleptic and nutritional properties of particularly the fresh produce or the minimally processed fruits and also would help to reduce the practice of use of chemical preservatives and intense heat treatments
for preservation (Leverentz et al., 2003; Galvez et al., 2007).
These may be categorized into two groups, i.e., broad or narrow
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spectrum bacteriocins depending on the kinds of microbe being targeted or controlled. Broad-spectrum bacteriocins include
enterocins, colicins, and lantibiotics that affect bacterial genera
belonging to a larger group and thus have a wider use. Narrowspectrum bacteriocins, however, specifically or selectively inhibit high-risk bacteria in fruits like L. monocytogenes without
affecting harmless microbiota in fresh cut minimally processed
(MP) fruits with high sugar and moisture content like honeydew melons, berries, apple, etc. for which narrow spectrum
bacteriocins are of practical importance for extending shelf-life
(Leverentz et al., 2003). Thus these peptides have a future as
preservatives, shelf-life extenders, additives, or ingredients that
could be produced in situ by bacteriocinogenic starters, adjunct,
or protective cultures (Galvez et al., 2007). Certain broad spectrum bacteriocins that are available for commercial applications
are nisin, pediocin PA-1/AcH, lacticin 3147, enterocin AS-48,
or variacin. Penney et al. (2004), however, reported that bacteriocin nisin application did not prevent the growth of spoilage
causing microbes in fruit yogurt made with minimally processed
wild blueberries rather they advocated the application of phytopreservatives such as vanillin as “natural” antimicrobial agents
in minimally processed fruit yogurt.
Edible Films
Due to the high water content in certain whole and majority
of fresh-cut fruits, biggest problem of discoloration and loss of
quality occurs due to action of gases and contaminating bacteria and molds in conventional packaging systems. Fresh-cut
fruit tissue deteriorates more rapidly than intact fruits which
may be due to increased activity of wound-induced enzymes
that act on cell walls and membranes of the cut fruits (Karakurt
and Huber, 2003). Some other biochemical changes also occur
that cause deterioration in the tissues of fresh-cut fruits (Toivonen and Brummell, 2008). These problems could be sorted by
developing edible films that act as barrier to minimize water
loss (Bourlieu et al., 2009) and are more efficient in controlling gaseous exchange that also delays the ethylene mediated
senescence of respiring fruits. Moreover, value addition of edible films may equip these to perform multiple functions like
ability to eradicate spoilage causing microbes on inclusion of
an antimicrobial agent, ability to increase the types of flavor
etc. Usually, edible films are eco-friendly coatings composed
of biodegradable polymers like cellulose, starch, and wax that
reduce the requirement of stringent conventional packaging,
protect fruits from spoilage, extend the shelf-life as well as
help in eco-friendly removal of the wastes or by-products of
the food industry due to bioconversion into value-added filmforming components. Edible films not only improve the product
stability, but are useful in maintaining the product quality and
safety apart from creating a light weight packaging system having spectrum of transparent or nearly transparent packages for
increased consumer convenience.
The edible coatings could be single, bilayered, or multilayered, i.e., composite coatings formed by depositing one type
of material (like polysaccharide/protein) followed by deposition of another type (like lipid) and this imparts better protection from microbial spoilage, controls water loss/gain, and
gaseous exchange from the surface layers. Several studies have
reported the enhancement in the hydration efficiency of the minimally processed fresh-cut fruits like apple slices coated with
low methoxyl pectin coatings (Lenart and Dabrowska, 2001)
and strawberries coated with sodium alginate, carrageenan, or
guar gum solutions (Matuska et al., 2006).
New advancements have to be welcomed for improving
functionality and performance of the edible films to develop
new genre of edible films that can better maintain the quality,
shelf-life, and naturalness of the fresh and MP fruits (Vargas
et al., 2008). The principle benefit of the barrier films could
be improved by enhancing the coating properties by incorporating nanosized organic or inorganic materials, biological,
or synthetic matrices to fabricate nanocomposite films that
exhibit better barrier, mechanical, and functional properties
and thus lengthen/maintain the quality of the fresh produce
for longer periods desirable for storage and transportation time
lags. The novel edible films can be value-added by addition
of functional ingredients as encapsulated nutraceuticals like
vitamins, water-insoluble flavonoids, and other flavor/color
enhancing phytochemicals, antioxidants like anthocyanins,
carotenoids for avoiding discoloration of the cut surface
and antimicrobial agents like bacteriocins (natural), biogenic
nanoparticles of silver, titanium, or zinc (inorganic synthesized)
to curb the growth of spoilage causing microbes (Rojas-Grau
et al., 2009; Janjarasskul and Krochta, 2010; Oms-Oilu et al.,
2010). Edible coatings of the minimally processed fruits can
contain antibrowning agents (Lee et al., 2003, Perez-Gago
et al., 2006) and texture enhancers like CaCl2 (Le Tien et al.,
2001; Toivonen and Brummell, 2008). The bioactive packaging
of whole/MP fruits particularly involves the incorporation of
antimicrobials like the extracellularly secreted bacteriocins of
microbial origin in the packaging material which is much useful
to curb biofilm formation by spoilage causing/pathogenic
bacteria in case of the cut fruits.
Nanocomposites for Packaging
Nanocomposite materials include one-dimensional, twodimensional, three-dimensional, and amorphous materials made
of distinctly dissimilar components that are mixed at the
nanometer scale (Rhim et al., 2006; de Azeredo, 2009; Ma
et al., 2009). Compared to the conventional packaging materials,
nanocomposites have several additional benefits like enhanced
strength or elasticity, improved biodegradability and better control over gaseous molecules which are required for developing
better-performing packaging materials. Traditionally, nanocomposite material is composed of three different types of components viz., the matrix material, filler, and the filler interface
material with at least one of them in nanoscale order.
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MICROBIOLOGICAL AND NANOTECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
There are basically two types of polymers that could be
used as composite matrix material viz. the petrochemical-based
polymers (like polyamides, nylons, polyolefins, polystyrene,
ethylene-vinylacetate copolymer, epoxy resins, polyurethane,
polyimides, and polyethylene terephthalate) and the biopolymers (polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and their composites). The bionanocomposites consisting of natural polymers/
biopolymers, organic/inorganic filler (less than 5% by weight),
and interfacial materials exhibit elaborated benefits of biocompatibility and biodegradability which landmark their extensive applications in whole- and fresh-cut fruit packaging.
The biopolymers that could be used as matrices for designing
nanocomposites generally include polysaccharides like, cellulose and cellulose derivates, starch and starch derivatives, pectin,
chitosan, alginate, carrageenan, and different types of natural
gums viz. xanthan, guar and gum Arabic; organic acids like
poly lactic acid, polyhydroxy butyric acid; and proteins like
zein, gluten, soy protein, peanut protein, and cotton-seed protein (plant origin), casein and whey protein (animal origin),
and lipids particularly a variety of waxes and fatty acids (Rhim
et al., 2006; de Azeredo 2009). The particulate or the filler
component that is to be added to the matrix to enhance its
barrier properties, usually are nano-sized particles with high
aspect ratio and are as diverse in nature and characteristics
as the matrix material itself. These may be of different types
ranging from inorganic nanoparticles of clay such as montmorillonite or kalonite clay particles (Mangiacapra et al., 2006),
carbon nanotubes, nanoparticles of noble metals like silver-,
silver-zeolite, or gold-nanoparticles, nano zinc oxide (Ma et al.,
2009), nanoSiO2 to organic nanomaterials [nanocellulose fibers
(Sozer and Kokini, 2009), cellulose nanocrystals (Habibi and
Dufresne, 2008), starch (Ma et al., 2009), and chitin/chitosan
(Chang et al., 2010)]. The nanoclay incorporated bionanocomposites are now being popular due to better control over gaseous
exchange which is prerequisite for maintaining the quality of the
fresh produce (Observatory NANO, 2010). These nanocomposites could be synthesized by methods like exfoliation/adsorption
and in situ intercalative polymerization which enhance the tortourosity of the path gas molecules have to follow to reach
and react with the produce surface components (Gacitua et al.,
2005). A comprehensive overview of the various nanopackaging materials, i.e., edible films, nanocomposite, bionanocomposite, and biodegradable nanocomposite films has been provided by Miller and Senjen (2008). Among the above-discussed
biopolymer matrix materials, polylactic acid (PLA) (Tingaut
et al., 2010) has the highest potential for commercialization
followed by cellulose and polyhydroxy butyric acid because of
the ease of production/availability and scaling up for commercial production (Janjarasskul and Krochta, 2010). The fruit and
vegetable purees are the other major components that could be
used to fabricate durable and cost-effective bionanocomposites
(de Azeredo, 2009). There are many reports which suggest the
higher organoleptic and fruit safety qualities of the minimally
processed fruits by using the nanopacking materials over the
conventional packaging (Baldwin, 1994; McHugh and Senesi,
2000; Stevens, 2002; Avella et al., 2007; Sothornvit and Pitak,
167
2007; Sothornvit and Rodsamran, 2008; Li et al., 2009). Li et al.
(2009) reported better physicochemical and sensory qualities
of Chinese jujubi fruit packed using nanocomposites over the
conventional fruit packaging.
Fruit Juice/Beverage Pasteurization and Alternatives
The fruit juices and fruit-based beverages can be efficiently
pasteurized on a mass scale by the conventional thermal processes, though these methods plunder away the nutritional and
organoleptic characteristics of the final product. The thermal
methods are also required for the concentration and clarification of the fruit juices resulting in loss of certain nutrients, and
sensory characteristics of the juices for instance the aroma compounds (more than 6,000 compounds impart aroma in different
fruits; approximately 200 compounds responsible for the distinct refreshing aroma in juices of passion fruit and oranges) are
either destroyed or chemically modified during the temperaturedependent processing techniques (Pereira et al., 2005). However, the thermal treatments become mandatory for the fruits
rich in soluble solid content and low in acidity, the two factors
which make the fruit pulp vulnerable to microbial contamination
and growth (Cassano et al., 2007).
Pasteurization is not enough to eradicate all types of spoilage
causing microbes. Occurrence and growth of Propionibacterium
cyclohexanicum in a variety of pasteurized fruit juices of orange,
apple, grapefruit, pineapple, cranberry, and tomato at temperature ranging from 4 to 40◦ C has been reported by Walker and
Phillips (2009). The commercially pasteurized fruit juices of
orange, grapefruit, and apple most likely contain the extreme
heat-resistant, acid-tolerant, and endospore-forming spoilage
microbe Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris due to which it debars elimination by standard heat treatments (Silva and Gibbs,
2001). Thus, the pasteurization methods have to be conjugated
with the application of antimicrobials like essential oils to prevent the germination of A. acidoterrestris spores after pasteurization. However, the use of microwave ovens for pasteurization
of the fruit juices may better maintain the nutritional qualities of
juice in comparison to the traditional pasteurization techniques
(Cinquanta et al., 2010).
There are several alternative pasteurization technologies
available which not only extend the shelf-life but also enhance
the microbial safety of fresh juices while preserving organoleptic and nutritional qualities in terms of the presence of antioxidants. The major nonthermal preservation techniques include
the application of ultraviolet radiation, pulsed electric field
(PEF), and ultrasound treatments which can be used for decreasing the natural microbial load of a variety of fruit juices,
purees, and fruit-based beverages (Devlieghere et al., 2004; Tiwari et al., 2009). The principle of UV light action is well known
that involves the eradication of the microbes by causing formation of intrastrand thymine dimers in DNA (Gould, 1996; de
Cruiji, 1997; Yaar and Gilchrest, 2007). The PEF technique is
based on the principle of inactivation of microorganisms due
to alteration in the cell membrane structure that results in pore
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formation in the membrane leading to cell death by oozing out
of the cytosol through the pores (Zhang et al., 1995a). It involves
applying short PEF to fruit juices placed between two electrodes
at low temperature during processing which results in cell death
of common pathogenic microbes such as S. enteritidis, L. monocytogenes, and E. coli K 12 and E. coli O157:H7 in a variety of
fruit juices (Zhang et al., 1995b; Sentandreu et al., 2006; AguiloAguayo et al., 2009; Valappil et al., 2009; Oms-Oliu et al., 2009).
The freshness of the fruit juices also depends on the physical
properties like color or viscosity as well as the retention of aroma
flavor compounds which could be better maintained by highintensity PEF (HIPEF) over the thermal pasteurization protocols
(Aguilo-Aguayo et al., 2010a, 2010b). Valappil et al. (2009) observed that PEF better retained the nutrients and a range of
volatile aroma imparting compounds in apple cider as well as
maintained the acceptable microbiological status pertaining to
E. coli K 12 counts after four weeks of incubation with respect to
the thermal and UV treatments. The microbial inactivation is enhanced due to the additional impact by applying PEF technique
along with the antimicrobials like bacteriocins (nisin), essential
oils, and other compounds (Pol et al., 2000; Mosqueda-Melgar
et al., 2008a; 2008b). Moreover, the benefits of HIPEF treatment can be transcended over to fruit juice-blended beverages.
Morales-de la Pena et al. (2010) have reported HIPEF to be a better alternative method over conventional thermal pasteurization
for maintenance of antioxidant/nutritional quality parameters of
fruit juice-blended soymilk beverage. They also reported that
HIPEF technique ensures better microbiological stability. The
ultrasound treatment also results in cellular disruption so would
be a nice alternative technique for extending the shelf-life and
organoleptic properties of fruit juices, sauces, purees, and dairy
products (Corrales et al., 2008; Vilkhu et al., 2008; Gomez et al.,
2009) but it is more useful when applied in conjunction with
thermal or pressure treatments (Raso et al., 1998).
The advanced techniques including the nanotechnological
tools and methods would be more valuable for the beverage industry particularly for fruit juices or the fruit-based beverages as
these products require reduction in the amount (concentration)
or level of dissolved contaminants as well as fine filtration of the
particles (clarification). Common fruit juice concentration techniques include the thermal treatments, reverse osmosis, membrane distillation, and osmotic distillation (Vaillant et al., 2001;
Matta et al., 2004; Vaillant et al., 2005; Cassano et al., 2007;
Jesus et al., 2007; Gurak et al., 2010). These techniques suffer
from one or other limitations which could be circumvented by
applying advanced techniques of ultra- and nanofilteration in
conjugation with the prior techniques for preconcentrating the
juice contents. Cassano et al. (2003) have reported that ultrafiltration of citrus and carrot juices better retained the color and
aroma in comparison to the thermal concentration technique as
well as maintained the total antioxidant activity with respect to
the fresh juice. Thus, the application of integrated membrane
process would yield fruit juice concentrates of high nutritional
value and quality in reduced time and that too at room temperature. A similar application of crossflow microfilteration with
osmotic evaporation has been reported to obtain better quality
juice from discarded melon fruits which would be a useful technique to overcome the product losses due to fresh quality issues
(Vaillant et al., 2005).
Nanofilteration is an innovative technique for concentration
of different types of juices like grapes (Ferrarini et al., 2001),
apple, and pear juices (Warczok et al., 2004; Carrin et al., 2007)
as well as for recovery of aromas from fruit juices (Decloux and
Prothon, 1998) and decolorization of the dark compounds from
long-term-stored fruit juices (Carrin et al., 2007). It is defined
as novel membrane cross-flow filtration technique involving use
of nanofilters (nominal pore size 1 nm) using active principle
ranging between ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis. The advantages of nanofilteration over the above techniques are based on
integrated membrane application for fruit concentration such
as reduction and simplification of the clarification process, better efficiency, speed, and economy of separation of fine particles having molecular weight ranging from 20 to 180 weight
units. The separation efficiency of nanofilteration depends on
the sieving properties of the membrane through which the juice
has to be pressure driven, and on the charge or Donnan effect.
The pressure required for nanofilteration though the pressure is
lower than what is required for reverse osmosis (Warczok et al.,
2004).
NANOTECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS
Nanotechnology has led to the development of certain products which could be termed as “Nanofoods” owing to their
production lineage or processing or packaging involving components used/delivered at the nanoscale. The advancements in
nanofood sector have landed onto the development of interactive, designer, customized, and intelligent foods that could
be lauded for their ability to proficiently ameliorate sensorial, health, and economical benefits on consumption (Kim and
Kwak, 2004; Bowman et al., 2010). The advent of nanotechnology in food sector has most likely surged to multibillion dollar
global industry having the United States, Japan, and China as the
key producers as well as consumers of the nanofood products
(Joseph and Morrison, 2006). Apart from development of the
nanofoods, nanoscientific tools and techniques have been instrumental in fabricating novel sensing/tracking devices that offer
rapid, easy, cost-effective, and sequential/whole-time tracking
of the spoilage conditions in packaged lots without sampling of
the cartons. These innovations can also be applied to fruit value
addition, preservation, and packaging.
Addition of Nanoceuticals
A phytochemical or nutraceutical, is a product isolated or purified from foods having demonstrable physiological benefit or
may provide protection against chronic diseases, are generally
consumed as medicine and are not usually associated with foods
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MICROBIOLOGICAL AND NANOTECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
(Brower, 1998; Kalra, 2003). Nanoceuticals are the nutraceuticals or dietary supplements like vitamins, minerals, polyphenols
like flavonoids, which, if adsorbed onto nanocarriers or reduced
in size to nano level exhibit larger surface area that not only
enhances their disponibility in the medium but also enhances
the absorption of the product theoretically due to greater traverse indexes for travel across the membranes and other barrier
systems in the body. The nanoceutical product brands are at an
alarming arouse due to little government control over analysis
of efficacy and consumer health safety of old routinely used
supplements from the new genre of nanosized products (Huang
et al., 2009). Though a relatively new arena for the food nanotechnology, there are an estimated 44 nanoceuticals in market
as dietary supplements (Erickson, 2009).
Several hydrophobic beneficial plant chemicals are poorly
absorbed by body on consumption. On changing the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of such plant chemicals
through nanotexturization or nanoencapsulation can enhance
their bioavailability and absorption. A study by Yen et al. (2009)
has revealed the enhanced performance of a water insoluble
phytochemical by adsorption onto nanoparticles. Naringenin
(4′ ,5,7-trihydroxyflavanone), a natural flavonoid aglycone of
naringin, is widely distributed in several fruits like cherries,
citrus fruits, and grapefruit. It possesses excellent free radical
scavenging ability and pharmacological activities which are responsible for anti-tumor (Gates et al., 2007), anti-inflammatory,
and hepatoprotective properties (Yen et al., 2009). Gao et al.
(2006) have reported the stimulation of the DNA repair system
in prostate cancerous cells by the citrus flavonoid naringenin.
Isolation of naringenin followed by its adsorption on polymer
nanoparticles or nanoencapsulation (involves enclosing an active ingredient in a nanoscale capsule, Shelke, 2005) enhanced
the disponibility of this water insoluble compound on oral administration and effectively improved the release of naringenin.
This resulted in better hepatoprotection mediated by antiapoptotic and antioxidant properties of naringenin (Yen et al., 2009).
The immunomodulatory effects of consumption of fruits and
the fruit-extracted flavonoids have also been documented as for
example lime juice extract on activated human mononuclear
cells (Gharagozloo and Ghaderi, 2001). Similarly, Catoni et al.
(2008) have also documented the positive effect of flavonoids
on humoral immune response in frugivorous birds. Moreover,
they have also showed the active selection of the fruit containing
high amounts of flavonoids by blackcap frugivorous birds over
other fruits which enhance their immune response w.r.t control
birds after an immune challenge.
Nanoceuticals are expected to revolutionize the availability
of product brands and types in the food pharmaceuticals or
nutraceuticals and the cosmetics (anti-aging or sun screen manufacturing) industries because of their health benefits, product
improvement or value addition, and easy detectability (Erickson,
2009). The major benefits of nanoceuticals include enhanced nutrient absorption, elevated brain-related functions, and general
improvement in the health-promotive physiology and sensorial
benefit like better product textural values (enhanced color, flavor,
taste, consistency due to reduced use of preservatives) (Srinivas
169
et al., 2010). The product benefits include the development of
designer food, i.e., customized design of the food supplement
for targeted nutrition keeping in mind the age or health needs of
the individual, development of interactive food that can release
the active compounds on solvent activation or signaling due
to changes in pH, temperature, irradiation, or osmotic shock,
development of functional foods etc. (Huang et al., 2010).
Nanoceuticals have been supplemented in the fruit juices
and fruit-based beverages or fortified nutritional drinks. Addition of micro/nanoencapsulated probiotic bacteria in fruit juices
(Sekhon, 2010) or nanoencapsulated nutraceuticals like phytochemicals, flavonoids, Co-enzyme Q10 (Huang et al., 2009)
or supplementation of fruit juices with nanoiron or nanozinc
(Miller and Senjen, 2008), would help in enhancing the health
and sensorial benefits of the product which could extend toward
creation of customized fruit drinks due to controlled release and
better dispersion and absorption of water-insoluble food ingredients and additives (Huang et al., 2010). A major breakthrough
would be increasing the bioavailability of essential micronutrients viz. iron and zinc by using the fruit juice or juice blends
with nanotextured iron/zinc (Miller and Senjen, 2008).
Smart/Active/Intelligent Packaging
The new era packaging modules are intriguingly complex
networks involving better usage of computer-assisted control systems for identification, sorting, response, and tracking/tracing of various abiotic and biotic factors responsible for
spoilage. There are two basic types of packaging systems viz.
the smart or intelligent and the active packaging both of which
are required for wholesome information on the status of the food
regarding the nutritional as well as safety parameters (Appendini and Hotchkiss, 2002). Srinivas et al. (2010) have provided
well-annotated recent information on various aspects related to
food nanotechnology including the active and intelligent packaging. The “active packaging systems” involve the use of special packaging material that contains performance-enhancing
subsidiary constituents within or on surface/headspace of the
package system particularly equipping it to provide protection
(like protection against oxygen, ethylene, and moisture) by controlling various biochemical/physiological reactions occurring
inside the package or even reacting with the packed product
(maintenance of food quality) and may even improve the quality of the product since its packaging (Robertson, 2006). Thus,
the active packaging system alters in response to the triggering
event like changed gas concentration due to respiration by the
fruit/fruit surface. In general, during storage periods, the active
packaging technique may involve active monitoring of the concentration of various volatile compounds and gases inside/in
headspace of the package by altering the package permeation
properties to maintain the freshness, firmness, and color quality
parameters of fruits in particular. Though it may also improve the
quality of the packed produce during storage by active translocation of food additives like antioxidant polyphenols (flavonoids),
flavor enhancing straight chain and aromatic aroma compounds
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(hexanal, hexyl acetate), and biocides (like bacteriocins of microbial origin, zinc/silver/magnesium oxide nanoparticles) in
miniscule amounts from packaging material to packed product
(Cooksey, 2010). The active packaging material primarily include a variety of polymers, natural or synthetic in origin that
contain a large diversity of particles, fibers, and other structures/compounds embedded or incorporated in the packaging
material to yield a functional composite. Siro and Plackett
(2010) have reported the use of microfibrillated cellulose for
developing novel nanocomposite materials. The nanocomposites discussed in the earlier section have enormous applications for generation of active packaging materials. The active packaging system consists of gas scavengers or gas absorbers (moisture/humidity, ethylene, carbon-dioxide, oxygen,
and off-flavor/odor) and emitters (ethanol, suphur dioxide, humidity, carbon-dioxide, organic acid, flavor, antioxidant, pesticide) among which moisture/humidity and ethylene scavengers
and carbon-dioxide, organic acid, flavor, antioxidant, and biocide emitters could be used for fruit active packaging.
The antimicrobial active packaging is getting popular for
the fresh-cut and minimally processed fruit packaging and involves the use of both volatile as well as nonvolatile antimicrobials of microbial/plant origins. These antimicrobials could
be either adsorbed or coated on the inner surface of the matrix
polymer material, chemically immobilized to polymer, incorporated directly into polymer or added to package as sachet or
pads (Appendini and Hotchkiss, 2002). An et al. (2008) have
demonstrated extension of the shelf-life of asparagus coated
with silver nanoparticles-PVP coatings on common cold storage temperatures of 2 and 10◦ C. Similarly, a study by Jin et al.
(2009) explores the benefits of incorporation of the zinc oxide
nanoparticles suspended in polyvinylprolidone gel for killing of
L. monocytogenes, S. enteritidis, and E. coli O157:H7. Apart
from application of nanoparticles, the bioactive food packaging
relies on application of antimicrobial compounds of microbial
or plant origin for curbing the growth of microbes in packaged food. Bacteriocins, the antimicrobials of microbial origin
(discussed in section on novel fruit preservation and processing
techniques) could be incorporated in the packaging material particularly in case of the cut fruits as these would curb the growth
of pathogenic bacteria (Janjarasskul and Krochta, 2010). Other
compounds like organic acids and antibrowning agents could
be incorporated in the packaging materials to enhance the spectrum for maintenance of organoleptic properties of the packed
product. Eswaranandam et al. (2006) incorporated malic and
lactic acid into soy protein coatings to extend the shelf-life of
fresh-cut cantaloupe melon.
Intelligent packaging systems includes labels/portable equipments/quality markers incorporated into, or printed onto a food
packaging material that identify, monitor, and trace various aspects of food, report the conditions inside/outside of the package regarding the quality, tampering, time-temperature abuse
throughout the supply chain and help consumer in decision making (Yam, 2000, De Jong et al., 2005, Han et al., 2005). These
systems primarily include the time-temperature (can trace back
information about the time of temperature abuse), gas (indicate
alteration in gaseous components particularly oxygen and carbondioxide gases colorimetrically by a chemical or enzymatic
reaction), light (optically variable films containing photosensitive inks), physical shock, microwave doneness (consist of
thermochromic inks which change color on heating and can
detect readiness of foods on microwave heating), leakage and
microbial spoilage/pathogen indicators (include the bio- and
nanosensors for pathogen detection which are discussed in the
following section) as well as the tracking/tracing instruments
like radio frequency identity (RFID) tags (small antenna connected microchips for providing tracking and identification information, could be integrated with the time-temperature indicator or microbial biosensor to record and store data) (Yam et al.,
2005; Gander, 2007). Thus intelligent packaging not only offers to identify, monitor, and trace the history regarding various
factors/parameters for ensured better quality of the packaged
product but also ensure efficient information flow by offering
innovative communicative functions (Dainelli et al., 2008).
Nanosensors and Nanoprobes for Pathogen Detection
Nanotechnology is at the forefront in the field of biosensor fabrication. Because of their size, nanosensors, nanoprobes,
and other nanosystems are revolutionizing the fields of chemical and biological analysis (Viswanathan and Radecki, 2008).
The sensors are the devices which receive or respond to a signal
or a stimulus. A biosensor is a special sensor device that integrates a biological/biochemical element with a physicochemical transducer to produce an electronic signal proportional to a
single analyte which is conveyed to a detector. Thus, biosensor typically consists of three basic components viz, bioreceptor (could be a microorganism, tissue, cell, organelle, cellular
macromolecules like nucleic acid, i.e., DNA or RNA, enzyme,
enzyme component, receptor, antibody, etc.), transducer (acts as
an interface, measuring the physical change that occurs with the
reaction at the bioreceptor which is transformed into measurable electrical output and includes electrode, thermistor, photon
counter, piezoelectric device, etc.), and the detector (a microprocessor that amplifies and analyzes the signals sent by transducer
and transfer data to data displayer or storage unit and include
piezoelectric, electrochemical, optical, and calorimetric detectors; Voh-Dinh et al., 2006). A variety of biosensors could be
developed by combining different types of basic three components. However, biosensors could be classified in to five basic
types on the basis of the type of detector as calorimetric, potentiometric, amperometric, optical, and acoustic wave biosensors.
In food analysis, biosensors in preservation and processing industries have elaborate applications as reviewed by a number of
researchers (Milardovi et al., 2000; Prodromidis and Karayannis, 2002; Amine et al., 2006; Valadez et al., 2009; Viswanathan
et al., 2009).
Nanosensors are nothing but modified biosensors at
nanoscale, i.e., contain one or two components, i.e. receptor,
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MICROBIOLOGICAL AND NANOTECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
171
Figure 3 Types of nanosensors being used/evaluated for assessing the presence of different molecules or cells in fruit samples (Adapted from Akyildiz and
Jornet, 2010).
transducer, or detector. These are novel sensing devices that
are equipped with rapid, portable, highly sensitive and specific,
robust, largely automated, high throughput, user-friendly, less
power hungry, and less labour-intensive equipments that can respond to record environmental changes (temperature, humidity,
and oxygen exposure) and detect microbial contamination or
their toxic active products/degradation products or other contaminants (heavy metals, pesticide residues, and radionucleids)
in samples be it food, water, or soil (Bouwmeester et al., 2009;
Kalia and Gosal, 2011).
The general components of a typical nanosensor are at least
one nanoscale receptor or blocker which may be free in aqueous
environment or may be adsorbed onto a matrix material such as
fluorescent quantum dots or other metal/nonmetal nanoparticles,
specific doping with whole/partly/conjugate molecule which actually targets out the specific component on/secreted out by the
microbe such as specific antibody(ies) to receptor molecule(s)
on cell surface, an amplifier and converter that amplifies the signals (be it force measured in nano- to micronewtons, hydrogen
ion concentration, and millirange current/volts), and converts
them for display in concentration (for deducing toxin or other
metabolite level) or number (for microbial count). There are a
variety of nanosensors but in general there exists three categories depending on the type of measurement performed by the
nanosensor (Fig. 3).
Another novelty of nanosensors lies in their potential to be
placed in situ in the sample particularly the food items like fresh
cut minimally processed fruits or fruit juices, sea foods, grains
which helps these sensors to sense even minute amount of the
spoiling gases and toxins (Falasconi et al., 2005; Cusano et al.,
2008; Gurlo, 2011) or minimum number of pathogens (Strohsahl
et al., 2009) well ahead of the appearance of visual early signs
of spoilage due to great portability, high sensitivity, and rapid
analysis features. Integrating the electronic tongue nanosensors
in conventional packaging materials like polyethene would be
user friendly as the nanosensor would not only detect substances
present in very low concentrations (may be in parts per trillion)
but also would trigger color changes in food packages to alert
the consumer that food has been spoiled. However, the electronic noses have largely been utilized for wine discrimination
in the fermentation wine/beverage industry. An excellent review
on the use of nanomaterials for generation of novel chemo- and
bio-sensors by Liu (2008) refers to the application of a variety of
semiconducting metal-oxide-based nanowires or nanotubes for
developing gas/humidity immunosensors with special overview
on development of electrochemical sensors using titanium nanotubes.
A wide variety of microbes particularly the bacteria and
viruses could be detected in aqueous solutions by using fluorescent quantum dots labeled with pathogen-specific fragmented antibodies coupled with a quencher–surrogate molecule
(Kumar et al., 2008). The design of this system allows sensing of even very low numbers of the targeted pathogen or the
active chemical produced by the pathogen and employs fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET) reactions between
fluorescent nanoparticles and organic quencher molecules that
could detect common fruit contaminating pathogens like E coli
0571H7. Quencher–surrogate complex inhibits the fluorescence
in the absence of target bacteria in the environment, however,
in the presence of the target pathogen equilibrium reactions will
cause the displacement of the quencher-labeled target which
will let the quantum dots to freely fluorescence and emit energy
at their characteristic wave lengths. Though the original model
system has been used for the detection of biological threat contaminants or pathogens in buildings (Kumar et al., 2008), the
system would also be useful for the detection of pathogen loads
(both qualitatively and quantitatively) in the aqueous fruit juices
and other fruit-based beverages.
To increase the sensitivity and lower the range of the
target pathogen detection, nanomaterials like quantum dots/
nanoparticles could be conjugated with nanowires/nanorods/
nanoshells to fabricate novel nanosensors. Bosoon et al.
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A. KALIA AND V. R. PARSHAD
(2007) have reported the fabrication of a novel bio-functional
nanosensor using hetero-nanorods, i.e., gold-sputtered silica
nanorods containing special fluorescent dye conjugated with
anti-Salmonella antibody for detection of Salmonella. The high
aspect ratio of the Si nanorods would allow production of an
enhanced fluorescence signal by large number of fluorescent
dye molecules attached to the Si nanorods on specific attachment with the Salmonella bacteria in the sample detectable with
fluorescent microscopic imaging. Similarly, this nanosensor
could be used to detect other foodborne pathogenic bacteria
like E. coli, L. monocytogenes, Vibrio chloerae, Shigella sp. and
certain viral particles like Hepatitis A and C virus, in fruits or
fruit-based product(s) for safety and security applications.
Another novel easy-to-use nanotool has been fabricated from
Nickel nanowires for fast, reliable, and decentralized sensing of
carbohydrates in form of a disposable electrochemical detectors on carbon-screen-printed electrodes (CSPEs) having dimensions of about 330 nm diameter and 6 µm length (Garcia
and Escarpa, 2011b). A similar report of use of electrocatalytic
properties of nickel and nickel-copper nanowires for highly sensitive and class selective determination of monosaccharide index in honey has been reported by Garcia and Escarpa (2011a).
Nanosensors could also be designed from nanoshells imprinted
with dipicolinc acid (DPA) that have been used to detect Bacillus
subtilis spores in samples particularly to identify Bacillus contamination in preserved fruit juices or fermented fruit beverages
(Gultekin et al., 2010). The use of nanomaterials in biosensors
allows the application of many new signal transduction technologies in their manufacture.
Apart from the use of quantum dots, nanoparticles,
nanowires, nanorods, or nanoshells, another innovative type of
nanobiosensors includes nanocantilevers, i.e., nanoscale probes
fabricated from monocrystalline silicon or silicon nitride or
platinum/iridium and many more types of metal crystals (Illic et al., 2001; Gupta et al., 2004a, 2004b; Gfeller et al., 2005).
These cantilevers possess specific spring or force constants
by virtue of their weight and length parameters and exhibit
specific free amplitude vibrations. On adsorbption or sticking of a molecule or cell, the weight of cantilever increases
and this alters its vibrational frequency. This is the basic principle behind the use of nanocantilevers for pathogen detection as the cantilever will vibrate at various frequencies depending on the biomass of the pathogenic organisms (Gfeller
et al., 2005). BioFinger is a nanocantilever-based nanosensor that can detect pathogens in food and water by sensing
the ligand–receptor interactions (Sozer and Kokini, 2009). The
same vibrational phenomena is the basis for obtaining information about different types of interaction forces between a
variety of molecules including the cellular macromolecules
viz. DNA, RNA, proteins, carbohydrates, etc. and help in detecting the biological-binding interactions through physical
and/or electromechanical signaling (Hall, 2002). The common types of these interactions are antigen-antibody, receptorligand, substrate-enzyme complexes, enzyme-cofactor, DNAprotein/enzyme, RNA-protein/enzyme, etc. These ultrasensitive
devices have a great ability to unravel the interaction forces
among molecules which could be implemented to detect or
identify microbially synthesized and released toxins as well as
traces of antibiotic present in processed fruit products.
An advanced generation of sensors and probes include the
microelectromechanical systems (MEMS/BioMEMS), nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), and Lab-on-a-chip devices. These devices are based on microfluidics and micro/nanofabrication techniques and contain moving parts ranging from nano- to millimeter scale. These are considered to be
sensitive, more specific, low cost, energy-efficient, robust, and
fast not only for real-time analysis and display but also for possessing ability to monitor various factors of the storage environment for maintaining better product quality and shelf-life as well
as can communicate through various frequency levels allowing
for highly integrated sensor applications which are important
for locating and monitoring contamination or spoilage due to
altered packaging and storage conditions. Though the research
and reports in nonmedical applications for the rapid and accurate identification and quantification of microbial pathogens and
their toxins/deterrents are now increasing, however, the medical
applications of all types of bio-/nanosensors and other nanotechnological devices are enormous (Kaittanis et al., 2010).
Commercialization: The Present Scenario
Nanotechnology is a big revolution in science and technology holding enormous societal and economic implications. Nanotechnology has permeated to every discipline of food and agriculture with the development of nanofoods and nanopackaging
systems that are speculated to exhibit large impact on the health
and purchase behaviors of consumers (Bugusu 2009). Several
individuals as well as company survey reports have provided
the estimates on market application of nanotechnological products (approximately 150–600 nanofoods, 400–500 nanofood
packaging applications) that are presently catering the needs
of the consumers (Daniells, 2007; Reynolds, 2007) (Table 2).
An estimated cost of US$6 billion will be obtained by sales of
nanofoods worldwide with soaring interest of world’s largest
food processing, packaging, marketing, and supply companies
over globe in nanotechnological advancements for foods. In
terms of investments in R&D, manufacture and figures of sales
and purchase of nano-based products, the United States leads
followed by Japan and China and then the whole Europe (Joseph
and Morrison, 2006).
Safety Issues and Public Response/Concerns
The markets of industrialized developed nations are on
surge with arrival of nanotechnology food products including
nanofoods and nanopackaged/processed foods owing to growing concerns about the benefits, risks, and socioeconomic costs
of diet-related diseases (Hailu et al., 2009). Though the health
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MICROBIOLOGICAL AND NANOTECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Table 2
Commercialized nanotechnology products used for preservation and packaging of food particularly fruits/fruit-based products
Company/Supplier
Packaging
Bayer
Song Sing nanotechnology
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Nanobiosensors absorbers/indicators
Kraft
Product name
R KU 2–2601
Durethan
plastic wrapping
Nano ZnO plastic wrap
Product description
Nanoparticles of silica in a
Nanoparticles of silica in the plastic prevent the
polymer-based nanocomposite
penetration of oxygen and gas of the wrapping,
extending the product’s shelf-life
http://www.ssnano.net/ehtml/detail1.php?productid
Nanoparticles of zinc oxide
= 79
antibacterial, UV-protected
food wrap.
Nano-sensor based
‘electronic tongue’
Able to “taste” chemicals to the
level of parts per trillion and
then guide chemical release
CSP Technologies
Multiple absorbers and
indicators
Life Lines Technology
FreshCheck
Polymer capable of releasing
ingredients into the food or
beverage in response to
external stimuli
Polymer able to identify and
monitor temperature changes
w.r.t time
Nanofruit drinks
High Vive.com
Jamba juice Hawaii
Beverage fortified fruit
juice
Beverage “Daily Vitamin
Boost” fortified fruit
juice
Action/reference
300 nm iron (Sun Active Fe)
Control the release of smell, taste and
nutraceuticals into food products in response to
the preferences of individual consumers (de
Wolfe, 2009).
Control over humidity, oxygen, bacteria, odor, and
even the flavor of the food itself (LeGood and
Clarke, 2006)
Time–temperature indicator for perishables
(LeGood and Clarke, 2006)
http://www.highvive.com/sunactiveiron.htm
300 nm iron (Sun Active Fe) 22 http://jambajuicehawaii.com/vita-boost.asp
essential vitamins and minerals
Adapted from Miller and Senjen (2008)
conscious consumers incline toward functional or nutritionally
improved foods, yet there is a bit of reluctance to accept experimental food items nanopackaged or nanoprocessed fruits in
particular. Similar to the transgenic food products, the nanoproducts have the concerns for grey goo that clouds the popularization and harnessing commercial benefits of the fruits of novel
technological tools and products (Lopez-Gomez et al., 2009).
This cannot be denied that by including nanomaterials for development of novel packaging and preservation products for
food particularly whole or minimally processed fruits, a higher
environmental and health risks are involved due to release of
the nanoparticles having new chemical and physical properties
and substantial variation from normal macro particles of the
same composition and thus a risk of interaction with the living
systems to result in unexpected toxicity (Das et al., 2009).
There exist a number of factors that alter or affect the consumers’ buying behavior and aptitude toward novel products.
A study done by Fischer and Frewer (2009) suggest that the
consumer perception about particular food stuff not only affects the buying behavior but also the health and other physiological benefits imparted by the food item. The consumers
have an alarming concern regarding the safety issues for the
novel manufactured packaging products and preservation techniques and also give enormous weightage to the verification
of the health claims and health risks of exposure to new food
products through governmental agencies (Hailu et al., 2009).
However, the government or nongovernment agencies should
devote wholly/operationally to deal with the safety issues, rules
for adulteration or over health benefit claims are required to
be properly developed, popularized, and implemented. Novel
synthesized nanomaterials or other nanoproducts must be subject to rigorous nanospecific health and environmental impact
assessment and should be demonstrated safe prior to approval
for commercial use in fruits, fruit-packaging, or fruit contact
materials by the competent agencies. There is increased public
awareness and demand for complete accessibility of methodologies and relevant data related to safety assessments, i.e., in
the public domain. All manufactured nano ingredients must be
clearly indicated on product labels to allow members of the
public to make an informed choice about product use. Thus a
flexible legislative framework and appropriate testing methods
are required for supporting this highly innovative field (Dainelli
et al., 2008). Joseph and Morrison (2006) have provided information in tabular format regarding the regulations applicable to
use of nanotechnology in food sector in the European Union.
Moreover, there is an ardent need for a more fundamental understanding to enable design and large-scale manufacturing of
the nanoproducts with desired specifications, i.e., scaling-up of
the research concepts to commercial applications (Janjarasskul
and Krochta, 2010). The results of a research report by Siegrist
et al. (2008) suggest that the consumers assume nanotechnology
food packaging to be safer over consuming nanofoods which
empathies the involvement of public concern for development
of a nanofood/nanofruit product. The product naturalness particularly significant for whole and MP-fruits and trust regarding
the safety are significant factors that highly influence the perceived risk and the perceived benefit of nanotechnology in food
processing and packaging for any consumer. Since the consumer
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A. KALIA AND V. R. PARSHAD
acceptance is prerequisite for development of successful food
products, the consumers’ attitude toward the novel foods should
be taken in account at an early stage of product development
(Siegrist, 2008).
Food safety is a global health goal for which a variety of analytical and maintenance tools or devices like biosensors (Amine
et al., 2006; Frometa 2006, Velusamy et al., 2010), nanosensors
(Cui et al., 2001; Baeummer, 2004), BioMEMS (Gfeller et al.,
2005), NEMS (Chaudhary and Gupta, 2009), and many more
lab-on-a-chip devices are now being developed which can combine a biological/biochemical/physical element with a physical
signal that can be translated into an indication of the safety or
quality of the fruit/fruit-based products (Table 3). These novel
food safety indicators like nanosensors or nanoprobes are integral components of the smart packaging systems and are liable
to legal and safety challenges due to deliberate interactions with
the food. The downstream users, i.e., consumers have to be
informed and made aware of regarding interpretation of the information provided by the smart packaging devices, information
about the intentional or accidental ingestion of these products,
and the efficacy of the packaging material (Dainelli et al., 2008).
FRUIT SAFETY AND HACCP
There are several food safety related issues and problems
as microbes; be it beneficial, contaminating or spoilage; are
the integral part of the elaborate fruit ecology. The fruit safety
problems have became explicit owing to dramatic changes in
the inclination of the end consumers for fresh or minimally
processed fruits/products as well as globalization of food markets and demand for proactive measures to reduce incidences
of food-borne illnesses. This has invoked an alarming demand
for definite standards to ascertain the microbiological quality
of the product fit for consumption. The microbiological fitness
of the ready-to-eat fresh/minimally processed fruits, processed
and preserved fruit/fruit products should not be considered as
an end point revealer rather a proactive approach using preventive measures for alleviation or decrease in the viable cell
counts of spoilage or contaminating pathogenic microbes should
be aimed to minimize the nutritive, health, and financial losses.
The HACCP is one such proactive systematic protocol involving
identification of certain Critical Control Points (CCP) which can
be easily modulated to reduce or eliminate the risks of physical,
chemical, or biological hazards followed by stringent implementation of few practices to at least minimize or fully avoid
contamination of pathogenic microbes. As identification of specific hazards throughout the entire processing chain is involved,
HACCP aims on preventative measures for hazard control to
assure the quality and safety of the food. This includes analysis
of raw material sources and usage, processing equipment, operating practices, packaging and storage, together with marketing
and conditions for intended use.
Usually, the general Good Agricultural and Hygienic Practices (GAP/GHP) have to be followed for production of safe
foods. However, if there is contamination by food pathogenic
or spoilage causing microflora then certain signature features
or products have to be identified for ascertaining or overruling
the presence or absence of specific etiological agent. Fruits being vulnerable to spoilage or contamination by pathogens can
act as foremost vehicles for food borne illnesses particularly
the gastrointestinal illnesses of bacterial etiology followed by
protozoal parasite caused outbreaks unless the proactive strategies are employed stringently. Apart from HACCP, certain new
protocols for the identification of CCP have been formulated,
applied, and comparatively assessed w.r.t HACCP (Ropkins and
Beck, 2000).
HACCP systems are extremely important as a part of the
changing quality requirements in international trade. HACCP
standards have been developed in many countries which vary
widely with different levels of auditing and hence the HACCP
certification. Here are few HACCP systems used in different
countries; Food hygiene-HACCP system IS 15000:1998 (India), Singapore Standard 444 (Singapore), SABS 0330 (South
Africa), Food Safety Version September 2002 (Netherlands),
National Standard of Ukraine 4161–2003 (Ukraine), Turkish
Standard TS 13001-March 2003 (Turkey), National Standard
Agency SNI:01–4852–1998 (Indonesia), etc.. The Ministry of
Food Processing Industries, Goverenment of India, provides
grants covering up to 50% of the cost toward the implementation of Total Quality Management (TQM) including HACCP
certification (Gupta, 2005).
Inspite of a plethora of variations in standards, globally four
standards nmely BRC, Dutch HACCP code, SQF 2000 code, and
International Standard for Auditing Food Suppliers (IFS) have
been benchmarked. Tapia et al. (2009) have reviewed the implementation of HACCP strategies for production of safe freshcut fruits and vegetables in particular. Apart from the benchmarked standards, the variations in auditing and standards of
various HACCP systems have been harmonized to develop ISO
22000. Varzakas and Arvanitoyannis (2007) have compared the
HACCP protocols with the new Food Safety Management System termed ISO22000. The ISO22000 is more flexible due to introduction of less number of CCP in comparison to HACCP and
thus provides rapid prediction of microbial growth behaviors.
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
The fruits are natural commodities that are superlative in their
nutritional properties but require processing and preservation
for long-term availability. With the advent of novel protocols
in science and technology pertaining to cellular structure and
microbiology of fruits, it is now possible to enhance the shelflife of the fresh produce during storage and transportation for
long-term availability of fruits or their products. New trends to
enhance the understanding of the basic structures and mechanisms among integrated networks at the cellular and molecular
levels are being applied to descramble the information required
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MICROBIOLOGICAL AND NANOTECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Table 3
Microfluidics based analytical systems for identification of adulteration or authenticity of sample fruits/fruit products
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S. No
Target/analyte in sample
Sample pretreatment required and detection technique
A.
1
Capillary-electrophoresis microchip analysis
Toxic alkaloids in apple juice
2
Dyes in juice
3
Antioxidants, vitamins, and aroma in apples
4
Natural antioxidants in apples and pear skin and pulp
5
Total isoflavones and antioxidants in apples and pears
6
Nitrites in vegetables and fruits
B.
1.
Nucleic acid based microchip analysis (Genomic microchips)
Off-chip extraction of extract DNA from fruit juices
Identification of fruit (apple, blueberry, elderberry,
followed by PCR-RFLP amplicon analysis
grape, pear, and pomegranate) used to make fruit
pulps/purees
Juice filtration or solid–liquid extraction and filtration
Arbutin and ascorbic acid in pear pulps and
commercial juices
followed by off-chip electrochemical detection to
separate target antioxidant couples.
Detection of mandarin juices in orange juice
Off-chip extraction and filtration using Polymerase
Chain Reaction (PCR)
DNA microarray chip to rapidly detect by hybridization
Alicyclobacillus species viz., Alicyclobacillus
of genomic DNA with random probes
acidocaldarius, A. acidoterrestris, and
Alicyclobacillus cycloheptanicus in fruit juice
2.
3.
4.
C.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
D.
1.
2.
Off-chip filtration and dilution followed by detection
using UV-absorbance spectra
Off-chip extraction, filtration, and dilution followed by
electrochemical detection
Off-chip extraction, pulverization, macerated, dilution,
and filtration using ultrasensitive carbon nanotubes
Off-chip extraction, dilution, and filtration followed by
class-selective electrochemical index and individual
antioxidant determination approach
Off-chip extraction and filtration using MW-CNTs for
electrochemical detection by flow injection and
separation by electrokinetic-driven systems
Off-chip extraction, filtration, and dilution followed by
chemiluminiscence detection
Antibody based microchip analysis (Microfluidic immunosensor)
E. coli cells in apple juice without any
Capturing by polyclonal antibodies (anti-E. coli)
pre-enrichment
biosorbed onto nanospheres or nanorice through a
protein-A layer and detection by SERS (limit 103
cells/mL)
E. coli cells in fruit juice
Cellulosic membrane sample platform for adsorption
followed by detection using integrated circuit biochip
by sandwich immunoassay with Cy5-labeled
antibody probes
Atrazine in orange juice
Immobilization of affinity proteins (protein A and G) on
silicon microchip surfaces and detection by
chemiluminiscence
Phenoxyl-type N-methylcarbamate pesticides
Precolumn hydrolysis of pesticides and derivatization of
(carbaryl, carbofuran, and propoxur) in fruit juices
their hydrolytic metabolites with dansyl chloride
followed by detection using HPLC with
peroxyoxalate-chemiluminescence
Botrytis cinerea in apple tissues (@ 0.02 µg mL−1)
Screen-printed microfluidic modified with carbon
nanotube
Ochratoxin A (OTA) in Aspergillus ochraceus
Competitive indirect immunoassay method based on use
contaminated apples
of anti-OTA monoclonal antibodies immobilized on
3-aminopropyl-modified magnetic nanoparticles as
platform
Enzyme-based microchip analysis (Proteomic microchips)
Plant methylesterase and PME inhibitor in kiwi fruit
Develop insight on relation between enzymatic
SPR-based chip
pectin conversions and firmness and viscosity in
whole-kiwi fruit/ fruit juice
Atrazine in orange juice
On-chip microdialysis followed by detection of atrazine
immobilized on silicon by horseradish peroxidase
(HRP), catalyzing the chemiluminescent oxidation of
luminol/p-iodophenol
Reference
Newman et al., 2008
Lee et al., 2008
Crevillen et al., 2007
Kovachev et al., 2010
Crevillen et al., 2009
He et al., 2007
Clarke et al., 2008
Blasco et al., 2005
Scott and Knight, 2009
Jang et al., 2011
Naja et al., 2010
Stokes et al., 2001
Yakovleva et al., 2003
Orejuela and Silva, 2003
Baldo et al., 2009
Baldo et al., 2011
Jolie et al., 2010
Yakovleva et al., 2002
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176
A. KALIA AND V. R. PARSHAD
for fabricating innovative products of multifunctional properties
by reverse engineering.
With the advent of fully automatized packaging, detection,
and status analyzers, stringent regulations have been implemented to minimize losses by spoilage and transmission of
foodborne human pathogens that further relatively minimized
the pre and postharvest losses as well as fruit safety concerns.
The bioactive packaging is one among the customized packaging techniques that would help in shelf-life extension of minimally processed fruits by using either the biocontrol microbes
(bacteriophages, bacteria, yeast, or molds) (Gracia et al., 2008;
Guenther et al., 2009; Coffey et al., 2010; Heringa et al., 2010)
or antimicrobial compounds of microbial origin (bacteriocins)
or any other products (gold or silver nanoparticles) to curb the
growth of unwanted spoilage or opportunistic contaminating microbes. The Listeria bacteriophage ListexTM P100 has already
been commercialized to preserve fruit juices (EBI press release
2010). Food contact surfaces can also be effectively cleaned
by using phages against Listeria, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), S. enterica, E. coli, and Campylobacter
(Hagens and Offerhaus, 2008). Moreover, these bacteriophages
can also serve as rapid and sensitive tools for the detection of
pathogenic bacteria throughout the food chain owing to their
high specificity for the host (Garcia-Aljaro et al., 2009).
Recent half decade has observed the fabrication and application of more sensitive, highly accurate, less power hungry,
cost-effective, real-time/online, and portable alternatives, i.e.,
nanosensors or nanoprobes for rapid detection of microbial
pathogens in vivo (discussed in detail in nanosensor section).
Large-scale production, environmental and safety concerns, as
well as active commercialization of these sensors are still in
debate and have to be followed-up for the development of rapid
identification and safety protocols to be followed at the global
scale. Similar concerns are to be abolished for both production
as well as commercialization of innovative and intelligent packaging materials that are nonmigratory and safe for environment
and public release. Identification of the microbially synthesized
or secreted volatile compounds, signature peptides, glycoproteins, glycan, etc. using chromatographic and mass spectrometery techniques is another burgeoning arena in detection of
pathogenic or spoilage microbes. Bianchi et al. (2010) have
reported application of Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometery (GC-MS) of volatile compound profile for early detection
of A. acidoterrestris in spoiled juice. Another type of spectroscopic technique, the Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
(FT-IRS) could be used to correctly identify the pure as well as
mixed cultures of several spoilage causing Alicyclobacillus spp.
and human pathogenic E. coli microbes in fruit juice samples
on the basis of unique spectral features of various components
of the microbial cells (Al-Qadiri et al., 2006).
CONCLUSIONS
Every field in science and technology is being transformed by
the percolation of novel protocols, tools, and techniques of in-
novative fields of nanotechnology, and fruit-processing, preservation, and microbiology are not exceptions. Nanotechnological
innovations have equipped us with the manipulation and manufacturing prowess at nanoscales which have provided freedom
for development of tailor-made designer products with potentials like quickness, high-sensitivity, and spectrum of functional
properties that could be integrated for generation, maintenance,
and storage of information regarding various aspects of fruits.
Since the postharvest losses are still enormous, probably nanotechnological advancements will help us in lowering down
the loss, i.e., extension of the shelf-life necessary for long-term
storage and transportation periods. The losses may be attributed
to spoilage causing microbes and other environmental factors
by either manipulation of the abiotic and biotic factors or by
intelligent ardent sensing prior to appearance of visible signs
of spoilage in fresh/minimally processed/processed products.
Above all miniaturization, portability, accuracy, and sensitivity are the prime features of materials and tools developed by
nanoscience and nanotechnology which are definitely required
for in vivo placement and integration in complex networks to
obtain multiple functions and hence these areas of research have
been dealt in this overview.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to the Director, EMN Laboratory and
Dean, College of Agriculture, PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab, India, for
providing the necessary facilities to carryout research. Thanks
are due to Dr. R.P.Gupta, Dean (Academics), BIS Institute of
Science and Technology, Gagra, Moga, Punjab, India, for critical
reading and suggestions on the manuscript.
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Mustafa Odabasoglu
Pamukkale University
Sudip Shyam
University of Waterloo, Canada
James Bashkin
University of Missouri - St. Louis
Nassim Tahouni
University of Tehran
