Clin Sports Med 23 (2004) 215 – 225
Ethics and the athlete: why sports are more than
a game but less than a war
Steven D. Stovitz, MD*, David J. Satin, MD
Department of Family Practice and Community Health, University of Minnesota,
2615 E. Franklin Avenue, Minneapolis, MN 55406, USA
Are the ethics of athletes complex? Consider that an elite bicyclist might
inject himself with hormones to increase his exercise capacity, but if his opponent falls, then that same hormone-abusing athlete will likely stop until his opponent has regained control. Consider that we as a society have very little problem
with Mike Tyson trying to give Evander Holyfield a concussion during a boxing
match, but we find it horrifying that Tyson bit Holyfield’s ear. What are we to
make of these apparent contradictions?
Some feel that ‘‘sports ethics’’ is something of an oxymoron [1]. We disagree.
Through our formative years, sports provide a wonderful forum by which we can
and do develop moral character [2]. At the professional level, sports present a
forum to exercise moral fortitude under physical and emotional duress, while
placing an entire nation of spectators in the position of arbiters. What are the
ethical standards against which we measure the individual athlete’s moral conduct? How can one judge, prescribe, or proscribe an athlete’s behavior?
At first glance, it may seem simple. Some say that sports are merely games
and that players need only follow the rules. But as we will demonstrate, rule
following is neither necessary nor sufficient for moral conduct in sports. Others
analogize sports to war, stating that participants must do everything in their
power to win. This too will be exposed as an untenable philosophy of moral
conduct, as its limits are far too lenient. This article elucidates why, with respect
to an athlete’s conduct, sports must be considered more than a game, but less
than a war.
We will present six cases to further the reader’s understanding of ethics
and the athlete. The analysis of each case will reveal a critical concept in as-
Gender specific terms have been employed throughout this article for simplicity.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: stovi001@umn.edu (S.D. Stovitz).
0278-5919/04/$ – see front matter D 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.csm.2004.01.002
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sessing the moral status of athletic behavior. These concepts form a practical
template rather than a metatheoretical account of the morality of sports. The
following six concepts will emerge:
The behavior of athletes is meaningful. Spectators and participants have a
right, and perhaps a responsibility, to judge.
The ethos (unwritten rules) of the game is more relevant than the written
rules as a context for interpreting the moral quality of individual behaviors.
The difference between fouling and cheating is, in practice, a function of the
ethos of the game. In principle, this difference is determined by either the
spirit of the rules, a contract between competitors, or respect for the game.
Sports have both internal and external values. Judging the moral conduct of
athletes requires consideration of both.
Without exception, the ethics of ‘‘real life’’ trump ethical judgments within sports.
Sports may be viewed as institutions of moral education. Role models are
critical to this end, thus all involved have a duty to preserve the integrity
of their sport.
Case #1—Tonya Harding, Nancy Kerrigan, and the fallacy of moral
subjectivism: why we have a right, and perhaps a responsibility, to judge
How often do we hear the statement ‘‘it’s a war out there’’ in reference to a
football game. Or that ‘‘athletes try to win at all costs.’’ But, athletes typically do
not try to injure their opponents off the playing field. One obvious exception
is the infamous 1994 case in women’s figure skating in which Tonya Harding’s
friends and family purposely injured her chief rival, Nancy Kerrigan. If it were
as simple as ‘‘win at all costs,’’ wouldn’t incidents like this be more common?
Moral subjectivism is the belief that morality is simply a matter of taste
and that there is no objective truth regarding right and wrong [3]. If the subjectivist is correct, then who are we to judge? For the moral subjectivist, Tonya
Harding’s camp demonstrated a different set of values, neither better nor worse
than any other. But we all know that assaulting a competitor with a crowbar is
wrong. Our moral intuitions tell us so. Moral subjectivism fails not only on a
theoretical basis, herein not discussed [4,5], but more importantly, it fails on a
practical basis to capture the most fundamental grounding of morality—the moral
intuitions of humanity. Even those who claim that sports are analogous to wars
and that athletes should be free to win at all costs would concede that it is not
acceptable to physically injure one’s opposition off the playing field.
Not only do we have a right to make moral judgments, but as we will discuss
in case #6, those involved in sports have powerful incentives to enforce strict
standards. The good name of sports relies upon the moral conduct of their
participants. We must recognize that the health of athletes within their sport may
S.D. Stovitz, D.J. Satin / Clin Sports Med 23 (2004) 215–225
217
depend upon the priority we place on judging, prescribing, and proscribing
behaviors that bear moral qualities.
The behavior of athletes is meaningful. Morality is not simply a matter of taste.
Spectators and participants have a right, and perhaps a responsibility, to judge.
Case #2—Jan Ullrich, Lance Armstrong, and ‘‘the stop heard round the
world’’: why playing by the rules is not enough
Consider the sport of elite bicycling, a sport plagued by allegations of the
widespread use of illegal methods to boost hemoglobin and increase endurance
[6,7]. Yet it is this same sport in which Jan Ullrich was in a neck-and-neck race
with Lance Armstrong in the 2003 Tour de France, and when a spectator
accidentally hooked Armstrong’s handlebars causing him to fall, Ullrich stopped
and waited for Armstrong to get back up on his bicycle. Is there a written rule
that you must stop when an opponent falls? No. Had Ullrich continued he might
have gained ground and won the race. What would compel a professional athlete
to give up an advantage gained legally in a sport renowned for its athletes’ attempts to gain illegal advantages? The answer is the ethos of professional
cycling—its unwritten rules. First described by D’Agostino, ‘‘the ethos of the
game is that set of unofficial, implicit conventions which determine how the rules
of that game are to be applied in concrete circumstances’’ [8]. Level playing fields
depend upon the ethos of games, and the value of winning depends upon level
playing fields.
British Tour de France rider Sean Yates said of the Armstrong-Ullrich incident,
‘‘It is normal for this to happen. If everyone behaves in the same way it all evens
itself out in the end. And, it’s best for the sport’’ [6]. Sports at all levels depend
upon the general acceptance of unwritten rules. Additionally, the value of victory
relies upon defeating a worthy opponent. As legendary basketball coach John
Wooden stated, ‘‘What joy can be derived in sports from overcoming someone
who is not as capable as you are? But there is great joy and satisfaction in
competing against an opponent who forces you to dig deep and produce your best.
The worthy opponent brings out the very best in you’’ [9]. Although we cannot
say for certain, one would hope that Ullrich stopped in accordance with the ethos
of the game, as a means of maintaining a level playing field and allowing the best
man to win. Amidst all the money, blood doping, and advertising in professional
sports, the ideal remains a contest between fairly matched competitors, each
competing with maximal effort, with the winner gaining advantage by sheer will.
Although Yates’ statement about a level playing field was in reference to
Ullrich’s display of sportsmanship, a parallel argument can be applied to the
practice of blood doping. Despite the fact that hematocrits are checked before
races and illegal boosting substances have been banned, it is suspicious that the
vast majority of hematocrits have fluctuated over the years, consistently falling
just within the newest legal limit. A similar pattern has been observed in other
endurance sports [10]. In such sports, is raising one’s hematocrit to the legal limit
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through blood doping, although technically illegal, immoral? Some might argue
that to stay competitive, one’s hematocrit must approach the upper level of legal.
This requirement to ‘‘keep up with the Joneses’’ has been described by psychologists as a ‘‘prisoner’s dilemma’’ [11], whereby the only real option for an
individual within the game is to seek the illegal advantage, because each participant must assume that his opponents will do the same. The dilemma is that
each individual is in the same position, and therefore must act accordingly by
assuming that all others will attempt to gain the illegal advantage. Though such
an argument may not exculpate the athlete who blood dopes, perhaps at the very
least it offers mitigating circumstances for how wrong this act might be [12].
There are still others who believe that no rationalization can excuse blood doping
and that a moral high-road remains open to athletes engaging in such sports [13].
Notwithstanding, the link between these two seemingly contradictory behaviors—stopping for the fallen opponent and the use of banned substances—is that
both arguably fall within the ethos of the game; both arguably maintain a level
playing field. Although reference to the ethos of the game does not, in itself,
determine the morality of stopping for a fallen opponent or the immorality of
using illegal substances, it does provide a context to better judge the moral conduct of an individual athlete.
Adherence to the written rules is neither necessary nor sufficient for ethical
conduct in sports. The ethos of the game is more relevant than the written rules
as a context for interpreting the moral quality of individual behaviors.
Case #3—the special case of Shaquille O’Neal and the intentional foul: how
are we to judge the one who ‘‘hacks a Shaq’’?
As we have seen, not only does the ethos of the game reveal additional rules,
it rewrites some, and erases others. For example, it is common for professional
basketball players to commit the violation of ‘‘traveling,’’ yet have their violation
ignored by the referees. Furthermore, anyone who has recently seen a professional basketball game knows that in practice, basketball is hardly the noncontact
sport it is on paper. A special case of how the ethos of the game supercedes
the rules is the issue of intentional fouling. Intentional fouls occur when one
purposely breaks written rules and accepts the ramifications. All intentional fouls
are not equal, and those that follow the ethos of the game remain acceptable,
whereas those that do not are deemed unacceptable. Intentional fouling exposes
subtle issues within the concept of the ethos of sports.
Shaquille O’Neal (Shaq) is a dominant basketball player, but a very poor freethrow shooter. As a result, opponents have taken to the so-called ‘‘hack a Shaq’’
strategy, whereby they intentionally foul O’Neal (by pushing in a manner that
will not cause injury) toward the end of the game to take advantage of his
poor foul shooting. How are we to judge this act of intentional rule breaking?
Regarding the way it is practiced at the moment, the ‘‘hack a Shaq’’ strategy is,
de facto, acceptable within the NBA. In other words, unlike the faux pas of
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passing a leading Tour de France cyclist when he is down, the ethos allows for
‘‘hacking a Shaq’’. Not only does the ethos allow for such play, competitors who
are savvy enough to initiate the strategy at the opportune time are praised for their
smart and competitive play. In response to the widespread use of this strategy, the
National Basketball Association even adopted new rules to shore up this loophole
and restore greater equality of competition.
What if a team put in its worst player to not only intentionally foul Shaq,
but to do it in a manner that might cause injury to Shaq (eg, with an elbow to the
face or other means of physical contact that occasionally happen inadvertently
within the course of a game)? This would further the fouling team’s chances of
winning were Shaq to become injured. As physical a game as basketball has
become, this would be seen as cheating and as an unacceptable act. What
distinguishes this cheater who performs an illegal and unacceptable act from the
worthy competitor in good standing who performs an illegal but acceptable act?
Once again, it is the ethos of the game. The cheater’s behavior falls outside of
the ethos, whereas the worthy competitor’s falls within.
But this tells us only how a given rule violation likely will be judged. It says
nothing of how the violation ought to be judged. This distinction exposes how the
ethos of games is a descriptive theory, in that it describes how the sports culture
actually is. It is useful in that it provides a context for interpreting the moral
significance of a player’s actions more accurately. What we need, however, is
a prescriptive theory to illuminate how the sports culture should respond to a
particular rule violation. Of those surviving academic natural selection, three
such theories [14] may be instructive:
The spirit of the rules: one might subscribe to the spirit of the rules by placing oneself in the shoes of the game’s creator, looking to the intended
purposes behind the actual rules. This notion is commonly played out
when a participant assists an opponent in the spirit of competition. The
weakness of this theory is that it says nothing about how to precisely
determine the spirit of the rules.
Fair play as a contract: one might ground appropriate play in an informal
contract between competitors about what sorts of actions will be acceptable
within the competition. This theory is strong in that consenting to formal
and informal rules before each competition disposes of much potential for
disagreement. The fault with this theory is that it is unrealistic to negotiate
the acceptability of every possible strategy before each game.
Fair play as respect for the game: this sophisticated theory contends that
treating the game with respect, as you would a person you greatly admire,
should result in a morally appropriate outcome. This is helpful in addressing our question of how the intentional fouler ought to be judged,
because the answer to whether such a player is a cheater or not hinges on
what adopting this style of play would do for the game itself. For example,
if this sort of intentional foul makes for a more skillful, strategic, or
competitive game, (elements known as internal values—see case #4), then
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the fouler is a worthy competitor, respecting the game. If it places an
unnecessary burden of time stoppage, imposes an unfair advantage, or
increases the chances of serious injury, then the fouler is deemed a cheater.
Given Shaq’s dominance, intentionally placing him on the foul line arguably promotes a more competitive game. The challenge of this theory
hinges upon whether it is fair to expect a player, in the heat of competition,
to discern the impact of a given play on the future of the sport itself.
Admittedly, all of these approaches have loopholes, most notably their inability to deal effectively with competitions that are themselves unethical, such
as dueling to the death or gladiator games. Still, they provide a framework depicted by Table 1. As we will discuss in the next case, in addition to fair play
as respect for the game, playing to the internal values of sports is a critical element of ethical athletic conduct (see Table 1).
The difference between fouling and cheating is, in practice, a function of the
ethos of the game. In principle, this difference is determined by either the spirit
of the rules, a contract between competitors, or respect for the game.
Case #4—John Wooden on internal and external values: how television is
changing the spirit of the game
When asked what is ruining the game of basketball, former The University
of California Los Angeles (UCLA) coach John Wooden named, among other
things, ‘‘television.’’ He comments that players now play to the television camera
at the expense of the game of basketball: ‘‘Today’s showboating runs contrary to
what the spirit of the game is all about. Excessive dunking, pointing at other
players and taunting them, all belittle your opponent and show a lack of respect’’
[9]. Although we have discussed the ‘‘spirit of the rules’’ and ‘‘respect for the
Table 1
Rule and ethos driven categories of behaviors in sport
Rule and ethos - prototypic character
Example of behavior
Illegal and unacceptable - ‘‘cheater’’
- A basketball player intentionally fouling
another team’s star player with the hope
of inducing injury.
- A basketball player intentionally fouling
a poor free-throw shooter when losing by
a close margin towards the end of the game.
- A bicyclist using illegal means to raise his
hematocrit to just below the legal limit.a
- A bicyclist in the Tour de France passing
the leader that was knocked off of his bicycle
by a spectator.
- The vast majority of actions within sports.
Illegal and acceptable - ‘‘worthy competitor’’
Legal and unacceptable - ‘‘social outcast’’
Legal and acceptable - ‘‘rule abider’’
a
We recognize that many would argue that it is not acceptable to use illegal means. Others would
say that it has become so commonplace that it is somewhat accepted.
S.D. Stovitz, D.J. Satin / Clin Sports Med 23 (2004) 215–225
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game,’’ what is meant here by the ‘‘spirit of the game’’? Wooden touches on a
characteristic of sports that we believe to be a missing link in prescriptive theories
of moral conduct.
In describing the positive aspects of sports, there appear to be two distinct
values: internal and external. Whereas some believe that external values, which
mirror the values of society, are the only values that exist in sports, we believe
that ‘‘sports have internal connections to certain values and these internal values
can often conflict with those of the wider society’’ [15]. Whether a player is
playing consistently with the internal values of their sport is a key to the moral
status of a given behavior.
Examples of internal values include adherence to mutually agreed upon rules,
strategy, and competitiveness, all of which promote enjoyment and fulfillment of
participants. Literature within the philosophy of sport suggests that the ideal
game is one in which competitors ‘‘play at or near their best’’ and ‘‘the outcome
[is] determined by sporting skill’’ [14]. More specifically, each sport has its own
internal values, such as the value of teamwork and physical sacrifice in the game
of football versus the value of prolonged concentration in a four-day golf tournament. Note that adherence to the internal values of sports, although a necessary
condition, is not sufficient for moral conduct. It too fails to deal effectively with
sports that are themselves unethical. This challenge will be addressed in case #5.
In contrast to internal values, external values include such things as fame and
fortune. The critical distinction is that external values can be realized in non
sports-related ways, such as becoming a rock singer or a movie star. Interestingly,
studies suggest that motivations for internal and external values (known as
intrinsic and extrinsic motivations) are not additive, but rather that extrinsic
motivations tend to diminish intrinsic motivations [16,17]. ‘‘Scholarship athletes
. . . in high-profile sports like basketball and football, showed decreased intrinsic
motivation in the presence of extrinsic rewards, whereas those in low profile
sports, such as wrestling, and women with scholarships did not . . . . If the extrinsic rewards are seen as controlling or coercive, they will tend to diminish
intrinsic motivation’’ [14].
Coach Wooden was well known for extolling the virtues of the intrinsic and
expressing his disdain for the extrinsic values of basketball: ‘‘I believe you should
go out and work hard, play hard, and compete hard in sports and in life without
extra histrionics’’ [9]. There is good reason to believe that motivation for the
internal values of sports is especially beneficial for the athlete: ‘‘The general
position on intrinsic motivation is that people who are intrinsically motivated . . .
get more enjoyment from the activity and persevere longer than those who have
been extrinsically motivated. People who are intrinsically motivated also tend to
be more creative in their approach to the task at hand, whereas those who are extrinsically motivated tend to do the minimum required to receive the reward’’ [14].
Sports have both internal and external values. Judging the moral conduct
of athletes requires consideration of both. The relative degree to which an athlete
is motivated by particular internal and external values is essential in understanding the intentions behind that athlete’s behavior.
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Case #5—Jackie Robinson and ‘‘Who’s going to cover first base?’’: when
there are more important issues than playing to the ethos of the game, the
spirit of the rules, and respect for the game
When Jackie Robinson broke baseball’s color barrier in 1948, he suffered
innumerable racial insults from opposing players. It was not uncommon for a
racist pitcher to pitch balls on the inside part of the plate in an attempt to intimidate Jackie. Legend has it that when Robinson drew more than his share
of racially charged inside fastballs, he would bunt the ball toward the first baseman, forcing the pitcher to cover first base. During his college years at UCLA,
Jackie had been an All-American running back in football. Given the potential
for a physical collision at first base, the pitcher would avoid this possibility and
Jackie would be safe [18].
In the sport of baseball, it is certainly more acceptable to intimidate an
opponent by brushing him off the plate with an inside fastball than it is to run
over a fielder. Yet the vast majority who read this story today side with Robinson.
Despite Robinson’s behavior going against the ethos, spirit, and respect of the
game, serious baseball fans and nonfans alike support such behavior because it
speaks to a greater moral good. That is to say, racial equality, though considered
here in the limited context of baseball, is the domain of society at large. The
immorality of racism is felt to be a far more important offense than the running
over of a pitcher in a baseball game. The ethos of society and the general ‘‘real
life’’ morality of humanity always trump the ethos and even the spirit of a sport.
This principle exposes how our aforementioned theories are insufficient for
determining proper moral conduct. For example, dueling to the death, prizefighting, and gladiator games were once acceptable. But when their societies came to
see the barbarism and injustice of such competitions, the activities were outlawed
[19]. No theory before this point has been capable of exposing the moral deficiency of sports that are themselves immoral—sports with a draconian ethos
and barbaric rules designed with equally unconscionable spirit. Respecting such
a sport could hardly be considered respectable. As such, there must be an additional requirement that an athlete’s behavior accord with not only the ethos,
spirit, contract, or respect for the game, but it must be held up to the broader
morality of society and humanity. Although our previous theories help contextualize the athlete’s conduct, there can be no substitute for general moral reasoning
and judgment.
Without exception, the ethics of ‘‘real life’’ trump ethical judgments within sports.
Case #6—Charles Barkley and the moral institution of sports: why he is a
role model and sports are teaching tools
When asked why ‘‘Sir’’ Charles Barkley, renowned for his less-than-gentlemanly conduct, spat on an eight-year-old girl in the stands of an NBA game,
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Barkley responded that he meant to hit a heckler, but because it was the fourth
quarter and he was tired, his spit didn’t travel that far [20]. What are we to
make of a professional sports star who proclaimed adamantly, ‘‘I am not a role
model’’ [20]?
Organized sports are being played by an increasing number of children at a
very young age. Sports serve as a means of socialization and ethical education.
They can be described as a microcosm of life, providing a safe venue to act out
ethical dilemmas (Table 2). Although we have downplayed the status of rules as
an adequate benchmark for judging moral conduct, they are integral to the
structure of sports. By participating in sports, athletes, for the most part, agree to
follow rules and are thus presumed to be acting morally. It is in this way that
sports represent a just society, and it is in this way that great athletes are perceived
as moral agents. Indeed, celebrity athletes are consciously and unconsciously
ascribed great status by society. These athletes acquire such status using their
sport’s good name as moral collateral and come to represent the internal values
of their sport, such as justice and fairness (see Table 2).
Professional athletes, especially in this age of television, cult of personality,
and international competition, are ambassadors of society. When an athlete
behaves in an unjust manner, whether on or off the field, we as a society have
a right to judge. Whether he likes it or not, Charles Barkley is, ipso facto, as
much a role model as he is a great basketball player. Our disappointment with the
moral conduct of certain celebrity athletes is often accompanied by a feeling of
betrayal, as if the player had pledged an oath to us that he would play and live
according to high moral standards. Although this expectation of moral character
may not be warranted, can it be justified?
Sports are a part of our earliest socialization experiences and often play a
pivotal role in our moral development. As John Wooden says, ‘‘Athletes should
be good role models, but not heroes. A role model is someone that those who
love you would want you to be like. A hero is just someone the general public
holds up to acclaim. They are often different people’’ [9]. We agree that, although
celebrity athletes need not be heroes, it is crucial that they serve as positive role
models for sports to maintain their status as institutions of moral education. Those
who love sports deserve nothing less.
Table 2
Sports as a microcosm of life
Rules
Group
Enforcer
Frequency of observation
Ramifications
Sports
Real life
Cannot step out of bounds
Competitors at a similar level
Referee
Nearly constant
Minor (ball to other team)
Cannot drive through a red light
One’s local community
Police officer
Intermittent
Major (serious injury)
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Sports may be viewed as institutions of moral education. Role models are
critical to this end; thus all involved have a duty to preserve the integrity of
their sport.
Summary
John Wooden once said, ‘‘Your reaction to victory or defeat is an important part
of how you play the game. I wanted my players to display style and class in either
situation—to lose with grace, to win with humility’’ [9]. With respect to assessing
the ethical nature of an athlete’s conduct, we have tried to demonstrate how the
moral and social stakes of sports place them above games and below wars.
We believe that our six precepts form a practical framework for appreciating
the complex ethics of athletes and assessing the moral status of the individual
athlete’s behavior. There is, however, no substitute for good judgment, developed
by refining moral intuitions through careful thought and genuine experience.
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