TRANSPORTATION CHALLENGES IN NIGERIAN CITIES: A SYNOPSIS

TRANSPORTATION CHALLENGES IN NIGERIAN CITIES: A SYNOPSIS Edited By MALLAM K. M. YARI FNITP A.G. NDIRMBULA FNITP NWOSU FNITP DELE BADEJO MNITP OCTOBER, 2011 TRANSPORTATION CHALLENGES IN NIGERIAN CITIES: A SYNOPSIS Edited By MALLAM K. M. YARI FNITP A.G. NDIRMBULA FNITP NWOSU FNITP DELE BADEJO MNITP October, 2011  COPYRIGHT PAGE  DEDICATION  FOREWARD  ACKNOWLEDGEMENT  PREFACE ADDRESS DELIVERED BY TPL. A. G. NDIRMBULA FNITP AT THE 13TH EDITION OF THE MANDATORY CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (MCPDP) FOR THE WESTERN ZONE HELD ON 27TH – 28TH JULY 2011 IN IBADAN, OYO STATE. Protocols On behalf of the Town Planners Registration Council of Nigeria (TOPREC), I feel highly honoured and privileged to welcome you all to the 3rd and final leg of the 2011 Edition of our Mandatory Continuing Professional Development Programme (MCPDP) jointly organized by the TOPREC and the Nigerian Institute of Town Planners (NITP). The MCPDP is essentially a regulatory assignment aimed at sustaining and broadening the professional knowledge and technical skills required for improved necessary capacity throughout a practitioner’s working life. This is done through training and exposition to emerging concepts, trends and techniques. The choice of this year’s theme was based, as usual, on the outcome of a wide consultation which identified our learning and development needs that can position us competitively in fringe areas of our practice and assert our comparative advantage in such areas. The specific objectives of this Edition are: Assess land use planning and trends in cities. Analyze transport systems requirements and explore emerging paradigms and concepts of transportation planning for cities. Appraise the state of transport infrastructure and management options. Identify best practices and service options towards city sustainability and environmental preservation. Provide a forum to appreciate the National and Transport Plan. We are convinced of the vast experience, depth of knowledge and exposure of our resource persons in these special areas to achieve these training objectives. They are all accomplished tutors and authors in their specific areas. The process of learning is continuous hence the Nigerian professional must continue to improve himself if he wants to compete with professionals in other parts of the world. Our professional challenges are varied and many hence we need to continuously build and develop our capacity by updating our knowledge on issues such as transportation, that are germane to our profession. As an addition, the Federal Ministry of Transport has equally been invited to engage our people at an interactive session to share experiences and forge an intimate discourse on the National Transport Policy and Plan. These are tools that would be required in our day to day practice. It is also expected that this exposition would enable the ministry carve out appropriate roles for our profession. We hope you would find this particular training worthwhile and fruitful. In the spirit of the legendary hospitable nature of people of Oyo State, we hope we would all find this experience a memorable one. May I reiterate that this mandatory training forms part of my Council’s consideration in granting individuals and firms a current paining practice registration. Ladies and gentlemen the pudding is ready; it is only in the eating that you get the best taste, I wish you a happy stay and fruitful deliberations. Thank you and God bless as you enjoy the programme. TPL. A. G. NDIRMBULAR President, TOPREC  Table of contents  AUTHORS CITATION PROF WOLE MORENIKEJI B.Sc GEOGRAPHY AND REGIONAL PLANNING – UNIVERSITY OF CALABAR 1983 M.Sc URP – UNIVERSITY OF BENIN 1988 PhD. TRANSPORT GEOGRAPHY – F. U. T. MINNA SCHOLARSHIPS 1988 Nigerian – Italian Ph.D Scholarship utilized at the University of Trieste, Italy Commonwealth Post – Doctoral Fellowship Institute for Transport, University of Leeds U.K. Appointments Assistant Lecturer – FUT – 1990 Professor - 2006 HOD URP 1995 – 2002 Dean, school of Environmental Tech 2008 – date Member, FUT Governing Council One time Director of Servicom Director, UN Habitat Sponsored centre for Human settlements and urban Development FUT Widely travelled in Africa and Europe Adesoji Adesanya B.Sc (Geography) – 1983 Master of urban and Regional Planning,, University of Ibadan,, (1984 – 1986 set). Ph.D (1994) for the University of Wales (Uk) Professor of Transport Planning and Management at the Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER) Ibadan. Associate Lecturer (Transport) Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago – Iwoye. Chartered Transport Planner and a Registered Town Planner Member of the Academic Board of the Chartered Institute of Logistics and transport Former member of the National Committee on Non-Motorized Transport in Nigeria. Member of the National Technical Working Group on Transport for Nigeria. Vision 20: 2020 and Current Head, Policy Engagement Division of NISER and the immediate past Head of Research and Consultancy Unit. About Prof Ogwude Professor Innocent Chuka Ogwude is the foundation Professor of Transport Management of the Federal University of Technology Owerri. He studied Economics with Statistics at the University of Ibadan and Transport Engineering and Planning at the Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London. He has been Head of Department, dean, Deputy Vice-Chancellor and Acting Vice-Chancellor at the University. He was also Senior Adviser in the Presidency where he worked on Reforms in the Transport Sector at the Bureau of Public Enterprises, Abuja He is a Consultant to various Institutions and Organizations both Local and International in the fields of Transport Planning, Economics and Engineering Management. Currently he is the research Consultant at the Federal Road Safety Corps, Head Quarters Abuja, but still find time to engage in post graduate supervisions at his parent University, FUT, Owerri. Membership of Professional Bodies Fellow, Chartered Institutes of Logistics, and Transport Fellow of Institute of Transport Management Member of the World Conference on Transport Research Society. Member of International Association of Simulation and Computer Modeling Brief citation of resource persons – Ogwude - Morenikeji - Adesanya - Viashima (08036926693 0805602254) Will be necessary and required  INTRODUCTION A WELCOME ADDRESS PRESENTED BY THE NATIONAL PRESIDENT OF THE NIGERIAN INSTITUTE OF TOWN PLANNERS (NITP), TPL. KABIR M. YARI (FNITP) DURING THE THIRTEENTH EDITION OF THE MANDATORY CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (MCPDP) FOR THE WESTERN ZONE HELD FROM 27TH – 28TH JULY, 2011 AT D ROVANS HOTEL RING ROAD IBANDAN, OYO STATE. His Excellency, the Executive Governor of Oyo State, The permanent Secretary Ministry of Environment and Water Resources Oyo State. The President of TOPREC, Past Presidents here present, Distinguished members of NITP and TOPREC Councils here present, The Chairman, Oyo State Chapter of the NITP, Fellows of the Institute here present, Chairman of other State Chapters here present, Our Distinguished Course Tutors, Distinguished Participants, Ladies and Gentlemen. I have the honour and privilege to welcome you all to the third and last leg to the 2011 series of Mandatory Continuing Professional Development Programme (MCPDP) in this historic and ancient city of Ibadan, Oyo State. MCPDP Programme has enabled us to tackle more technically contemporary issues that are germane to the Town Planning Profession. The theme of this year’s programme, “Challenges of Transportation in Nigerian Cities” is very PT. This is justifiably so considering the inadequate nature of our transport systems in general and public transportation in particular. The modes of transport – air and sea transport systems are not in the best of state, the land transport is bedeviled with many problems. The railway is struggling to survive, take a share of the passenger and haulage in the transport sector. The Air transport is faced with many problems related to affordability of fares, viability of cities/airport as well as cost of aircraft fleet and spares part and maintenance. It is Unfortunate that many state capitals in Nigeria, that have so much to contribute to national development cannot afford to have flights coming in daily into these cities. We are pleased to note that substantial work has been going on the dredging of river Niger and hope all the major settlements on the bank of River Niger and even River Benue will benefit from increased accessibility to stimulate the movement of goods through water transportation, which is usually the cheapest. Looking at transportation at the city level, the institute would work with the authorities at state and local government levels to develop a comprehensive, efficient and affordable public transportation system that supports the economy and enables city residents to move about easily, safely reliably. I will therefore call on all Planning authorities throughout the Country to ensure that the issue of public transport is taken seriously and that this is integrated with land use of the city at all times. Planners should ensure that their plans for the city allow people to get to jobs shopping schools and recreational activities without safety problems, unacceptable delays and increasing pollution. In particular, I want to emphasize that planners should design roads that will move people and goods and not cars. The opposite of this creates congestion which generates very high economic losses due to lack of efficiency. In this regards, I strongly recommend that planners should evaluate sustainable transport strategies of investing in public transportation as well as developing walkable and bikeable cities. We should also re-examine the issues of safety and air pollution. In this regards, what readily comes to mind is the issue of commercial motorcycles. While we recognized the contribution of this sector, it is important to regulate the use of motorcycles in the large and medium cities through the introduction of rapid mass transit system. This will not only check the issue of pollution but also make the traffic more manageable and transport fare more affordable. As Planners, we are ready and willing to work with other professional colleagues in the public works and transportation departments to make Nigerian cities more functional efficient and safer for their residents. This MCPDP Training is therefore the beginning of a long term plan to equip all interested Planners with the necessary tools and skills to bring about positive changes in our cities. Once more, I welcome all of you to this historic and traditional city of Ibadan, a city that has recorded so many firsts in Nigeria. Our special guests, distinguished participants, I wish you all fruitful deliberations at memorable occasions. Thank you. Tpl. Kabir M. Yari FNITP CHAPTER ONE LAND USE PLANNING AND TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN CITIES PROF. WOLE MORENIKEJI MNITP, FUT, MINNA LAND USE PLANNING AND TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN CITIES INTRODUCTION An urban area can easily be distinguished from rural area based on land use characteristics. Such distinguishing features include land use differentiation and intensity. Land uses in urban area depend for their location on the type of transport facilities available, that is, road, rail or water, network pattern and density, hierarchy, width, mode of transport etc. this paper examines the relationship between land use and transport, conceptual framework for understanding land use/transport interaction and discusses the merging urban spatial structure. The paper also serves as prelude to two other papers other aspects of transportation. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LAND USE AND TRANSPORT The relationship between transport and land use could be likened to that of egg and chicken. Since all human activities cannot be concentrated on one point, man must travel to meet his divergent needs for shelter, recreation, work, social interaction, religious and commercial activities. These activities have varying spatial requirements and level of compatibility therefore land uses are sorted and located on the basis of ease of access to the urbanites, accessibility and space requirement of the land use and compatibility thus giving rise to the need to overcome what is called the “Friction of distance” through transportation. On the other hand some land uses and associated activities depend on transport routes for their survival thus the city centre because of its accessibility is characterized by high density of commercial and other tertiary and quaternary activities. The city centres usually account for small percentage of the total urban space yet it has the highest density of vehicular and pedestrian traffic, highest day-time population and highest concentration of offices and shops. For instance, it was observed that the centre of Warsaw occupied only about 4.5% of the area of the city yet it had 35.7% of its jobs including 90% of those in finance and insurance, 59% of those in shops, stores and commerce. Journeys to this central area accounted for 51.5% of all passengers carried by public transport and 75% of all vehicular traffic (U.N. 1972p. 168). Fig 1: A Sketch of Urban Landscape Source: Todd Litman 2011 Land use factors such as density, mix, connectivity and walk-ability affect how people travel in a community. This information can be used to help achieved transport planning objectives. The set of relationships between transport and land use can be briefly summarized as follows (see Figure 2) by Wegener and Furst (1999). The distribution of land uses, such as residential, industrial or commercial, over the urban area determines the locations of human activities such as living, working, shopping, education or leisure. The distribution of human activities in space requires spatial interaction or trips in the transport system to overcome the distance between the locations of activities. The distribution of infrastructure in the transport system creates opportunities for spatial interactions and can be measured as accessibility. The distribution of accessibility in space co-determines location decisions and so results in changes of the land-use system. Figure 2. The ‘Land-use transport feedback cycle’. Source: Wegener and Furst (1999) According to Kain (1975 p. 321), such a pattern as depicted in Fig. 1 would not result if it were possible for all there is in a city to exist at a point because the need to combat space in order to reduce cost and maximize efficiency would not arise. All the necessary contacts that would promote the smooth functioning of an urban space such as between man and man, man and work, man and play would be made at this point and urban performance would be at optimum efficiency. But to be more realistic, each activity requires space and on the aggregate, the urban area expands as each activity grows or as the number of space consuming activities increases. Changes in intensity of land use as in the nature of its use result in changes in the traffic associated with it, the nature and intensity of many different activities carried on in the buildings of a city determined the way in which the movement of people and goods is organized. At the same time the facilities for movement, the capacity of roads and of public transport undertaking are themselves the determining factors in the location of these activities (Boileau 1958 p. 27). Wegener and Furst (1999) have examined the impact of transport policies on land use and the impact of transport policies on transport patterns. These are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. Table 1: Impact of Land Use on Transport Direction Factor Impact on Expected Impacts Land Use on Transport Residential density Trip length Higher residential density alone will not lead to shorter trips. A mixture of workplaces and residences can lead to shorter trips if travel costs are increased. Trip frequency Little impact expected. If trips are shorter, more trips may be made. Mode choice Minimum residential densities are a prerequisite for efficient public transport. More walking and cycling trips will be made only if trips become shorter (see above) Employment density Trip length Concentration of workplaces in few employment centres tends to increase average trip lengths. A balance of workplaces and residences in an area would lead to shorter work trips only if travel becomes more expensive. Trip frequency Little Impact expected. If trips are shorter, more trips may be made. Mode choice Concentration of workplaces in few employment centres may reduce car use if supported by efficient public transport. More walking and cycling trips will be made only if trips become shorter (see above). Neighbourhood design Trip length Attractive public spaces and a variety of shops and services can induce more local trips. Trip frequency If trips are shorter, more trips may be made. Mode choice Street layout, pedestrian spaces and cycling lanes could lead to more walking longer trips. Location Trip length More peripheral locations tend to have longer trips Trip frequency No impact expected Mode choice Locations close to public transport stations should have more public transport trips. City size Trip length Trip length should be negatively correlated with city size Trip frequency No impact expected Mode choice Larger cities can support more efficient public transport systems, so more trips should be made by public transport in larger cities. Table 2: Impact of Transport on Land Use Direction Factor Impact on Expected Impacts Transport on Land Use Accessibility Residential location Locations with better accessibility to workplaces, shops, education and leisure facilities will be more attractive for residential development, have higher land prices and be developed faster. Improving accessibility locally will change the direction of new residential development, improving accessibility in the whole urban area will result in more dispersed residential development. Industrial location Locations with better accessibility to motorways and railway freight terminals will be more attractive for industrial development and be developed faster. Improving accessibility locally will change the direction of new industrial development. Office location Locations with better accessibility to airports, high speed rail railway stations and motorways will be more attractive for office development, have higher land prices. Improving accessibility locally will change the direction of new office development. Retail location Location with better accessibility to customers and competing retail firms will be more attractive for retail development, have higher land prices and be faster developed. Improving accessibility locally will change the direction of new retail development. Accessibility Trip length Locations with good accessibility to many destinations will produce longer trips. Trip frequency Locations with good accessibility to many destinations will produce more trips Mode choice Locations with good accessibility by car will produce more car trips: locations with good accessibility by public transport will produce more public transport trips. Travel cost Trip length There is a strong inverse relationship between travel cost and trip length. Trip frequency There is a strong inverse relationship between travel cost and trip frequency. Mode choice There is a strong inverse relationship between travel cost and choice of travel mode. An empirical investigation in the city of Ibadan by Fadare (2010) concluded that for efficient transportation system depends on the diligent and careful collections and analysis of a wide range of such relevant data. He noted for the city of Ibadan, for instance, that the travel demand for private mode of transportation is most likely to increase in the future with growing car-ownership, rising population and increasing proportion of households in the medium and low density areas and that growth in travel demand may be expected to be faster than population and area growth. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR LAND USE/TRANSPORTATION PLANNING Thunnen’s agricultural land use theory forms the basis for the various urban land use theories. According to Thunnen, farmers producing perishable goods like dairy products and vegetables will locate very close to the central market, then in the next ring around the market would be found wooded land producing fuel wood for the city because of the bulky nature of this product and rudimentary transport system. Outside this ring would be found extensive farming system, fallow land and grazing lands. However, introduction of a transport line, say a river, will cause a re-arrangement of land uses as shown in fig. 2. Burgess (1925) concentric model of urban land use was similarly developed with the central business district as the core of activities in the city. Because of the need to minimize transport cost, the poor live very close to the CBD – centre of employment, though on a high value land. In order to be able to pay for the land rent, the poor “double up” thus creating a high density zone around the CBD. Other people of different socio-economic status occupy other zones outwards from the CBD with the rich people living at the edge of the city where the land is abundant and cheap but the cost of transportation to the employment zone is very high. Fig. 3: Burgess’ Concentric Model Other models like Hoyt’s (1939) sector theory and Harris and Ullman’s (1945) Multiple nuclei theory did not assume a monocentric city but a polycentric one with extensive transport infrastructure thus giving rise to different urban spatial structure as depicted in Figs 4 and 5 Fig. 4: Hoyt’s Sector Model Fig. 5: Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model Central Business District Wholesale Light Manufacturing Low-Class Residential Medium-Class Residential High-Class Residential Heavy Manufacturing Outlying Business District Residential Suburb Industrial Suburb Commuter’s Zone URBAN SPATIAL STRUCTURES Several urban spatial structures have accordingly emerged, with the reliance on the automobile being the most important discriminatory factor. Four major types can be identified at the metropolitan scale according to Thompson (1974) as re-echoed by Jean-Paul Rodrigue (1998): TYPE I – COMPLETELY MOTORIZED NETWORK Characterized by low to average land use densities, this automobile-oriented city assumes free movements between all locations. Public transit has a residual function while a significant share of the city is occupied by structures servicing the automobile, notably highways and large parking lots. Most activities are designed to be accessed with an automobile. This type of urban structure requires a massive network of high capacity highways to the point that urban efficiency is based on individual transportation. Secondary road converges at highways, along which small centers are located, notably nearby interchanges. This system characterized recent cities in a North American context where urban growth occurred in the second half of the twentieth century, such as Los Angeles, phoenix, Denver and Dallas. Tupe I – Completely Motorised Network: Representing an automobile-dependent city with a limited centrality and dispersed activities. TYPE II – WEAK CENTER These cities are characterized by average land use densities and a concentric pattern. The central business district is relatively accessible by the automobile and is the point of convergence of the transit system, which tend to be under-used and requiring subsidies. The urban area cannot be cost effectively serviced with the transit system, so services are often oriented along major corridors. In many cases, ring roads favored the emergence a set of small centers at the periphery, notably at the convergence of radial lines, some of them effectively competing with the central business district for the location of economic activities. This system is often related to older cities, which emerged in the first half of the twentieth century, such as Melbourne and San Francisco and were afterwards substantially impacted by motorization. Type II – Weak Center: Representing the spatial structure of many American cities where many activities are located in the periphery. TYPE III – STRONG CENTER Characterized cities having a high land use density and high levels of accessibility to urban transit. There are thus limited needs for highways and parking space in the central area, where a set of high capacity public transit lines are servicing most of the mobility needs. The productivity of this urban area is thus mainly related to the efficiency of the public transport system. The convergence of radial roads and ring roads favors the location converge. This system characterizes cities having important commercial and financial functions and having grown in the 19th century, such as Paris, New York, Toronto, Sydney and Hamburg. Type III Strong Center: Representing high density urban centers with well developed public transit systems, particularly in Europe and Asia. Type IV – Traffic Limitation Represents urban areas that have efficiency implemented traffic control and modal preference in their spatial structure. Commonly, the central area is dominated by public transit. They have a high land use density and were planned to limit the usage of the automobile in central areas for a variety of reasons, such as to preserve its historical character or to avoid congestion. Through a “funnel” effect, the capacity of the road transport system is reduced the closer one gets to the central area. Public transit is used in central areas, while individual transportation takes a greater importance in the periphery. Between suburbs and the central city are places of interface between individual (automobile) and collective transportation or between low capacity collective transportation (bus) and high capacity collective transportation (metro, rail). Several cities are implementing this strategy, namely through congestion pricing, as it keeps cars from the central areas while supporting the bulk of the mobility in the suburbs. This system typifies cities having a long planning history favoring public transit, particularly in formally socialist economies. London, Singapore, Hong Kong, Vienna and Stockholm are good examples of this urban transport structure. Type IV – Traffic Limitation. Representing urban areas that have implemented traffic control and modal preference in their spatial structure. Commonly, the central area is dominated by public transit. PROSPER PLANNING PREVENTS POOR PERFORMANCE When land uses and transportation system work well, the city becomes efficient. Land use planning always include transportation planning since different land uses attract traffic at differing rate with commercial and residential land uses being the largest trip attractions. The most commonly cited example of land use/transport study is the Buchanan’s Report – “Traffic in Towns” which was to study the long term development of roads and traffic in urban areas and their influence on the urban environment in British cities. The effort of the study group were directed primarily to such question concerning transport and land use. For example, “how can the major land consuming activities within the city be adapted to meet the wishes of people seeking to use motor vehicles of all kinds for every imaginable purpose of transport?” even when a completely new town is being built “how can the activities be arranged and the buildings disposed on the ground to enable the use of motor vehicles to the best advantages? Five contrasting transport planning approaches have been identified by O’Flaherty (1997 p. 133) namely: Do-minimum – a situation whereby traffic congestion, road accidents and environmental degradation are accepted as fait accompli – necessary consequence of urbanization which if left unattended to will become self regulated through human ingenuity and self-interest. Use land use planning to reduce trips and trip lengths – i.e. land use planning is a key to controlling the demand for transport and its impact upon the environment. Develop a transport network that is heavily car-oriented-emphasis on provision of more and bigger roads to prevent the cities from grinding to a standstill. Develop a transport network that is heavily public transport-oriented – emphasis is on significant improvements to the quality and quantity of rod and rail public transport services. Manage the demand for travel – emphasis is on managing the demand for travel and promoting anti-congestion measures which reduce the pressure on the road system. The following findings for successful land-use and transport policies based on theories empirical and modeling studies investigated have been summarized by Wenger and Furst (1999) as follows: Land-use and transport policies are only successful with respect to criteria essential for sustainable urban transport (reduction of travel distances and travel time and reduction of share of car travel) if they make car travel less attractive (i.e. more expensive or slower). Land-use policies to increase urban density or mixed land-use without accompanying measures to make car travel more expensive or slower have only little effect as people will continue to make long trips to maximize opportunities within their travel cost and travel time budgets. However, these policies are important in the long run as they provide the preconditions for a less car-dependent urban way of life in the future. Transport policies making car travel less attractive (more expensive or slower) are very effect in achieving the goals of reduction of travel distance and share of car travel. However, they depend on a spatial organization that is not too dispersed. In addition, highly diversified labour markets and different work places of workers in multiple-worker households set limits to a optimum co-ordination of work places and residences. Large spatially not integrated retail and leisure facilities increase the distance travelled by car and the share of car travel. Land-use policies to prevent the development of such facilities (‘push’) are more effective than land-use policies aimed at promoting high-density, mixed-use development (‘pull’). Fear that land-use and transport policies designed to constrain the use of cars in city centres are detrimental to the economic viability of city centres have in no case been confirmed by reality (except in cases where at the same time massive retail developments at peripheral Greenfield locations have been approved). Transport policies to improve the attractiveness of public transport have in general not led to a major reduction of car travel, attracted only little development at public transport stations, but contributed to further sub-urbanization of population. In summary, if land-use and transport policies are compared, transport policies are by far more direct and efficient in achieving sustainable urban transport. However, accompanying and supporting land-use policies are essential for in the long run creating less car-dependent cities. Exercise What strategies can be put in place to solve the journey – to – work problems in Abuja and Lagos? Land use planning options Transportation planning options Transport policy option REFERENCES Boileau I. (1958): Traffic and Land Use – A Survey of Traffic Associated with a group of buildings in the Centre of Manchester. Town Planning Review Vol. 29 No. 2. Buchanan C.D. (1963): Traffic in Towns. HMSO London. Fadare S.O. (2010): ‘Urban Forum and Households’ Travel behavior – Implications for Nigeria. Ann Inaugural Lecture delivered at the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife on 24th August. Inaugural Lecture Series 230. Jean-Paul Rodrigue (1998): The Geography of Transport System, Hofstra University. http://www..people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/index accessed 6th April 2011. Kain, J.F. (1975): Essays on Urban Spatial Structure. Balinger Publishing Co., Cambridge. Todd Litman (2011): Land Use Impacts on Transport Victoria Transport Policy Institute www.vtpi.org accessed 8th April, 2011. UN (1972): Human Settlements – The Environmental Change – A Compendium of United Nations Papers prepared for the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment. Macmillan, London. Wegener Michael and Furst Franz (1999): Land Use Transport Interaction: The State of the Art Deliverable 2a of the project TRANSLAND (Integration of Transport and Land Use Planning) of the 4th RTD Framework Programme of the European Commission Dortmund, November. CHAPTER TWO MASS TRANSPORTATION AND CITY SUSTAINABILITY PROF. Adesoji Adesanya (NISER, IBADAN) MASS TRANSPORTATION AND CITY SUSTAINABILITY INTRODUCTION Many cities across the world are undergoing dramatic transition. The number of megacities (that is, Cities with more than 10 million inhabitants) is currently put at 21 and this number is likely to double in the next 20 years (Wikipedia, 2011). Unfortunately, not all of them and other cities have the capacity and integrity to manage different and varied processes, activities, actions and programmes that generally make cities sustainable. Indeed, the liveability and sustainability of cities are intrinsically interwoven with not only the degree of efficiency and effectiveness with which existing transport capacity is managed but also how well immediate and future transportation plans and programmes are articulated, laid out and implemented, in order to meet the needs of people. In other words, for any city to be sustainable, it must adequately address the economic, social and environmental dimensions of a sustainable transport policy, of which mass transportation is of critical importance. It is worthy of mentioning that, a sustainable city has to be economically competitive, financially sustainable, well governed and well managed (World Bank, 2002). As cities expand and become wealthier, vehicle ownership and use grow more rapidly than the available road space, resulting in increased congestion and traffic generated air pollution. Generally, many developing countries depend on a variety of inefficient modes of public transport. Besides, their roads are terribly overstressed, thus resulting in deplorable road conditions as well as severe traffic congestion. The challenges of mobility is accentuated not only be population growth and spatial expansion of cities, but also by the intensity of commercial and economic activities taking place in cities. Therefore, it is imperative for dependable efficient and integrated mass transportation systems to be used, in order to ensure improved mobility and circulation, which is a key determinant of the quality of life and liveability of cities. There is also the need for cities to satisfy their inhabitants in a sustainable way. It is against this backdrop that the twin concepts of mass transportation and city sustainability and interconnected issues are discussed. BASIC REALITIES There are some fundamental realities that must be clearly understood, in order to address the theme of this paper. They include the following: The United Nations (UN) said that urbanization is now unstoppable. In 1950, there were 83 cities with populations exceeding one million; by 2007, this number had risen to 468. The UN forecasts that today’s urban population of 3.2 billion will rise to nearly 5 billion by 2030, when three out of five people will live in cities. In next 20 years, more than half of the population of developing world’s population and between one-third and half of its poor will reside in cities. Per capita motor vehicle ownership and use will continue to grow up to 15 to 20 percent per annum in some countries, especially high and middle income countries. Urban growth will continue to increases transport costs because when cities grow, expand and become richer, and more vehicles are procured and in use, traffic gridlock becomes a problem as well as the associated air pollution. Traffic congestion and air pollution will continue to rise due to rapid motorization, slow-moving traffic and ill-maintained stock of vehicles. Lack of investment in vehicles and spares would likely compound the prevailing poor vehicle maintenance culture. Public transport will continue to be overloaded due to imbalance between demand and supply of services. Roads may likely continue to be in a poor state of repair and cause slow journey speeds and breakdown and by implication affect the free flow of vehicles or traffic. In order to increase access and affordability, especially of the urban poor, transport networks will have to be expanded and additional public transport services created. Sprawling cities will continue to make journey to work unduly or excessively long and costly for some of the very poor. Targeting disadvantaged groups is important. Indeed, transport provision can be part of a social safety net. The cost of ensuring that the trips are affordable may be shifted to the employer, as with ‘vale-transporte’ in Brazil of the state (as with commuter subsidy system in South Africa). Age and infirmity pose different transport challenges; thus, calling for ‘inclusive design’ or physical facilities. Gender brings to the fore some particular disadvantages in terms of diffused trip patterns and timings, as well as particular vulnerability to safety and security problems (street lighting and well lit terminals). Public transport is for all, irrespective of individuals’ income, as clearly demonstrated in many European cites. What is more important is for a flexible framework that will allow all classes of individuals to use public transport with some reasonable degree of confidence, safety and comfort to be put in place. Public transport, especially mass transportation, will continue to play a vital role in the productivity of cities and this, in turn, has a direct bearing on national economies. The foregoing notwithstanding urban transport still exhibits a fundamental paradox which must be clearly understood by all. How can a sector with an obvious excess of demand over supply and with heavy involvement of private suppliers fail so terribly to meet the aspirations of both politicians and citizens? Why has it not been possible to mobilize commercial initiative to yield the kind of revolution in service quality and cost that has been achieved in the telecommunications, water and energy sectors? Finally, why does increasing affluence seem to have the effect of reducing the quality of travel, at least for the poor people? (World Bank, 2002). MASS TRANSPORTATION Mass transportation systems are varied and have different features. Nevertheless, whether they are land-based (rail or road-based mass transit systems) or water-based, they have a role to play in very large cities, largely because they are often less congesting, have large capacities to move passengers efficiently and are relatively better users of ‘transport space’ (road, tracks etc). there is no clear-cut definition of what constitutes mass transportation (in terms of the number of passengers). What is apparent from literature is that it must have the capacity to move large number of people (possibly above 40 passengers in a moving unit). CITY SUSTAINABILITY Since the Brundtland report of 1987, the concept of sustainability has become widespread and used in diverse ways. The Brundtland report (1987) defined sustainable development as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. Geerlings et al. (2005) are of the view that sustainable development is a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technical development and institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations. This means that sustainable development is a dynamic concept with a temporal aspect and a scale perspective’. It is therefore, clear that sustainability goes beyond ecological issues and cuts across other elements (economic, social and culture) of the society. In other words, sustainability captures the interplay of human activities and underscores the need to judiciously coordinate different sectors in the society. The concept of city sustainability can be said to have derived from the concept of sustainable development, which involves striking a balance between current and future environmental, social and economic qualities (WCED, 1987, Steg and Gifford, 2005, Litman and Burwell, 2006). Simply put, a sustainable city (also known as ecological or eco-city) is designed with consideration of environmental impact, inhabited by people dedicated to minimization of required inputs of energy, water and food, air pollution and so on. There are various means by which ecological or sustainable city status is achieved. This includes improved public transport and an increase in pedestrianization, in order to reduce car emissions (or striving to reach zero emission transport level). Sustainable transport itself might be considered by examining the efficiency of the transport system, as well as assessing the positive and negative values and externalities of traffic and transport as they appear now and in the future. There is also the need to determine whether current transport is moving towards sustainability. Litman and Burwell (2006) as well as Shiau and jhang (2010) have identified energy use, carbon monoxide emissions, land use disruption and fragmentation of natural areas, waste, traffic safety, noise pollution, health consequences of transport, crash costs, contribution of the transport sector to economic welfare and accessibility as key factors to be considered when examining sustainability of transport system, there is no doubt that there is an intrinsic relationship between the concept of city sustainability and sustainable transport. The importance of the transport sector in achieving sustainable development has been acknowledged by scholars, transport experts and city planners over the years. The general viewpoint is that sustainable transport system forms a basic foundation that facilitates movement of goods and services in the present generation and is also capable of taking care of the incoming 7generations. Thus, it should be affordable, efficient, safe and support economic development. It is becoming increasingly evident that transport policy (in a general sense) needs to be reformed in order to support a better quality of life on a sustained basis. This position, of course rests on three planks, namely economic and financial sustainability, environmental sustainability and ecological sustainability and social sustainability (Gwilliam and Shalizi, 1996). Economic and financial sustainability requires that resources be used efficiently and that assets be maintained properly. Environmental and ecological sustainability expects that the external effects of transport be taken into account fully when public or private decisions are made that determine future development. In the case of social sustainability, it requires that the benefits of improved transport reach all sections of the community. Elsewhere, it has been argued that city plans and policies for managing transport should meet four criteria that are similar to those mentioned above (Sierra, 1996). They include environmental sustainability, economic viability, financial affordability and social acceptability. It must be stressed that actions that involve synergy among the three dimensions of sustainability are pivotal to the entire strategy of city sustainability. For example, public transport systems that fall into disrepair because they are economically or financially unsustainable will fail to serve the needs of the poor and will often damage the environment. Therefore, the appropriate response to this type of situation would be to fully address the attendant environmental and social impacts. TYPES OF MODES Common modes of public transport include buses and minibuses, shared taxis, converted pick-up vans, vans, motor scooters (auto rickshaws) and pedal rickshaws. In some cities, suburban railways are provided. Whereas, in much more advanced economies, rail mass transit (metros) and light rail transit (LRT) are provided. Other variants include trolleybuses and busy ways. Bus services usually comprise of a combination of medium to large buses, adapted trucks (mammy wagons) and minibuses. Bus design also vary from single deck to double deck buses (as found in Indian and Indonesian cities). Capacities of buses can range from 12 to 170 passengers in minibuses and double-deck buses respectively (Table 1). TABLE 1: CAPACITY OF URBAN BUSES Types of bus Design capacity Typical Peak Period Crush Loading Seated Total Mini bus 12 20 40 Small bus 20 30 50 Adapted truck 20 35 45 Medium bus (standard bus) 40 80 105 Large single-deck bus 50 100 125 Double-deck bus 80 120 150 Large double-deck bus 80 170 200 Articulated bus 55 120 150 Large articulated bus 55 170 210 Source: Armstrong-Wright (1993) (based on World Bank Studies) Unfortunately though, the design capacities of buses are often exceeded, with passengers squeezing or hanging on buses. The huge passenger volumes carried during peak periods is not peculiar to urban centres of developing countries. Indeed, under crush conditions, metros in advanced countries move huge number of passenger. In some cities, articulated buses and trolley buses form part of the public transport systems. Usually, these services are in the public sector. China perhaps has the largest fleets of articulated buses (run in Beijing and Shangai). There are few fleets in Istanbul, Tunis and Cairo. For articulated buses, maintenance problems and costs could be aggravated by uneven road surfaces which can result in serious damage to the costly articulation mechanisms, especially in countries that lack the technology and appropriate operating environment. As a result of changes in the pattern of city development and levels of demand, bus services have grown considerably in many cities of the world, especially in developing countries. In addition, the supply of bus services has become generally flexible, in terms of the condition and variety of vehicles that are used for public transport operations. In some cities, this flexibility is curtailed by undue regulations and slow government responses to changes. Notwithstanding the role of buses, their services are usually insufficient to meet passenger demand, in addition to being generally inconvenient, uncomfortable and unsafe. Sometimes journey time may be unduly long. In Mexico, for instance, more than one third of all commuters spend between two and four hours each day traveling to and from work. Waiting time for buses in a place like New Delhi may be above 20 minutes. Whereas in some cities such as Hong Kong, Buenos Aires, Coimbatore and Seoul, bus operators are able to exceed basic standards. On the whole, however, private sector bus operations have been able to achieve reasonable levels of service and are generally profitable. They operate cost-effective services and are very responsive to passenger demands. It is also noteworthy that many private operators favour buses based on production-line chasis, with locally fabricated bodies (that is, adapted vehicles such as ‘molue’, ‘trotro’). They are usually substantially cheaper to procure and maintain than limited production or custom0-built buses. Within the context of the theme of this MCPDP, it is important to mention that although there are many examples of operators utilizing large buses that have been known and proven to be very cost-effective, the inclination of most operators is generally towards operating smaller vehicles. Even in some cities (such as Mexico city and Istanbul) where small vehicles are banned from operating in the city centre, large numbers of small buses and other small capacity paratransit vehicles usually flourish throughout the remainder of the city. Beyond reasons relating to better utilization, smaller capital outlay and ease of maintenance, other factors that tend to make smaller vehicles more attractive include: Drivers of small buses are seldom required to meet the stringent requirement for driving permits which are critical to drivers of large buses and thus can be paid less. Inspection requirements for smaller buses may also be less costly than for large buses. Although small buses result in a higher ratio of drivers to passengers, this is not a significant disadvantage in most developing countries where labour costs are low. Fares are easier to collect on small buses than on large buses, and the chances of revenue leakage are much reduced, and Small buses are easier to manoeuvre and are quicker in congested traffic conditions. In some cities, minibuses are the only form of public transport able to negotiate the labyrinth of narrow streets. Suffice to add here that the maintenance of large buses tends to require specially trained personnel and special facilities, which many operators want to shy away from, because of the considerably cost involved (which of neglected will result to frequent breakdown). The cost of spare parts situation strongly affects the choice of vehicles. The spare parts of less common and custom built vehicles are usually not readily available and more expensive exchange often cause a serious shortage of even commonly used spare parts thereby resulting in many buses being off the road for a long time. Trolley buses are relatively rare in the developing countries when compared with advanced countries. They provide capacity that are very similar to that of large investment and operating costs, especially for the power transmission system. Because trolleybuses are tied to their transmission systems, they are often affected where development activities frequently necessitate rerouting due to changes in demand, road works and traffic management. Poer failures and breakdowns can put large sections of the system of operation. Trolleybuses generally lack the advantages of flexibility that buses provide. Large fleets of trolley buses are found in Brazil, Mexico and China. Trolleybuses are also operated in Izmir,, Turkey. Busway transit is a strategy devised to improve the performance of bus services and cope with huge demand that along major commuter roués or corridors. Busway transit comprises a system of busways, usually using high capacity buses, with some form of management or control organization. Busways themselves are segregated traffic lanes which are exclusively for the use of buses. By putting in place special operational measures, busway transit can provide a highly efficient system of mass transit. From a general perspective, busways have been introduced along existing roads and have been purpose-built in a few cases. As opposed to bus-only lanes, buses are physically separated from other traffic in busways through the use of barriers such as medians, high kerbs or studs. Elevated and grade separated busways have been planned for Bangkok and Karachi among others. Boarding or alighting of between 1,000 to 2,000 passengers per hour is common in many cities of the developing world. In addition, in well designed busways, bus flows are usually more than 200 per hour in one direction (h/d) in both morning and evening peaks. A few busway schemes include boulevard de la Republic (Abidjan), Besevlerr-Dikinevi (Ankara), Eixoo Sul (Cutitiba), Assis Brasil and Farrapapos (Porto Alegre) as well as Taksim-Zincirlikuyu (Istanbul). It is perhaps necessary to note that special controls have been employed in a number of busways. In Sao Paulo and Port Alegre, for example, buses are dispatched in a set order known as ‘bus ordering’ and stop opposite a series of designated bus stops in a predetermined sequence. By so doing, scrambling by passengers from one part of the stopping area to another as the buses arrive is avoided. In other words, passengers can board and alight from several buses at the same time. Consequently, delays at bus stops are greatly reduced while passenger flows and journey speeds are increased. Another more sophisticated variant of bus ordering is called COMONOR, which is an arrangement in which buses operate in convoys, moving off and stopping in unison, like rail coaches in a train. Although, COMONOR was introduced into Sao Paulo (in 1976) and Port Alegre, sustaining them was quite difficult. Rail mass transit generally falls into three categories. These include metros (also referred to as subways, tube or he underground), light rail transit (LRT) and suburban rail transit (also referred to as commuter railways). Metros usually operate on completely segregated rights-of-way at high speed and capacity. Rapid passenger boarding is facilitated by high level platforms, while vehicles operate in four to ten cars. Light rail transit systems may range from trams that operate along public streets to semi-metros that move on exclusive tracks. Generally, passengers board from th road or from low platforms and the vehicles operate in single units or in short trains at slow to moderate speeds. The suburban rail transit normally operates on tracks that are shared with inter-city trains or freight trains. A few metros have been operating in developing countries from some time. The metro in Buenos Aires was opened for use in 1913, while that of Mexico City was put to use in 1969. Since the 1970s, more than 20 metros have been opened for operation in cities of developing countries, including Egypt, India, Brazil and Singapore among others. The capacities of the metros vary from 27,000 to 75000 p/h/d. At higher capacities, train headwyas are 2 minutes or slightly less. LRT operates in Manila, Tunis and Hong Kong. The suburban railways are more widespread and very popular in India. Despite the benefits of metros, which include reduced overcrowding of passengers waiting for other public transport modes, lowering of waiting times and providing faster journeys (30-35 km/hr, with stations usually spaced between 1.0 and 1.3 km apart), their financial performance has been quite dismal, thereby resulting in heavy capital and operational subsidies. Many of the trams that exist today have long been established, with the exception of a few modern higher capacity systems (which are referred to as light rail transit metros), designed for passenger flows as high as 28,000 passengers per hour in each direction. Apart from the fact that all trams have the ability to negotiate sharp bends and steep inclines, LRT metro have faster speeds and high capacity. The Light rail vehicles are modern and sometimes articulated (and usually operated in trains). While part of their networks may be along shared city streets, their tracks are usually completely segregated from other traffic at grade, on viaduct or in underground tunnels. The older tramways carry just a little above 6,000 passengers per hour per direction. When trams were popular in the early twentieth century, there were about 1,500 tramways operating across the globe. The rapid rise in the use of motor vehicles created room for very stiff competition with trams and just about 300 tramways are currently operating. Modern LRTs include the one in Tunis and Manila (which is an elevated LRT system). Other places where elevated trams could be found include Medellin and Bogota. A typical LRT metro consists of three double articulated units, with a crush capacity of 800-900 passengers. Peak capacity is between 20,000 and 30,000 passengers per hour per track. Suburban railways enjoy huge patronage in countries like India (where Western and Central railways move over 5 million passengers per day) Brazil and Egypt among others. In Lagos, slightly above 15,000 passengers or commuters are moved in a day. A typical suburban railway made up of eight coaches carries 2,400 passengers per train. Efficient systems on shared tracks can handle 10,000 to 20,000 passengers per hour in one direction. From the foregoing, especially in order to attain the goal of city sustainability, it is important to integrate road and rail-based developments into a comprehensive urban mass transport strategy. It should be mentioned also that because urban rail-based systems are costly to build and operate, they are usually more expensive for the passenger to utilize than road-based modes. Besides, the high investments cost of rail based modes usually impose a large financial burden on the city budget. It is very appropriate for in-depth appraisal or cautious examination to be done on the fiscal sustainability of rail investments and their impact on poor people before making expensive commitments. PROVISION AND PROVIDERS OF TRANSPORT SYSTEMS In many urban centres of developing countries the system of public transport provision varies. Public transport services are provided by operators in both private and public sectors. The mix varies from city to city. In some cities, publicly owned bus corporations may be more than one, whereas in others private sector operators dominate. Yet in others, only the private sector provides public transport services. Indeed, studies have indicated that the private sector accounts for more than 75 per cent of all bus trips in the Third World and practically, all paratransit trips (World Bank, 2002). For clarification purposes, ‘paratransit’ refers to passenger transport vehicles that operate informally on a fee paying basis. The direct opposite of paratransit services is formal public transport in which services usually are provided by large capacity buses or vehicles on distinct routes and within scheduled time frame. Paratransit systems are characterized by the variety of popular services they offer which include door-to-door services and shared services with routes determined by individual passengers and regular services along well defined routes. Paratransit modes vary in their passenger carrying capacities (some carry as low as just one passenger, while others can move as high as above 150 passengers). Almost without exception, paratransit services are operated by individual private owners or small enterprises. They are also highly competitive and run at a profit. They are usually responsive to changing passengers demand pattern. Paratransit is particularly advantageous in areas where demand cannot be supported by large buses, including narrow streets that are usually found in squatter areas and old parts of cities. Paratransit modes come in various sizes and shapes from regular to adapted vehicles. Paratransit systems comprise of vehicles that range from pedal or motor rickshaws (such as becaks – tricycle pedicabs in Suburban), motorcycles (‘okada’ in many Nigerian cities), converted vans and pick-ups (matatus in Nairobi), converted jeeps (such as Manila jeepneys), shared taxis (dolmus in Istanbul) to minibuses (danfors in Lagos and publicos in Puerto Rico, bemos in Surabaya). Despite their popularity, paratransit vehicles are perceived as highly unsafe and dangerous, largely because of the poor driving habits of drivers, low maintenance standards and overcrowding among others. Generally, most private bus services are small enterprises or family businesses running only few buses (mostly one or two buses), either operated by the owner or hired by other drivers on a daily, weekly or monthly basis. In a few cities, public transport operators have organized themselves into cooperatives and route associations, but more often than not, they retain some substantial degree of independence and self-sufficiency. With respect to public sector bus services, operators (bus corporations and companies) in most cities usually operate large fleets, which can range from 300 to more than 2,000 medium to large capacity buses. The places where large fleets exist under public ownership include Mexico City: 6,500; Shangai: 5,000; Delhi, 4,200 and Bombay: 2,500 (Armstrong-Wright, 1993). In many African cities, fleets are usually smaller and hardly exceed 500 buses. It needs to be stated here that bus undertakings under public sector control may be in the hands of central, regional or municipal/city governments. On the whole, public sector operators hold very considerable assets in the form of land, buildings as well as equipment and rolling stock. They have been also been found to suffer from declining effectiveness and viability due to unsustainable practices, such as charging uncompetitive fares, high staff/bus ratio and mismanagement among others. While the fortunes of many public sector operators have continued decline, private sector, operators continue to devise different survival strategies. Firstly, private sector operators usually have very low staffing levels and keep down their overheads. For instance, vehicles are sometimes maintained by the crews themselves or mechanics shared with other operators. One key characteristic of private sector operators is their tireless efforts, considerable resourcefulness and ingenuity in overcoming their difficulties. Mechanics are able to adapt and fabricate make-shift parts. Hence, the standard of vehicle rehabilitation is high and this helps to keep public transport vehicles on the road. Furthermore, they are able to ensure low level of revenue leakage that may arise from fare evasion by passengers or pilferage of collected fares by crews and other staff. Indeed, with owner-drivers revenue leakage is practically non-existent. Where buses or public transport vehicles are hired out for fixed amounts or crew hand in predetermined amounts daily or weekly, revenue leakage in drastically reduced. The foregoing notwithstanding, hired operators normally retain any surplus as their remuneration. As may be expected, the amount due to vehicle owners is readily adjusted to reflect increased costs, improved overall revenue and variations between, such that no one (vehicle owner and hired operator) loses out. In other words, each party is able to obtain some reasonable return. Although, large private operators are more likely to suffer from some of the operating problems that afflict publicly owned transport undertakings, such as revenue leakage. Howver, a few have been able to closely control costs and revenue collection, in addition to having strong and effective management. A few example of such large private operators that have achieve good results include the Kenya Buses in Nairobi, Kings of Kings bus Company in Ggana, and the Kowloon Motor Bus Company in Hong Kong (Armstrong-Wright, 1993). In Nigeria, Associated Bus Company (ABC) and Ekene Dili Chukwu Bus Company among others have operated successfully over the years. PUBLIC/MASS TRANSPORTATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE Undoubtedly, it is generally accepted that a global climate change is taking place. An important feature of climate change is global warming, for which greenhouse gases (GHGs) are a major culprit. The GHGs that most contribute to global warming in the transport sector include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane and nitrous oxide (NO2). Interestingly, it is estimated that the transport sector is responsible for about 25 percent of emissions of the gases contributing to global warming in industrialized countries, but only about one-half of this amount in cities of developing countries (Lvovsky et al., 2000). While this proportion seems to have stabilized in the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, the same cannot be said of developing countries, where it is growing, especially in urban areas where there is often a concentration of motorized transport. So far, controversy is still continuing on the optimal greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction strategy and the distribution of action between industrialized and developing countries and it is widely accepted that some mitigation strategy is important for all countries. The principal components determining the level of GHG emissions in transport are the level of activity (in ton or passenger kilometers), the mode of transport used, the energy intensity of each mode and the mix of fuels used (World Bank, 2002). First of all, it needs to be mentioned that most environmental externalities from transport, including those affecting human health, impose immediate social costs and require local and national action. By contrast, emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane and nitrous oxide (N2O) contribute to global externality, which needs concerted international efforts. Within the context of climate change, it is becoming very clear that the share of emissions arising from transport has increased in recent decades (Kojima and Lovei, 2001). Although, the share of GHG emissions, arising from the transport sector, from developing countries is still relatively small when compared with those of developed countries, there are growing concerns about future trends. Indeed, many developing countries, including Nigeria, still take suggestions for GHG mitigation measures with levity partly because they see them as a denial of their basic right to economic growth and overall well-being. What is undeniable is that some of the measures aimed at reducing local pollution also reduce GHG emissions. There are two areas of overlap between local and global pollution-reduction goals. First, attempts to improve fuel economy in the industrialized countries, particularly in the 19802 and 1990s, have reduced local and global pollution. In developing countries, fuel economy is usually low as a result of poor vehicle maintenance, fuel adulteration and low engine compression ratio. The second area is traffic management. Traffic congestion worsens emissions of both local and global pollutants. It has been reported that increasing the average speed in city traffic from 10km/h to 20 km/h can cut CO2 emissions by nearly 40 per cent. In addition, congested traffic usually implies high cost. For example, engine have been found to be less efficient at lower speeds and consume more fuel. Dropping from 20km/h to 15km/p will cause an average car to consume about 25 per cent more fuel for every kilometer travelled. Infact, stop-go conditions are even less efficient, with the engine idling during stops and with frequent speed-changes cycles (Stares and Zhi, 1996). It is important to note, however, that it is not all the time that a synergy exits between measures to reduce local pollution and measures to mitigate GHG emissions. For example, air quality improvement programmes for urban transport in Mexico and Chile have only limited collateral benefits for reduction of GHG emissions. In addition, attempts to mitigate local pollution by reformulating transport fuels through severe hydrotreatment is making refinery processes increasingly energy intensive, thus increasing GHG emissions. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT With respect to environmental impact and transport related emission, concerns are usually on the growing effects of air pollution and energy consumption by road vehicles in particular. Transport-related air pollution is indeed increasingly contributing to environmental health risks in many cities of developing countries (Kojima and Lovei, 2001). The most damaging pollutants are lead, small suspended particulate matter, and in some cities, zone. Local air pollution from transport in developing countries alone account for the premature death of over 500,00 persons per year, and imposes an economic cost of up to 2 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) in many countries (World Bank, 2002). The intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has also forecast that developing countries will suffer disproportionate costs of 5 to 9 per cent of their GDP should the global level of carbon dioxide double (ICPCC, 1996). Suffice it to mention however that other impacts such as noise, water pollution, visual intrusion,, social disruption and ecological damage are relatively less extensive but may have serious effects locally. In developing countries, transport accounts for just about 4 per cent of global emission of fossil carbon monoxide, when compared with about 18 per cent in developed or industrialized countries. Unfortunately, due to the use of poor quality fuels and greater use of diesel vehicles, developing countries are increasing becoming a key culprit in the precipitation of lead and diesel particulates (Lovei, 1998). In addition, the level of automotive pollution in many cities of developing countries is embarrassingly high. Not only are vehicles fleets, including public transport, ill-maintained, there is also a rapid growth in ageing and highly polluting small vehicles in use such as motorcycles and auto-rickshaws among others. In many Nigerian cities, for example, the severe traffic congestion as well as the extensive use of poorly maintained motorcycles with two-stroke engine and buses that use petrol with high lead content result in heavy air pollution, which has serious health implications on city inhabitants. Geographical elements or factors such as altitude, topography and climate conditions can enhance the severity and impact of air pollution, as the situation in Mexico City, which has gained notoriety as one of the most motorized and heavily polluted cities in the world. Rapid urbanization and motorization have continued to contribute substantially to automotive air pollution in many cities across the world. However, several countermeasures are already being taken to address this problem, through vehicle emission control and the use of improved fuels. Other strategies being used include the use of alternative fuels, traffic engineering, greater use of public transport and land use planning. Although the foregoing measures may be for other reasons such as improved circulation and accessibility, they also have significant ameliorative effect on air pollution. Several countries now have pollution standards, such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) pollution standards and the air pollution limits set in Mexico. Steps are also been taken top reduce lead content or regular petroleum (from as high as 0.8 gm/litre to below 0.12 gm/litre). The lead level currently allowed by European Union (EU) regulations is 0.15 g/I. (Lovei, 1998). It is also noteworthy that in Canada, Brazil and United States, leaded petrol or gasoline was phased out completely in 1990, 1991 and 1996 respectively. In Sweden, all petrol became totally lead-free in 1994. Alternative fuels, which are alcohol based, are already in use in some countries as alternatives to diesel and petrol. Alcohol does not need lead and emits less CO, HC and NOx. The major problem with alcohol based fuels is that the produce various quantities of aldehydes, including acetaldehydes, which cause cancer and associated with respiratory diseases. In Brazil, since 1975, alcohol fuel has produced from sugar. The product is called ethanol and can be utilized on its own or mixed with gasoline to produce gasohol. Other alternative fuels include liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and compressed natural gas (CGG), which emit considerably less particulate matter than do conventional diesel. In Korea and Thailand, large fleets of taxis run on LNG. Although, LPG and CNG are less polluting than petroleum and diesel, technical and distribution difficulties make them less attractive, especially in developing countries. Many countries have also considered electrically powered public transport as a strategy for saving fossil fuels and reducing air pollution, but high costs often outweighs expected savings. A study in Brazil of fossil fuel saving found that an investment of $1.5 billion in electric powered mass transport would result in an annual saving equivalent to only 1.2 days consumption of fossil fuels by the country as a whole (Armstrong-Wright, 1993:93). It is important to also draw attention to the fact that several countries around the world have been making frantic efforts to protect the environment of their cities. Bangkok, for example, has developed a comprehensive environmental action plan for transport, which seeks to address the following: Air pollution control, Noise abatement Land development to avoid urban sprawl and to reduce journeys Policy to influence traffic levels and mix of public transport modes Segregation of sensitive land uses from heavy traffic flows, Reducing severance created by major infrastructure, and Environmental management to minimize the impact of public and private projects. Inspection and Maintenance (I/M) programmes have become increasingly important when relating transport to environment issues generally. What is very clear is that vehicle emission standards are not effective without proper vehicle maintenance. Poorly maintained vehicles are high emitters and are responsible for a disproportionate fraction of total vehicle emissions. It is therefore expected that, if I/M programmes are to succeed, they must be well run and corruption free, and should be strengthened by the enforcement of emission standards. In addition, there must be well trained and well equipped mechanics and garages to address the problem of poor vehicle maintenance and the attendant environmental effects. The foregoing notwithstanding, what should be borne in mind is that transport related air pollution issues are multi-sectoral and have implications for the downstream petroleum sector, for the tax and tariff regime as well as for traffic management. In other words, long term cost-effective and sustainable solutions would necessarily involved urban planning and traffic demand management among others. Within the context of this MCPDP, some potential win-win measures would include improved traffic flow management (to decrease congestion and improve mobility), traffic demand management (through the provision of public transport, application of fuel taxes and other fiscal measures, area-wide licensing, electronic road pricing in urban areas and preferential treatment of high occupancy vehicles) and improved vehicle maintenance. Social impact issues often relate to health, access to employment and education, in particular. There is no doubt that transport can be effectively used as a tool for helping the poor, physically challenged persons as well as other public transport disadvantaged persons (women, children and the elderly). For the poor, for instance, the financial cost of journey to work can be a major drain on their income. Therefore, in order not to compound their accessibility and mobility problems, they must also not suffer from inadequate access to public transport. In a few cities, public transport subsidies have turned out to be a wasteful response to the mobility problems of the poor. First, they may not always and necessarily focus explicitly on poverty reduction. Second, even where subsidies are targeted in the form of reduced fares for selected categories of person, they still benefit the non-poor and encourage fare evasion by those that should pay. Where the problem is well defined geographically (such as specific poor neighbourhoods), subsidies that are directed or targeted by route could have more impact on the poor. Also, subsidies on journey to work that is channeled through the employer may be a good way of targeting the poor. Unfortunately, this type of strategy, exemplified by the Brazilian vale transporte scheme tends to miss those in the informal sector, where many of the very poor are employed. The impact of mass transportation within the context of city sustainability would be achieved through careful targeting of the affected persons or potential beneficiaries of public transport services. FINANCING PUBLIC TRANSPORT One of the major challenges faced by operators or potential operators of public transport is how to raise funds in order to provide, maintain and sustain satisfactory services. The frequently inadequate wuality and quantity of public transport services in many cities can be partly attributed to dearth of funds. Again, within the context of this paper, a city becomes sustainable when appropriate public transport services are available to meet the needs of the people. How this can be facilitated is the focus of this subsection of the paper. As mentioned earlier on, public sector transport operators generally run their services at a considerable loss, while private operators are relatively financially viable. In spite of this, operatos, whether in the private or public sector, still face considerable problems in raising funds for runnig their services. In order to encourage the expansion and sustenance of the delivery of quality mass transport services, it is important to examine the various sources of financing public transport of mass transport. It is also necessary to note that the sources and level of funding available for public transport differs from one country to another. They include the following: Direct income: this is largely in the form of fare box revenue or income from advertising and contract work. Incidentally, not many publicly owned public transport undertakings are able to recover operating costs from users. Government grants in the form of operating and capital subsidies: This form of funding is common among public sector bus or rail operators that rely heavily on subsidies from national, state or municipal governments. The subsidies often come from general revenue and in some cases from hypothecated revenue such as road taxes derived from vehicle licensing or fuel tax. Some governments grant public transport subsidies in order to induce car users to switch to public transport (such as metros). Though this, road congestion can be reduced. Operating subsidies can be used in funding urban transport infrastructure, rolling stock and equipment. Capital subsidies do not result in the provision and improvement of public transport systems, but they provide widespread economic and social benefits which extend beyond the immediate users. In Brazil, for example, most busways and a few metros benefit from capital subsidies. Development income from buildings with and around stations: Some public transport corporations have taken the advantage of the enhanced land values in the vicinity of railway stations, for example, to enter into joint ventures with property developers, from where they take a share of the profit. With respect to Hong Kong Mass Transit Railway, the proceeds of sale of commercial and residential developments constituted about 10 per cent of the railway construction cost. Besides, rental income from retained commercial facilities makes a contribution of about 5 per cent to the corporation’s revenue (Armstrong-Wright, 1993:80). Hypothecated or dedicated revenue earmarked to fund special services: This means of funding is one in which specific funds are created and dedicated to funding transport related operations and service. Indeed, revenues could be raised from private automobile users to fund improvements in public transport. Earmarked taxes, such as the pay-roll tax on employers that support the public transport agency Regie Autonome des Transport Parisiens (RATP) in Paris have the advantage of a secure and budgetary foundation, and are often the basis on which sound long-term service planning can be based. What is more important is that there must be political and popular support for such an action. Commercial Loans: These are loans obtained from commercial and development banks as well as loan sharks. Incidentally, not many private operators are able to obtain commercial bank loans because of the small nature of their enterprise and ability to meet other stringent conditions for commercial bank loans. However, transport unions, cooperatives and route associations have better opportunities in obtaining commercial bank prefer to deal with corporate companies with fixed assets. Ion Nigeria, for example, the Urban Development Bank provides the opportunity for financing public transport. Joint Ventures: Transit systems in a number of cities are funded and owned partly by both public authorities and private enterprises. It is the private enterprises, especially bus companies, that finance and supply buses and other equipment. For instance, Renault Vehicle Industries and the Cote d’Ivoire government entered into a joint venture agreement, in respect of the SOTRA bus company in Abidjan. International and bilateral grants and loans: Many capital intensive public transport projects such as metros, LRT and segregated busways have been developed through the assistance of the governments of foreign countries as well as international funding agencies. For instance, about 73 per cent of the cost of constructing Cairo metro was derived from French government soft loans, while the Istanbul LRT was developed through loans provided by Sweden and Austria and some local government funds. The Porto Alegre Metro was bult mainly with the Brazilian government money and World Bank Loan. Besides, World Bank for example, provides funding support or international aid for the provision of buses services and rail systems among others. Private investment (including build, operate and transfer – BOT): The financing option through BOT concessions is gaining popularity and attracting interest all over the world. The BOT essentially provides for concessionaires to design, construct, finance and operate a transit system for a period that usually ranges from 15 to 25 years. At the end of the concession period, the assets in question revert back to the government. BOT concessionaires are usually consortia of bankers, engineers, construction companies, equipment and rolling stock suppliers, public transport operators and others. It is noteworthy that, while urban bridges and expressways (which are tolled) have been constructed as BOT projects, only few examples are available in terms of completed transit system under BOT (such as the metros in Ankara and Bangkok for the Skytrain project). POLICIES, PROGRAMMES AND PLANS The ability of countries to adequately address existing and future demand for transport as well as chart the path for sustainable city development will depend considerably on the policies and programmes that are adopted as well as their implementation. Furthermore the decisions made at different levels (either locally or globally) will affect the nature and direction of policies, programmes and plans. For example, at the global level, moves are being made to address issues such as GHG emissions that can be tackled globally and vehicle manufacturers are leading initiatives to harmonise fuel quality and vehicle emission standards worldwide. Whereas, air pollution problems are location specific and it is the municipal governments that monitor air and fuel quality and vehicle emission integrate transport considerations into overall city development plans, develop traffic flow arrangements, demand management and other strategies for dealing with traffic congestion. There are some technological priorities for the transport sector, in terms of how the sector can contribute to a cleaner environment. There is the need, for instance, for systematic elimination of lead from petroleum. The replacement of two-stroke motorcycles with four-stroke motorcycles and the elimination or the clearing up of high mileage, heavily polluting vehicles are important in addressing the problem of air pollution. Vehicle stock is made up largely old and ill-maintained vehicles. Generally, there should be well-planned programme of vehicle inspection and maintenance programmes, done without allowing corruptive tendencies to creep in. at the other extreme there could be assisted or forced scrappage schemes. Robust ‘win-win’ environmental strategies can be introduced through good traffic management, which can reduce environmental impact and congestion. Furthermore, the integration of transport intervention in general municipal development packages may offer better leverage. Given the importance of public transport systems, especially where a large number of people are public transport captive passengers, the need to give particular attention to public transport as well as priority measures for buses in traffic management issues cannot be overemphasized. First of all, traffic management is a means of reduction road congestion and traffic accidents as well as increasing the efficiency of public transport. Through traffic management, substantial economic and environmental benefits can be derived, in terms of reduced journey times and vehicle operating cost, improved traffic flow as well as reduced fuel consumption (and by implication, reduced vehicle emission). Gyratory and tidal flows have been introduced in Karachi. Traffic management measures that give priority to public transport include ‘with flow’ and ‘contra-flow’ bus or tram only. Other measure that give priority to public transport include ‘bus and tram only’ cross traffic turning movement and the provision of priority for buses and trams at traffic signals. Reserved bus lanes have allowed bus journey speeds to be increased to more than 20 km/h, while passenger volume of about 15,000 passengers per hour per lane for standard buses and 20,000 passengers per hour per lane for larger buses have been achieved. Suffice it to add that, for the aforementioned results to be achieved there must be consistent and good enforcement. In a few urban centres, priority is given to public transport through the provision of bus only lanes and segregated rights-of-way or exclusive bus lanes. It should also be mentioned that ‘with-flow’ bus lanes, particularly where laxity exists in enforcement, are hardly successful. This is mainly because other vehicles are able to encroach into bus lane and evade prosecution. Contra-flow bus lanes have been relatively more successful than with-flow lanes, largely because they are self-enforcing. It is often more difficult and hazardous for other vehicles to encroach on contra-flow lanes. The key advantage with contra-flow bus lanes, where they have been introduced, is the high spate of pedestrian accidents. This is because pedestrians, more often than not, will not expect buses to be approaching from the opposite direction to the main traffic and they get hit. This was the case when contra flow trolleybus only lanes were first introduced in Rio de Janeiro, which pedestrian causalities were high. High kerbs or fences are sometimes provided as segregation devices, in order to prevent encroachment on ‘with flow and contra-flow bus lanes. Due to peak demands during morning and evening peak hours, there have been attempts at load-spreading through staggered working and school hours. In Seoul, measures to advance school hours by 30 minutes and delay working hours by 30 minutes are expected to reduce peak hour demand by almost half (Armstrong-Wright, 1993). In Bangkok, in one hour, a single reserved lane where about 250 standard buses and 150 minibuses ply can carry more than 18,000 passengers during the peak period (Armstrong-Wright, 1993). Undoubtedly, bus lanes and automatic priority at intersections can improve public transport performance considerably, but these solutions must be adequately enforced by the police. Exclusive busways in even developing countries have been found to be capable of performance nearly as equivalent to rail-based systems, at much lower, except in very high traffic volume corridors. Giving priority to public transport in the use of space makes public transport faster and more financially viable. It should be also noted that even during peak periods, public transport services can be terribly disrupted along major commuter routes as a result of traffic congestion, bad parking and street trading activities. In Manila, for example, many standard buses and minibuses concentrate in the central area. This situation is similar with the congestion and disruption caused by minibuses in Lagos, Kano, Jakarta and Santiago among others. In order to allow for freer traffic flow, peak load from busy routes are spread to other routes serving the same corridor. Sometimes, alternative routes are provided for passengers that need not pass through high demand and congested city centres or areas. In others, traffic management and control strategies are put in place. It is perhaps apt at this juncture to make references to Area Licensing Schemes, in which vehicles are charged for entering or operating in certain areas through a system of permits. Specifically, only efficient users of road space, such as high occupancy vehicles and commercial vehicles, are exempted. This system is usually applied to congested areas during peak periods and it seeks to encourage greater use of public transport and shared private vehicles and discourages unnecessary journeys. So far, the Area Licensing scheme succeeded in Singapore, but proved to be politically and slightly technically difficult to implement in Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur. In short, many countries around the world are increasingly introducing policies and programmes that encourages greater use of efficient public transport and seek to discourage the use of private cars. Apart from the effort to ensure the utilization of limited road space and other resources, traffic management measures also reduce energy consumption and vehicle emissions. It should be expected that there will be always be public discontent with some policies (such as restrain on the use of cars, tolling etc.). what should be of paramount importance is the political will to implement effective policies and the extent to which beneficiaries of the policies are educated or informed about their benefits or potential positive outcomes. STAKEHOLDER ISSUES Stakeholder issues are simply of paramount importance if sustainable communities, which are defined as healthy towns and cities, are to make significant progress and remain healthy (forever?). in other words, sustainable communities have a strong sense of place, which they continue to promote throughout ‘transport project cycles’. They have a vision that is embraced and actively promoted by all of the key sectors of society, including businesses, disadvantaged groups, environmentalists, civic associations, government agencies, and religious organizations. These communities value healthy ecosystems, use resources efficiently, and actively seek to retain and enhance a locally based economy. Partnerships between and among government, the business sector, and nonprofit organizations, commuters and transport operators are common. Public debate in these communities is engaging, inclusive and constructive, particularly when transport projects are to be initiated. Unlike traditional community development approaches, sustainability strategies emphasize the whole community (instead of just disadvantaged neighborhoods) as well as meaningful and broad-based citizen participation and economics self-reliance. CONCLUSIONS There is no doubt that city sustainability is not just about motorized transport or mass transportation, which has been the focus of this paper. It involves a combination of various strategies including the use of nonmotorised transport, which is unambiguously benign in terms of its environmental impact (which includes walking, using of bicycles and so on). Improved structure within cities can make them sustainable and promote the utilization of mass transportation. This can be done through the coordination of land use and transport infrastructure and service planning, to ensure promotion of adequate and well structured road space as the city grows and to support mass transportation systems. It should be emphasized that good road infrastructure does not necessarily mean complete dependence of cars. In fact by combining land-use and transport planning, it has been possible for some cities to balance high mobility with high quality urban life. Above all, the strategies for mass transportation provision and management need to be continuously monitored and evaluated to that they can be reversed, fine-tuned or modified accordingly in order to meet current and future needs of the people. REFERENCES Armstrong-Wright, A. (1993) Public Transport in Third World Cities, HMSO, London Geerlings, H.J. Vanast, and SA. Ongkittikul (2005) Towards a More Fundamental Transport Policy: An Inventory of Trends That Influence the Transport Patterns in Western Europe and their Implications for Policy Making, Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 6, pp. 4050 – 4065. Gwilliam, K. and Z. Shalizi (1996) Sustainable Transport: Priorities for Policy Reform, World Bank,, Washington, D. C. Kojima,, M. and M. Lovei (2001) Urban Air Quality Management: Coordinating Transport, Environment and Energy Policies in Developing Countries (World Bank Technical Paper, No.508, Pollution Management Series), World Bank, Washington, D.C. Litman, T. and D. Burwell (2006) ‘Issues in Sustainable Transportation’ Int. J. Global Environmental Issues, Vol. 6, No 4, pp. 331 – 347. Lovei, M. (1998) Phasing Out Lead from Gasoline: Worldwide Experience and policy Implications (World Bank Technical paper, No. 397, Pollution Management Series), World Bank, Washington, D.C. Lvovsky, K., G. Hughes, D. Maddison, b. Ostro and D. Pearce (2000) Environmental Costs of Fossil Fuels: A Rapid Assessment Method with Application to Six Cities, (Environmental Department Paper 78), World Bank , Washington, D.C. Shiau, T. and J. Jhang (2010) ‘An Integration Model of DEA and RST for Measuring Transport Sustainability’, International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, Volume 17, Issue 1, pp. 76 - 83. Sierra, k. (1996) ‘Motorization in Chinese Cities: Issues and Actions’ in Stares S. and L. Zhi (eds), China’s Urban Transport Development Strategy (Proceedings of a Symposium held in Beijing, Nov. 8 -10, 1995), Wolrd Bank, Washington, D.C., pp. 43 – 104. Steg, L. and R. Gifford, R. (2005) ‘Sustainable Transport and Quality of life’, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 13, No, 1, pp.59-69. World Bank (2002) Cities on the Move (A World Bank urban Strategy Review), World Bank, Washington, D.C. World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) (1987) Our Common Future, (Brundtland Report), Oxford University Press,, New York. CHAPTER THREE MANAGING TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE IN NIGERIAN CITIES INNOCENT C. OGWUDE FCILT, FINSTTA PROFESSOR OF TRANSPORT MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, OWERRIMANAGING TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE IN NIGERIAN CITIES INTRODUCTION Transport can be viewed as a public utility which supplies essential goods and services, where essential means they cannot be cut off without danger of total or partial collapse of an economy (Bos, 2003). Along with power and communication, transport is one of the social overhead capitals which must be developed to a crucial minimum level in order to facilitate the development of the other sectors of the economy. From the allocative point of view transport contributes to the infrastructure of the economy, while from the distributional point of view it contributes to providing consumers with necessities of life. This subject addressed in this lecture is the management of transport infrastructure in Nigerian cities. This concern is understandable for two reasons: In the first place, there is a pressing need to rebuild the infrastructure of the country as a whole, and secondly the urban transport sector in particular has been in crises due to inadequate and decaying infrastructure, poor management or lack of management and control, in the absence of institutional framework to regulate the sector. In the circumstance, the distributional aspects of transport cannot be overlooked, at a time when the entire national transport system is in the process of a transformation, following global trends. It is useful to define infrastructure more closely so as to be clear how the term is used in this paper. According to Juma (2006), the term infrastructure may be used to mean facilities, structures, associated equipment, services, institutional arrangements that facilitate the flow of goods and services between individuals, firms and governments. Infrastructure therefore includes public utilities, such as power, schools, housing as well as transport with its usual modes, such as roads, railways, ports, waterways, and airports. We should however draw attention to infrastructure as a service, and define infrastructural service to include the provision, operation and maintenance of the physical facilities of the types of infrastructure listed. If we bring together all of the above elements, it means that transport infrastructure can be viewed fairly broadly to include the provision, operation and maintenance of transport facilities as well as the institutional arrangements for organizing the transport sector. It also means that the associated road furniture as well as public transport are all parts of road infrastructure. The above definition helps to delimit the scope of this lecture with a focus on management. When we talk of management, it seems that the meaning is very wide, but much of what we do with transport is related to management. For example, transport is owned, provided, operated and maintained; it is also coordinated and regulated by an institutional arrangement. Therefore, in order to address the topic of managing transport infrastructure in Nigerian cities we will touch on a variety of themes including aspects of demand and supply of transport, and their control. That is, we will talk of traffic situations in the cities, how freely flows, the ownership structure of public transport, and the reforms that may be needed to improve service delivery in the cities, in terms of institutional arrangements. The discussion will be general because Nigerian cities share a lot in common, in their use of para-transit modes, in their market structure, and in the absence of regulation by government. Only Lagos and partly Abuja would seem different, although Port Harcourt has recently drawn an urban transport master plan that could modernize transportation in the metropolis. In the course of sourcing materials for this study, I was surprised how few, if at all they exist, are the number of research that have been done in the area of urban transportation management in Nigeria, evident in the findings on some indexes that could characterize the system. To give an example, there is no information on car ownership rates in Nigerian cities and on the saturation level of car ownership, whereas these data are available for India and Egypt, to mention a few of some of the developing countries. For this reason, much of the arguments of this paper will be generalized to Nigeria within the context of Africa, and the case of Lagos will be highlighted, as an illustration of a Nigerian context. After the urban transport situation in Nigeria has been discussed, the next section focuses on the institutional arrangements for urban transport management and control. This is followed by a discussion of the general traffic demand management measures that are available to enhance service delivery and combat traffic congestion. The concluding to modernize the urban transport sector. NATIONAL TRANSPORT POLICY We make a brief comment on the subject of national transport policy in order to provide a setting for the discussion on city transportation in Nigeria. Going by our constitution, urban transport is in the concurrent list and in the jurisdiction of state and local governments. This may be part of the reason that sector might not have attracted so much attention of the federal government before the urban mass transit initiative of 1988. The Blue Print on VISION 2020 constitutes a transport development strategy that is private-sector driven, providing an environment capable of addressing the issues of wealth creation, employment generation and poverty reduction. This overarching strategy formed the basis of the fundamental objective of the country’s National Transport Policy which is “to develop an adequate, safe, environmentally sound and efficient transport system in the context of a progressive and competitive market economy’ (The Draft National Transport Document, 2010). According to the national transport policy document, the transport sector would take advantage of the private sector initiative to do the following: Improve efficiency of operatives and management of transport parastatals. Achieve the desired reduction in the cost of providing transport services. Facilitate further development in the nation’s transport infrastructure. Eliminate congestion both in the intercity and intra-city traffic flows. Encourage the emergence of Nigeria as a transport hub for West and Central Africa Sub-region. The Draft National Transport Policy has addressed urban transport in greater details than the previous policies. In this sector, the document envisages a more modern transportation system that is capable of meeting the needs of a rapidly growing urban population, nothing that in the country, 11 cities have a population figure of above one million, while 23 cities have a population over and above 200,000, according to the 2006 National Census. What is new about the thrust of the draft policy is the proposal for far reaching reforms in the sector, including legislation on improved institutional framework, and on the use of conventional buses and light rail. Sourcing the finance for the sector has remained a critical issue. To surmount this problem, the draft policy has proposed the establishment of an urban development fund which when implemented could serve the purpose of financing new initiatives in the sector as well as provide the vehicle for funding subsidies which are necessary to sustain urban transportation, regardless of who is responsible for providing the service. The implementation of all of the above initiative will require a lot of commitment on the part of government considering that, sometimes, what the government envisaged is not what is implemented. There is no doubt that the critical factor in the successful implementation of the new policy lies in the correct interpretation of the policy itself by the implementation agency, and also in the ability of government to encourage the incorporation of indigenous enterprise in the sector so as to acquire the appropriate skills in the organization and management of urban transportation. To be sure, a new kind of training and orientation will be needed for effective service delivery in the urban transport sector, especially because it is technically demanding to provide the service, and the investment in the sector is somewhat unattractive in terms of returns; hence the need for subsidy as often canvassed. URBAN TRANSPORTATION Urban transportation in Nigeria is largely an unregulated market and small scaled. The technology used is of a combination of para-transit modes, consisting of shared taxis, mini-buses, motor-cycles and converted motor-cycles, locally known as keke napep. Only in the cities of Lagos and Abuja are conventional buses in use similar to what obtains in most cities worldwide; but even in both cities the use of para-transit modes of transport is clearly dominant. For this reason, Nigeria remains the only country in the world where densely populated cities with over 6 million people do not have an organized urban transport system based on a combination of conventional buses and rail. The Federal Government had made an attempt to establish a technology of urban transportation based on bus transit through the Urban Mass Transit Program of 1988 – 94. The program failed because the implementing agency diverted the program to implement instead inter-urban mass transit service in most states to the neglect of the critical element of government strategy of including indigenous capacity building through a matching grant system requiring the participating firm, or company, to have at least a fleet of 6 (six) big buses for urban service provision. Table 1 Paved Road in Selected African Cities, Compared with Developing World Average City Paved Roads (m per 1,000 pop) Abidjan 346 Conakry 174 Dakar 467 Dares 150 Kampala 225 Kinshasa 63 Lagos 400 Average, sample 318 Average, developing world 1,000 Sources: City Authorities; UN Millennium Cities Data Base, Quoted in World Bank (2010) Stuck in traffic: Urban Transport in Africa THE INFRASTRUCTURE By international standards, the road network in Nigerian cities may be described as poor, with the exception of Abuja which is a new city with modern roads and an extensive network of pedestrian walk ways. In general, the roads in most cities are far from dirt roads and are mostly paved. This may be the reason for their relatively good standing in terms of pavement compared to Sub-Saharan African roads (Table 1). However, the city roads in Nigeria share the common problems of other African city roads with a significant percentage consisting of one lane that is poorly maintained, and prone to flooding due to poor drainage. The implication of this is that capacity is limited in most cities, and service lane are absent thereby putting more strain on existing capacity. Of course, inadequate capacity and poor road conditions reduce vehicle speeds, engender traffic congestions, reduce productivity for all vehicle types, and increase the cost of vehicle maintenance. A recent World Bank Study (2008) entitled Stuck in Traffic: Urban Transport in Africa has noted that the above unfavorable road conditions contributed to promote the use of para-transit modes of transportation in African cities, namely, minibuses, taxis, and motorcycles. These para-transit modes are more flexible and can maneuver their way through more than large buses but are not as efficient as means of urban mass transit. According to the study the buses, both large and small, are the most common mode of public transport in most African cities (Table 2). In Nigeria, the use of minibuses, as already stated, is more prevalent than conventional (larger) buses, except in Lagos where the recently introduced Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) has the potential to alter the composition, and also Abuja where large buses and taxis have their good share of the market. Continuing on the stare of urban roads in Africa, the World Bank study (2008) observed that part of the constraints on city transportation is that most roads were laid when cities had a single centre, and before the rapid growth in car ownership, or what it referred to as personalized forms of motorized transport. This kind of city structure is such that the primary network radiates from the city center to surrounding areas, and orbital or circumferential links are missing. This attribute is largely true of Nigerian cities, with the notable exception of Abuja which has avoided the design of such a structure as a new town. Where roads are narrow in a city structure as described, it may still not be possible to improve traffic flows by a significant widening of the roads, or restructuring, without possible environmental degradation or infringement on human rights. TABLE 2 SHARES OF MODES OF TRANSPORT IN USE IN 14 AFRICAN CITIES City Large bus Mini bus Taxi Motor cycle Private Car Walk Other Abidjan 11 19 29 0 128 22 1 Accra 10 52 9 0 13 12 4 Addis 35 20 5 0 7 30 3 Ababa Bamako 1 10 5 56 19 - 9 Conakry 1 14 6 0 1 78 0 Dakar 3 73 6 6 11 - 1 Dares 0 61 1 1 10 26 1 Salaam Douala 10 - 13 12 2 60 3 Kampala 0 41 - 20 35 - 4 Kigali 1 75 10 0 10 5 0 Kinshasa - - - - - High - Lagos 10 75 5 5 5 High 0 Nairobi 7 29 15 2 - 47 0 Ouaga 8 0 - 58 14 - 20 Dougou Average 7 30 8 12 12 37 4 Source: City Authorities, Published Documents. Quoted World Bank (2008) Stuck in Traffic: Urban Transport in Africa Note:- means not available. Rows may not total to 100 POOR ROAD FURNITURE Of course, narrow roads increase congestion in Nigeria regardless of city structures, making the use of larger buses more difficult as a means of relieving traffic congestion. Across the cities, there are hardly any dedicated bus lanes; bus routes are not designated; there are hardly any bus stops and bus shelters. Table 3 shows a qualitative evaluation of a list of road furniture in Nigerian cities surveyed recently by the Federal Road Safety Corp. bus terminals are altogether lacking, ecvept in Lagos where they are overcrowded, and in Abuja where they are few. Indeed, what should be bus terminals have been replaced by motor parks the location, or sitting, of which is an interesting phenomenon in Nigeria. In urban Kano alone, there were over 200 motor parks and stops, but only 40 of them had official recognition (Dangogo (2004), citing Falola (2000). When the Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC) did an enumeration of the motor parks in Nigeria in 2009, about 2,476 of them were identified, over 60 percent of which are located in urban areas. However, the FRSC survey found that there were no illegal motor parks in the country in 2009. Nevertheless, motor parks are largely unorganized and unintended sources of traffic congestion in Nigerian cities. Beside the overcrowded motor parks, most cities have not planned for pedestrians. Pedestrian walkways are virtually absent in the cities, with the notable exception of Abuja which has a good network, as already remarked. In other places, pedestrian crosswalks and bridges are provided mostly at city centers, if at all. The poor state of road furniture in Nigerian cities has increased the need for enhanced traffic management to improve traffic flow and safety. TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT To summarize the context to traffic management in Nigerian cities, we list some of the characteristics of transport demand that engender the need for proper management. These include: Demand is high in most cities relative to the capacity of the system to accommodate the flow of traffic. In Lagos alone, over one million person trips are generated daily carried by Danfo buses, and cars with occupancy rate of about 2.0, and other means including motorcycles. Many cities are chocked by growth, as noted by the World Bank Study earlier cited, like in other African countries. The urban population is surging in most cities, growing by more than 4% on the average. At present, one third of Nigerians live in cities; by 2030 half of the population will be living in cities. The population of Lagos, for example, is growing at 6% yearly; it will be 25million by the year 2020. With a road density of 0.4, the road network is certainly overloaded. Demand for transport is growing nationally at pace with the gross domestic product (GDP) envisaged to grow at between 10-13% up to the year 2020. This means that transport demand will have a growth rate of between 13 – 16% in the same period. The associated growth in freight transport will exert a lot of pressure on city ports like Lagos and Port Harcourt. Truck transportation increases congestion greatly in Nigerian cities as much as they add to the incidence of road crashes in the cities. Traffic congestion in cities is wide spread throughout the country. It is very severe in all of Lagos metropolis and in the approaches to the Abuja Township with travel time exceeding two hours. Traffic control measures like traffic lights are used to ease congestion generally. However, in some cities these devices are ineffective, or needless, due to chocking congestion levels with traffic standing still for up to 30 minutes at a time. Traffic lights are increasingly being used to manage transport flows in Nigerian cities, but in general they are not demand actuated and cannot in most cities, even where demand is high and differentiated because some traffic is building up more quickly and others, like buses, may be accorded some priority at junctions where area-wide bus priority schemes are lacking. Car ownership in Nigeria is low. In the cities, a rough estimate is 4 cars per 1000 population, which translates to about 0.004 cars owned per person in urban areas. With such a relatively low level of car ownership, our cities experience so much congestion; this is interesting and would suggest that saturation levels of car ownership in the cities are already exceeded. To provide a crude benchmark, according to Dargay, Gately and Sommer (2007) the vehicle saturation rates in the following countries are like this: Brazil 0.831; Argentina 0.8; South Africa 0.825; India 0.683. if vehicle growth will be twice the growth of income globally by 2020, and car ownership in Nigeria will be similar to the rate of Egypt and India, there will be a greater necessity for proactive measures for traffic management in Nigerian cities. TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT MEASURES PRACTICED IN NIGERIA The practice of traffic management has a long history in Nigeria even though there is still a lot of room for improvement in the area. The concern with traffic was the initial preoccupation of ceivil engineers and city planners until the fad of land use transportation planning from the late 1960s, drawing on the social science concept of a system, began to view the city from the perspective of an urban area with transport as a sub-system of the urban area or the city. Yet some people still think in terms of traffic planning and management in isolation from the wider objectives of transport, thus limiting the scope of the initiatives and the instruments that may be available for sustainable mobility in the urban area. The following short-term measures have been used in the management of traffic movement in Nigeria Traffic control by use of traffic police or wardens, and by use of traffic lights, as already mentioned. Traffic control by use of speed breakers, such as speed bumps or humps. Enforcement of existing regulations, such as violations of safe driving and the use of defective vehicles. Both the Vehicle Inspectorate Division of the State Ministry of Works and Transport and the FRSC conduct periodic checks on vehicle users in cities as a means of controlling unsafe road usage that can lead to vehicle break-down which slows or completely obstructs the traffic. The FRSC free vehicle Safety Checks takes place every quarter of the year. The exercise conducted in the last quarter of 2010 revealed that of the total of 15,198 vehicles (including 618 motorcycles) that were checked, 21,475 defects were detected in them. This brings the prevalence of defects in vehicles in use at that time to about 1.4 per vehicle. Another enduring means of traffic control used by FRSC is the use of Policy Orders. The major objectives of policy orders is the prevention of road crashes through proactive regulatory enactments aimed at influencing behavior. The most prominent existing policy orders of FRSC are (1) the Use of Seat Belts (2003); (2) the Use of Safety Helmet (2009) (3) Prohibition of Overloading (2008) and (4) Prohibition while Driving (2009). The impacts of these policy orders are yet being evaluated but there is no doubt that the import of the orders has affected transport behavior in Nigeria. TRAVEL DEMAND MANAGEMENT (TDM) IN NIGERIA The object of travel demand management is to control rising congestion levels, deter further growth in car use and address the negative impacts of traffic and congestion on transport efficiency and the environment (CFIT World Review of Road Pricing, 2006). Nigeria is yet to try any of the standard methods of travel demand management used to combat congestion. Although road pricing is often canvasses as discussed bellow, the TDM method previously employed in the Lagos area was described as the Even-Odd Number System of road use allocation. Under the system, cars and vehicles with even registration numbers alternated with cars and vehicles with odd numbers in the week days when they were prohibited / allowed to travel to the central areas of Lagos. The scheme appeared to have worked well for some months and there were claims of substantial improvements in congestion levels before it was aborted, obviously, on political grounds. After that, no further efforts have been made to use a similar TDM measure in a Nigerian city. THE ROLE OF ROAD PRICING IN TRAVEL DEMAND MANAGEMENT According to CFIT Review on Road Pricing (2006), road pricing has been successful as a travel demand management measure in some countries notably In Singapore where Road Pricing has been operating successfully since 1975 (with Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) introduced in 1988). The ERP scheme reduced traffic in the area by about 13% and increased average speed by up to 20%. In London, where the Central London Congestion Charging scheme has been successful by reducing traffic in the central London charging zone by up to 30%. In Stockholm where a six month trial of Road Pricing ended in July 2006. Overall, 51% of the residents of the Stockholm area voted in favor of a permanent Road Pricing scheme. In Trondheim, Norway, where a Road Pricing system operated between 1991 and 2005 and reduced traffic by up to 10%. PARKING AND TRANSPORT DEMAND MANAGEMENT (PTDM&TDM) IN CAMBRIDGE AND BOSTON We report also an example of TDM practice in North America, where the program combines marketing and incentives aimed at reducing the use of Single – Occupant Vehicle (SOV). In the city of Cambridge and Boston TDM also encourages a range of transport options, including public transport, bicycling, walking, ride sharing. The goals of the TDM program in the city are to improve mobility and access, reduce congestion and air pollution and increase safety. The programs reduce the level of drive – alone travel by promoting walking, bicycle use, carpooling, vanpooling, public transport and other sustainable modes. The city works cooperatively with residents institutions in Cambridge and Boston to implement TDM measures. To achieve its goals, the city has implemented a parking and Transport Demand Management Ordinance that requires developers to submit a PTDM plan for development projects that meet certain criteria. This means that the program has a PPP component which can be adapted in the Nigerian context. It is also important to note the use of public transport option as a travel demand management measure. This option has clearly been adopted in the city of Lagos and partly in Abuja and in Port Harcourt. PUBLIC TRANSPORT AND TRAVEL DEMAND MANAGEMENT IN LAGOS METROPOLIS From the goals of TDM stated above, it seems clear that the use of large buses can be conceived also as a travel demand measure in the Nigerian cities. The arguments are clear. The conventional buses have the capability to carry a large number of persons at a time, say some 350,000 passengers per day, which is equivalent to taking over 80,000 cars off the road network, assuming a car occupancy rate of 3 persons. THE BUS RAPID TRANSIT The Lagos Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system introduced in 2008 is an example of the use of this option. It is operated by the Lagos Metropolitan Transport Authority (LAMATA). According to LAMATA, BRT is a transport option which relies on the use of dedicated, ‘interference free’, segregated lanes which make the buses run faster in a situation where there is traffic congestion in other parts of the system or network. The other options are the use of light rail, heavy rail and conventional buses. LAGOS URBAN RAIL MASS TRANSIT (LRMT) SCHEME In addition to the BRT program LAMATA has also introduced the light rail mass transit system in Lagos as an option of the travel demand management measure. Seven rail networks have been proposed, but the program is taking off with the two rail lines that have been approved and commissioned, namely Red Line, (Agbado-Marina) and Blue Line (Okokomaiko-Marina). The two lines are seen by LAMATA as the most important solution to the congestion problems of Lagos. The arrangement for funding the program is illuminating. It is being financed as a Travel Demand Management Initiative in Lagos as follows: Federal Government – 45%; Lagos State – 40%; Ogun State – 15%, under a PPP arrangement in which a private partner is the developer. FERRY TRANSPORTATION SCHEME Ferry transportation is also another option that is being developed as part of the Travel Demand Management Measures to relieve congestion in Lagos. It has been argued that at present the shared of water transportation in Lagos is below 1%, which is not good enough in comparison with other cities, like London, Rotterdam, Honk Kong, Bangkok, Sydney and New York. It is estimated that the ferry system will be able to carry about 5 -10% of the commuters in Lagos. The service will be developed through a PPP arrangement whereby LAMATA will finance the infrastructure, namely, jetties and Landings, Car Parks, Access Roads and others, while the private operators will run the ferry service, under the regulation of LAMATA. Seven service routes have so far been identified for the purpose. INSTITUTIONAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK As already remarked, urban transportation is in the jurisdiction of local and state governments. Although that is the case, no arm of government appears to have taken the leadership in the organization and management of the sector. In practice, the federal, state and local governments have a hand in the urban transport sector. According to the World Bank Study, African Stuck in Traffic (2005), “some of the governments plan in the sector, others regulate, and still others allocate resources, or monitor compliance. Some perform several functions, and often their jurisdiction overlaps with that of other institutions”. The study concludes frankly that institutional weakness – and confusion – lies at the hearth of growing transport problems of African cities. The above appraisal applies to Nigeria to a large extent. To be sure, it can be argued that regulation in the urban transport sector is too light handed. No one is clear about which government agency is responsible for the control and regulation of the sector, except that we can repeat what has been said earlier that the urban transport sector is virtually in the private sector by default and is self-regulating. In the sector, the Motor Unions are both the operators as well as regulators; they set and regulate fares, manage parks and often set standards. Because urban transport is in the jurisdiction of local government, there is confusion in managing city transportation since there are many local governments in a city. For example, Kano, Lagos, Ibadan and others have many local government areas within the cities. The Nigerian cities will need a common transport Authority to organize and manage transport in the city the way LAMATA is now doing it in Lagos on the initiative of the Lagos State Government. The Lagos State Government has therefore taken the leadership in the attempt to create some institutional framework for addressing the urban transportation problem in a Nigerian city. There is a need to reform the urban transport sector in order to modernize and professionalize it long with the other sectors of transport. REFORMS IN URBAN TRANSPORT SECTOR The ongoing reforms in the transport sector have been described elsewhere (see Ogwude 2008 & 2010). The Bureau of Public Enterprise (BPE) has been driving the reforms on behalf of the Federal Government. However, Urban Transportation is not in the schedule of enterprises/business in the BPE portfolio, even though the PBE role can be interpreted to include all reform efforts intended to increase competition and fair trading and institutionalize regulation. The following reforms will be needed to reform the urban transport sector and modernize it: Reforms in the Rail Sector Reforms in the Inland Waterway Sector and Reforms in the Road Transport Sector. These reforms will deregulate the sectors and enable open participation in the sectors, including participation by the private sector. In the urban sector itself, reforms will be needed to establish some institutional framework for setting technical, safety and economic standards for urban transportation. The Lagos State Metropolitan Transport Authority and its envisaged functions can be taken as an example of an institutional arrangement that can be adapted to regulate urban transportation in Nigerian cities. In addition, the following strategies should be adopted to implement a modern urban transport system in Nigeria: Initiate a Program for corporatization of urban bus services in Nigeria, that is a scheme for encouraging bus operators to form viable bus companies for the purpose of providing urban transport service based on conventional buses. Establish Urban Mass Transit Agencies (UMTA) in Each State of the Federation as proposed in the Vision 2020 Document. Legislation on UMTA to give it effect. Establish a program of Training for the Operations of Urban Bus Transit. Initiate a program to encourage effective UMTA in Nigeria, by (1) Use of subsidies (2) Guarantor role of government (3) Use of PPP arrangement. CONCLUSION The major argument of this paper has focused on the need to rebuild the urban transport infrastructure of Nigeria in order to expand and modernize it. The demand for urban transport is growing with the urban population surging thro9ughout the country. By the year 2003 about half of the Nigerian population will be living in the cities, increasing the pressure on transport infrastructure in urban areas. At present, urban transport infrastructure is inadequate to meet transport needs resulting in chocking traffic congestions in most cities. Transforming this infrastructure is therefore imperative and will cost about $12.4 billion annually. The urban transport infrastructure is worth transforming because it is even more costly to manage city transportation in their present form. Being a social overhead capital, transport cannot be neglected in the cities because the poor state of infrastructure generally is costing the urban economy a lot in terms of reducing economic growth by at least 2% yearly and business productivity by about 40%. The cost of poor management of urban transport infrastructure, or of not managing it at all, is equally high. It is therefore imperative to commit to proper management of the urban transport sector by reforming the sector in the ways suggested above, so as to regulate the sector and improve its funding by honest and judicious subsidy, and by wise investments driven by public-private sector partnership. REFERENCES Bos, Dieter (2003), “Regulation: theory and concepts”, in David Parker and David Saal (Editors), International Handbook on Privatization (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited) pp. 447-497. CFIT World Review of Road Pricing (2005), Phase Two Report on the ATKINS project on Road Pricing. Document no, 061205. Dorgay, S, Gately, D. and Sommer, M. (2007), “Vehicle Ownership and Income Growth Worldwide: 1960 – 2030”. Extract of a Report prepared for the International Monetary Fund. Dgs_vehicle%20ownership_2007.pdf. Dangogo, K. I. (2004), “The State of Infrastructure in Kano Zone”. A report prepared for the Central Bank of Nigeria. Http://www.cenbank.org/out/publications Federal Ministry of Transport (2010), draft National Transport Policy, Federal Ministry of Transport, Abuja. Falola, J. A. (2000), “Kano State”. In A.B. Maman, J. O. Onybanji and S.W. Peters (eds.), Nigeria: A people United, A Future Assured. Federal Ministry of Information, Abuja, VOL.2, pp. 266-287. Juma, C. (2006), “Redesigning African Economies: The Role of Engineering in International Development”. The 2006 Hilton Lecture, The Royal Academy of Engineering, U.K. Kumar, Ajay and Barrett, Fanney (2008), Stuck in Traffic: Urban Transport iin Africa. World Bank, Draft Final Report. Referred to as World Bank Report (2008) in the text. Ogwude I. C. (2008), “Investments and Strategies for Achieving Effective Transportation”, in S. O. Akande and Ade S. Olomola (eds.), Strategies and Implementation of the Seven Point Agenda of President Y’ardua. (Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research), pp. 139-1. Ogwude, I. C. (2010), “Transport Infrastructure and Mobility in Nigeria”, Text of a paper delivered as Guest Speaker at the National Conference organized by the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport-Nigerian in Lagos, 26-27, Janaury. APPENDIX Box 1: The case of Singapore illustrating the use of Road Pricing to reduce Travel Demand Since the 1970s, Singapore has practiced imposing heavy taxes on car ownership to manage the demand for cars. Upfront taxes in the form of Additional Registration Fee (ARF) were based on a percentage of the Open Market Value (OMV) of the car. However, there were limitations to this approach as the overall effect was to cause people to buy smaller cars with lower OMV, rather than give up buying cars altogether. (Tan, Leong, Leong and et al, 2009). In 1990, Singapore introduced the Vehicle Quota System (VQS). Under the VQS scheme, a cap on the number of vehicles added to the roads each year is set by the government. Anyone who wants to register any motor vehicle will now need to bid for a Certificate of Entitlement (COE) which allows the vehicle to be used for 10 years. COEs are issued by the government and prices are set by the lowest successful bid. Since 1990, the vehicle growth rate has been set at 3% per year and an estimated 25,000 vehicles have been added onto the roads each year. In May 2009, the LTA lowered the vehicle growth rate from 3% to 1.5% as one of the measures to control traffic congestion. Despite these measures, private cars on the roads continued to grow from 114 308 in 1999 to 244 006 in 2009. (Annual Vehicle Statistics 2009). Hence, controlling car ownership alone cannot effectively manage congestion on the roads, especially when it is understood that once a car is bought, it will be used intensively – all the more so if it was costly to own one in the beginning. Hence, higher car ownership may actually a perverse effect of increasing car usage. To address this issue, another scheme was introduced to encourage car owners to use their vehicles only during off-peak periods. The Off-peak Car (OPC) scheme was implemented on 1st October 1994 to replace the Weekend Car (WEC) scheme (introduced in 1st May 1991). The OPC scheme offers new and existing car owners the option to save on car registration and road taxes in return for reduced usage of the cars. To make it even more attractive for car owners to adopt the OPC scheme, the LTA made revisions to the scheme such that from 25th January 2010, cars converted to or new cars registered under the revised OPC scheme will enjoy unrestricted usage on Saturdays and eves of major public holidays – New Year, Lunar New Year, Hari Puasa, Deepavali and Christmas in exchange for reduced road tax discounts. This is an improvement from the older scheme where cars under the scheme were not allowed to drive on the roads full-day in Saturdays and eves of public holidays unless the paper licence is displayed. With the revised scheme, the e-Day licence was also introduced to replace the paper licence to make it more convenient for owners to use their cars during peak periods. Imposing heavy taxes on car ownership to manage the demand for cars. Upfront taxes in the form of Additional Registration Fee (ARF) were based on a percentage of the Open Market Value (OMV) of the car. However, there were limitations to this approach as the overall effect was to cause people to buy smaller cars with lower OMV, rather than up buying cars altogether. (Tan, Leong, Leong and et al, 2009). In 1990, Singapore introduced the Vehicle Quota System (VQS). Under the VQS scheme, a cap on the number of vehicles added to the roads each year is set by the government. Anyone who wants to register any motor vehicle will now need to bid for a Certificate of Entitlement (COE) which allows the vehicle to be used for 10 years. COEs are issued by the government and prices are set by the lowst successful bid. Since 1990,the vehicle growth rate has been set at 3% per year and an estimated 25,000 vehicles have been added onto the roads each year. In May 2009, the LTA lowered the vehicle growth rate from 3% to 1.5% as one of the measures to control traffic congestion. Despite these measures, private cars on the roads continued to grow from 114 308 in 1999 to 244 006 in 2009. (Annual Vehicle Statistics 2009). Hence, controlling car ownership alone cannot effectively manage congestion on the roads, especially when it is understood that once a car is brought, it will be used intensively – all the more so if it was costly to own one in the beginning. Hence, higher car ownership may actually have a perverse effect of increasing car usage. To address this issue, another scheme was introduced to encourage car owners to use their vehicles only during off-peak periods. The Off-peak Car (OPC) scheme was implemented on 1st October 1994 to replace the Weekend Car (WEC) scheme (introduced in 1st May 1991). The OPC scheme offers new and existing car owners the option to save on car registration and road taxes in return for reduced usage of the cars. To make it even more attractive for car owners to adopt the OPC scheme, the LTA made revisions to the scheme such that from 25th January 2010, cars converted to or new cars registered under the revised OPC scheme will enjoy unrestricted usage on Saturdays and eves of major public holidays – New Year, Lunar New Year, Hari Raya Puasa, Deepavali and Christmas in exchange for reduced road tax discounts. This is an improvement from the older scheme where cars under the scheme were not allowed to drive on the roads full-day on Saturdays and eves of public holidays unless the paper licence is displayed. With the revised scheme, the e-Day licence was also introduced to replace the paper licence to make it more convenient for owners to use their cars during peak periods.  CHAPTER FOUR MULTI-MODAL INTEGRATED TRANSPORTATION FOR SUSTAINABLE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA DR. IORWUESE VIASHIMA, MCPDP, NITP, TOPREC MULTI-MODAL INTEGRATED TRANSPORTATION FOR SUSTAINABLE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA INTRODUCTION 1.1 This paper presents two key transport documents, the National Transport Policy (NTP) and Nigerian Transportation Master Plan (NTM) which, both provide the framework for multi – modal, integrated transportation, for sustainable national growth and development. While the NTP sets the tone, defines the goals and principles to govern the development of the nation’s transport sector, the transportation master plan provides the framework for integration of available transport modes and improved connectivity of transport infrastructure such that major Ports are well connected by Rail, River ports, Rail stations and airports are connected by good roads; dry Ports are connected by road and rail etc. 1.2 The plan also provides the basis for developing standard interchange points for passengers and freight traffic, promoting intermodal transport and facilitating shift from road to other transport modes in order to achieve greater efficiency and lower overall transport costs, revive the role of rail, Inland Waterway and pipeline networks and, thus, reduce the heavy dependence on the road system; provide efficient and cost effective alternatives and encourage intermodal coordination and cooperation between the modes in order to optimize service delivery, minimize total costs and maximize the economic return on investment. 2.0 NATIONAL TRANSPORT POLICY 2.1 The NTP was long in the making. The policy process commenced in 1986, when the then Minister of Transport and Aviation appointed an expert Committee to fashion out a transport policy for the nation. The report of that Committee formed the basis of a draft policy document which was produced in 1990. After extensive consultations with the States and other stakeholders, the draft policy was presented to the National Council on Transport (NCT) and approved as amended in 1991. The modalities for the implementation of the policy were considered by the National Council on Transport three years later, in 1994. Unfortunately, from the records available, not much was done thereafter to actualize the various recommendations adopted then. 2.2 In 1996, to address the prevailing inadequacies in policy implementation, the Ministry proposed, amongst other things, three specialized bodies that would implement the policy. The bodies recommended were: Policy Implementation Committee (PIC); Policy Implementation Monitoring Group (PIMG); and Transport Advisory Council (TAC). The implementation Strategies and Action Plans selected addressed the short, medium and long term issues. There were to be addressed largely through Public Sector provision. 2.3 However, following the shift in emphasis from Public to Private sector driven economy as articulated in the National Economic Empowerment and development Strategy (NEEDS) of the incoming Obasanjo civilian administration in 1999, a policy review was considered necessary. The Ministry in 2000 embarked on the policy review to take cognizance of the social and economic realities of the new millennium vis-à-vis the fundamental goal of providing adequate, safe, affordable and environmentally friendly and efficient transport system. The NTP was now to be implemented within the framework of a progressive and competitive market economy. The Ministry consulted widely with major stakeholders culminating ina Presidential Forum on the National transport Policy on Friday, August 20th, 2004 at the Aso Rock Villa. 2.4 The Bureau of Public Enterprises (BPE), as the Secretariat of the then Transport Sector Reform Implementation Committee (TSRIC), harnessed the various inputs into a revised National Transport Policy (2004). However, before the revised Policy could be finalized, a White Paper on the Report of the Presidential Committee on Road Transportation was presented to the Federal Executive Council (FEC) in October, 2004. Some of the recommendations of this White Paper had some implications for the revised National Transport Policy. The President-in-Council therefore set up a committee under the Hon. Attorney General of the Federation/Minister of Justice to harmonize the views of the draft White Paper on Road Transportation with the revised National Transport Policy (2004). 2.5 The Nigeria Infrastructure Advisory Facility (NIAF), a programme of the United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID) undertook a review of the National Transport Policy (2004) as part of its assistance to deepen the reform of the transport sector in Nigeria. To complement this effort, the Ministry organized a Stakeholders’ Forum in July 2010 which discussed and harmonized the NIAF & BPE documents. The National Transport Policy (2010) was considered by council at its extra-ordinary meeting of 16th September, 2010 in Kano, Kano State. The policy was adopted as amended and subsequently ratified at the regular NCT meeting of 5th – 9th December, 2010 in Minna, Niger State. NTP (2010) is therefore the outcome of work and consultations which date back to 1986 and which enjoyed the input of a wide range of stakeholders, at various levels. The Federal Executive Council (FEC) has directed that the Policy be presented next to the Council of States for ownership and / or buy-in, to facilitate its speedy implementation. 2.6 UNDERLYING PHILOSOPHY 2.6.1 The National Transport Policy 2010 as the outcome of all the previous efforts to develop a vibrant Policy framework for the transport sector in Nigeria is anchored on the principle of a true Public Private Partnership (PPP), with the parties performing their proper roles. Under this arrangement, transportation, like other sectors, will attract private investments for its development, provision, upgrading and maintenance of infrastructure, operations etc. Government, on its part, will acts as facilitator and take responsibility for planning, regulation; supervision and coordination of the sector. 2.6.2 In addition, the policy is predicated on the need to support the social and economic growth of the country and to facilitate the competitiveness of the Nigerian economy internationally. The Policy emphasizes the need to develop a Transport System that ensures national security, opens up inaccessible parts of the country and serves the overall well being of Nigerians. The policy acknowledges that: Major imbalance exist between the needs of Nigerian society and economy for adequate transport facilities and the inability of the transport sector to meet such demand; Urgent remedies are needed to address this difficult situation; Planned change and improvements should strive to attain maximum realism both in the identification of the problems and possible strategies to remedy them. 2.6.3 The NTP therefore provides the guidelines for planning, development, co-ordination, management, supervision and regulation of the transport sector and, serves to: Explain Government’s decision and actions in the sector by espousing the goals and principles guiding such decisions and actions; Identify existing gaps and short-comings and how to address them; Show how actions in the different modes are linked in pursuit of common goals; Provide the basis for a system of monitoring and accountability and Ensures consistency in the application of policy principles across all modes and in pursuit of different objectives. 2.7 NTP GOALS AND OBJECTIVES 2.7.1 The Fundamental goal of the National Transport Policy is to develop an adequate, safe, environmentally sound, efficient and affordable, preferred, integrated transport system within the framework of a progressive and competitive market economy. 2.7.2 The policy objectives for the section are: To promote economic development, expand trade, and improve Nigeria’s competitiveness through an efficient and affordable, integrated transport system; To promote the use of public transport over private transport; To promote a culture of maintenance and continuous upgrading of transport infrastructure and services; To promote competition and efficiency and continuous reduction in the cost of transport services in Nigeria; To improve the safety, security, reliability, quality, and speed of movement of goods and people, at local, national, and international levels; To develop world-class and environmentally sustainable transport infrastructure; To support States and the Federal Capital Territory in the development and promotion of urban transport systems and, Local Governments in developing and promoting rural mobility and accessibility; and To encourage and remove all barriers towards private sector participation in the development, provision, maintenance, operation, and upgrading of transport infrastructure and services. TRANSPORT SUB-SECTORS WATER TRANSPORTATION Sea Ports The goal of Government is too continue the Port Reform process and provide the enabling environment for effective Public Private Partnership in Port development and activities. Accordingly, Government will address the outstanding issues such as the lack of an independent regulator for the ports; stimulating competition among the Ports to encourage Nigerian Ports to become more competitive and to provide improved service to ports users; streamline the numerous Government Agencies operating in the ports which slow down port clearance etc. Inland Waterways Inland Waterways are a major natural resource, traversing 20 out of the 36 States. The areas adjacent to the major rivers represent the nation’s important agricultural wetlands. Government will therefore develop the Inland and Coastal Waterways with private sector participation by eliminating the physical constraints to inland navigation; Promoting pricing policies that will shift traffic to the Inland Waterways and coastal shipping; Strategic application of Cabotage Vessel Finance Fund; Restructuring and strengthening of the institutional framework of National Inland Waterways Authority (NIWA) on the regulation of activities in the nation’s inland waterways transportation while the private sector will be given ample opportunities in the management and operations of the waterways; encouraging indigenous involvement and Public Private Partnership (PPP) in the development of Inland Waterways as a mode of transportation; collaboration with State Governments in the training of seafarers etc. C. Shipping The Nigerian economy is heavily dependent on international trade. The total cargo throughput of the Nigeria Ports was 29 million tonnes in 2011 and 105 million in 2015, the benefits of an effective maritime sub sector are enormous:- export trade and accelerated national economic growth; acquisition of shipping technology and enhanced ability to engage in ship building and repairs; backward linkages and creation and diversification of employment opportunities; boost in Government revenue and improvement in the country’s balance of payment. D. Inland Dry Ports These are usually established to improve the efficiency of inland transport, reduce the ever-growing congestion around major ports and the lack of back-up space for handling the increased volume of containers/cargo flows and transform shipping from the port-to-port activity to an integral component of the broader logistic operations. Government has approved the first phase of the ICD programme to cover six States: Ibadan (Oyo), Isiala Ngwa (Abia), Heipang (Plateau), Kano (Kano), Funtua (Katsina), and Maiduguri (Borno), to be executed on the Build, Own Operate and Transfer (BOOT) model by selected preferred concessionaires. When completed, the dry ports will improve and facilitate delivery of cargo to and from the seaports; creating employment opportunities; promote public private partnerships (PPPs), and create a modern national multi-modal trade and transit facilitation system. 2.7.2 LAND TRANSPORTATION 2.7.2.1 Rail The primary Goal for the rail sub sector is to transform the system from its present condition to an efficient, flexible and competitive mode, to enable it play its rightful role. Government is currently rehabilitating the existing narrow gauge network and is committed to the development of rail links to the Ports and the Inland Container Depots (ICDs) as well as network expansion and modernization as resources permit and in partnership with the Private Sector. To enhance efficiency and improved service delivery. The existing narrow gauge network will be operated on concession when fully rehabilitated. Nigeria is also prepared to take its place as a regional transportation hub and develop a Railway with trans-national connections between Nigeria and neighbouring countries. The National Transport Policy recognizes this need, and in the spirit of NEPA, Nigeria will extend its Railway Network to: Republic of Benin through Ilaro; Republic of Niger through Kaura-Namoda; Chad Republic through Maiduguri; and Cameroon through Yola. 2.7.2.2 ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORTATION This is usually affected by overloading causing damage to roads; neglect of periodic and routine maintenance, absence of emergency maintenance as well as inadequate design and construction. Government therefore intends to adequately and efficiently maintain the existing road network, enforce axle load control, and promote private sector investment in the upgrade and maintenance of roads through PPP. 2.7.2.3 REASSIGNMENT OF RESPONSIBILITIES The national road network is shared by the three tiers of Government in the proportion of 17% for Federal Government, 16% for State Government, and 67% for Local Government. Consideration should be given to evolving a progressive and equitable distribution of roads based on superior professional, technical and financial capacity. This may justify extending Federal jurisdiction over some State, or even Local roads. 2.7.2.4 ROAD TRANSPORTATION Government’s objectives in this area are to enhance road productivity through efficient utlisiation and enhanced private sector operation. The latter entails reorganizing smaller vehicle owners into cooperatives, to enable them operate bigger capacity vehicles, have access to loans and credit facilities, effect organized operations, promote training of operators and the dissemination of road transport information and promote compliance with road traffic regulation with specific reference to vehicle weight limitations and promotion of road pricing. 2.7.2.5 RURAL MOBILITY & ACCESSIBILITY The emphasis here will be to open up the rural areas for local and regional markets; improve the institutional framework for rural road construction, maintenance and operation, for a more focused development; and ensure sustainable funding for rural road construction and maintenance. 2.7.2.6 URBAN TRANSPORTATION The major objective of Government in urban transportation is to develop an efficient, self sustaining and reliable inter-modal public transport system that meets the needs of the growing population of cities, and to improve the infrastructure and institutional framework for public Transport service delivery. Government will therefore introduce organized high capacity bus mass transit services which the existing infrastructure can accommodate. Dedicated bus routes will be created in the urban areas; and smaller operators recognized to ensure organized and coordinated services, improve operators’ managerial, technical and economic capacity, facilitate the access of mass transit operators to the capital market for resources to acquire vehicles; and promote full private sector participation and competition in urban transit service delivery. Non-motorized transport – pedestrians and cyclists will be encouraged as well as Promoting light and mono rails to complement existing transport facilities. In addition, Rapid Rail Systems will be provided to link the major cities of the country and the FCT. 2.7.2.7 ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE Urban Roads are the primary right-of-way which accommodate and ensure the safety of all modes – bus transit, automobile, walking and cycling. Priority must be given to the maintenance and improvement of these roads and the construction of pedestrian walkways. In that regard, Government will enhance the capacity of the existing infrastructure through proper maintenance of roadways and efficient traffic management:- proper intersection control, better passenger facilities and address international obligations of Nigeria for the provision of Transit Corridor roads for the use of its neighbouring landlocked countries under the Almaty Declaration of 2003; Provide Truck Transit Parks (TTPs) along national and international highways across the country to facilitate haulage of goods and persons; Provide pick-up and disembarking spaces, priority lanes, congestion control etc; and ensure strict enforcement of traffic regulations. Government will also expand substantially, urban road infrastructure, with proper concern for the needs of public transport infrastructure (railway, dedicated bus routes etc); Promote road widening and extension in new areas as part of land use planning and development; provide facilities for alternative modes – walking and bicycling; Develop a multimodal 10 year transport network plan for major cities. The plan will include strategies for the development of pedestrian, cycling, public transit facilities and services along the roadway network; Improve the efficiency of urban planning, which should take cognizance of transport implications of different land use patterns and prevent congestion inducing developments; and Improve roadway aesthetics and encourage traffic calming. 2.7.2.8 INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES Government is committed to streamlining the proliferation of management bodies which currently create overlaps and conflicts in the provision and management of urban transport infrastructure and services and in the enforcement of traffic laws and regulations. Appropriate institutional reform measures will be adopted to advance the efficiency of urban transport system operations and management. To this end, the Government will establish a Municipal Transportation Agency (MTA) in each major city, as an autonomous body which will be responsible for maintenance of urban road network; Planning, designing, and maintenance of urban transport infrastructure facilities; regulation, registration, licensing, issuance of permit to private operators; determining and implementing appropriate traffic management and control measures; Liaison with the different Governments as the need arises; Pricing issues to ensure social equity; Formulating parking needs in line with local needs; ensuring intermodal coordination; and undertaking research and development, identifying problems and proffering solutions. 2.7.2.9 REGULATORY BODY Government’s commitment to the use of PPP for the private sector to invest, operate and manage public transport requires clear definition of roles for the private sector and the Government. While the private sector will invest in, operate and manage the transport system, the government will play the role of an enabler, planning and facilitating the private sector driven transport system, making it grow and sustain its productivity. An effective regulatory body, independent of both Government and the private sector, will be established to regulate the activities in the transport sector. 2.7.2.10 INTEGRATED AND INTERMODAL COORDINATION Necessary action will be taken to ensure fuller integration of the available transport modes, improve the connectivity of transport infrastructure and ensure, particularly, that all major Ports are well connected by rail; River ports, rail stations and airports are connected by good roads; and Proposed Dry Ports are connected by road and rail. In addition, standard interchange points will be developed for passengers and freight traffic and as a means of promoting intermodal transport to facilitate shift from road to other transport modes. The customer will be given a choice of modes for which the determining factors will usually be cost, timeliness and reliability. There is need to undertake regular measurement and monitoring of the demand, output, capacity, efficiency and other performance criteria in the transport sector to ensure the right priorities in policy planning and efficient utilization of resources, in order to achieve the desired policy goals and establish coordination Units amongst Stakeholders including Governments at all levels. These measures will allow for development and operation of the required terminals; development of the supporting Systems; provision of appropriate Legislative Framework and incentives for intermodal transport to develop; updating of the NTM for the prioritization of the development of the required intermodal infrastructure linking the Ports, major airports and ICDs to Rail and Road; Improvement of the regulation of transport operations, including the enforcement of existing road Transport regulations and review the regulatory framework to ensure that it provides appropriate incentives for efficient intermodal operation; and Development of the institutional framework for policy coordination within Government and among transport operators to facilitate intermodal transport. 2.7.2.11 INTERMODAL TRANSPORT The Policy objective in intermodal operation is to combine, most efficiently, the operating advantages of different modes and ensure that transport users enjoy reliable services from origin to destination. Accordingly, existing challenges (i.e. inadequate physical facilities (rail system, hinterland freight forwarders; and ineffective system of documentation and custom clearance) will be carefully addressed. 3. NIGERIAN TRANSPORTATION MASTER PLAN (NTM) 3.1 This provides the framework to guide the Planning, Implementation and Monitoring of transportation Infrastructure in Nigerian and has the following specific objectives: To upgrade and maintain existing infrastructure in the agglomeration areas within given transport corridors, including remote areas. To incorporate the 25 years Vision for Rail Development, as a road map for the resuscitation and modernization of the railway system in Nigeria. To address the persistent congestion of sea-ports through the upgrading and expansion of sea-ports in the south-eastern agglomeration area (Port Harcourt and Onne) so as to attract shipping companies and, thus, thrift some of the transportation activities to the eastern corridor; and To revitalize inland water transportation on the Rivers and Benue through their recurrent dredging and supply of navigational aids to maintain an all-year-round navigability. 3.2 Strategically, the plan is anchored on: Switching investment from construction of new roads to rehabilitation, dualization and regular maintenance of the existing road network and, the development of a Priority Road Network; Increased Funding/Investment in the Railways through: Rehabilitation of existing narrow gauge network; and Construction of new standard gauge lines; Capital dredging and River training works of Inland Waterways and, subsequent maintenance dredging; and Priority Airport and Sea Port facilities to be developed and operated on the basis of Public Private Partnership (PPP). 3.3 The NTM incorporates the potential of each transportation mode and in the absence of a Spatial Development Plan, derives from a Socio-economic analysis and forecast of current transport demand and supply, modal split (deduced from existing deficits), estimated future traffic volume vis-à-vis the capacity of existing transport infrastructure and possibility of increasing its usability and, supplements to the network etc. The Plan stipulates the necessary measures towards establishing an integrated national transportation infrastructure capable of guaranteeing a safe, sufficient, comfortable and sustainable inter-regional traffic flow in Nigeria by 2020 and beyond. 3.4 The plan adopts a population of 112 million in 2001 projected to 168 Million by 2020, based on an annual population growth rate of 2.l2%, and population densities of above 500 persons per square kilometer in Lagos, Anambra and Imo States. The Northern Nigeria population densities differ from State to State on a low level except in Kano. It is estimated that by 2020, approximately 98 Million people will live in urban areas while 70 Million will live in rural area. Other projections are that Lagos – Ilorin – Akure triangle, the Delta Region and Kaduna, Kano and Maiduguri will also experience high urbanization, achieving populations in excess of two Million each. 3.5 The plan stipulates that soil quality, water and climate, of the “Middle Belt” area makes it most suitable for Agriculture, provided the challenges of high waste and low productivity are adequately addressed. In this regard, the Plan provides for improved rural road network and connection to the priority network to facilitate production and enable farmers to transport their products to the markets, and minimize losses. Similarly, a good network of roads and railways is planned to support the existing Industrial centres (south-east, south – west and north) which manufacture most of the products and supply the non-production areas of the country. These centres currently operate at low production levels and are heavily dependent on imports mainly through the Lagos Ports. The new network extensions will greatly improve accessibility of the Industrial centres and support further economic growth and development. 3.6 The NTM adopts a hierarchy of urban centres inter-linked by a network of communication axes comprised of transportation and other infrastructure such as power and telecommunications. This aspect of the Plan provides for: The primary axes of major transport corridors with priority networks (major highways and railway) connecting major urban centres; Secondary axes of inter-state and federal roads connecting medium centres to each other and to the major centres; and Tertiary axes linking the remote areas to the central zones. 3.7 Other Planning Parameters used in the plan are as folles: Current traffic volumes will double by the 2020, with the existing major corridors carrying the most traffic volumes. The plan therefore provides for a shift in the modal split in favour of alternative transport modes on the main corridors to avert capacity problems and rapid deterioration of the road networks which currently handle about 95% of the total transportation volume. The average annual growth rate of passenger transport, and population growth rates of the states is estimated at between 1.6% and 2.7%; The average growth rate of Intra-state Freight, Regional Freight Traffic and average GDP Growth Rate of the Macro-economic zones is estimated at 2.8% - 4.2%. The major ports of Lagos and Onne, FOT will continue to generate large traffic volume; The major freight to be transported in Nigeria today and in the future is Agriculture products; In the Industrial Sector, the significant freight producers are: Steel Building Materials Beer and Beverages Seaports Maximum traffic volumes on the main corridors are as follows: Western Corridor: (Lagos – Ilorin – Abuja – Kaduna – Kano) 40,000 vehicles per day (18% of heavy vehicles); Eastern Corridor: (Port Harcourt, Enugu, Makurdi, Abuja) 24,000 vehicles per day (22% of heavy vehicles ); and West-East Corridor: (Abeokuta, Benin – Enugu) 12,500 vehicles per day (34% of heavy vehicles). Existing Network will break down unless there is network extensions and rehabilitation. The Road Network along the main corridors cannot handle the freight transportation volumes alone. Freight transport, particularly long distance bulk movements must be shifted to rail and Inland Navigation. 3.8 In view of the foregoing, the NTM provides for total Integrated Transportation Infrastructure comprising of the following: 4,200 km of Federal Highways (from 1,200 km); 6,200 km of Inter-State Roads (from o km) 22,620 km of Federal Roads (from 30,900 km) 2,500 km Standard Gauge Railway (from 300 km) 2,900 km narrow Gauge Railway (from 3,500km) 1,100 km of Inland Waterways Navigable all year round 4 Priority Airports (from 1) 2 No priority Seaports (from 1) Other Sea Ports; River Ports; Shipping Lanes; and Important mode Interfaces 3.8.1 The Road Network This is based on the urban areas of the three transportation corridors and is defined by a priority Road Network comprising of: Federal Highways of 4 lanes minimum, dual carriageway, grade separated junctions, and ring-roads and by-passes around cities; and Federal Inter-State Roads of 2 or 4 lanes, with by-pass around cities, connecting the remote areas of the nation. The priority Road Network includes ECOWAS and Sub-Saharan Roads to boost Nigeria’s trade with other African countries. State Capitals are connected to the priority Road Network. This is to be implemented 4 phases; with each phase concentrating on sections of the network which provide the greatest benefits. 3.8.2 RAILWAY NETWORK The priority Railway Network is a standard gauge system laid out for a design speed of 160km/h, connecting the agricultural production areas to the consumer areas along the major communication axes. This will primarily serve to evacuate bulk freight and long distance passenger services. Subsequently, the NTM also emphasizes the need to relieve pressure in Lagos and facilitate economic growth in other areas through improving railway access to Apapa port, Lagos and developing the eastern railway corridor accessing the FOT, Onne. Important interfaces are to be established to the road network and the seaports. High speed passenger transport services are targeted in the long run. 3.8.3 SEA PORTS The strategy here is to shift transport to the eastern corridor by establishing an efficient at Onne in the South Eastern axis. To make it really competitive, the new port is to operate 24/7, 360 days, with properly dredged channels, railway and Federal highway access, and fast administrative flow to facilitate speedy cargo throughput. The planned Onne Port is to replace Port Harcourt as the major Eastern Seaport due to the latter’s location inside the city centre which precludes further extensions. 3.8.4 INLAND NAVIGATION The Inland Navigation Plan is anchored on revitalization of Inland Water Transport on the Rivers Niger and Benue, with capital and recurrent dredging and river training works. In addition, Navigational aids are to be provided for 24 hour / all year – round navigability while non-functional River Ports are to be rehabilitated and new river ports/jetties constructed. 3.8.5 AVIATION In Aviation, the Plan provides for a hierarchy of airports consisting of a National Air traffic control system is to be installed to enhcance safety and efficiency of air travel. To reduce budgetary pressure on the Federal Government, some of the domestic airports are to be operated by States, Military, and private owners. 3.7.6 MODAL INTEGRATION The NTM provides for a comprehensive, flexible and integrated transportation network located mainly within the major communication corridors. The network provides access to the industrial and agricultural centres and their Interconnection / mode interfaces. This is to permit freight movement on the best suited mode. The eastern corridor is to be developed to decongest the Lagos area and promote an ancillary industrial centre in the South-east. Rail links will be provided to ensure sustainable access to the northern economic Centres and to the FCT, Abuja, etc. Provisions are also made for appropriate transport infrastructure that would support the access and development of remote areas and tightening of the transportation network in the main producer areas and the markets. Network integration is to be undertaken in phases beginning with the decongestion of the Lagos region and connecting Abuja to the existing rail network at Minna. Subsequent stages aim at developing the Eastern corridor and interlinking the urban centres to each other and to Abuja. 3.7.9 MODAL SPLIT The Plan addresses the existing modal imbalance by providing for a modal shift from road to railway and in some cases Inland Waterways. Although establishing a railway network entails higher capital costs than roads, railway Infrastructure lasts longer and has much longer rehabilitation intervals. Therefore, in the long term, the low frequency of rail rehabilitation works and lower costs per ton per km, coupled with the efficient use of the various transportation modes on their individual advantages, ensure the feasibility of the railway. 4.0 POLICY & PLAN IMPLEMENTATION 4.2 NTP 2010 incorporates a framework for implication which is anchored on the Stakeholders playing their assigned roles. Federal, State and Local Governments, Private Sector Investors, Transport Service Providers, relevant Transport Agencies will all have to own and / or buy-in; adopt its framework for its activities. This also applies to the NTM. The National Assembly is to play the key role of proving the necessary legal framework and appropriating the funds needed for projects and programmes within the Sector; The Federal Ministry of Transport should be able to provide effective leadership in co-ordinating the activities of the Sector across relevant Federal MDAs particularly those responsible for Works. Aviation, Rural mobility and accessibility, Energy, Environment, etc. and coordinate the transport activities of the different tiers of Government. The National Transportation Masterplan (NTM) itself is a step in this direction; States and Local Governments can also ensure their transport investment programmes / projects are consistent with the NTP and derive from the NTM. FGN is already doing this. The on-going rail rehabilitation, expansion and modernization, dredging of the Rivers Niger and other channels, concession of seaports etc all derive from the NTM and are in line with NTP. 5.0 CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS 5.1 Effective implementation is also contingent upon providing an appropriate implementation framework. An Inter-Ministerial Transport Policy Implementation Committee consisting of the National Planning Commission, the Ministries of Transport, Works, Housing Land & Urban Development, Aviation, Agriculture and Water Resources and other stakeholders needs to be put in place to, amongst other things: Finalize the immediate priorities and allocate/assign tasks and projects; Prepare a detailed investment programme in each sub-sector; Specify annual targets/Milestones and the time frame for specific projects; and Set up Policy Implementation Units in the relevant Ministries for monitoring & evaluation, and regular reporting. 5.2 In addition, the Legal and Regulatory Framework needs to be clearly sorted out to give legal backing and the much needed confidence in the sector. In this regard the NASS needs to ensure that: Existing transport laws and regulations in respect of road, rail, and water transport are reviewed in line with the Policy of increased private sector participation / PPP; Amend/repeal laws that may impede private sector participation in the Transport Sector; and Enact legislation to back up the sector reform and set up appropriate regulatory mechanism(s). 5.3 It will also be necessary to redefine functions, objectives and Interrelationships among the three tiers of Government on the one hand and between Federal Ministries and other transport institutions and organizations, such that will lead to a unified institutional framework for Policy issues in all transport modes etc. APPENDICE OPENING ADDRESS DELIVERED BY HIS EXCELLENCY, THE EXECUTIVE GOVERNOR OF OYO STATE, SENATOR ISHIAQ ABIOLA AJIMOBI AT THE TWO (2) DAY MANDATORY CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (MCPDP), ORGANIZED BY THE TOWN PLANNING REGISTRATION COUNCIL OF NIGERIA (TOPREC) IN COLLABORATION WITH THE NIGERIAN INSTITUTE OF TOWN PLANNERS (NITP) AT D’ROVANS HOTEL, M.K.O. ABIOLA WAY, RING ROAD, IBADAN, ON WEDNESDAY 27TH AND THURSDAY 28TH JULY, 2011. Your Excellency, the Deputy Governor, The Secretary to the Oyo State Government, The Chief of Staff, All Permanent Secretaries Present, The President, Town Planners Registration Council of Nigeria (TOPREC), The National President, Nigerian Institute of Town Planners, The Chairman, Nigerian Institute of Town Planners (Oyo State Chapter), Distinguished Participants, Gentlemen of the Press, Ladies and Gentlemen. It is my pleasure to be here today to declare open this two (2) day Mandatory Continuing Professional Development Programme (MCPDP) for Urban and Regional organized by the Town Planners Registration Council of Nigeria (TOPREC) in collaboration with the Nigerian Institute of Town Planners. You will recall that in my inauguration address to the good people of Oyo State, I made mention of the transformation that my government envisaged for the people of Oyo Staten which can only be translated into reality through the provision of necessary public infrastructure. In the address, I promised that our government shall embark on extensive rehabilitation of roads and construction of new ones as well as addressing the problems of garages and motor parks in urban centres. It is worthy of note to observe that the theme of this year’s Mandatory continuing Professional Development Programme (MCPDP) is “Challenges of Transportation in Nigerian Cities.” I believe this is not just a mere coincidence but also an act of God and an un-solicited professional and technical support towards realizing our government’s goal and vision for the State in this direction. You will also agree with me that transportation plays a vital role in the urban and rural development. Whereas, majority of our people in the State live in the rural communities which also serve as our food basket and supplying the urban areas with raw materials, the goal of rural development and integration cannot be achieved without efficient and effective transportation system. Similarly, the economies of the urban areas cannot be sustained and improved upon without provision of good linkage roads and networks that will connect various activity areas. The choice of this year’s theme for the MCPFP is therefore considered a right step in the right direction as it is hoped that the development programme will enhance the capacity of the professionals in the built environment, especially, the urban and Regional Planners to prepare and implement Strategic Traffic and Transportation Plans for the urban and rural areas in the State. May I also inform you all that our government has put in motion efforts to tackle the traffic and transportation problem of Ibadan, the State capital. The State Urban and Regional Planning Board is currently considered the possibility of preparing Strategic traffic and transportation plan for Ibadan and other cities in the State. The plan will encompass the establishment, relocation and management of public motor parks/garages and bus stops with a view to resolving the age long traffic logjams being encountered in the State capital. The State Government is also consulting with the Urban Development Bank of Nigeria (UDBN) with a view to financing key infrastructural development projects, including the implementation of the strategic traffic and transportation plan for Ibadan and other major towns in the State. Our government has noted with dismay, the lack of necessary tool and machinery for guiding physical development and planning of our towns and cities. It is disheartening to note that, Ibadan, the capital city of the former Western Region, the Western State and now the Oyo State has no Master Plan guiding its development. As a matter of urgency, this government is determined to address this anomaly as we will soon commission the preparation of Master Plans for major cities of Ibadan, Ogbomoso, Oyo, Saki, and Iseyin and the preparation of Strategic Physical Development Plan for Oyo State. Ladies and gentlemen, let me now use this occasion to call on all practitioners in the built environment, especially the Urban and Regional Planning professionals in Oyo State to reciprocate the good gestures and intention of our government to restore the State back to its “Pace Setter” status by contributing their quota to the achievement of the good vision and aspiration we have for the State. They should eschew corruption and embrace professional ethics in the discharge of their professional responsibilities. Distinguished Resource Persons and participants, it is on this note that I now formally declare open this two (2) day mandatory Continuing Professional Development Programme (MCPDP) with the expectation that the programme would further enhance the capacity of the participants in developing strategies to addressing the challenges of Transportation in Nigeria cities and also in achieving the goals and aspirations of our government for good governance. Thank you. WELCOME ADDRESS DELIVERED BY TPL DURO OGUNSESAN, CHAIRMAN NIGERIAN INSTITUTE OF TOWN PLANNERS, OYO STATE CHAPTER AT THE 3RD PHASE OF THE 13TH EDITION OF THE MANDATORY CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (MCPDP) HELD AT D’ROVANS HOTEL, IBADAN ON THE 27TH JULY, 2011. Your Excellency, Senator Isiaq Abiola Ajimobi, Executive Governor of Oyo State, National President of the NITP, President, TOPREC, Past Presidents of NITP, Fellows of the Institute, Commander, Hq Engineering Nigerian Army (Brig-Gen. A. G. Enenebe), Sector Commander, FRSC, Members of the Institute, Gentlemen of the Press, Fellow Participants, Ladies and Gentlemen . On behalf of the Executives, Fellows and Members of the Nigerian Institute of Town Planners, Oyo State Chapter, I welcome our Governor, Senator Isiaq Abiola Ajimobi, and other distinguished dignitaries too numerous to be mentioned to this year’s 3rd Phase of the 13th Edition of the 2011 MCPDP. By this, we feel highly honoured by your presence as this will serve as an encouragement to spur us on the path of the herculean task we are called upon to perform. Your Excellency, I want to once again and openly here congratulate you and the good people of Oyo State on your victory in the Governorship pool to become the Executive Governor of Oyo State the Pace Setter. This is borne out of the love that the people of Oyo State have for you as well as the vision they perceived in you that will better and add value to their lives. However, I want to say here that the Nigerian Institute of Town Planners (NITP) had its maiden meeting in Ibadan in 1966 with six pioneering members. Today, it had spread across the country, and the Institute had been having meetings, conference, workshops and training programmes of which MCPDP is one. The maiden edition of the MCPDP was held in Ibadan in 1999, and since that time, it has become a national programme at three centres annually. The Institute was formed in order to create a forum where Town Planners throughout the Federation can exchange ideas on problems confronting our living environment. We as a body are determined to put our shoulders to the wheel in contributing our own quota to the development of Nigeria as a country and to make it shine in Africa. This we will do without fear and without looking back. You Excellency, we wish to record the vision of the present Oyo State Government administration to make our environment better and sustainable for a comfortable living. The Institute in her steadfastness thinks about how to improve the living condition of Nigerian’s populace this year and wish to look into the area of transportation. This is why the theme for this year’s MCPDP is tagged ‘Challenges of Transportation in Nigerian Cities. Nevertheless, it is highly imperative to mention that it is not enough to prepare economic plans, but there must be physical development plan to achieve the economic, social and political process in our society. In this regards, it is an alternative view to come-up with a template that will add value to people’s live not only in the towns and cities, but even in the rural communities where our life’s sustenance (i.e. food) is been sourced. Sirs, transport plays a pivotal role in human life. For instance, without efficient transportation system, all sectors will be grounded; governance, security and utilization of both natural and human resources inclusive. To this end, what will be the role of Town Planners in improving the transportation system in Nigeria shall be the focus of this programme, while the outcome of our deliberations and discussions shall form a good working document for all levels of government in Nigeria. This is because the programme had been held in two other centres thus: Makurdi - for the North Port Harcourt - for the East This will lead to a pull of relevant data and modern paradigm/trends in Transportation Planning and Management in Nigeria. Here, I don’t want to pre-empt what our Resource Persons will deliver to us, but I plead to all of us to be very attentive whenever the papers are presented for the two days as scheduled. In a programme like this, matters of national debate do arise, businesses are being initiated and serious networkings are being promoted that will move the country forward. Let me say here clearly and loudly, your Excellency, and other guests, a Nation’s level of transport development is a yardstick to measure her level of development and prowess. Therefore there is the need to prepare Comprehensive Development Plan in Oyo State for major urban settlements such as Ibadan, Oyo, Ogbomoso, Saki, Iseyin, Eruwa etc. where issue of Transportation Planning and Management will feature greatly. It is not a gainsaying that concept of physical planning is an instrument of national development. Finally, I wish to enjoin all Town Planners, especially Transport Planners in Nigeria to work towards achieving efficient transportation system in Nigeria. This should be seen as our own modest of contributions to nation’s development. Town Planners, you have done well. Once again your Excellency, other invited Guests, participants and other dignitaries, I welcome you all and enjoin you to accept our little way of appreciation. I wish you all safe journey back to your various destinations. Thank you and God bless. Tpl. Duro Ogunsesan MNITP, RTP, CMILT Chairman, Nigeriann Institute of Town Planners Oyo State Chapter 27th July, 2011. RAPPORTEURS REPORT PROCEEDINGS OF THE MCPDP – MAKURDI THEME: CHALLENGES OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS IN NIGERIAN CITIES DAY 2: 19TH MAY, 2011 PAPER 3: 9:55AM PRESENTER: PROF. INNOCENT C. OGWUDE TITLE: MANAGING TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE IN NIGERIAN CITIES Transport is one of the social overhead capitals which must exist at a minimum quantum before any form of development can take place. Infrastructures are essentially public utilities. Transport infrastructure consists of roads, ports, railways, waterways and airways. Transport is a service which has close links with the growth of the GDP. For instance, if the GDP is growing at a rate of 1%, transport will be growing at a rate of 1.3%. With population increase, there is bound to be an increase in vehicle ownership and this will either lead to the expansion of roads or the expansion of our management capability to tackle the attendant problems. Recent emphasis is on Public Private Partnership in the provision of city transportation and the use of conventional buses and light rail have been recommended for city transportation. The road networks and furniture in cities are in poor conditions (not existing or inadequate provision). Urban transport in Nigeria consists of several failed attempts in the provision of public mass transportation. Traffic management is needed in Nigerian cities because There is traffic congestion The demand for transport is high Many cities are choked by growth Traffic control measures are ineffective Car ownership is fairly low Some of the traffic management measures that have been adopted are: Traffic control by the police and traffic wardens or traffic lights Use of speed bumps Enforcing traffic regulations Use of policy orders of the Federal Roads Safety Commission (e.g. use of seat belts, crash helmets, prohibition of overloading, no phone calls while driving etc). However, it is important to note that traffic lights are not effective in Nigeria because they are rigid and traffic movement is so slow. The objectives of travel demand Management (TDM) are to control rising congestion and defer growth in car ownership. The use of road pricing (via taxes0 could also be encouraged. The use of large buses can be viewed as a traffic demand management measure in Nigerian cities. A good example is the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) and the Lagos Urban Rail Mass Transit. What reforms do we need to improve the transport sector? Corporate bus services in cities through the consolidation of small operators to form larger groups. Encourage capacity building in Urban transport. In conclusion, urban transport infrastructure in Nigeria needs transformation. The desired transformation will be expensive but failure to carry out the necessary reforms will be more costly. Comments The paper should consider and capture the attitude of people in managing urban transportation infrastructure. The issue of road pricing in Nigeria will be effective only if we change our attitudes. The paper should provide an insight into the economic contributions of the transport sector i.e. its role in revenue generation and job creation etc. in line with this, improvement proposals must address these issues by way of providing alternatives for those employed in the sector if reforms affect them negatively. Traffic signs and traffic lights are not mentioned under road infrastructure. The statistics on car ownership is contradictory. The figures given in the oral presentation are different from those in the paper. We should think of better ways of enforcing transportation regulations. Behavioural change and training for road users are important in transportation management. Questions Do we really have a transport policy in Nigeria? What is the difference between car ownership and vehicle growth? What are the factors responsible for the failure of mass transportation efforts in Nigeria? Is there any way land use agglomeration can contribute to transportation management? Presenter’s Response There is a transport policy in Nigeria. A transport policy consists of activities and stated goals of government and individuals within the transport sector. A transport policy can exist either in a written form or otherwise. An attempt was made to document a policy in 1965. Car ownership is for cars while vehicle growth combines cars and others. In Nigeria, statistics on car ownership do not exist. There is need for more research on this. The correct estimate at present is 40 cars per 100,000. Some of the factors that contributed to the failure of urban mass transportation efforts are lack of technical know-how and inadequate finances. If land uses are decentralized, some of the transportation problems will be reduced. Formalized learning in institutions such as Nigerian Institute of Transport technology Zaria for road users and train the trainer programmes are recommended as stratifies for improving people’s attitudes to transportation manangement. MAKURDI INTERACTIVE SESSION WITH THE FEDERAL MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT LEAD DISCUSSANT: DR. VIASHIMA TIME: 12:20PM The discussion centred on the National Transport Policy and the National Transportation master plan. The draft National Policy on Transport is presently under consideration by the various stakeholders. It is a widely accepted document that will support the socio-economic growth of the country. The Policy emphasizes public transport over the private car and it aims to Promote safety, security and reliability in the movement of people Encourage and remove all barriers to Public Private Partnership in the provision, operation and maintenance of urban transport services. Encourage competitiveness in the transport sector The National Transportation Master Plan on the other hand was commissioned by the Federal Ministry of Transport to provide a long term framework for transportation management. The master plan has the following objectives: To upgrade and maintain existing transport infrastructure Incorporate sector plans into an overall framework To regulate ports and address the persistent congestion at sea ports To revitalize inland water transport These objectives are to achieved through the execution of several roads, rail, water and airway projects spread across the country rail projects are to be concessioned and operated by the private sector. In conclusion, the representative of the Federal Ministry of Transport, Dr. Viashima called on Town Planners to participate actively at the National Council on Transport. Comments 1. TPL Ibrahim Hussein (Kaduna) The process of preparing the draft policy was not publicized. The Federal Ministry of Transport should improve collaborations with major stakeholders. Also, the standardization of the railway is in progress and a substantial part of the project runs through Kaduna State. From observations in Kaduna State, it is misleading to say that 90% of the project has been completed. 2. TPL Suleiman Shalakuza (Adamawa) Implementation and political will are important in the success of these efforts; therefore stakeholders like the NITP should actually be given the opportunity to participate and contribute to the success of the programmes. Question 1. TPL Odaudu (Kogi) Koton Karfe and Onitsha bridges have been issues of major concern. How will the Ministry address and accommodate these problems in its policies and programmes? How many Pplanners are currently in Ministry of Transport? 2. TPL Faithful Waran (Rivers) Rivers State government has invested money in the construction of mono rail; will the policy permit the State Government to run the project? 3. TPL ----- (Auchi) Implementation should be phased. What are the stages for the implementation of the National Transportation Master Plan? Is the coastal rail not part of the master plan? 4. TPL Edwin Agede (Makurdi) Why are master plans no longer in use in the country? Presenter’s Response The key strategy the Ministry has adopted is collaborated and the role of each stakeholder is clearly spelt out. Most of the rail projects have just been awarded by the Federal Government; so it is erroneous to say 90% of the projects have been completed. Every policy implementation requires political will and the present Government is committed to seeing these programmes thorough. The absence of maintenance and inadequate funding affect urban transport infrastructure. These issues are addressed in the policy. The Federal level functions as a system. Planners at the Federal Ministry of Housing and Urban Development were invited to participate and contribute on the urban component of the transportation master plan. Planners should get more involved in the transport sector at the local and State levels. The philosophy of the transport policy and master plan is collaboration and partnership on a concession basis. Bills are under way at the National Assembly to back the intentions of the master plan. The Federal Government is also committed to capacity building in the sector to facilitate plan implementation. The coastal rail line is a post amnesty project that is incorporated in the transportation master plan. There is a master plan for everything under the sun. there are issues of integration and coordination which the transportation master plan seeks to address. The transportation master plan therefore provides the framework that will guide the provision and management of transport infrastructure in the country. DAY 1: 18TH MAY, 2011 MAKURDI PAPER 2: 2:15PM PRESENTER: PROF. ADESOJI ADESANYA TITLE: MASS TRANSPORTATION AND CITY SUSTAINABILITY The paper sought to address the question: are our cities sustainable based on the kind of public transport systems that we have? Mobility issues in urban centres of Nigeria are worsened by the rate of urbanization and motor vehicle ownership. The paradox of transportation seeks answers to why the demand for public transport has not been met. Mass transportation is a concept that is difficult to define. It is simply a system that moves a large number of people. City sustainability on the other hand is designed with the consideration of environmental impact which includes reduction of emissions from the different modes of transportation. Economic, financial, environmental and ecological sustainability must be considered in transportation planning to address issues of affordability and negative impact on the environment. The different modes of transportation include motor scooters, shared taxis and buses. Public transport is provided by the Government and private individuals. Mass transportation system are more efficient in the use of space, contribute to the reduction of congestion, create an aesthetically pleasing environment and will reduce the level of Green House Gases (GHG) emissions. Low capacity vehicles on the other hand increase the level of GHG emissions, contribute to air pollution and increased noise levels. Some of the sources of financing mass transportation include direct income, subsidies, loans, hypothecated or dedicated revenue, joint ventures etc. policies, programmes and plans are very important when discussing mass transportation and city sustainability. Technological issues are equally important as they aid in the development of vehicles that are less polluting. In conclusion, participatory planning should be encouraged so that communities are given the opportunity to comment on transportation plans before they are implemented. It should be noted however that city sustainability is beyond mass transportation. Comments Public transportation will work only when the issues of affordability, convenience and area coverage are addressed. It I necessary to increase the densities in the urban centres as the will make transportation more efficient. Prime areas should be developed and land uses captured in order to generate revenue to pay for public transportation as is the case in other developed countries. Down towns should be transportation nodes. Concession is also another way of improving public transportation. The presenter has spent so much time discussing the movement of people and nothing has been said about the movement of goods. In Nigeria, there is no opportunity for people to hire public transport when traveling with a lot of luggage. Socio-cultural, institutional and attitudinal issues should be addressed in mass transportation to promote efficiency. Mass transportation will create wealth and employment; unfortunately, in Nigeria, the infrastructure to support this is lacking. Government should develop policies and allow interested parties to participate in mass transportation. The presenter should review the paper to incorporate local examples. Questions Is it not possible to apply the suspended means of transportation in Nigeria? How do we integrate the different modes of transportation? How can we sustain mass transit (by way of policy)? No policy can be developed without statistics. Who is responsible for obtaining data on the level of pollution in Nigerian urban centres? What is the place of the ‘okada’ in the definition of mass transit? Is the presenter suggesting the use of ethanol as fuel in mass transportation? Answers Whatever technology you adopt must be that which will move a large number of people. Mono-rail does not meet this criterion. It is important that Planners identify the key land uses and link them up to promote efficiency. Registered bodies should be encouraged to obtain loans for investment in public transportation. You do not need statistics to determine the level of pollution or noise; they can be felt but NESREA has the responsibility to collect such data. The emphasis is on the efficiency of one unit. For instance, 10 motorcycles (okadas) will pollute more than 1 bus and 1 bus can convey more passengers than 10 motorcycles etc. It is always advisable to use what is available to you e.g. ethanol. It is less polluting but not cost effective. The use of public transport can be encouraged especially if it meets minimum requirements of comfort for the commuters. The issue of freight movement has been noted and will be addressed in subsequent presentations. It is imperative that we understand our culture and make provisions to accommodate it in our transportation planning. Commuters should be surcharged for extra language to discourage them from carrying such. BIBLOGRAPHY/REFERENCES Boileau I. (1958): Traffic and Land Use – A Survey of Traffic Associated with a group of buildings in the Centre of Manchester. Town Planning Review Vol. 29 No. 2. Buchanan C.D. (1963): Traffic in Towns. HMSO London. Fadare S.O. (2010): ‘Urban Forum and Households’ Travel behavior – Implications for Nigeria. Ann Inaugural Lecture delivered at the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife on 24th August. Inaugural Lecture Series 230. Jean-Paul Rodrigue (1998): The Geography of Transport System, Hofstra University. http://www..people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/index accessed 6th April 2011. Kain, J.F. (1975): Essays on Urban Spatial Structure. Balinger Publishing Co., Cambridge. Todd Litman (2011): Land Use Impacts on Transport Victoria Transport Policy Institute www.vtpi.org accessed 8th April, 2011. UN (1972): Human Settlements – The Environmental Change – A Compendium of United Nations Papers prepared for the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment. Macmillan, London. Wegener Michael and Furst Franz (1999): Land Use Transport Interaction: The State of the Art Deliverable 2a of the project TRANSLAND (Integration of Transport and Land Use Planning) of the 4th RTD Framework Programme of the European Commission Dortmund, November. Armstrong-Wright, A. (1993) Public Transport in Third World Cities, HMSO, London Geerlings, H.J. Vanast, and SA. Ongkittikul (2005) Towards a More Fundamental Transport Policy: An Inventory of Trends That Influence the Transport Patterns in Western Europe and their Implications for Policy Making, Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 6, pp. 4050 – 4065. Gwilliam, K. and Z. Shalizi (1996) Sustainable Transport: Priorities for Policy Reform, World Bank,, Washington, D. C. Kojima,, M. and M. Lovei (2001) Urban Air Quality Management: Coordinating Transport, Environment and Energy Policies in Developing Countries (World Bank Technical Paper, No.508, Pollution Management Series), World Bank, Washington, D.C. Litman, T. and D. Burwell (2006) ‘Issues in Sustainable Transportation’ Int. J. Global Environmental Issues, Vol. 6, No 4, pp. 331 – 347. Lovei, M. (1998) Phasing Out Lead from Gasoline: Worldwide Experience and policy Implications (World Bank Technical paper, No. 397, Pollution Management Series), World Bank, Washington, D.C. Lvovsky, K., G. Hughes, D. Maddison, b. Ostro and D. Pearce (2000) Environmental Costs of Fossil Fuels: A Rapid Assessment Method with Application to Six Cities, (Environmental Department Paper 78), World Bank , Washington, D.C. Shiau, T. and J. Jhang (2010) ‘An Integration Model of DEA and RST for Measuring Transport Sustainability’, International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, Volume 17, Issue 1, pp. 76 - 83. Sierra, k. (1996) ‘Motorization in Chinese Cities: Issues and Actions’ in Stares S. and L. Zhi (eds), China’s Urban Transport Development Strategy (Proceedings of a Symposium held in Beijing, Nov. 8 -10, 1995), Wolrd Bank, Washington, D.C., pp. 43 – 104. Steg, L. and R. Gifford, R. (2005) ‘Sustainable Transport and Quality of life’, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 13, No, 1, pp.59-69. World Bank (2002) Cities on the Move (A World Bank urban Strategy Review), World Bank, Washington, D.C. World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) (1987) Our Common Future, (Brundtland Report), Oxford University Press,, New York. Bos, Dieter (2003), “Regulation: theory and concepts”, in David Parker and David Saal (Editors), International Handbook on Privatization (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited) pp. 447-497. CFIT World Review of Road Pricing (2005), Phase Two Report on the ATKINS project on Road Pricing. Document no, 061205. Dorgay, S, Gately, D. and Sommer, M. (2007), “Vehicle Ownership and Income Growth Worldwide: 1960 – 2030”. Extract of a Report prepared for the International Monetary Fund. Dgs_vehicle%20ownership_2007.pdf. Dangogo, K. I. (2004), “The State of Infrastructure in Kano Zone”. A report prepared for the Central Bank of Nigeria. Http://www.cenbank.org/out/publications Federal Ministry of Transport (2010), draft National Transport Policy, Federal Ministry of Transport, Abuja. Falola, J. A. (2000), “Kano State”. In A.B. Maman, J. O. Onybanji and S.W. Peters (eds.), Nigeria: A people United, A Future Assured. Federal Ministry of Information, Abuja, VOL.2, pp. 266-287. Juma, C. (2006), “Redesigning African Economies: The Role of Engineering in International Development”. The 2006 Hilton Lecture, The Royal Academy of Engineering, U.K. Kumar, Ajay and Barrett, Fanney (2008), Stuck in Traffic: Urban Transport iin Africa. World Bank, Draft Final Report. Referred to as World Bank Report (2008) in the text. Ogwude I. C. (2008), “Investments and Strategies for Achieving Effective Transportation”, in S. O. Akande and Ade S. Olomola (eds.), Strategies and Implementation of the Seven Point Agenda of President Y’ardua. (Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research), pp. 139-1. Ogwude, I. C. (2010), “Transport Infrastructure and Mobility in Nigeria”, Text of a paper delivered as Guest Speaker at the National Conference organized by the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport-Nigerian in Lagos, 26-27, Janaury.  INDEX PAGE PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 5