Nephrol Dial Transplant (2006) 21: 1809–1815
doi:10.1093/ndt/gfl117
Advance Access publication 30 March 2006
Original Article
Coeliac disease and risk of renal disease—a general population
cohort study
Jonas F. Ludvigsson1,3, Scott M. Montgomery2,3, Ola Olén3,4, Anders Ekbom3,5,
Johnny Ludvigsson6 and Michael Fored3
1
Department of Paediatrics, 2Clinical Research Centre, Örebro University Hospital,
Clinical Epidemiology Unit, Department of Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital/Institute and
4
Department of Paediatrics, Stockholm Söder Hospital, Sweden, 5Harvard Medical School, Boston,
Massachusetts, USA and 6Division of Paediatrics and Diabetes Mellitus Research Centre,
Department of Molecular and Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, Sweden
3
Keywords: auto-immune; coeliac; cohort study;
diabetes mellitus; kidney; renal disease
Correspondence and offprint requests to: Jonas F Ludvigsson,
Department of Paediatrics, Örebro University Hospital, Sweden.
Email: jonasludvigsson@yahoo.com
Introduction
Coeliac disease (CD) affects up to 1% of the population
in the Western world [1–3]. CD mostly occurs in
individuals with human leucocyte antigen (HLA) DR3,
DQ2 and results in a characteristic T-cell-mediated
inflammation in the small bowel [4]. It is associated with
a large number of autoimmune diseases [5]; among
them type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM) [6]. A gluten-free
diet in patients with both CD and type 1 DM is not only
associated with an improvement in gastrointestinal
symptoms but sometimes also with lower levels of
haemoglobin (Hb)A1c [7].
The incidence of end-stage renal disease with a need
for renal replacement therapy such as dialysis or kidney
transplantation (KT) is increasing internationally [8].
The underlying cause of this increase is largely
unknown [8].
In 2002, Collin et al. [9] showed an increased
prevalence of CD in patients with IgA nephropathy.
Patients with primary glomerulonephritis (GN) often
have an activated mucosal immune system [10] with
increased numbers of intra-epithelial T-cells in the
mucosa [11] and increased gut permeability [11].
Several studies have demonstrated increased levels of
CD auto-antibodies in patients with renal disease
[12,13]; and certain renal disease will improve on a
low-antigenic diet lacking in gluten [14]. Little is
known, however, about the risk of severe renal disease
such as renal failure in individuals with CD.
In this study, we used data from a general
population-based register, the Swedish Hospital
Discharge Registry, to study the risk of renal disease
in individuals with CD. We examined associations of
CD with GN, chronic glomerulonephritis (CGN) and
renal failure assessed by the occurrence of renal dialysis
or KT.
ß The Author [2006]. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of ERA-EDTA. All rights reserved.
For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oxfordjournals.org
Downloaded from http://ndt.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on July 14, 2015
Abstract
Background. Coeliac disease (CD) may be a risk factor
for renal disease.
Methods. We investigated the risk of any form of
glomerulonephritis (GN) (acute, chronic and nonspecified), chronic glomerulonephritis (CGN) and
renal replacement therapy including dialysis treatment
and kidney transplantation (KT) in patients with CD
in a general population-based cohort study. We used
Cox regression to assess the risk of renal disease in
14 336 patients who had received a diagnosis of CD
(1964–2003) and 69 875 reference individuals matched
for age, calendar year, sex and county. Patients were
identified using the Swedish Hospital Discharge
Registry. Follow-up began 1 year after study entry.
Results. CD was associated with an increased risk of
any form of GN (hazard ratio (HR) ¼ 1.64; 95%
confidence intervals (CI) ¼ 1.01–2.66; P ¼ 0.046; 89
events), CGN (HR ¼ 2.65; 95% CI ¼ 1.34–5.24;
P ¼ 0.005; 39 events), dialysis (HR ¼ 3.48; 95%
CI ¼ 2.26–5.37; P<0.001; 102 positive events) and
KT (HR ¼ 3.15; 95% CI ¼ 1.29–7.71; P ¼ 0.012; 22
events).
Conclusion. We suggest that immune characteristics
associated with CD increase the risk of chronic renal
disease. Individuals with CD may also be at a
moderately increased risk of any form of GN.
1810
Materials and methods
Definition of CD, renal disease and DM
Every person who had been hospitalized from 1964–2003
under any of the following International Classification of
Disease (ICD) codes was defined as having CD: ICD-7:
286.00; ICD-8: 269.00, 269.98; ICD-9: 579A; ICD-10: K90.0.
We defined any form of GN, which in Sweden includes IgA
nephropathy, as follows (ICD codes signifying chronic GN
have been italicized): ICD-7: 590, 592, 593.00; ICD-8: 580,
582; ICD-9: 580, 582; ICD-10: N00, N01, N03, N05.
Dialysis was defined according to the following surgical
codes: 9200, 9206, 9207, 9211, 9212, 9213, 9214, 9223 or any
of the following ICD codes: ICD-9: V45B, V56; ICD-10:
Z49.1, Z49.2, Z99.2. Temporary dialysis (e.g. during cardiopulmonary surgery) was not used in the definition of dialysis
in this study.
We defined KT according to the following surgical codes:
6070, KAS00, KAS10 and KAS20.
Finally, we defined DM as follows: ICD-7: 260; ICD-8:
250; ICD-9: 250; ICD-10: E10-E14. The HDR does not allow
any distinction between type 1 or type 2 DM.
Inclusion criteria
The Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare identified
15 533 individuals with CD diagnosed before the end of
follow-up. We excluded individuals with a shorter follow-up
than 1 year in order to minimize the risk of detection bias. We
also excluded individuals with any of the four renal outcome
measures occurring before study entry or less than 1 year after
study entry (n ¼ 1103). Hence, both the CD-patient cohort
and the reference cohort consisted of individuals without
renal disease at the start of follow-up. Another 94 individuals
with CD were excluded due to data irregularities, such as date
of death preceding that of the first recorded CD diagnosis.
The analyses of the current study were therefore based on
14 336 individuals with CD and 69 875 reference individuals
who had never had a diagnosis of CD. Their characteristics
are given in Table 1. It is important to note, that an individual
free of renal disease at, for example, 15 years of age and
entering the study at that time may later have had diagnoses
of all four renal disorders studied in this article, e.g. GN
(aged 25 years with a follow-up of 10 years), CGN (aged
27 years; follow-up P ¼ 12 years), dialysis (aged 35; follow-up
P ¼ 20 years) and KT (aged 42 years; follow-up P ¼ 27 years).
Socio-economic status
In a subset of individuals (n ¼ 45 367), we were able to obtain
data on socio-economic status (SES) from Statistics Sweden
(Table 1). The SES was based on a three-category occupational classification from 1968 [17]. Among individuals with
data on SES, some 6500 children born after 1990 were
assigned a socio-economic code on the basis of the occupation
of the mother.
Statistical methods and analyses
We used Cox regression to calculate hazard ratios (HRs) for
renal disease in individuals with CD.
Follow-up time began 1 year after study entry and ended
on the date of first discharge diagnosis of renal disease,
date of emigration, death or the end of the study period
(31 December 2003), whichever happened first. The Cox
Table 1 Characteristics of participants (n (%))a
Characteristics
No CD (%)
69 875
Totala
Age at first recorded diagnosis of coeliac disease
0–15 years
–
16 years
–
Any form of glomerulonephritis
66 (0.1)
Chronic glomerulonephritis
25 (<0.1)
Renal dialysis
64 (0.1)
Kidney transplantation
13 (<0.1)
Sex
Males
28 691 (41.1)
Females
41 184 (58.9)
No diabetes mellitus
67 875 (97.1)
Diabetes mellitus
2000 (2.9)
Socio-economic statusb
I
7250 (10.4)
II
9244 (13.2)
III
20 081 (28.7)
Missing data
33 300 (47.6)
Calendar period
1964–73
2426 (3.5)
1974–83
19 205 (27.5)
1984–93
30 731 (44.0)
1994–2003
17 513 (25.1)
CD (%)
14 336
9364
4972
23
14
38
9
(65.3)
(34.7)
(0.2)
(0.1)
(0.3)
(0.1)
5906
8430
13 392
944
(41.2)
(58.8)
(93.4)
(6.6)
1501
2149
5142
5544
(10.5)
(15.0)
(35.9)
(38.7)
499
3928
6283
3626
(3.5)
(27.4)
(43.8)
(25.3)
a
Participants with a follow-up >1 year. None of the participants
had glomerulonephritis, renal dialysis or KT at the start of
follow-up. See also text.
b
‘I’ denotes the highest social class. See also text. For reference
individuals we have given the number of individuals who
constituted the basis for the Cox’s regression. We actually had
data on socio-economic status in another 6519 reference individuals
but these individuals were not part of the internally stratified
calculations due to missing values on socio-economic status in the
matched individual with CD. Adding the 6519 reference individuals
to those presented above, the proportion of missing values was
similar among individuals with CD and among those without CD.
Downloaded from http://ndt.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on July 14, 2015
Individuals with a hospital-based discharge diagnosis of CD
between 1964–2003 were identified through the Swedish
Hospital Discharge Registry (HDR). The HDR was initially
established in some regions of Sweden in 1964, and since 1987
it has covered all of Sweden. It contains individual data and
is maintained by the Swedish National Board of Health and
Welfare.
The HDR was also used to identify individuals with GN,
CGN, renal dialysis treatment, KT or type 1 or type 2 DM in
study participants.
For each individual in the CD-patient cohort, Statistics
Sweden (the government agency for population statistics),
identified up to five reference individuals (matched for age,
calendar year, sex and county) through the Swedish total
population registry. Where more reference individuals were
available, five were chosen at random. The total population
registry [15] includes information on area of residence, vital
status and dates of immigration or emigration.
All the individuals in the HDR and the population registry
are identified through their personal identity number. The
personal identity number is a unique number assigned to over
99.9% of all Swedish residents at birth or immigration [16].
J. F. Ludvigsson et al.
Coeliac disease and renal disease
1811
Ethics
This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee
of the Karolinska Institute. None of the participants were
contacted. Patient information was anonymized prior to the
analyses.
Results
The median age at study entry (corresponds to date of CD
diagnosis in individuals with CD) was 3 years (range: 0–94).
The median age at first recorded diagnosis of GN
in individuals with CD was 28 years (range: 4–86).
Corresponding age at diagnosis of CGN was 47.5 years
(4–86); dialysis ¼ 61.5 (28–87) and KT ¼ 34 (25–58). The
median duration between diagnosis of CD and first recorded
diagnosis of GN was 6 years (range: 1–22)(CGN ¼ 4 (1–22);
dialysis ¼ 6.5 (1–27) and KT ¼ 12 (4–25)).
Any form of glomerulonephritis
A diagnosis of GN was more often recorded among patients
with CD than among reference individuals and this association was statistically significant (Table 2). This risk increase
was only seen in CD diagnosed in adulthood (HR ¼ 2.62;
95% CI ¼ 1.24–5.52; P ¼ 0.011), with the risk estimate in
children not attaining statistical significance (HR ¼ 1.20;
95% CI ¼ 0.62–2.32; P ¼ 0.585). There was no notable
difference between the risk estimates in males and females
(data not shown).
In the subset of individuals with data on SES, the crude
HR for the association of CD with GN was 1.74 (95%
CI ¼ 0.91–3.32; P ¼ 0.095) and the adjusted HR was 1.62
(95% CI ¼ 0.84–3.12; P ¼ 0.151). The risk estimate for any
form of GN did not change when individuals with a diagnosis
of DM were excluded (Table 2) or when our outcome measure
was restricted to at least two discharge diagnoses of GN
(HR ¼ 1.81; 95% CI ¼ 0.80–4.09; P ¼ 0.154) (based on nine
positive events in 14 336 individuals with CD and 22 positive
events in 69 875 reference individuals). The risk estimate
for having received a diagnosis of GN in departments of
paediatrics, internal medicine or renal medicine was 1.53
(95% CI ¼ 0.85–2.73; P ¼ 0.155). The risk estimate for GN
was similar when we included the first year after study entry
in the follow-up time (HR ¼ 1.69; 95% CI ¼ 1.07–2.66;
P ¼ 0.025).
When we included the ICD-10 code N02 (recurrent
or persistent haematuria) among outcome measures the
HR did not attain statistical significance [HR of 1.48
(95% CI ¼ 0.89–2.55; P ¼ 0.130)].
Table 2 CD and risk of later renal disease
Type of renal disease
HRa, 95% CI
P-value
AHRb, 95% CI
P-value
HRc, 95% CI
P-value
No CD
Any glomerulonephritis
Chronic glomerulonephritis
Renal dialysis
Kidney transplantation
1.00
1.64;
2.65;
3.48;
3.15;
0.046
0.005
<0.001
0.012
1.00
1.59;
2.65;
2.72;
1.83;
0.063
0.005
<0.001
0.290
1.00
1.70;
2.86;
2.24;
1.71;
0.042
0.005
0.008
0.430
a
1.01–2.66
1.34–5.24
2.26–5.37
1.29–7.71
HR, hazard ratio. Estimates derived from Cox’s regression.
Adjusted HR for the presence of DM (type 1 or type 2).
c
Individuals with a diagnosis of DM excluded from the analyses.
b
0.98–2.60
1.34–5.26
1.69–4.36
0.60–5.60
1.02–2.85
1.38–5.91
1.24–4.06
0.45–6.47
Downloaded from http://ndt.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on July 14, 2015
model was internally stratified. This means that the analysis
was divided by risk-set and then a summarized risk estimate
was produced. Each risk-set consisted of one individual with
CD and his/her age- and sex-matched reference individuals.
All individuals in one risk-set originated from the same
county and entered the study in the same calendar year.
In sub-analyses, we stratified for sex and age at study entry
(15 vs 16 years). In order to test the statistical significance
of seemingly different HRs for renal dialysis in males and
females, we carried out an additional regression analysis with
regards to renal dialysis in which we included CD and sex
but also a multiplicative term (interaction term) consisting of
sex and CD.
In separate analyses, we adjusted for DM and excluded
individuals with a diagnosis of DM. We tested one model in
which DM was dichotomized (no DM vs DM) and a second
model in which individuals with DM diagnosed at an age of
30 years were assumed to have predominantly type 1 DM
and those with a later diagnosis were assumed to have a
higher proportion of type 2 DM. Both models yielded the
same risk estimates for the association of renal disease with
CD. In this article, we have consistently presented the data
from the statistical model where DM was coded as a
dichotomous variable, not taking age into consideration at
the first recorded diagnosis of DM.
In order to increase the specificity of GN, CGN and
dialysis treatment, we calculated the risk of having at least
two hospital discharge diagnoses of these outcome measures
(e.g. a diagnosis of CGN during hospitalization both in 1987
and in 1989). The occurrence of repeated diagnoses minimizes
the risk of findings being based on misclassifications of
outcome measures. We also calculated the risk of having
received a hospital discharge diagnosis of GN, CGN or
dialysis in a department of renal disease, internal medicine or
paediatrics in order to increase the specificity of renal disease.
Misclassification is less likely in departments where a majority
of individuals with renal disorders are cared for. We did not
carry out the corresponding analyses for KT as this procedure
only takes place in specialized settings.
We also tested the relationship between CD and renal
disease including events in the first year after study entry.
In a separate analysis, we included the ICD-10 code
N02 (recurrent or persistent haematuria) when calculating
the risk of any GNF. Earlier ICD versions do not distinguish between recurrent/persistent haematuria and other
haematuria.
The 95% confidence intervals (CI) for HRs not including
1.00 were considered statistically significant.
Statistics were calculated using SPSS 11.0 (2002. Chicago,
Illinois).
1812
Chronic glomerulonephritis
Table 3 Medical diagnoses of individuals with CD and renal
replacement therapy
Diagnosis
Renal dialysis
(n ¼ 38)
KT
(n ¼ 9)
Diabetes mellitusa
Renal failure, acute
Renal failure, chronic
Renal failure, non-specified
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Pyelonephritis
Acute glomerulonephritis
Chronic glomerulonephritis
Renal atherosclerosis
Cancer (small bowel, colon, Hodgkin’s)
Hypertensive disease
Toxic liver disease with chronic hepatitis
Severe body trauma
20
2
5
1
1
2
2
2
1
4
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
One individual with both chronic glomerulonephritis and diabetes
mellitus has been listed under both headings (renal dialysis). One
individual with both systemic lupus erythematosus and chronic
glomerulonephritis has been listed under both headings (renal
dialysis and KT).
Several of the patients also had a diagnosis of septicaemia.
a
Includes both type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. All patients with
diabetes mellitus were assigned diabetes mellitus as the underlying
diagnosis.
Dialysis
CD was associated with a statistically significant 3-fold
increased risk of dialysis (Table 2). Due to lack of positive
events in individuals with CD diagnosed in childhood
we were not able to calculate a meaningful risk estimate in
this age group (HR ¼ 0.00; 95% CI ¼ 0 to above 100). In
individuals with CD diagnosed in adulthood, the risk estimate
was close to four (HR ¼ 3.71; 95% CI ¼ 2.40–5.76; P<0.001).
The HR for subsequent dialysis in females with CD was 5.40
compared with 2.43 in males. A formal interaction test found
that this difference (between the sexes) was not statistically
significant (P ¼ 0.156).
In a subset of individuals with socio-economic data,
adjustment for SES had only a marginal effect on the risk
estimate (crude HR ¼ 4.39; 95% CI ¼ 2.48–7.77; P<0.001)
(adjusted HR ¼ 4.19; 95% CI ¼ 2.35–7.48; P<0.001). The
CD remained statistically, significantly associated with
dialysis after adjustment for DM or exclusion of individuals
who had ever had a diagnosis of DM (Table 2). There was
also a risk increase also when we restricted our outcome
measure to at least two discharge diagnoses of dialysis
(HR ¼ 3.97; 95% CI ¼ 2.26–6.96; P<0.001) (24 and 34
positive events), or to a diagnosis of dialysis in the departments of paediatrics, internal medicine or renal medicine
(HR ¼ 3.42; 95% CI ¼ 2.18–5.35; P<0.001). Including
the first year after study entry, the HR for dialysis was 3.56
(95% CI ¼ 2.41–5.27; P<0.001).
Kidney transplantation
KT was more common in individuals with CD than among
reference individuals (Table 2). The risk increase for KT was
restricted to individuals diagnosed with CD in adulthood
(HR ¼ 5.45; 95% CI ¼ 1.83–16.24; P ¼ 0.002) (CD diagnosed
in childhood: HR ¼ 0.80; 95% CI ¼ 0.10–6.70; P ¼ 0.841).
There was no notable difference between the risk estimates in
males and females (data not shown).
Adjustment for SES in a subset of individuals with data on
SES did not affect our risk estimates (crude HR ¼ 7.73; 95%
CI ¼ 2.26–26.50; P ¼ 0.001) (adjusted HR ¼ 8.67; 95%
CI ¼ 2.77–27.10; P<0.001). Excluding individuals with DM
before the end of follow-up, the HR for KT was 1.71 and
failed to reach statistical significance (Table 2). Including the
first year after study entry in the follow-up time, the risk
of KT increased slightly (HR ¼ 3.84; 95% CI ¼ 1.79–8.20;
P ¼ 0.001).
The underlying diagnoses of patients with dialysis or KT
are given in Table 3.
Discussion
The current study showed an association between CD
and GN, CGN and dialysis. The CD was also
associated with KT, although, unlike for the other
diseases, the risk increase was not statistically significant when a diagnosis of DM was taken into account.
Most previous reports on renal disease and CD have
concerned nephritis and IgA nephropathy [9, 12, 13,
18–20] although other renal or urinary diseases [21–25]
may also be increased in individuals with CD. Collin et
al. [9] reported a CD prevalence of 3–4% among
patients with IgA nephropathy; Fornasieri et al. [18]
found evidence of CD in 2/121 patients with IgA
nephropathy. In contrast, the purpose of our cohort
study was to look at the risk of renal disease in
individuals with CD and we cannot therefore estimate
the risk of CD in patients with renal disease. Our study
results are in line with those of Peters et al. [24].
Downloaded from http://ndt.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on July 14, 2015
CD was associated with a more than 2-fold increased risk
of CGN; this association was statistically significant
(Table 2). This risk increase was most pronounced in
individuals with CD diagnosed in adulthood (HR ¼ 3.96;
95% CI ¼ 1.52–10.30; P ¼ 0.005) than those with CD
diagnosed in childhood (HR ¼ 1.76; 95% CI ¼ 0.64–4.90;
P ¼ 0.276). There was no notable difference between the risk
estimates in males and females (data not shown).
In a subset of individuals with socio-economic data,
adjustment for SES did not affect the risk estimate (crude
HR ¼ 2.93; 95% CI ¼ 1.04–8.30; P ¼ 0.043) (adjusted
HR ¼ 2.77; 95% CI ¼ 0.93–8.23; P ¼ 0.067); the reduction in
statistical significance compared with the main analysis is
due in part to the smaller number of individuals with SES
data available for analysis. The risk estimates for CGN
remained statistically significant also when we excluded
individuals with DM (Table 2); restricted our outcome
measure to at least two discharge diagnoses (HR ¼ 2.74;
95% CI ¼ 1.08–6.96; P ¼ 0.035) or restricted our outcome
measure to patients diagnosed in departments of paediatrics,
internal medicine or renal medicine (HR ¼ 2.48; 95%
CI ¼ 1.15–5.34; P ¼ 0.021). Inclusion of the first year after
study entry, did not affect the risk estimate for CGN
(HR ¼ 2.71; 95% CI ¼ 1.46–5.02; P ¼ 0.001).
J. F. Ludvigsson et al.
Coeliac disease and renal disease
3 years, would only have been 24-years old at the end
of follow-up.
None of the previous studies on CD and renal disease
[9,12,13,18–20,24,35] were adjusted for SES. In our
study, we had data on SES in a subset of individuals.
Although adjustment for SES did not affect our
risk estimates, the smaller number of participants
diminishes our study power. Adjustment for SES is
nevertheless important since SES is associated with use
of health services [36] and lower status is linked with an
increased risk of some renal diagnoses [37]. It is also
closely linked to smoking pattern in Sweden [38] and
as the HDR contains no information on smoking,
adjustment for SES provides some adjustment for
such behavioural factors. Smoking may be negatively
associated with CD [39,40], but seems to be a positive
risk factor for chronic renal failure [41]. Neither SES
nor smoking is therefore likely to explain our results.
Given these associations, it is likely that inclusion
of smoking could have resulted in higher rather than
lower risk estimates for the association of CD with
renal disease.
Due to the high CD prevalence in the Nordic
countries [1,42], most Swedish doctors are well aware
of the necessity to confirm CD with a small-bowel
biopsy [43]. The diagnostic use of small-bowel biopsy
is likely to have increased the sensitivity of our study.
Especially in the earlier part of our study period
hospitalization (and as a consequence of this inclusion
in the HDR) was often a prerequisite for small-bowel
biopsy.
This is important since positive serology does not
always correspond with true CD [44]. In a recent study,
Smedby et al. [45] validated the diagnosis of CD in the
HDR and found a specificity of above 85% in patients
with lymphoma. The specificity of chronic diseases
in the HDR is generally regarded as high. We chose
diagnoses for dialysis or KT as proxies for renal failure
since the specificity for such procedures are likely to be
high. Although, the proportion of individuals with CD
and subsequent dialysis/KT was small, the large study
size resulted in sufficient events for stratifications.
We also believe that the specificity for GN and CGN
is high even though we are aware that CGN in patients
with long-standing type 1 DM may be diagnosed as
DM nephropathy. We cannot exclude that some
individuals have been misclassified. This should,
however, only affect our risk estimates marginally;
otherwise the risk of misclassification differs between
individuals with CD and their reference individuals.
We find such differential misclassification unlikely.
Instead there is a risk that misclassification may
attenuate true relationships between CD and renal
disease.
Also the sensitivity with regards to dialysis/KT ought
to be high. We do not expect any patient with endstage renal disease and dialysis/KT to lack a hospital
discharge diagnosis of dialysis/KT. However, there is a
risk that not all patients with CD or CGN/GN are
identified through a hospital-based registry. Despite
this, our study had considerable power to detect
Downloaded from http://ndt.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on July 14, 2015
That study did, however, focus on mortality in
individuals with CD and was based on death certificates
and not incident disease. Peters et al. [24] reported
increased standardized mortality rates (SMR)
for urinary diseases (SMR ¼ 2.7) and nephritis
(SMR ¼ 5.4) in patients with CD.
In contrast with previous research [9,12,13,18–20,24]
we have tried to minimize the impact of DM, potentially
a confounding factor [6,26]. The CD and type 1 DM
share HLA DR3, DQ2 and DR4, DQ8 [27–29]. In
addition, both type 1 DM [30,31] and type 2 DM [32,33]
are major risk factors for renal failure. Type 1 DM may
also be linked to IgA nephropathy [34]. The HDR does
not distinguish between type 1 and type 2 DM. In this
study, adjustment for DM and exclusion of individuals
with type 1 or type 2 DM resulted in similar HRs.
We also carried out analyses assigning different proxy
values for individuals aged 30 with first recorded DM
diagnosis and for those receiving a DM diagnosis at
31 years of age, strongly indicating probable DM
type. This approach produced identical risk estimates
to the model where we adjusted for DM. This suggests
that the increase in renal disease in individuals with CD
is not solely mediated through DM.
After excluding individuals with type 1 or type 2 DM,
CD was statistically, significantly associated with a
raised risk for any form of GN, CGN and dialysis, but
not with KT.
As the associations with glomerulonephritis are
independent of DM, presence of DM may be another
marker of auto-immunity that is intermediate in the
casual pathway, so that adjustment or exclusion for
DM may have produced conservative estimates of the
true association in our analyses. Therefore, our
exclusion of patients with DM may have masked an
association between CD and KT as those with the more
severe autoimmunity could have been excluded from
the analyses of relatively few events.
In contrast with other outcome measures of this
study, KT constitutes an active decision by health
professionals. It may be that Swedish doctors are more
inclined to transplant a non-functioning kidney in
individuals with type 1 or type 2 DM, due to such
factors as patient age and prognosis, than in individuals
with other reasons for renal failure. This could explain
the lower HR for KT in CD individuals when taking
DM into account. The risk of KT when excluding
individuals with type 1 or type 2 DM was instead
similar to that of GN, although events were fewer and
the confidence intervals therefore wider. When the
number of events is small the risk estimates are
inherently less stable; for instance, so were both
crude and adjusted HRs for KT in a restricted sample
of CD individuals with available data on SES above
seven, as compared with 3–4 when estimating the risk
including individuals with missing data on SES. In this
study, the risk increase for renal disease was seen
in individuals with an adult diagnosis of CD. This is
most likely due to insufficient follow-up time in
individuals with a diagnosis of CD in childhood.
A child with CD diagnosed in 1982 at the age of
1813
1814
Conclusion
In conclusion, our study suggests that CD is associated
with an increased risk of CGN and renal failure.
Acknowledgements. J.F.L. was supported by grants from the
Swedish Research Council and the Örebro University Hospital
while writing this article. This project was supported by The
Swedish Society of Medicine, the Karolinska Institute Funds,
the Swedish Research Council, the Majblomman Foundation and
the Swedish Coeliac society.
Conflict of interest statement. None declared.
References
1. Maki M, Mustalahti K, Kokkonen J et al. Prevalence of Celiac
disease among children in Finland. N Engl J Med 2003; 348:
2517–2524
2. Fasano A, Berti I, Gerarduzzi T et al. Prevalence of
celiac disease in at-risk and not-at-risk groups in the United
States: a large multicenter study. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163:
286–292
3. Dube C, Rostom A, Sy R et al. The prevalence of celiac disease
in average-risk and at-risk Western European populations:
a systematic review. Gastroenterology 2005; 128 [4 Suppl 1]:
S57–S67
4. Green PH, Jabri B. Coeliac disease. Lancet 2003; 362: 383–391
5. Collin P, Reunala T, Pukkala E, Laippala P, Keyrilainen O,
Pasternack A. Coeliac disease-associated disorders and
survival. Gut 1994; 35: 1215–1218
6. Maki M, Hallstrom O, Huupponen T, Vesikari T, Visakorpi JK.
Increased prevalence of coeliac disease in diabetes. Arch Dis
Child 1984; 59: 739–742
7. Amin R, Murphy N, Edge J, Ahmed ML, Acerini CL,
Dunger DB. A longitudinal study of the effects of a glutenfree diet on glycemic control and weight gain in subjects
with type 1 diabetes and celiac disease. Diabetes Care 2002;
25: 1117–1122
8. Hsu CY, Vittinghoff E, Lin F, Shlipak MG. The incidence of
end-stage renal disease is increasing faster than the prevalence
of chronic renal insufficiency. Ann Intern Med 2004; 141:
95–101
9. Collin P, Syrjanen J, Partanen J, Pasternack A, Kaukinen K,
Mustonen J. Celiac disease and HLA DQ in patients with IgA
nephropathy. Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: 2572–2576
10. Rostoker G, Terzidis H, Petit-Phar M et al. Secretory IgA are
elevated in both saliva and serum of patients with various
types of primary glomerulonephritis. Clin Exp Immunol 1992;
90: 305–311
11. Rostoker G, Delchier JC, Chaumette MT. Increased intestinal
intra-epithelial T lymphocytes in primary glomerulonephritis:
a role of oral tolerance breakdown in the pathophysiology
of human primary glomerulonephritides? Nephrol Dial
Transplant 2001; 16: 513–517
12. Pierucci A, Fofi C, Bartoli B et al. Antiendomysial antibodies
in Berger’s disease. Am J Kidney Dis 2002; 39: 1176–1182
13. Ots M, Uibo O, Metskula K, Uibo R, Salupere V.
IgA-antigliadin antibodies in patients with IgA nephropathy:
the secondary phenomenon? Am J Nephrol 1999; 19: 453–458
14. Ferri C, Puccini R, Longombardo G et al. Low-antigen-content
diet in the treatment of patients with IgA nephropathy. Nephrol
Dial Transplant 1993; 8: 1193–1198
15. Johannesson I. The Total Population Register of Statistics Sweden.
New Possibilities and Better Quality, Örebro: Sweden 2005
16. Lunde AS, Lundeborg S, Lettenstrom GS, Thygesen L,
Huebner J. The person-number systems of Sweden, Norway,
Denmark, and Israel. Vital Health Stat 2 1980; 2: 1–59
17. Guteland G. Socioekonomisk indelning (SEI). Swedish
socioeconomic classification. 1982:4. Reports on Statistical
Co-ordination. Stockholm: Statistics Sweden (SCB—Statistiska
centralbyrån): 1982
18. Fornasieri A, Sinico RA, Maldifassi P, Bernasconi P, Vegni M,
D’Amico G. IgA-antigliadin antibodies in IgA mesangial
nephropathy (Berger’s disease). Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1987;
295: 78–80
19. Rostoker G, Laurent J, Andre C, Cholin S, Lagrue G. High
levels of IgA antigliadin antibodies in patients who have IgA
mesangial glomerulonephritis but not coeliac disease. Lancet
1988; 1: 356–357
20. Sategna-Guidetti C, Ferfoglia G, Bruno M et al. Do IgA
antigliadin and IgA antiendomysium antibodies show there is
latent coeliac disease in primary IgA nephropathy? Gut 1992;
33: 476–478
Downloaded from http://ndt.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on July 14, 2015
associations, as there were 89 patients with a diagnosis
of GN among our 14 000 patients with CD and some
70 000 reference individuals.
This study also has some potential weaknesses.
We cannot exclude the possibility that there may be
false-negative reference individuals with CD. These are,
however, unlikely to affect our risk estimates since
individuals without CD dominate the reference population. There is also a risk that individuals with CD will
receive a diagnosis of renal disease due to regular checkups for their CD. Control visits and medical investigations are usually most common just after diagnosis.
In this study, the risk estimates for renal diseases
were independent of events in the initial year after the
first recorded CD diagnosis. For that reason, we do
not think that the surveillance bias has had a large
impact on the association between CD and renal
disease. Furthermore, we cannot rule out that
individuals with CD identified through hospitalization
suffer from more severe CD than the average individual
with CD, although risk estimates for CGN and dialysis
both remained above 2.6 and were statistically
significant when we adjusted for one marker of CD
severity (DM).
Patients with IgA nephropathy seem to have the
same prevalence of HLA-DQ2 or DQ8 as individuals
without IgA nephropathy [9]. So HLA is unlikely to
explain the association between CD and GN, since IgA
nephropathy is the most common form of CGN in the
Western world. Instead, we speculate that many
patients with an initial CD diagnosis in adulthood
had active, yet undiagnosed, CD earlier in life and in
some individuals there was also other auto-immune
disease activity. An adverse effect on renal function in
CD could be mediated through several mechanisms
such as exposure to nephrotoxic substances [9,46–48],
and high nitric oxide production (nitric oxide is also a
pro-inflammatory mediator in renal disease [49] and
nitric oxide synthase inhibitors may improve renal
function [50]). Also greater activation of auto-reactive
peripheral T-cells [51,52] could contribute to the
increased risk of renal disease in individuals with CD.
CD has a negative effect on blood glucose regulation in
individuals with type 1 DM [7]. In parallel, it may worsen
the prognosis of a number of renal diseases, thereby
increasing the need for renal replacement therapy.
J. F. Ludvigsson et al.
Coeliac disease and renal disease
38. Lindstrom M, Moghaddassi M, Bolin K, Lindgren B, Merlo J.
Social participation, social capital and daily tobacco smoking:
a population-based multilevel analysis in Malmo, Sweden.
Scand J Public Health 2003; 31: 444–450
39. Snook JA, Dwyer L, Lee-Elliott C, Khan S, Wheeler DW,
Nicholas DS. Adult coeliac disease and cigarette smoking
(see comments). Gut 1996; 39: 60–62
40. Suman S, Williams EJ, Thomas PW, Surgenor SL, Snook JA.
Is the risk of adult coeliac disease causally related to cigarette
exposure? Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2003; 15: 995–1000
41. Ejerblad E, Fored CM, Lindblad P et al. Association between
smoking and chronic renal failure in a nationwide populationbased case-control study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004; 15:
2178–2185
42. Ivarsson A, Persson LA, Juto P, Peltonen M, Suhr O,
Hernell O. High prevalence of undiagnosed coeliac disease in
adults: a Swedish population-based study. J Intern Med 1999;
245: 63–68
43. Danielsson L, Stenhammar L, Ascher H et al. Proposed criteria
for diagnosis of celiac disease in children. Lakartidningen 1998;
95: 2342–2343
44. Rostami K, Kerckhaert J, Tiemessen R, von Blomberg BM,
Meijer JW, Mulder CJ. Sensitivity of antiendomysium and
antigliadin antibodies in untreated celiac disease: disappointing
in clinical practice (see comments). Am J Gastroenterol 1999;
94: 888–894
45. Smedby KE, Akerman M, Hildebrand H, Glimelius B,
Ekbom A, Askling J. Malignant lymphomas in coeliac disease:
evidence of increased risks for lymphoma types other than
enteropathy-type T cell lymphoma. Gut 2005; 54: 54–59
46. Kuitunen M, Savilahti E. Gut permeability to human
alpha-lactalbumin,
beta-lactoglobulin,
mannitol,
and
lactulose in celiac disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1996;
22: 197–204
47. Kovacs T, Kun L, Schmelczer M, Wagner L, Davin JC,
Nagy J. Do intestinal hyperpermeability and the related food
antigens play a role in the progression of IgA nephropathy? I.
Study of intestinal permeability. Am J Nephrol 1996; 16:
500–505
48. Biagi F, Corazza GR. Gene and gliadin/gut and kidney.
Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: 2486–2488
49. Trachtman H. Nitric oxide and glomerulonephritis. Semin
Nephrol 2004; 24: 324–332
50. Ishizuka S, Cunard R, Poucell-Hatton S et al. Agmatine
inhibits cell proliferation and improves renal function in
anti-thy-1 glomerulonephritis. J Am Soc Nephrol 2000; 11:
2256–2264
51. Di Sabatino A, Bertrandi E, Casadei Maldini M, Pennese F,
Proietti F, Corazza GR. Phenotyping of peripheral blood
lymphocytes in adult coeliac disease. Immunology 1998; 95:
572–576
52. Di Sabatino A, D’Alo S, Millimaggi D et al. Apoptosis and
peripheral blood lymphocyte depletion in coeliac disease.
Immunology 2001; 103: 435–440
Received for publication: 15.2.06
Accepted in revised form: 23.2.06
Downloaded from http://ndt.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on July 14, 2015
21. Whitehead EM, Daly JG, Hayes JR. Renal tubular acidosis in
association with Sjogren’s syndrome, primary biliary cirrhosis
and coeliac disease. Ir J Med Sci 1987; 156: 124–125
22. Saalman R, Fallstrom SP. High incidence of urinary tract
infection in patients with coeliac disease. Arch Dis Child 1996;
74: 170–171
23. Fanos V, Verlato G, Matti P, Pizzini C, Maffeis C. Increased
incidence of urinary tract infections in patients with coeliac
disease. Pediatr Nephrol 2002; 17: 570–571
24. Peters U, Askling J, Gridley G, Ekbom A, Linet M. Causes of
death in patients with celiac disease in a population-based
Swedish cohort. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163: 1566–1572
25. Gimenez Llort A, Vila Cots J, Camacho Diaz JA, Vila
Santandreu A, Concheiro Guisan A, Garcia Garcia L.
Nephrotic syndrome associated with Celiac disease. A report
of five cases. Nephron 2002; 92: 950
26. Barera G, Bonfanti R, Viscardi M et al. Occurrence of celiac
disease after onset of type 1 diabetes: a 6-year prospective
longitudinal study. Pediatrics 2002; 109: 833–838
27. Sollid LM, Markussen G, Ek J, Gjerde H, Vartdal F,
Thorsby E. Evidence for a primary association of celiac disease
to a particular HLA-DQ alpha/beta heterodimer. J Exp Med
1989; 169: 345–350
28. Caillat-Zucman S, Garchon HJ, Timsit J et al. Age-dependent
HLA genetic heterogeneity of type 1 insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus. J Clin Invest 1992; 90: 2242–2250
29. Lie BA, Sollid LM, Ascher H et al. A gene telomeric of the
HLA class I region is involved in predisposition to both type 1
diabetes and coeliac disease. Tissue Antigens 1999; 54: 162–168
30. Mogensen CE, Christensen CK, Vittinghus E. The stages in
diabetic renal disease. With emphasis on the stage of incipient
diabetic nephropathy. Diabetes 1983; 32 [Suppl 2]: 64–78
31. Mathiesen ER, Oxenboll B, Johansen K, Svendsen PA,
Deckert T. Incipient nephropathy in type 1 (insulin-dependent)
diabetes. Diabetologia 1984; 26: 406–410
32. Ritz E, Stefanski A. Diabetic nephropathy in type II diabetes.
Am J Kidney Dis 1996; 27: 167–194
33. Kramer HJ, Nguyen QD, Curhan G, Hsu CY. Renal
insufficiency in the absence of albuminuria and retinopathy
among adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA 2003;
289: 3273–3277
34. Gans RO, Ueda Y, Ito S et al. The occurrence of IgAnephropathy in patients with diabetes mellitus may not be
coincidental: a report of five cases. Am J Kidney Dis 1992;
20: 255–260
35. Reunala T, Collin P. Diseases associated with dermatitis
herpetiformis. Br J Dermatol 1997; 136: 315–318
36. Adamson J, Ben-Shlomo Y, Chaturvedi N, Donovan J.
Ethnicity, socio-economic position and gender – do they
affect reported health-care seeking behaviour? Soc Sci Med
2003; 57: 895–904
37. Fored CM, Ejerblad E, Fryzek JP et al. Socio-economic status
and chronic renal failure: a population-based case-control
study in Sweden. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003; 18: 82–88
1815