Pacific Economic Review6 G  =B00>  E. E2 GENDER WAGE DIFFERENTIALS AND OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION IN HONG KONG, 1981 ± 1996   Chinese University of Hong Kong  !" * Chinese University of Hong Kong #!! #!" University of Hong Kong Abstract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ddress for correspondenceG : + + * ,&, 6 #%& &7  &+' * !( -(6 %+&6 $6 !( -( $%  ,%  +  & +%&   & +' /   +% + + *  < ,+ HHD  &/&&+' +'  ; @' *  * ; I & !( -(JJ * +% ; 9 +&+& #& & * !( -( $% 7& ) 4     )   +  * ,+ +%  &+& * +% #& &   (+ * + F -&&( )+%   '  *  * %  * , +  # ?,)  @/& %  A+ B00 03 #) ' 86 94* 9C D6 -  E0 F& + +6 F 6 F" 0B36 " 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i & ,, +& j / 4   Wij ˆ j ‡ Xij j ‡ "ij ; j ˆ ; B; :::; J => )%  Xij   + +% ,%,+ & +&, * +% &&7&6 j  j   +  + / +&+ 6 "ij &    + 6  J & +% /  * ,, +& (  D  (&7  ,, +&6 ) )& +&+ +% *)&( (   F&,  =21> +' % , &+ &( ;+&G = &( > ˆ ‡ ‡ = ,+&> ‡  =& > ‡ B= 4 & , > ‡ E =)&) > ‡ = 4 & , > B  =#%&> ‡ ": =B> $%& ,&*&,+&   +%+  &&7&J +%' &(   + &  /' %& =%  ) +  ,%,+ & +&, 6 &,&( ,+&6 4 & , 6 (   =  *  >6 &+ ++ =& 6 )&) = +   &( >6  )% +%  +%   ) / & #%& =&,&( $&)> $% 7&/ HH 4 & , JJ & +% HH + +& 4 & , JJ  &  *&   ( & '  * ,%&(   # ?,)  @/& %  A+ B00 3  6  !" ": #!! #!" ?) +  %) +%+ +% (   )( &**  +& , /  ,    *) G P f ^m m P m m H m W H fˆ KX fj > ‡ HW j =P j W P j j =KX j P^ fj > |‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚{z‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚} |‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚{z‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚} ? " P m f P f m P f f ^m ^f f HW j =P^ j P fj > ^j> ‡ => P j KX j = j ‡ Pj=^j j> ‡ |‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚{z‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚} |‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚{z‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚} : # )%   / 7   7&/  + +%   7 6   ,& + m  f  *  +   *  6  ,+&7 '6 +% +  P fj =P m j > & +% / 7   +& * *  = > & ,, +& j6  +% +  P^ fj   + +% %' +% +&,  +& * )  & +%   )% ) / & ,, +& j &* )  *,  +%  ,, +& +,+    $% +& & 7  j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2 9##@"$9"A 8"$9  !9 -9 9 & ++  ,+ * +%&  ,% & +% , ++& * & ,&& +' ,, +& +,+ * )  =&  P^ fj > $%&  ;&    * ,, +& ++& + + / +&+  ?) +  ,&*&    , * +&& (&+   + , + %) 7&/ ** ,+ +% //&&+' * &&7& i )&( & ,, +& j $%& //&&+' ' /  *&   Pij ˆ /=occupationj > ˆ e xi J X j e xi ; i ˆ ; :::; N; j ˆ ; :::; J j kˆ )%  xi &  7 ,+ * +% 4(  7&/ ** ,+&( /  '    *,+    +&+& + 6 +%  + * 7&/ & ;+& =B> )& /   * xi  +&+ * +%  +  * +%&    /+&  /'  &(  / 7+& 6  +% *  + =&  ,%,+ & +&, >  +%  / +&++  &+ +% +&+  ;+&= >6 ,&( * ,% )  =7 ,+ *>  &,+  //&&+& * / (&( + ,% ,, +& $%  &,+  //&&+& * / &( & ,% ,, +&    7  / 7+& + , +%  &,+  ,, +& & +&/+& * ) 6 P^ fj  $% (   ,  + +&+ +%& )(  ,  &+& &77 +% +  D& +6  //&&+'   = (  +&& (&+> * ,, +& ++& + &   + ,,+ +% *   &,+  ,, +& & +&/+&6 P^ fj   ,6 )( *,+&  +&+  * ,% ,, +&  (   f ^m ^f ,+ (' + ( + ^ m j 6 ^ j 6 j  j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Table 1. The characteristics of the workforce (mean values) 1981 Variables Male Female 1986 All Male Female 1991 All Male Female 1996 All Male Female All # ?,)  @/& %  A+ B00 "( 300 0110 B101 0B 1B2 EE 012 B3101 3B 10B 012 E31B 4 & , B030EE 3231 232 B032 30331 22BE B032B1 1E 2EE2 B03311 1EB 2EEEB 4 & , ;  B112 EE2232 0B BE2E EBE331 E33223E 1BE1 1E00 EBB133 0EEB E212 E30E1 F&+ ++ G &( 02 0E 02 0E 01B 00 031 0E 000 0E 022 010 F&  0E0 02 0E0 0E3B 03E1 0E1 00 0EB2E 0E1 0B 0EE31 0E221 &) = +  00E0 001E 00B3 001 00 00B 00EB 0020 00B 00B0 00 00B23 @, * /&+%G !( -( 01 00 0E 0EEB 0 0E2E0 0E22 0100E 03E 0EB 01B21 03E #%& 0EB 02 03 011 0 00E0 0001 0B22E 0E 03 0B10 0E ,+& ++& +G  ,%&( 00E0 0B 0030 00 0023 00B1 003 000 002 00B1 00B 00B @&' 03B3 0B 00 00EB 0BB 0B3B 0B 02E2 0BB1 02B 0E 011B A)   ,' 0B0 0 0B0E 0B 0E1 0B02 0BEE 0E1 0B1 0BE1E 03 0B1    ,' 0BB 0B1B3 0BB 0BEE 0B2 0B31E 0B1B3 020B 03 0B31 023 0 F+&,+  00B 000 0012 001 00E 002 002 001 00E2 00E 0010E 0003 #*+= $ ,%&, 00BB 00B2 00B2 002 00E1 00 001 000 00E03 003 00B1 002  ( 002 001 003 00B 0022 00B3 00B30 00B 00BB 00B3 003 000 : ( 002 00B 0000 001 00B 00B 00EB 002 00E20 01 0 02   * ,%&( 122E 1E1E0 132 3B 310 30B 23 23 2B30 013 0E32 02 F+%' &( 2231 20 1331E E3E1 B1021 BE32 1E1E3 E33 203 2E3 2B0 B3BB2E A( +%' &( 11 102 10 122BE 120 133 312 30E 3 2B13B 23 2BB # ?,)  @/& %  A+ B00 Table 2. Monthly earnings of different occupations 1981 F(   && ++ @* & #      7&, )  #*+ 6  +  /  "(&,+  *& % ' )  97  1986 1991 1996 Male Female F=M ratio Male Female F=M ratio Male Female F=M ratio Male Female F=M ratio E123 2E0 B3 B03B2 11 301 E12 2231 E333E 031B 10B1 E03B BBE 02E B31 20 01232 01131 01210 01BB 032E 0BB 0120E 010B 2330 1B2 3B2 3B1 E3BE B13B0 B10 E3E1 13E E31 00111 BE2 B22BB 1B E32 B1021 012 0131 01131 010E 02 0B3 03 01EE1 323B31 0B3B EE01 E130B1 E3011 E E00B 1E1E3 EB311 0E0E10 EE11 3E 0  1 E33 030E 030 031 030B 022 001 0B3 011B0 01B BB11B0 0103 22EE3 2B 2E0B10 32B2 2E3 B12EE3 3E1B 21E0 120 1023 E00 EB1BE 2B0 03330 03B1E 020B 012 01B 031 0E20E 032 Table 3. Occupational distributions 1981 All => F(   && ++ @* & #      7&, )  #*+ 6  +  /  "(&,+  *& % ' )  Male actual =B> 1986 Female Female actual predicted => => All => Male actual =B> 1991 Female Female actual predicted => => All => Male actual =B> 1996 Female Female actual predicted => => All => Male actual =B> Female Female actual predicted => => 00E 00B 00012 001 00B 00B2 00 00B0 00 00E 00B3 00E 0011 003B2 00E1 003E 001 0EBB 00E2B 03 0E 00E12 0022 001 013 0E1E 003B 0BB10 00 032 0E0B2 00E3E 023 001 0E3 0E330 0031 012 002B 0 02 001 0 0012 03B2 0EE1 00 0B3E 001 013 02E 0012 0B21 0010 0E 01 0E3 02 00B 0BB3 0EBE 0E03 0022 00 0B 0B1E 0B 003 00E20 01E2 0B3 02 00 002 0BBBE 03B 02 0B0B 0023 0BB0 0B0 0120 00223 0023 0B1B 0E20 0B02 0E2 002 0B0 002 0B0B 0 001 0B10 0B01 000E 000B 0000E 0000 000 0001 0000 00 0001 000B 00001 000 0001 000B 00003 003B 9##@"$9"A 8"$9  !9 -9   E $F"$9 ": 8A$ The distribution of employees in selected occupations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redicting occupational distribution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E  6  !" ": #!! #!" (  =&& ++ 6  = 7&, 6 ,*+ = + =/  ) &,  )%& +%  * &  ,  ) * "( +% ,%( 6 +% &,  & (  =&& ++ ) /  + +&,6 (( +&( +%+ &+ & +% &   * & 7  +  *  *  )   ,,   9 +% +%  %6 +% * & ,  )   / 7 ' / ++& * )  &* +% ' *,  J ,, +& +,+  +&, +%+ +%  &,+  *  & +&/+& & ;&+ , + +% ,+  ,, +& & +&/+& $%&   +%+ +% 4 &  + * +% &+  ,, +& )( &**  +& & 7 ' 5  + * +% &**  +& / ( + +%  4 &  +  Decomposition of earnings differentials with occupational segregation $/   + +% ?) +   ,  &+&  + B $% ,,+&  /   +%  + * )( ;+& +&+  * +% 7  ,, +& ,+ (& *   *    + ' $% )(  ( & =+ Table 4. Decomposition of gender earnings differential with occupational segregation 1981 Value $+ )( &**  +& +,, +& 4 &  =">  4 &  =#> + ,, +& 4 &  =?>  4 &  =:> $+ 4 &  =" ‡ ?> $+  4 &  =# ‡ :> 1986 % 01 0BB 003B 0B10 002 000 003 0032 0BE11 0000 00 B30 12E0 0 00 E0 BE30 1B0 Value 0B23E 0B 003 0B 0011 00B 0013 002B 032 1991 Value $+ )( &**  +& +,, +& 4 &  =">  4 &  =#> + ,, +& 4 &  =?>  4 &  =:> $+ 4 &  =" ‡ ?> $+  4 &  =# ‡ :> B 0BE 0B11 00 0B3 001 0002 00030 00B 0B0 0000 E20 B130 330 E20 330 B10 0 0 1996 % 0000 030 B0 20 30 10 0 2E0 20E0 Value 0 02E 003 0E 00B32 00 00E 001 020 $%  ,  &+& * ,, +& )( ** ,+ & /    )( /   *  )(  ) &(%+  && + +%  +  %   # ?,)  @/& %  A+ B00 % % 0000 10 20 230 10 310 310 00 320 = ) &(%+ > 8 + 9##@"$9"A 8"$9  !9 -9 EE  + > %) +%+6  4 ,+ 6 ,+& ++& +6 4 & , 6 +& ++ 6  +% /&+% ,  & ++  + &+ * &( & !( -( $/  &&,+ +%+  + * +%  4 &  )( &**  +& ) )&+%& ,, +& 5 &+ ,,+  * /+ 12E6 336 2  23 , + * +% 7  )( &**  +&  ,+&7 ' & 236 236 22  22 +  7   ,   =0B106 0B6 0B3  0E6  ,+&7 '6 & 236 236 22  22>6 )%   &+ % * +% 7  )( &**  +& &,   7  +% '   $% 4 &  )( &**  +& )&+%& ,, +& ,,+  * ' /+  .B3 , + * +% 7  &**  +& $%  4 &  &( &**  +&  + ,, +& &**  , *7  *  &  '   $% 4 &  )( &**  +&  + ,, +& &**  , ) &+%   =  33 , + & 23  23>6  & *,+ *7&( *   )  = 1  31 , + & 22  22> "  +&  & 6 +%  &,+  *  & +&/+& & ;&+ , + +% ,+  ,, +& & +&/+& $%& 4 & )%' +% 4 &  )( &**  +& * ,, +& &**  , & 7 '  %' ) +%  4 &  )( &**  +&  + ,, +& &**  ,  (+&7 =*7&( *  >M A +  , &  +%  &,+   +% ,+  +& * +% *  ,, +&  "  * +/ 6 +% ,, +& )% ,+ 7 4,   +%  &,+  7 +%  + ) ,  6 )%& +% ,, +& )% ,+ 7 *  %+ * +%  &,+  7 +%  + ) ,*+ = + =/   $% &**  , )  ,%   / +)  +% ,+  +%  &,+  & +%  ,, +&  &, ,  %7 %&(%  &( +% ,*+ = + =/  6 +%  4 &  )( &**  +& * ,, +& &**  , )  (+&7 7  +% '   + % / +  +%+ +%  ,  &+&  +  /+&  * +%  / ,, +& , &*&,+&6  '  &(&+ ,, +&  %& +%& / , &*&,+& & , & + + )&+% +% &+ + =+% +&& (&+      7 ' *& , &*&,+& &*  &/ >6 +%  + &(%+ / &**  + &* *&  ,, +& )    !) 7 6 +%  &  7& , +%+  + ) + ,%( ,% =-&  %6 22>  6 * +% 22 +6 ) * +%+  =w m p m >  =w m p f > &  * +)&(&+ ,, +& 6   & ++'6 &+ ) , + +% , &( 7 *  &(&+ ,, +&  $%& (&7  ,*& , +%+ +%  + ) + ,%( ,% 7  &* *&  ,, +& )    " < +&7+& * ;7 &,& & (   ,, +& ( (+& =$ &  !+6 23> !) 7 6 & !( -(6 ,, +& ( (+&  + *7 *   ,  =*  </ > %7 %&(%  &( +% ,*+ = + =/  = </ > ! , 6 +%     ( + &+, ;7 &,& & !( -(  !  w m & +% 7 ( ( )( *   & ,, +& j = / ,& + j % /  &++  * & &,&+'>6  p m =p f > & +%  +& *   =) > & ,, +& j6  +% +& & 7   ,, +&  # ?,)  @/& %  A+ B00 E   6  !" ": #!! #!" A brief comparison with selected studies "  +&  & +% &+,+&6 !( -( & + %7  4 & ,&&+& &,' +& 7 '  , +' + +% 7&  &; ++&( * 4&&( (   &( ( & +% / , * 4 &,&+ &,' &+ 7 +& + & &+  +&( + ,  +%  + * !( -( )&+% +% * +%   7   ,+&  &( +%  ?) +   ,  &+&  ,%  7  +& * &+  +  F&  =231> * +% -6 !) =22> * +%   " +&6  -&  % =22> * # " & )  )6 +% ,+& %7  ( %& +' * 7& )( &,& (& + 4 & ,&&+& ! , 6  &(%+ 4 ,+ +%+ +% (   )( ( & !( -( ) / (  +% +%+ & +% +% ,+&  $/ E &N +% Table 5. Decomposition of gender wage differential for UK, US, Canada and Australia UK (Miller) $+ )( &**  +& +,, +& 4 &   4 &  + ,, +& 4 &   4 &  $+ 4 &  $+  4 &    * +   Value % Value % 02E 0 02 0BB 00B 0 001B 0BE 010 00 31 3 32 B B1 E E  E10E 3E2E BB0 E B32 0 B20E BB 0 00 3 B 0B 3 0 3E  3E1 230 231 Canada (Kidd=Shannon) Australia (Hawke) Value $+ )( &**  +& +,, +& 4 &   4 &  + ,, +& 4 &   4 &  $+ 4 &  $+  4 &    * +   US (Hawke) 0B2E 0B221 0011 0BBE0 000EB 0000 0003 001 0BB0B 232 % Value % 00 01 BE 1 1 0  BEB 13 02B1 020 EB2 10 0 302 3 3 E32 00 00 B 30 0 1 11 21 0 23 NoteG F&  =231>  -&  % =22>     )( &**  +& /'   ( )( 6 )%& !) =22>     +%' )(   $% *& + +&& ,&&+&  (& +& & +% ) ) ,%  & +%   '  2 $% ; @' ",+ )   & 210 & +% - ; '  (& +& , &+ 4& + , & 21B  211 & " +&  #6  ,+&7 ' F 7 6  * +% ,+& %7 % ; '  (& +& * ' '   # ?,)  @/& %  A+ B00 9##@"$9"A 8"$9  !9 -9 E1 Table 6. Average wages in non-agricultural activities (1996) " = & ) ' )( > - =%' )( > " +& =) ' )( > !( -( =+%' )( > Female Male F=M ratio 0 3 B 2BE3 E3 3 113 0333 01E 01 012 03E SourcesG !( -( +G Hong Kong Monthly Digest of Statistics6 F,% 2215 " +&  - +G Bulletin of Labour Statistics6 2215  +G Statistical Abstract of the United States 19966 221  + * +% +&  $% #& +'   + *  232 7 '  +% - +'   + *  230 7 ' + & ,  +%+6 ,+' + 4 ,++&6 +% 7  (   )( ( )  *7/ + *  & !( -( +% +%+ & +% -  # D 4  6 +% ( )( &**  +& ) 0B2E * # & 2326 (  +% 0BE * !( -( & 22 $% ( )( ( & +% - ) 02E & 2306 )%&,% & ,% (  +% +% &**  +& * 01 * !( -( & 23 $% ( )( &**  +& & + 7&/ & +/ E * +%   " +&6 /+ &+ , / ,,+  * &*+& & !) =22> + ) 02B *  & 231  0BB * " +& & 23 $% 6 +% ( &**  +& * 0B23 * !( -( & 23 & / +)  +% /  *   " +&  &( (( (+ +6 +/  &&,+ +%+ +% (   ( & !( -( & ,%   +% +%+ & +%   " +& & 22 # &( +%  ,  &+&  + * !( -( )&+% +% * +% +%  ,+& (&7 & + * ,, &  D& +6 +% , +( * +% &+ ,, +& )( &**  +& & !( -( =(&( * 0 + 1 , +> ) (  +% +%+ & +% - =31 , +>  ) , / + +%+ & " +&6 #  +%   ,6 +% &+ ,, +& )( &**  +& =  , +> )  *7/ + )  & !( -( & 23 +% & +% - =B , +> $% (&+ * +%+ +& & 23 = E2 , +> ) &(%+' )  +% & +%  = 3 , +> )%& & 22 = 3 , +> &+ ) (  +% & # & 232 = 1 , +>5  & 23 = E2 , +> &+ )   (  +% & " +& & 23 = 0 , +> $%&6  & +% +%  ,+& 6 +%  4 &  &+ ,, +& +& )   (+&7 6 & '&( *  / &( *7  & +%&  ( D+%6 +% ++  4 &  +& ) , / + +%+ & +% +%  ,+&  23 = 0 .10 , +>6 /+  & &(' &+ &,   / ++&' & 22  22 = 20 , +>  /& * '6 +%  * 6 !( -( /'  (   + / &+%  , / )&+%   +& 7  + + * +% +%  ,+& & +% 7&  ,+ * (   )( & ;&+' E FF"8 ": #9#A9 $%&   % 'N  (   )( &**  +&  +%  * ,, +& ( (+& & !( -( $% *  .  &( +& & !( -( # ?,)  @/& %  A+ B00 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ex Inequalities in Urban Employment in the Third World6 AG F,& ? , 6   =23E> HH! # &+6 **+6  +%  4 :&7& & * A/6JJ Journal of Labor Economics 6 .E3 ? (6 ? =23> The Economic Emergence of Women6  ) G ? &, ?  ?& 6 "  =21> HH( :& ,&&+&G 8 ,  D  +,+  +&+& 6JJ Journal of Human Resources 36  .EE # ?,)  @/& %  A+ B00 9##@"$9"A 8"$9  !9 -9 E2 ?)6 8 6 F F  ?  +% =230> HH, +&( 9,, +& "++& + & +& * F =D  &( :&**  +& 6JJ Journal of Human Resources E6 . B3 #%(6 @ =22> HH   &( :&**  +& & !( -(G $% ** ,+ * +% ++ 6 ,+&6   ' +6JJ Economics of Education Review E6 B . /& 6 @    ,%&+N =232> HH$% ** ,+ * 9,, +&  ( (+&  +% 8 +&7 &( * ?, F 6JJ Economics Letters 06 11.3   6 F =232> HHF .D  ( :&**  +&  @&,' 8  6JJ Journal of Economic Literature B16  .1B OO =22> Comparable Worth and Gender Discrimination: An International Perspective6   7G + +& A/ 9**&,  !) 6 " =22> HHF D  ( :&**  +& G !)  ++ & 9,, +&  ( ( +&MJJ :& , & @  BE6 # + * ,&, @&,' 8 ,%6 $% " +& +& &7  &+' -&6 F @  F % =22> HH"  +  4+  & * +% #& 7& ,     ( :&**  +& 6JJ Canadian Journal of Economics B16 23. 3 OO =22> HH: +% A 7  * 9,, +& "(( (+& "** ,+  +&+ * +%    (  6JJ Industrial and Labor Relations Review 26 1.B2 A 7&6 : " =22> HH    +& A/ F + & !( -(G @+&,& +&  @ , +& 6JJ &   ,7&  = > Status Influence in Third World Labour Market6 ? &G "+   '  A&6 !-     =22> HH$% )&(     & !( -(G 21.236JJ Asian Economic Journal6 1=B>6 1.30 OO =22> HH$% +,+ * +% D  &(  & !( -(6JJ Hong Kong Economic Papers6 E .B2 F (6 C  @  F&  =22E> HH9,, +&  ( (+&  &+  ,+     ( :& ,&&+& & #%&J 8  +&  ,+6JJ Oxford Economic Papers 16 .EE F& 6 @  =231> HH$% ( ** ,+ * +% 9,, +&  ( (+& *   & ?&+&6JJ Economic Journal 216 33E. 2 F&, 6  =21> Schooling, Experience and Earnings6  ) G +& ?  * ,&, 8 ,% F6 @  =22B> HH$% : ,& * :& ,&&+& "(& + #  @   & +% "*&,6 210 + 2306JJ Journal of Development Economics 16 B32 .01 94,6 8 =21> HHF .D  ( :&**  +& & / A/ F + 6JJ International Economic Review 6 2.102  6  =22E> HH    & !( -(G "  + 6JJ Asian Economic Journal6 2=>6  .2 $  6 - =22B> HHD  .F &( :&**  +&  9,, +& +,+ 6JJ International Labor Review 6 31 .0 $ &6 :   !  !+ =  > =23> Women, Work, and Wages: Equal Pay for Jobs of Equal Value6  %&(+6 :#G +& ", ' @  # ?,)  @/& %  A+ B00