Dhar, Parul Pandya and Gerd J.R. Mevissen, 2016. Temple Architecture and Imagery: An Introduction. In Temple Architecture and Imagery of South and Southeast Asia. Prasadanidhi: Papers Presented to Professor M.A. Dhaky, eds, Parul Pandya Dhar and Gerd J.R. Mevissen, Delhi, pp. xxxiii-xxxviii.

Temple Architecture and Imagery of South and Southeast A sia Prāsādanidhi: Papers Presented to Professor M.A. Dhaky Edited by Parul Pandya Dhar | Gerd J.R . Mevissen Foreword by Kapila Vatsyayan In cooperation with Indian Art Histor y Congress and Devangana Desai Aryan Books International New Delhi Contents foreword — Kapila Vatsyayan Acknowledgements Message — Pradeep Mehendiratta Dhaky Saheb: reminiscences — Devangana Desai The indian Art history congress — R.D. Choudhury colour Plates Temple Architecture and imagery: An introduction — Parul Pandya Dhar and Gerd J.R. Mevissen Pioneering Perspectives: The Temple in M.A. Dhaky’s Writings — Parul Pandya Dhar Writings in regional languages by M.A. Dhaky — Hemant Dave Bibliography of M.A. Dhaky’s Publications v viii xii xiii xv xvii xxxiii xxxix xlix lix I. Architectural Styles, Modes, Materials, and Milieus 1. The Development of the Vihāra Shrine from Bagh to Ajanta — Walter Spink 3 2. from Śikhara to Śekharī: Building from the Ground up — Michael W. Meister 14 3. The early Temples of campā, Vietnam: Shaping an Architectural language — Parul Pandya Dhar 30 4. Brick infill: little Known Brick Temples of the Pratīhāra Period — Adam Hardy 52 5. reconsidering Kadwāhā’s Temples: history, chronology, and Patronage — Tamara I. Sears 67 6. The rehmāṇa-prāsāda Abroad: Masjid-i Sangī of larwand (Afghanistan) — Alka Patel 84 7. Manufacturing Tradition: rajput Temples in the Mughal 100 and Post-Mughal era — Catherine B. Asher 8. Ahilyabai’s Monuments at Maheshwar — Frederick Asher 113 Temple Architecture and imagery of South and Southeast Asia x II. Architectural Elements 9. A Note on the ceiling Designs in the Temples of Northern Karnataka, with Special emphasis on the lotus Blossom Motif — Corinna Wessels-Mevissen 123 10. composite Pillars with Three-Dimensional Sculptures in the outer Maṇḍapa of the Ātmanātha temple, Avudayarkoil — Anila Verghese 138 11. The Dīpa-stambhas of Goa’s Temples: Deccan Sultanate influence on coastal hindu Architecture — George Michell 154 12. lesser-known Spiral Wells of Gujarat — Snehal Shah 162 III. Architecture and the Configuration of Imagery 13. Three royal Temple foundations in South india: Tripurāntaka imagery as a Statement of Political Power — Gerd J.R. Mevissen 169 14. Aunḍhā Nāganātha Temple. Paradigm Shift in imagery: Jñāna Mārga to Bhakti Mārga — Kumud Kanitkar 189 15. A New Type of ‘Devapaṭṭa’ and a few other Vaiṣṇava icons from the Viṣṇu Temple, Māndhātā — Jürgen Neuss 208 16. rāmāyaṇa reliefs in the cintāla Veṅkaṭaramaṇa, Tāḍapatri — Anna L. Dallapiccola 221 IV. Embodying the Deity 17. Śrī lakṣmī in oral Tradition and Art — A.P. Jamkhedkar 239 18. lakṣmī on the lion — Doris Meth Srinivasan 246 19. reattribution of an important early indian Buddha image in the los Angeles county Museum of Art — Stephen Markel 262 20. A unique Sculptural Panel from Kanheri cave 90 — Suraj A. Pandit 273 21. Some Śeṣaśāyī Viṣṇu Sculptures from Southeast Asia — Ratan Parimoo 280 contents xi 22. Vaṭapatraśāyī: lord of the Banyan leaf in Temple Sculpture — Devangana Desai 295 23. hindu Deities without Temples, but with Architectural Association: An enigmatic Situation — Gouriswar Bhattacharya 305 24. Sculptural Treasures in the Temples and lanes of Varanasi — Kamal Giri 319 V. Inhabiting the Temple 25. A rare Gilt Bronze of a Divine couple from Nepal: A case of Mistaken identity — Pratapaditya Pal 331 26. lead, Kindly light. A Preliminary Study of a Sculpture of a lamp Bearer from the Jageshwar Valley — Nachiket Chanchani 343 27. Beauty and the Beast: Disrobing the female figure — Thomas E. Donaldson 358 28. The case of the contraband cargo, or, Atru’s Amorous couples — Kirit L. Mankodi 369 VI. Piety, Society, and Ritual Performance 29. Nisidhis: Jaina Memorial Monuments — S. Settar 383 30. Some Vital Socio-cultural Dimensions of Jaina Art — Maruti Nandan Pd. Tiwari and Shanti Swaroop Sinha 409 31. Theatre and Temple: raṅganātha and raṅgamaṇḍapa in South and Southeast Asia — Adalbert J. Gail 421 32. embroidered Temples: locating Kānthā in Bengali Devotional Practice — Pika Ghosh 432 The contributors 449 Temple Architecture and Imager y: An Introduction Parul Pandya Dhar and Gerd J.R. Mevissen This collection of essays is at one level a reaffirmation of the high esteem in which historians of South Asian art and architecture hold Professor M.A. Dhaky’s inspiring scholarship. But it is also more than that: it reflects the most recent and revised research in South and Southeast Asian art history by some of the finest minds engaged in the field. it is in this sense, we hope, that it qualifies as an apt celebration of M.A. Dhaky’s fundamental and path-breaking contributions to the discipline. The thirty-two essays that make this volume offer a range of perspectives on the temple arts and architecture of South and Southeast Asia from the fifth to the nineteenth centuries. While a majority of the papers are rooted in india, there is still a fair and focused representation of other South and Southeast Asian regions, notably, present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, cambodia, and Vietnam. This broadening of horizons beyond india is intended to be more than mere tokenism, rooted as it is in more serious concerns. our endeavour has been to bring the interconnected histories of these two major Asian regions in greater relief and in closer conversation with each other within a revised historiographical framework. Specialists of both regions stand to gain immensely from such an exercise, especially at a time when global art histories, transmissions of artistic knowledge, and cultural crossings are gaining such widespread focus. What is more, M.A. Dhaky has always evinced deep admiration for the aesthetic quality of ancient and medieval South and Southeast Asian monuments. Some of his writings bring the Southeast Asian regions in dialogue with indian expressions and a few even focus primarily on Southeast Asian art. The temple is an obvious thematic emphasis, though not the only possible one, for a festschrift in Prof. Dhaky’s honour. This includes hindu, Buddhist, and Jaina structures of worship, and in one case, also the mosque or the Rahmāṇa-prāsāda of the architectural texts. Patterns of patronage and the nature of artistic influence addressed in some of the essays also reveal pluralistic and heterogeneous cultural milieus. The essays lend themselves to six sub-themes, unfolding many layers of the temples’ forms and imagery and connecting with different aspects of Dhaky’s prolific and pioneering writings on the subject. Within each thematic section, the papers are organized in a chronological sequence. Several essays move in and out of Dhaky’s writings, building upon themes addressed by him earlier, extending his methods to newer regions and time-frames, and also charting fresh paths that expand the ambit of South and Southeast Asian temple studies. The first section, ‘Architectural Styles, Modes, Materials, and Milieus’, addresses the subject of Dhaky’s most substantial and influential contributions to temple studies – the architectonics of temples, their typologies, formal progressions, style, and patronage Temple Architecture and imagery of South and Southeast Asia xxxiv in changing contexts. The focus here is on the processes that shaped the temples’ contours and influenced the transmission of architectural forms spatially and temporally. This section includes eight essays and opens with a paper by Walter Spink. Through a careful scrutiny of the materials, techniques, patronage, and chronological sequence of the Bagh and Ajanta caves, Spink examines the presence of shrines within Buddhist monastic spaces (vihāras), specifically the occurrence of stūpas and images of Buddha as devotional foci within vihāras. his analysis of the interface between the two ‘sister-sites’ has a larger bearing on our understanding of the dynamics that determine patterns of worship at specific sites. Michael W. Meister’s essay offers an incisive analysis of the conceptual and formal development of the Śekharī mode of the temple’s superstructure in northern india. Beginning with the late fifth/ early sixth-century example of the Viṣṇu temple, Deogarh, and moving fluidly across an enormous range of material, his discussion of the long history of the Śekharī mode is significant also for its inclusion of the ways in which Śekharī has been perceived by architectural historians besides himself, notably by M.A. Dhaky and Adam hardy. Parul Pandya Dhar’s paper engages with processes that shaped temple vocabulary in campā, Vietnam, during its formative phase. The transmission of architectural knowledge from india to campā in ancient times took place directly as well as through the filter of other cultures along land, sea, and riverine routes. Dhar examines these cross-cultural networks leading to the localization of architectural ideas and forms in campā, and draws attention to the fluidity of the transformative processes that shaped a related yet distinct architectural language in a distant but connected land. Adam hardy carries forward the theme of brick temples, so often missing from the story of indian temple architecture, through a methodical decipherment of the structural components and details of Pratīhāra-period temples from Kalayat and Nasirabad in central india. his conclusions on the inter-relationship between stone and brick temples and their now-lost common source “from the early stages of mainstream Nāgara-tradition” in central india are significant for an understanding of the development of temple types and styles not only in india but also in Southeast Asia. Tamara i. Sears carefully re-examines the style, chronology, and patronage of fifteen early medieval temples from Kadwaha in central india. She observes a diversity of architectural features even among concurrently-built temples located side-by-side, which is distinct from the relative stylistic homogeneity noticed at royally-sponsored centres such as Khajuraho. linking Kadwaha’s landscape to its temples, she suggests alternate ways of understanding temple architecture, less by way of dynasties and more in terms of diverse communities. Alka Patel examines the plan, style, and ornamental repertoire of the Masjid-i Sangī in Afghanistan (c. 1200 ce) to reassess its architectural sources and patronage. on account of its affinities with Māru-Gurjara principles as already applied to western indian islamic buildings (Rehmāṇaprāsāda), its commonalities with 12th-century northern indian islamic structures, and its shared features with the Persianate world, in Patel’s ultimate analysis, the Masjid-i Sangī (possibly a tomb) embodies the circulation and innovation of architectural practices resulting from “widened networks and the increased mobility of skilled stone-workers.” catherine B. Asher discusses rajput temples built during, and also after, the period of Muslim dominance in northern india, especially those patronized by the Kachwāhas. She questions the tendency of attributing temple destruction entirely to the conditions of Muslim rule and suggests other plausible explanations for their absence. her paper Temple Architecture and imagery: An introduction xxxv offers a textured understanding of the specific circumstances in which temple-building by the rajputs found favour among their Muslim overlords, and the impact that such a political milieu had on the style of these temples. frederick Asher’s essay offers a lucid account of issues surrounding Queen Ahilyabai holkar’s extensive patronage to temples at Maheshwar in central india during the 18th century. his findings suggest a central hand in the architectural style of the temples patronized by her and also draws our attention to significant clues pointing to the deification of the Queen in some instances. The second section, ‘Architectural elements’, is inspired by Dhaky’s in-depth studies of specific architectural elements such as temple ceilings, traceries, and water-chutes. This part includes four essays, each of these committed to detailed discussions of different elements of temple architecture, and each adopting a different approach to the study of these elements. corinna Wessels-Mevissen elaborates upon the ceiling decorations of northern Karnataka temples, with special emphasis on the padma-vitānas, or ceilings adorned with the lotus blossom motif. She suggests that the painted ceilings of the Ajanta caves were the likely source of inspiration for the prolific presence of the lotus motif on early calukyan temple ceilings. Throughout her essay, Wessels-Mevissen lavishes careful attention to the symbolism and progression of the decorative aspects of ceiling construction and design during the mid-sixth to thirteenth centuries in Karnataka. Anila Verghese’s paper engages in a detailed analysis of the architectural features and iconography of the 18th-century composite pillars carved with three-dimensional figural sculpture and located in the outer hall of the Ātmanātha temple, Avudayarkoil, a remote and little-known town in Tamilnadu, associated with the Śaiva saint, Māṇikkavācakar. These pillars are fine examples of architectural sculpture and exhibit an unusual variety and complexity. They are carved with images of guardians and deities with complex iconographies, yāḷi figures, horse-riders, and portrait sculptures. George Michell’s essay proposes a Deccan Sultanate origin for the masonry lamp-towers or dīpa-stambhas of the 18th-century hindu temples of Goa. Through a careful comparison of their architectural features, Michell establishes a close affinity between these lamp-towers and the corner towers of the Bijapur tombs of the Adil Shahi Sultanate. his discussion of the political circumstances in which “Portugese christian and Deccan Sultanate architectural features combined to fulfil a hindu ritual requirement” is particularly engaging. Snehal Shah’s paper ushers the vital component of water-architecture associated with sacred structures. his brief discussion is structured around the architectural features of two lesser-known stepwells of Gujarat – the 13th-century halvad well in the Surendranagar district, and the 15th-century champaner well in the Panchamahal district, both in Gujarat. The third section of the book takes up the important theme of the relationship between ‘Architecture and the configuration of imagery’ on temple surfaces. it begins with a thoughtful paper by Gerd J.r. Mevissen on the political significance of the Tripurāntaka imagery as observed through its arrangement on three royally-sponsored temples of Tamilnadu – the Kailāsanātha in Kāñcīpuram, the Bṛhadīśvara in Tañjāvūr, and the Airāvateśvara in Dārāsuram. Mevissen catalogues the occurrence of multiple images of Tripurāntaka, the warrior form of Śiva, on these temples and details the specific orientations of each representation in relation to the chief political enemies of the Pallavas and cµo£las, under whose patronage these temples were built. Kumud Kanitkar interprets the arrangement of figural sculpture on the walls of the 12th/13thcentury Aunḍhā Nāganātha temple, near Nanded Temple Architecture and imagery of South and Southeast Asia xxxvi in Maharashtra, which depicts the theology of the Nātha sect. She carefully assesses the arrangement of this temple’s imagery in the light of the iconography of its main images, the works of the 12th/13th-century saint-poets, local traditions, and comparative imagery on the walls of select temples. her work suggests a shift in the iconographic programme from the path of knowledge (jñānamārga) to the path of devotion (bhakti-mārga). Jürgen Neuss’ paper discusses the architecture and iconography of the Viṣṇu temple located at the sacred pilgrim centre of oṃkāreśvara-Māndhātā on the Narmadā river in central india. The focus of attention is a unique narrative devapaṭṭa, which is carved in relief and has been fitted into the rebuilt, southern side wall of the temple’s maṇḍapa. Neuss meticulously interprets the narrative registers of this devapaṭṭa, which plausibly originated in Mathura, is dominated by Kṛṣṇa legends, and also includes a representation of Śeṣaśāyī Viṣṇu. Anna l. Dallapiccola details the configuration and iconography of the exhaustive Rāmāyaṇa reliefs carved on the walls and pillars of the 16th-century cintāla-Veṅkaṭaramaṇa temple at Tadpatri in Andhra Pradesh. She points out that these epic narratives, several of which are accompanied by Telugu labels that aid in their identification, begin with the Bālakāṇḍa and end with the Yuddhakāṇḍa, and seem inspired by the 14th-century Raṅganātha Rāmāyaṇa. her essay concludes with a useful comparison of these epic narratives with those noticed at the rāmānuja temple, Vijayanagara. The fourth section of this volume, ‘embodying the Deity’, centres attention on the manifestation and iconography of deities who are the focus of devotion in temples. This part opens with two essays on the visualization of goddess Śrī-lakṣmī. A.P. Jamkhedkar offers useful insights into her representation in the oral traditions, beginning with elements of the lakṣmī myth in the Śrīsūkta of the Ṛgveda. he next demonstrates how the epithets, qualities, formulations, and motifs associated with her in oral traditions inspired her embodiment in early indian art. Doris Meth Srinivasan’s paper, on the other hand, centres on the Gandhāran contribution to the development of lakṣmī’s iconography in indian art. her perceptive deliberations on the subject make judicious use of numismatics as a source to understand the lesser-known iconographic aspect of depicting goddess lakṣmī on the lion-mount. Stephen Markel and Suraj Pandit’s essays shift the focus to the stylistics and iconography of Buddha’s representation in early indian art. The subject of Markel’s attention is the reattribution of an important and early icon of Buddha Śākyamuni in the collections of the los Angeles county Museum of Art. in a nuanced treatment of the subject, Markel traces the geographical and artistic origins of this sculpture to the Sarnath region. Some typical features further assist in assigning it to a small group of sculptures which mark the formative phase in the development of the mature Sarnath Buddha image of the Gupta period. The aim of Suraj Pandit’s paper is a reassessment of a fifth-century Buddhist panel in the interior of cave 90 at Kanheri in Maharashtra. Through a careful consideration of its literary, historical, and architectural contexts, and also the cave’s importance to the Japanese Nichiren sect in early modern times, Pandit rethinks its earlier identification as the Śrāvasti miracle. he attributes the narrative as being a representation of the dharmakāya of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-sūtra, which appears to have played an important role in the rituals performed within cave 90. The two succeeding papers are devoted to Vaiṣṇava iconography. ratan Parimoo summons our attention to some exquisite images of the Śeṣaśāyī form of Viṣṇu from ancient campā (Vietnam) and cambodia. he offers a stylistic and iconographic account of these representations, while also drawing in comparative references to early indian depictions of the theme. Temple Architecture and imagery: An introduction xxxvii Devangana Desai undertakes a rich text-image analysis of the representation of child Kṛṣṇa on the banyan leaf (Vaṭapatraśāyī) carved on the temples of medieval South india. She examines the descriptions of this image in a range of texts, notably the Mahābhārata, the Āḷvār hymns, and the Bhāgavata-purāṇa, especially observing the influence of Āṇḍāl’s devotional hymns on Vaṭapatraśāyī imagery. Desai begins with its earliest depictions on temples dating from the 9th-10th centuries, and also invokes the close association between the Vaṭapatraśāyī and Śeṣaśāyī forms of Viṣṇu. Gouriswar Bhattacharya discusses the iconography and questions the purpose of certain portrayals of deities from eastern india, who are housed within an architectural frame styled as a niche (khattaka) but are devoid of any other structural context. These deities, carved on flattened slabs of stone, are worshipped independently, not as part of a temple. At times, both surfaces are carved. could these images, with the niches acting as miniature shrines, have been carved for use in temples but subsequently abandoned for some reason? Kamal Giri’s paper also focuses on some sculptures found in the lanes and by-lanes of Varanasi and often worshipped independently. She discusses the identity and iconographic details of these icons that she has extensively and meticulously documented as part of a project located in the Jñāna-Pravāha centre in Varanasi. The fifth section of this volume invites our attention to the charming presence of the other beings ‘inhabiting the Temple’, in this case, the adepts, devotees, damsels, and lovers. Dhaky’s fondness for the many creatures who dwell on the temple’s walls, pillars, bases, and other parts is known from his perceptive writings on the bhūtas (elementals, genii) and vyālas (hybrid leonine creatures), for example. The first essay in this section is by Pratapaditya Pal, who offers a corrective for the identity of a rare gilt bronze sculpture from Nepal. Pal’s sensitive visual analysis of this sculpture is set in a comparative framework. he sifts through a range of similar-seeming sculptures and iconographies to counter its earlier identification as umā-Maheśvara and concludes that the enigmatic bronze with an unusual iconography is not a deity-couple but is actually a masterful and serene portrayal of an adept or siddha couple. Nachiket chanchani’s essay, similarly, revolves around a nuanced discussion of the style and iconography of a bronze sculpture of a devotee, a lamp-bearer, belonging to the Jageshwar valley in the Kumaon tract of the himalayan belt. chanchani works across a range of sculptures and motifs to estimate the artistic and geographical sources of the sculpture’s style, mapping the roots and routes of influence. Among the pervasive presence of female figures on the temple walls is a variety of the disrobed female shown in the company of a beast. Thomas e. Donaldson offers a considered rationale, in the light of textual sources, for the presence of this type of female imagery as part of the ornamental repertoire of the medieval indian temples. The mithunas, or loving couples, are the other pervasive inhabitants of temples. Kirit l. Mankodi discusses not only the iconography and architectural context of two mithuna sculptures from Atru in rajasthan, but also gives an arresting account of the contemporary lives of these medieval survivors that were illegally air-lifted to the united States and subsequently traced. The final section in this book, ‘Piety, Society, and ritual Performance’, looks at devotional practices in relation to temples. it begins with two essays on Jaina art and architecture, a field to which Dhaky has made significant contributions. S. Settar advances a rigorous and pioneering approach for the study of nisidhis or Jaina memorial monuments in order to clarify complex ideas, forms, and Temple Architecture and imagery of South and Southeast Asia xxxviii practices in the memorialization of Jaina ritual death. he examines a cross-section of texts in Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Kannada, relating them to the representation of ritual death in the inscriptions and monuments of medieval Karnataka. Striking parallels and associations between nisidhi monuments and the medieval temples of Karnataka are highlighted in the process. Maruti Nandan Pd. Tiwari and Shanti Swaroop Sinha highlight some vital socio-cultural dimensions of Jainism, interweaving recurrent motifs and iconographies in Jaina art and architecture with the core principles and beliefs of Jainism such as nonviolence (ahiṃsā), non-acquisition (aparigraha), absolute renunciation (tyāga) and rigorous practice (sādhanā). Among other aspects, their paper also discusses the representation of Jina Malli as a female in a few medieval Śvetāmbara Jaina sculptures. Adalbert J. Gail’s paper ushers in the important dimension of performance traditions associated with temples. he studies relationships between the temple and the theatre in india, Nepal, and cambodia, raising significant questions and drawing comparisons between a temple and a proscenium stage. As he asks in his essay, “What role do dance and music play within a religious service as an extended form of the normal pūjā? how and where do they find artistic expression?” The final essay is by Pika Ghosh, who engages with yet another fascinating way of looking at temples. She views kānthās as ‘embroidered temples’ and discusses devotional practices associated with them in relation to the high medieval temples of Bengal. her paper is in tune with the “iconographic resonances” and the shared aesthetic between “buildings, their relief sculpture, and fabrics created for domestic use.” The collective energies of this volume, we hope, will unfold before the reader aspects of the ‘Prāsāda as cosmos’, with its abstractions, figurations, and ritual practices. only then would it be a fitting tribute to the temple’s treasure, prāsādanidhi, Madhusudan Amilal Dhaky. Pioneering Perspectives: The Temple in M. A . Dhaky ’s Writings Parul Pandya Dhar A charming stone medallion from Bharhut, two millennia and two centuries old, tells with equal humour and profundity the tale of six monkeys trying to comprehend the reality of an elephant upon whom they ride. each arrives at a different, subjective, and partial answer based on a limited perspective. That image comes to mind as i begin writing this essay for an exclusive focus on the temple certainly does not do justice to the admirable range of M.A. Dhaky’s other writings – Nirgrantha studies, classical music, horticulture, gemmology, embroidery, historical fiction, and more – written fluently and authoritatively in three languages.1 While not being blind to the rich spectrum of his writings, this essay, nevertheless, concentrates on Dhaky’s contributions to temple studies, a subject with which he has been most passionately involved and to which he has dedicated the greatest share of his time, energy, and intellect. here too, the span that Dhaky sets is formidable. it is through a representative discussion of his writings on temples, then, that one hopes to open a window to his research methods, motivations, and abiding interests. Dhaky’s tryst with temples began early, his role in the Archaeological research Society of Porbandar since 1953 presaging his life-long commitment to the subject.2 This was well before he conceived and formulated a monumental project on the ‘encyclopaedia of indian Temple Architecture’ in 1966, located at the American institute of indian Studies (then American Academy of Benares), in cooperation with a few like-minded scholars.3 how he experienced the countless temples he visited, documented, and wrote about during the fruitful and tireless decades that followed is perhaps best expressed in his own words: from among the many millions of pilgrims, hundreds of priests, and scores of the devout who went to the temples to make their ritual offerings and to submit their prayers, a few at least seem to have halted in the temple’s precincts to contemplate the meaning of the building itself. Some among them seem to have been struck by what they saw. it was an awesome, staggering, incredible cognition, which some later tried to convey in texts through metaphors … [T]he particular aspect each author sensed depended upon his standpoint. Those who saw the temple from a distance consensually perceived it as a Single entity, the Puruṣa or universal Self … Those who viewed the temple at close quarters saw in its organization and stratified divisions, its details, voids, and masses, the embodiment of Prakṛti or Nature – cosmos, creation, Manifest or empirical reality – with its interminable, though coherent amalgam of tangible and intangible, seen and unseen, sensed and unsensed verities (Dhaky 1984, 242-43).4 certainly, for Dhaky, the truth resides in the details of the temples’ forms and imagery. And it is through these details that he has addressed the temple’s totality, the latter in Temple Architecture and imagery of South and Southeast Asia xl aesthetic, formal, and metaphysical rather than in sectarian or ritualistic terms. his aestheticscientific mind has subjected the temples, their boldest expressions and their most elusive details, to the rigours of his research, examining the parts and their relationships to the configured whole in culture-specific contexts. Already by the early 1960s, the results of his intense inquiries on the temples of Gujarat and rajasthan had started to appear in print. Tireless fieldwork and documentation, perceptive structural-stylistic analysis, and incisive textual-terminological inquiries rooted in the historical milieu are in evidence in his monographs on The Chronology of the Solanki Temples of Gujarat (Dhaky 1961b) and The Ceilings in the Temples of Gujarat (Nanavati and Dhaky 1963). in the former, Dhaky reveals an early awareness of the problems of using dynastic appellations for designating art styles. he compares stylistically distinct temples belonging to the same political domain, clarifying that: Since kings do not create a style in india, but being important patrons, give powerful impetus to the continuation and development of the style, the true makers of the style being the architects and sculptors themselves, the denomination Solaṅkī is a convenient label only (Dhaky 1961b, 2). The Maitraka and Saindhava Temples of Gujarat (Nanavati and Dhaky 1969), which focuses on the Saurāṣṭra temples, is a remarkable and authoritative work on the subject for its early and incisive analysis of the missing links that some of these temples fill in the history of indian temple architecture.5 By then, Dhaky was convinced of the importance of appropriate technical vocabulary in temple studies and had already worked through a corpus of architectural terms from the vāstuśāstras.6 This approach is noticeable also in his ‘Kiradu and the Māru-Gurjara7 architecture’: from the interaction of the forms of a temple’s mouldings with its applied decoration there emerges an unmistakable architectural pattern distinctive of the style as expressed in a particular place, at a particular time, and in a particular temple. The formulation, in precise terms, of the character of this pattern is possible only in the language of the vāstuśāstras, whose study further gives us an awareness, necessary for our formulation, of details of architectural form which might otherwise have eluded attention (Dhaky 1967, 36). Dhaky’s inherent scientific temper must undoubtedly have gained from his deep interest in the indian philosophical systems and his training in the pure sciences during his graduation days at the university of Bombay (1945-48). This is so evident in his voluminous writings, where he clarifies the intricacies of the temple’s formal logic, the relationships of the ground plans to the elevations, and the relative configuration of the architectural mouldings, elements, and motifs in relation to the overall structure. his insistence on the use of precise terminology and systematic classification based on structural, ornamental, and functional criteria is certainly a gift of the pure sciences to temple studies. in The Indian Temple Forms in Karṇāṭa Inscriptions and Architecture (Dhaky 1977), we encounter a concurrent use of epigraphy, texts, and architecture to decipher the ways in which the varied temple modes – Nāgara, Drāviḍa, Bhūmija, and Vesara (in the main) – were understood by the architects of medieval Karnataka. Dhaky’s formidable grasp of the temple modes mentioned in northern and southern indian vāstuśāstras, āgamas, and saṃhitās, and his easy acquaintance with an enormous number of temples across the country informs his interpretation of the Karṇāṭa temple modes mentioned in the inscriptions. earlier, in 1972, he had authored a manuscript titled ‘The Principal forms of indian Temple Superstructure’, in which he interpreted the different forms of temple superstructures as described in a range of architectural texts and related these to existing medieval indian temples.8 his numerous papers on the vāstuśāstras – on specific treatises, or a group of regional texts, or those moving across a range Pioneering Perspectives: The Temple in M.A. Dhaky’s Writings xli of texts to interpret architectural forms – reveal the pace that he had set for himself to surely and steadily free indian architectural history from its dependence on Western methods and orientations and to establish for the discipline a firm foundation based on authentic interpretations from within its own cultural milieu.9 Texts had been consulted and interpreted earlier by other erudite scholars and also applied to monuments. But never before had such an enterprise transpired on such a scale, nor with the perception, precision, and authority that Dhaky has bestowed to the subject. in Dhaky’s approach, terms are not appliqued to temple descriptions; rather, the distinctive logic of varied temple forms, elements, and motifs enter into a meaningful dialogue with the texts, each illuminating the other. All this exponentially increasing knowledge about the temple’s structural logic and its corresponding terminological basis, which Dhaky was offering in his prolific writings, was simultaneously nourishing the Encyclopaedia project. And Dhaky’s own understanding of temple forms and styles was being enriched by the intense documentation drive across the length and breadth of the country, undertaken especially for the project. until 1992, Michael W. Meister was the editor with M.A. Dhaky, who at first was the coordinator and next also the editor besides being one of the authors and the primary guiding force (EITA i.1; EITA i.2, EITA ii.1; EITA ii.2). Since 1992, Dhaky has the been the sole editor of the series for all but one of the parts (EITA i.4A), and the sole author of the most voluminous part on the later phase of upper Drāviḍadēśa temples (EITA i.3; see also EITA ii.3).10 on the use of Sanskrit architectural terminology in the EITA volumes, Dhaky comments: Strong reservations on the usage of Sanskrit terms had been voiced in some quarters … however, we have parallels for the usage of the characteristic terminology of a given land in other fields, for instance the employment of the Arabic and Persian terms for islamic architecture, Greek and latin jargon for the hellenic and roman architecture, french, German, and Spanish terms in the domain of romanesque and Gothic architecture, chinese terms in understanding the chinese paintings and philosophy: And, in india too, in the realms of indian philosophy, literature, and indology in general, several Sanskrit (and Pali-Prakrit) terms are used. Why, then, the opposition in the field of indian temple architecture? (EITA ii.3, 1: xx). The Encyclopaedia volumes have, with admirable rigour and tenacity, maintained uniformly high standards in addressing the structural and stylistic progressions of the indian temples, locating them in their historical settings, unravelling the formal logic of the temples, and arriving at a reliable terminological corpus for their study.11 As Michael W. Meister explains, these volumes have addressed the issue of style as a “nexus between region and patronage… [since] [a]rtistic traditions are taken to be rooted in a territory, given shape by dynastic patronage, then spread by the course of empire” (EITA i.1, 1: v). elsewhere in the EITA series, Dhaky writes: The building activity in the tenth century was underway in the domains of several different regional and imperial dynasties. Buildings, in a few cases, were erected by the rulers themselves, some by their vassals, provincial governors, wealthy and powerful generals, and other officers such as those on ministerial posts, also treasury officers, next the opulent merchants, and, no less, a few were founded by the heads of different religious sects, particularly the Śaivaite pontiffs and Jaina abbots (EITA ii.3, xvii). over the years, these volumes have become fundamental to studies in the architectural history of india and are also a rich source of comparative reference for other regions of South and Southeast Asia. The all-important and crucial glossary volume, which will clarify further the rationale and methodology followed in the EITA series, awaits completion and it is hoped that this will be published in the near future (EITA i.5, unpublished manuscript). Though formal classification, terminology, iconography, epigraphy, and archaeology play an Temple Architecture and imagery of South and Southeast Asia xlii important role in Dhaky’s art historical writings, it is clear that he views these as the basis and not the objective of art historical research. in several of his works, one encounters this refrain, its emphasis and phraseology changing each time: But an exclusively archaeological approach is not intrinsic to nor is it a prime objective of the discipline of history of art. As a result, the classificatory, nomenclatural, and metrographical aspects of buildings, and iconographical/icononomical, even iconological considerations for sculptures… lose centrality and become somewhat secondary in importance even when they can never be neglected since they provide firm fixtures for art historical constructs. They are auxiliary agents but not the ultimate determinants in the domain of history of art (Dhaky 2001, xvi). it is the quality of aesthetic discernment in visual perception, the eye for detail, and most importantly, that critical art historical construct, style, to which Dhaky has remained most avowedly committed, in architecture as in sculpture. The relationship between style, region, and patronage finds its most detailed and incisive treatment for Western indian temples in one of Dhaky’s bestknown essays on the ‘Genesis and Development of Māru-Gurjara Temple Architecture’ (Dhaky 1975a). in this ground-breaking work, he analyses the union of the ‘sculpturesque’ Mahā-Māru style with the ‘architectonic’ Mahā-Gurjara style, leading to the creation of the Māru-Gurjara style. With remarkable acuity, Dhaky details the geographical spread, the defining characteristics, and the various phases of the ‘parent’ styles as also of the ‘offspring’, while at the same time situating the dynamics of stylistic merger within political and socio-cultural developments in medieval Gujarat and rajasthan. i quote here a longish passage, for shortening it would steal the passion with which the author sensed the genesis of the ‘Māru-Gurjara’ style, a term coined by him: The Mahā-Māru style … could no longer bear passively the forays of the Mahā-Gurjara style. The reply came, laden as much with love as with vengeance. it launched, at the close of the tenth century, a reverse, threepronged attack – from Māru, Śākambharī, and upper Medapāṭa – on the forcibly defined frontiers between the two styles. like a gale, it swept over the territory of the Mahā-Gurjara style. Defense after defense fell before its irresistible charm: Kiradu and Bhinmal in Gurjaramaṇḍala, chandravati in Arbudamaṇḍala, and Ahar in lower Medapāṭa, were first to succumb. it next slipped through the gates of Patan Anhilwad, the metropolis of Gujarat. The result? it was a tense moment, of intense, passionate embrace of the two leading styles of Western india, one virile and handsome, the other ornate and bewitchingly beautiful. in the process, both lost their identity, the Mahā-Gurjara to a degree greater than the Mahā-Māru. The union resulted in a beautiful offspring, which was to be honored, loved and supported by a great empire, that of the Solaṅkīs ... it inherited the propensities of its parents, the basic structural forms and organizational ability of the one, and the ornateness and rich ornamental designs of the other. it is this style which i have been referring to in my recent writings as MāruGurjara (Dhaky 1975a, 120). from among a range of writings in which Dhaky dons the role of a detective, using the art historical criteria of style at the intersections of archaeology and history, two works are especially noteworthy. in the ‘The Date of the Dancing hall of the Sun Temple, Modhera’ (Dhaky 1963), he detects “dissimilarities, of style in the main, despite a veil of certain common features, between the Main Temple and the Dancing hall” (p. 211). he infers two different phases of construction of the Sun temple at Modhera through a careful scrutiny of “certain discrepancies in the orchestration of its component structures” (p. 211), placing these in the larger context of the archaeology and history of the monument. in The Riddle of the Temple of Somanātha (Dhaky and Shastri 1974), the authors investigate style at the intersection of historical archaeology to decode the different architectural phases of building and rebuilding of the Somanātha temple. Dhaky has also pioneered a culture-specific methodology for the study of specific architectural elements such as ceilings (vitānas), waterspouts (praṇālas), and traceries (jālas), offering Pioneering Perspectives: The Temple in M.A. Dhaky’s Writings xliii micro-investigations of their typologies, contexts, and stylistic progressions (Nanavati and Dhaky 1963; Dhaky 1982 and 2005). This unique approach is first noticed in his early work on Ceilings (Nanavati and Dhaky 1963), but the sweeping pan-indian, at times also South and Southeast Asian, repertoire of architectural elements that he streamlines and interprets was built over decades of painstaking documentation and analysis. how he approached and understood the aesthetics and function of individual architectural elements in the totality of a building is beautifully expressed in the following lines: The aesthetic operation of jāla in an architectural design/ setting, in greater part, depended on the nature of jāla in all its aspects: form apt, proportion right, detail sparkling, style sensitive, and execution faultless … its aesthetic import is sensed only in relation to the building’s overall design in which it participates … the jāla sometimes takes the responsibility of a vital component, a leading note, a controlling impulse, or a relieving pose in the rhythm of the overall design, even at times acting as a “tie” ensuring total aesthetic cohesion, focusing as it does the essence of a structure exactly at the right point and perfectly in the manner demanded. it then fulfils the twin objectives – ‘aesthetic operation’ and ‘physical function’ – completely welded as one, thereby justifying its existence (Dhaky 2005, 5). often, Dhaky’s writings have expanded the orbit of inquiry in temple architecture studies, redefining its scope and underlining its inter-relatedness with allied fields of research. his encyclopaedic visual memory and a predilection for the comparative method has led him to consistently cross many a boundary – disciplinary, cultural, regional, and temporal. Dhaky’s enduring admiration for other “great architectural systems of the past” is also evident in his Traceries (Dhaky 2005, 107). There, he devotes two complete sections to the “perfectly executed veil-like islamic screens” and the “extraordinary flexibility and plasticity of the Gothic traceries” that provide a framework for the “luminously chromatic pictoriality” of stained glass (pp. 109-10).12 his keen reading of texts in relation to surviving monuments is also attentive to notices on Jaina architecture and iconography (Dhaky 1975b; 1997; 1989/2012; Sompura and Dhaky 1975), the Buddhist vihāra (Dhaky 1974a), and the islamic mosque (Dhaky 1972) in medieval indian architectural treatises. in “The Minarets of the hilāl Khāñ Qāzi …”, for example, he draws our attention to a discussion on the architectural elements of a Rahmāṇa-prāsāda (‘temple of rahmāṇa’, mosque) in a fragmentary passage from the Jayapṛcchā, a 12th-century Sanskrit vāstuśāstra on Western indian architecture (Dhaky 1972). The same paper provides an engaging discussion of the ways by which Māru-Gurjara elements were reconfigured to evoke the character of an islamic monument. Dhaky’s association with the Sompura sthapatis (traditional family of architects) of Gujarat has also been most fruitful (see, for example, Sompura and Dhaky 1975). Some of his papers widen the scope of investigation to include Southeast Asian temple imagery,13 an area of deep interest to him, which led him to field journeys across indonesia and Sri lanka with the American institute of indian Studies documentation team. Deeply sensitive to the inter-relationships between the aesthetics and formal visions of the visual and performing arts, Dhaky perceives parallels between the aural forms of the hindustani and carnatic music systems and the forms of the northern and southern indian temple superstructures, respectively. in “The Architectonics of the ‘Śāstrīya Saṁgīta’ of india”, he observes: …‘[M]usical sound’ creates a phonosphere (dhvanimaṇḍala), which in the psychosphere (cittākāśa) is perceived … as photospheric figurations that seem to possess colour and light (as in the stained glass of Gothic cathedrals) … [indian classical music] succeeds in capturing and conjuring the personality of the rāga, which can be mentally perceived as an anthropomorphic divine entity, or envisioned as a luminous symbol or configuration of an abstract power. … [More tangible] is the perception of music as ‘building’, the sacred one Temple Architecture and imagery of South and Southeast Asia xliv such as a temple, because of the musical system’s power also to create at certain moments an illusion of tactile, tridimensional, solid-seeming, structural configuration which is … analogued in terms of architecture (Dhaky 1991, 397-98). Dhaky’s essays on temple sculpture are equally significant in terms of method and content. in ‘Jina image in Āgamic and hymnic Tradition’, he engages in profound philosophical deliberations on the inherent self-contradiction in Jina image worship as a counterpoint to the persistent presence of Jina imagery in archaeological records (Dhaky 1989/2012). reflecting on theological clarifications and compromises that may have paved the way for image veneration in the Nirgrantha tradition, he reads across a range of psalmic and hymnic texts in Mahārāṣṭrī and Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit and, in this light, investigates the sculptures: … [T]he embodied Arhat or Jina … does not possess motivating power, can neither bestow favour (prasāda) nor inflict harm... for ‘activity’ in any form is, for the Self, the cause as well as evidence of the state of bondage, not of release.” And: “The Jina, though an extraordinary person, a most venerable sage, still was a mortal who, by the strength of will, determination, and efforts, had attained release from the cycle of existences. he was not, in fact never, conceived as a singular supreme deity or a universal Self or an almighty God, even when eventually deified as the highest being (Dhaky 2012, 100-01 and 111). M.A. Dhaky’s dispassionate and relentless search for incontrovertible evidence in his research and its candid expression in his writings on the religious history of Jainism have, on occasion, led to the unfortunate withdrawal of a few of his publications by short-sighted and narrow-minded sectarian interests.14 in ‘cōl̤a sculpture’, Dhaky (1971b) moves away from a text-image approach to offer a nuanced interpretation of sculptural style and idioms. he perceives cōl̤a sculptures as being reflective of “contradicting tendencies – to realize and to idealize, to elaborate as well as to schematize, to stabilize but also to vaporize” (p. 263). Questioning the extent of influence of the ‘Toṇḍaināḍu’ or Pallava style on cōl̤a sculpture, Dhaky, in agreement with Douglas Barrett, contradicts the then-prevalent notion of a ‘Pallava-cōl̤a’ transition phase (pp. 270-71). he draws subtle distinctions between different sculptural idioms – cōl̤a, irrukuveḷ, and Pal̤lṳ vēṭṭaraiyar – that prevailed concurrently in the cōl̤a region. rather than depending on overarching theories or pre-conceived notions about regional styles, Dhaky asserts the importance of rooting one’s methods in the art historical material at hand: … [W]e must base our deductions on the facts as they present and not according as our choice falling on a certain conception of style-reckoning. That way, of course, all the three idioms belong to the same major stylistic framework, col̤anāḍu. … But the local idioms, as in this case, could be significantly – even if subtly – distinctive, and, what is more, they follow sub-cultural patterns set by history. Around the rule of a local dynasty inclined to patronize religious art, oftener crystalized an idiom which was restricted to and revolved around the power of the dynasty, without undoing or transgressing, or violently differing from the main tenets of the general regional style to which such an idiom pertained. if, then, distinctions such as these we do not make, finer analysis becomes impossible and the existence of problems themselves, not to say of their solutions, is totally obscured as it has actually happened with regard to cōl̤a art and architecture (Dhaky 1971b, 280-81). Throughout his careful scrutiny of the different phases of cōl̤a sculptures, their architectural context is never lost sight of. Sculpture is perceived and discussed for the distinctiveness of physiognomy and expression, plastic qualities, sense of movement and stillness, and the impact of its specific location on the monument. incisive historical evidence blends seamlessly with deeply-felt expressions of the sculpture’s impact on Dhaky’s being. A heightened awareness of visual nuance and an ability to perceive even the most inconspicuous detail manifests yet again in Dhaky’s observations on the ‘minor’ presence of a Dravidian hand in two of the large ‘mural sculptures’ of cave 29 at ellora (Dhaky 1988). commenting on the representation of Pioneering Perspectives: The Temple in M.A. Dhaky’s Writings xlv three specific dikpālas (guardians of the directions) in the Pārvatī-pariṇaya (marriage of Pārvatī) panel, which “radically differ in style from the rest of the composition”, Dhaky postulates the presence of “stray artists” from further South, who may have visited ellora as “pilgrim or as jobseeker” and “briefly joined the main local band of workers and contributed their little share” (Dhaky 1988, 441-42). The multitude of creatures that inhabit and animate the temple-walls have not been bereft of Dhaky’s lavish attentions. The bhūtas or “Śiva’s troupe of elementals” as he explains in a paper devoted to them, “personify the elemental fragments of creation … [and] cover the entire range of Nature and her inherent, as well as cohering, forces” (Dhaky 1984, 240, 243). To clarify their metaphysical significations and interpret their formal varieties, Dhaky probes a cross-section of texts – the Mahābhārata, Purāṇas, Śaivāgamas, Vaiṣṇava-saṃhitās, and Vāstuśāstras. With equal felicity, he scans numerous temples scattered across the country to identify and classify the vibrant, vivid, and varied presence of the bhūtas in sculpture. in an earlier work, Dhaky (1965) has identified no less than 28 textual and actual vyāla (hybrid leonine creatures) types. his love for these wondrous creatures inhabiting the temple walls is difficult to miss: The vyālas, now looking placidly complacent, now virile and vigilant, vicious, mischievous, even belligerent, betray their prowess with a reptile-like agility: they gallop, prance, whirl, swirl in sharp but swift and most animate contortions; their protruding tongue and tusks, short cunning ears, bulging bellicose eyes, and fierce terrifying demeanour class them among the bizarre, phantasmagorical creations of human imagination (Dhaky 1965, 14). These are but a few insights into the rich oeuvre of a rare scholar revealing his remarkable breadth of vision, profound depth of inquiry, and pioneering methods. There is more, much more, that could be said. Doubtless, there can be other ways of seeing, addressing, and critiquing his voluminous writings. yet no discerning mind, among the many who would have read and re-read his works, can fail to see the fundamental ways in which M.A. Dhaky has shaped, refined, and redefined the art of interpreting the temple. NoTeS 1. M.A. Dhaky has published several works in Gujarati and hindi alongside his better known writings in english. See “Bibliography of M.A. Dhaky’s Publications” and hemant Dave’s “Writings in regional languages by M.A. Dhaky” in this volume. 2. in writing this essay, i have had the benefit of numerous interactions with Prof. M.A. Dhaky during the past 16 years, since the time he was my Ph.D. supervisor. in March 2013, i had the opportunity to engage in a detailed conversation with Prof. Dhaky about his work and methodology in the field of indian temple studies, for an audio-visual oral history project. See ‘oral history Archive’ in the ‘Bibliography’ below. The audiovisual recording is accessible on the listed website. The transcribed version accompanying it is as yet unedited and requires several corrections. 3. See EITA ii.3, 1: xix-xxii for a brief history of the Encyclopaedia project. 4. See also Dhaky (1971a) for a discussion on ‘Prāsāda as cosmos’ and its relationship to ‘Prāsāda as Puruṣa’. 5. Dhaky has included his revised assessments of the Maitraka and Saindhava temples in EITA ii.1, 1: 166206 and EITA ii.2, 1: 318-36. 6. See, for example, Dhaky (1960; 1961a) for his discussions on the Aparājitapṛcchā and Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra. See also Dhaky (1997) and Sompura and Dhaky (1975) for later references on Western indian architectural treatises. for several others, see “Bibliography of M.A. Dhaky’s Publications” in this volume. 7. The correct transliteration of the term is ‘MaruGurjara’ and not ‘Māru-Gurjara’ as is also Dhaky’s opinion subsequent to the publication of his ground-breaking paper (Dhaky 1975a). however, ‘Māru-Gurjara’ has been retained throughout this volume as a term coined by M.A. Dhaky that Temple Architecture and imagery of South and Southeast Asia xlvi has now been widely used in writings on indian architectural history. 8. Parts of this manuscript (unpublished since 1972) were included in Dhaky (1977), but much else about how various other temple superstructure forms (Samvāraṇā, etc.) were variously understood by tradition (as recorded in the different āgamas and śāstras and seen in architectural practice) across medieval North and South india, remains unpublished. interestingly, a recent publication lists this manuscript among Dhaky’s published works. See ‘Dhaky, M.A. 1975a’ in Datta and Benyon (2014, 197). 9. While this is evident in a majority of his writings on temple architecture, one may draw attention to the EITA volumes and Dhaky (1960; 1961a, 1961b; 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 1965; 1971a; 1974a; 1975a; 1977; and 1997) listed in the ‘Bibliography’. for EITA ii.1, Krishna Deva was also a co-editor, and EITA i.4A has been edited by George Michell in coordination with u.S. Moorti. for details, see EITA ii.3, 1: xvii-xxii. See also note 11. See Dhar (2009; 2011) for two papers which also locate the contributions of the EITA volumes in the historiography of indian art and architecture. See Dhaky (2005, 75-110) for a discussion on the islamic screens and Gothic traceries. for other comparisons with Gothic architecture, see Dhaky (1974b). See, for example, his paper on praṇālas (Dhaky 1982). See note 3 in “Bibliography of M.A. Dhaky’s Publications” in this volume. BiBlioGrAPhy Datta, Sambit, and David Beynon. 2014. Digital Archetypes. Adaptations of Early Temple Architecture in South and Southeast Asia. england: Ashgate. Dhaky, M.A. 1960. “The Date of Aparājitapṛcchā”. Journal of the Oriental Institute 9.4: 424-31. ——. 1961a. “The influence of Samarāṅgaṇa Sūtradhāra on Aparājitapṛcchā”. Journal of the Oriental Institute 10.3: 226-34. ——. 1961b. The Chronology of the Solanki Temples of Gujarat. Bhopal. Journal of the Madhya Pradesh Itihas Parishad 3: 1-83, pls. i-XVi [entire issue]. ——. 1963. “The Date of the Dancing hall of the Sun Temple, Modhera”. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay N.S. 38 (Dr. Bhau Daji Special Volume): 21122 & figs. 1-10. ——. 1965. The Vyāla Figures on the Mediaeval Temples of India. Varanasi: Prithivi Prakashan. ——. 1967. “Kiradu and the Māru-Gurjara Style of Temple Architecture”. Bulletin of the American Academy of Benares i: 35-45 & figs. 59-75. ——. 1971a. “Prāsāda as cosmos”. Brahmavidyā. The Adyar Library Bulletin 35.3/4: 211-26. ——. 1971b. “cōl̤a Sculpture”. in Chhavi. Golden Jubilee Volume. Bharat Kala Bhavan 1920-1970, edited by Anand Krishna, 263-89 & figs. 414-51. Banaras: Bharat Kala Bhavan. ——. 1972. “The Minarets of the hilāl Khāñ Qāzi Mosque, Dhoḷkā”. Journal of the Asiatic Society (calcutta) 14.1: 18-24. ——. 1974a. “Notices on Buddhist Architecture in Western indian Vāstuśāstras”. Sambodhi 2.4: 1-3. ——. 1974b. “The ‘Gothic’ in indian Temple Architecture”. East and West 24.1/2: 137-39 & figs. 1-5. ——. 1975a. “The Genesis and Development of MāruGurjara Temple Architecture”. in Studies in Indian Temple Architecture, Papers presented at a seminar held in Varanasi, 1967, edited by Pramod chandra, 114-65 & pls. 55-95. New Delhi: American institute of indian Studies. ——. 1975b. “The Western indian Jaina Temple”. in Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, edited by u.P. Shah and M.A. Dhaky. Gujarat State committee for the celebration of 2500th Anniversary of Bhagwān Mahāvīra Nirvāṇa, 319-84. Ahmedabad: l.D. institute of indology. ——. 1977. The Indian Temple Forms in Karṇāṭa Inscriptions and Architecture. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. ——. 1982. “The ‘Praṇāla’ in indian, South-Asian and South-east Asian Sacred Architecture”. in Rūpa Pratirūpa. Alice Boner Commemoration Volume, edited by Bettina Bäumer, 119-66 & pls. 1-47. New Delhi: Biblia impex. ——. 1984. “Bhūtas and Bhūtanāyakas: elementals and their captains”. in Discourses on Śiva. Proceedings of a Symposium on the Nature of religious imagery, edited with an introduction by Michael W. Meister, 240-56 & pls. 203-25. Bombay: Vakils, feffer & Simons ltd. ——. 1988. “The Dravidian Sculptures in Pre-imperial rāṣṭrakūṭa cave-Temples in ellora”. in Ellora Caves: Sculptures and Architecture, edited by ratan Pioneering Perspectives: The Temple in M.A. Dhaky’s Writings xlvii Parimoo, Deepak Kannal and Shivaji Panikkar, 43945. New Delhi: Books and Books. ——. 1989. “The Jina image and the Nirgrantha agamic and hymnic imagery”. in Shastric Traditions in Indian Arts, vol. 1: Texts; vol. 2: references and Documentation (Beiträge zur Südasienforschung, Südasien-institut, universität heidelberg, Band 125), edited by Anna libera Dallapiccola in collaboration with christine Walter-Mendy and Stephanie ZingelAv́ lallemant, 93-108 & pls. XX-XXV, figs. 34-43. Stuttgart: Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden. ——. 1991. “The Architectonics of the ‘Sāstrīya Saṁgīta’ of india”. in Concepts of Space: Ancient and Modern, edited by Kapila Vatsyayan, 397-407. New Delhi: indira Gandhi National centre for the Arts and Abhinav Publications. ——. 1997. “The Vāstuśāstras of Western india”. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay N.S. 71: 65-85. ——. 2001. “history of indian Art and indian Scholarship” (General President’s Address). in Proceedings of the 9th Session of Indian Art History Congress, hyderabad, November 2000, edited by c.P. Sinha and u.c. Dwivedi, xv-xx. Guwahati: indian Art history congress and New Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan. ——. 2005. The Indian Temple Traceries. New Delhi: American institute of indian Studies and D.K. Printworld. ——. 2012. “Jina image in Āgamic and hymnic Tradition”. in Studies in Nirgrantha Art and Architecture (Shresthi Kasturbhai lalbhai Smarak Nidhi Series, Volume 5) by M.A. Dhaky, 99-136 & pls. 1-30. Ahmedabad: Sambodhi Sansthan. [revised and enlarged version of Dhaky (1989)]. Dhaky, M.A., and h.P. Shastri. 1974. The Riddle of the Temple of Somanātha. Varanasi: Bharata Manisha. Dhar, Parul Pandya. 2009. “historiography of indian Temple Architecture (post-independence writings): Some Methodological concerns”. in Archaeology in India: Individuals, Ideas and Institutions, edited by Gautam Sengupta and Kaushik Gangopadhyay, 333-50. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal in association with cASTei, Kolkata. ——. 2011. “A history of Art history: The indian context”. in Indian Art History: Changing Perspectives, edited by Parul Pandya Dhar, 1-32. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld and National Museum institute. EITA i.1, 1 and 2. 1983. Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, vol. i, part 1 (text and plates), South India: Lower Drāviḍadēśa, 200 B.c.-A.D. 1324, edited by Michael W. Meister, coordinated by M.A. Dhaky. New Delhi: American institute of indian Studies and oxford university Press. EITA i.2, 1 and 2. 1986. Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, vol. i, part 2 (text and plates), South India: Upper Drāviḍadēśa, Early Phase, A.D. 550-1075, edited by Michael W. Meister and M.A. Dhaky. New Delhi: American institute of indian Studies and oxford university Press. EITA i.3, 1 and 2. 1996. Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, vol. i, part 3 (text and plates), South India: Upper Drāviḍadēśa, Later Phase, A.D. 973-1326, by M.A. Dhaky. New Delhi: American institute of indian Studies and indira Gandhi National centre for the Arts. EITA i.4A, 1 and 2. 2001. Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, vol. i, part 4A (text and plates), South India: Lower Drāviḍadēśa, Later Phase, c. A.D. 12891798, edited by George Michell and coördinated by u.S. Moorti. New Delhi: American institute of indian Studies. EITA i.5 (unpublished manuscript). Śrī Drāviḍa DevālayaVāstu Paribhāṣā Prajñapti (Annotated and illustrated Glossary of Dravidian Temple Architectural Terms), by M.A. Dhaky (to be completed). EITA ii.1, 1 and 2. 1988. Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, vol. ii, part 1 (text and plates), North India: Foundations of North Indian Style, c. 250 B.C.A.D. 1100, edited by Michael W. Meister, M.A. Dhaky, and Krishna Deva. 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